Physics Essentials: Locus Locus Locus Locus Locus

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Physics Essentials
For this chapter atomic structure, it has been found that to understand some of the equations that are used the
student must be familiar with certain concepts in physics. These have been included here.
Dynamics and Energy

Energy can neither be created nor destroyed it just changes form
i. Total energy = Kinetic energy + Potential energy
1 2
ii. Kinetic energy of a particle of mass m moving at a velocity v is K .E . = mv
2
! ! !
iii. The momentum of a particle of mass m moving at a velocity v is given by P = mv .
iv. The angular momentum (L) of a particle of mass m moving at a velocity v in a circle of radius r is
given by L = mvr
v. Einstein’s mass energy equivalence E = mc²
vi. Centripetal force required to keep a particle of mass m moving at a velocity v in a circular orbit of
! mv²
radius r is given by F = towards the centre of the circle
r
Electrostatics
i. The force on a particle of charge q1 due to the presence of a charge q2 at a distance d from it is given
"! kq q
by F = 12 2 along the line joining q1 & q2 and away from q2. Where k = 9 ×109 Nm 2 / coulomb 2
d
F
q1 q2
ii. The potential energy of a system of two charges q1 & q2 separated by a distance d is given by
kq1q2
P.E . =
d
Note: When d is infinite i.e. the charges are not interacting the P.E. = 0
Chemistry/Atomic Structure
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Waves:
Waves have three important properties
i. Wavelength (λ λ):
The distance after which a wave pattern repeats itself or the distance between two consecutive crests
or troughs is defined as the wavelength of a wave.
λ
A
A
λ
ii. Frequency (v):

The number of wavelengths crossing a given cross-section in unit time
iii. Amplitude (A):

The maximum displacement from the mean position in the wave.
Velocity:
The velocity of a wave is the distance traveled by the wave in a unit time. The velocity v of the wave is related to
it’s frequency (v) and wavelength(λ) as v = λ × v
Wave number (v ) :
The wave number v is mathematically defined as v = 1 λ
Intensity:
Intensity is defined as the amount of energy crossing a unit cross-section in unit time.
I ∝ (Amplitude)2 ∝ power = energy/time
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Atomic Structure
1. Introduction
The goal of science is to understand nature. This is the first step to be taken by any individual or group before
anything significant can be developed. It is this understanding that is used to produce all of man’s creations. In
chemistry we try and understand how matter interacts with other matter. The essential focus of a high school
student’s course in chemistry is to broadly learn about the several possible chemical transformations that occur
commonly in nature, or are used to produce substances considered valuable by humanity. Man in his infinite
curiousity and with his insatiable desire to understand the universe has learnt a very valuable strategy. Whenever
we need to explain something complex, we find that the best approach is to break it down into a set of simpler
problems which either are previously understood or are easy to analyse. In chemistry, the most basic concepts
which are used to understand the behaviour of matter are concepts which involve the behaviour of the atoms which
constitute matter. All matter is a collection of atoms. If the science of the atom is understood and if the rules which
define the way atoms interact with each other are learnt, we are well on our way to understanding and hence
predicting the behaviour of matter as a whole.
In 300 BC a greek philosopher by the name of Demokritus conceived the idea that matter consisted of tiny
fundamental units. This idea however did not stand the test of time was soon forgotten and replaced by Aristotle’s
(another greek philosopher) theory that all matter was made of five elements (earth, water, wind, fire and spirit).
This theory may seem absurd to us now, but it was the most widely accepted concept for a very long period of
time. A 11th standard student must have as a part of his prior education learnt about a one John Dalton whose law
of constant proportion tells us that matter interacts with other matter and is transformed into a third form of matter
in a constant ratio of masses. For example 12 grams of carbon and 32 grams of oxygen combine and give us 44
grams of carbondioxide. Carbon and oxygen always combine in the same ratio. Any tiny fraction of a carbon
sample will react with a proportional tiny fraction of oxygen to give a tiny fraction of carbondioxide.
Dalton observed this behaviour of matter and came to the conclusion that there were fundamental and tiny units of
both carbon and oxygen which had a similar weight ratio. These fundamental units he called atoms. An atom of
carbon is different from an atom of oxygen. Each element has a different atom. There are approximately 118
elements and hence there exist 118 unique types of atoms. Dalton is credited with the discovery of atoms. Dalton
however believed that atoms where indestructible. This is not true. The discovery of sub atomic particles refutes
this idea. We will now first discuss the discovery of these sub atomic particles, then talk about the various atomic
phenomenon and finally try and explain these phenomenon based on abstract theories.
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2. The Discovery and Characterisation of Sub-atomic Particles.

Electrons, protons and neutrons are the three sub-atomic particles. These too are not indestructible but as these
particles are never broken down in nature we will not be discussing about their constitution.
Electrons are the most active ingredients in a chemical reaction. A crude metaphor would be to call them the
currency that atoms use when they interact with each other. When atoms form molecules, the bonds that hold the
atoms together are always either due to an exchange of electrons or due to a sharing of electrons. Protons and
neutrons are heavier than electrons and behave as hosts to the electrons. Neutrons are seldom liberated from the
atomic system and when they are the process involves vast and uncontrollable amounts of energy. Let us now
study a little bit about each of these particles:
2.1 Electrons
Electrons were the first of the sub-atomic particles to be discovered. In 1897 J.J. Thompson observed the electrical
discharge in low pressure tubes filled with various gases. He found that the cathode ray stream (so called because
it flowed from the negatively charged cathode to the positively charged anode) had the same characteristics
independent of the gas that was used. He also found the cathode rays to be negative in charge because they were
deflected by introducing negative charges in their vicinity. He concluded that the cathode rays consisted of negatively
charged particles moving at high velocities which he called electrons. The electrons were thought to be present in
all atoms because their origin in the cathode ray tubes cannot be explained otherwise.
Electrons and protons are the two basic entities which are said to possess the property called charge. A body is
said to possess a charge when it either has an excess of electrons or an excess of protons in it. Electrons have a
negative charge of 1.6 × 10 −19 coulombs and a mass of 9.1×10–31 kg.
2.2 Protons
Atoms are electrically neutral. J.J. Thompson discovered electrons which are negatively charged to be present in
all atoms. For neutrality to exist there have to be positive charges inside atoms which balance the negative charges.
Thompson proposed that these positive charges were evenly distributed throughout the volume of an atom and that
the electrons were embedded in this positive charge. This is called the plum pudding model of the atom. The
cream of the pudding represents the positive charge and the plums suspended in it represent the negative charges
(the electrons).
Rutherford discovered protons in 1919. In 1909 he proposed the Rutherford model of the atom and in 1911
Neils Bohr proposed the Bohr model of the hydrogen atom which explained several phenomenon related to the
hydrogen atom. From this information we realise the fact that we do not always need to completely understand a
system for us to arrive at the rules that it obeys. Since chronologically this event occurred first it is fitting to discuss
the Rutherford model of the atom before we talk about the discovery of protons. This discussion will not be
repeated in the section on the models of the atom. Rutherford developed his model of the atom based on observations
he made when he conducted the α -particle scattered experiment. α -particles are fast moving helium ions
which have a +2e charge (e = 1.6 × 10–19coulombs) and are much heavier than electrons (nearly 4000 times). The
experimental set up was as shown in the diagram given below:
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Gold foil
+ + +
+
+
+
Source of + + +
alpha particles +
Lead plate
Photographic plate
Rutherford's scattering experiment
Fig - 1
unaffected
+
deflected
reflected
Trajectories of alpha-particles through an atom

Fig - 2
The photographic plate was such that one could record the locations where the α -particles struck the screen and
thus get an idea about the trajectories of the α -particles. The observations that Rutherford noted are (a) Most of
the α -particles are not affected at all by the presence of the gold foil in their path, they pass right through it and a
large bright spot is observed on the screen at a location directly opposite the source. (b) A small percentage of the
α -particles are deflected and tiny bright spots are seen randomly at various locations on the screen. (c) A very
small percentage of the α -particles are reflected off the gold foil and bright spots are seen on the region of the
screen which is on the same side of the gold leaf as the incident α -particle stream.
Before we proceed to analyse these observations as Rutherford did, let us rule out the possibility that the
α -particles are deflected due to the influence of the negatively charged electrons. Electrons have a –1e charge
and α -particles have a +2e charge, the force between them is attractive. If a fast moving α -particle was to come
close to an electron in the gold foil, it would be the electron (being much lighter than the α -particle) that would be
deflected and the α -particle would continue to travel along it’s path being negligibly effected. An analogy would
be the collision between a sumo wrestler and an ordinary man. The man would be thrown away and most likely fall
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to the ground while the sumo wrestler would not even feel a thing. The observations that Rutherford made can be
interpreted as listed below:
(a) As some of the α -particles are deflected the distribution of the positive charge can not be uniform as
hypothesised by Thompson in the plum pudding model
(b) As heavy α -particles are deflected the positive charge in the atom has to be much heavier than the
α -particles.
(c) Since only a small fraction of the α -particles are deflected this meant that the chance of interaction of
the α -particles with the positive charge was also a very small fraction. This further means that the
positive charge occupies a very tiny fraction of the volume of the atom. Rutherford called the positively
charged region the nucleus of the atom.
Based on the above three deductions Rutherford concluded that an atom had a tiny positive nucleus around which
the electrons revolved in large circular orbits. By noting the percentage of α -particles which were deflected
Rutherford calculated the approximate size of the nucleus as 10–5 times the size of the atom. As atoms have sizes
of the order of 10–10 m, atomic nuclei have dimensions of the order of 10–15 m.
Scientist soon discovered that the atoms of each element had a unique amount of charge in it’s nucleus. They then
assigned a number called the atomic number to each element. This number was represented by Z and was equal
to the number of multiples of the basic unit of charge (e = 1.6 × 10–19 coulombs) that the nucleus had. For a neutral
atom the atomic number is also equal to the number of electrons present in it.
In 1919 Rutherford discovered that he could change the charge in a nucleus and hence convert one element into
another by bombarding the nucleus with α -particles. In every case he noted that hydrogen nuclei were emitted.
The charge of a hydrogen nucleus is +le and the charge of any nucleus can be accounted for by a natural number
multiple of the charge on the hydrogen nucleus. From these two facts it becomes apparent that nuclei of all atoms
contained several hydrogen nuclei. By the late 1920’s scientists began referring to the hydrogen nucleus as a
proton. The mass of a proton is 1.67 × 10–27 kg and as mentioned earlier it has a charge of 1.6 × 10–19 coulombs.
Thus the atomic number Z is most commonly defined as the number of protons in it’s nucleus.
2.3 Neutrons
Protons are nearly 1900 times heavier than electrons, so logically the mass of an atom should be equal to the mass
of all the protons in it’s nucleus. Each element had a unique atomic number and hence a unique number of protons
in it’s nucleus. Therefore if only the mass of the protons in the nucleus was considered all the atoms of an element
should have the same mass. This was not found to be true. Many elements were found to have atleast two types of
atoms which differed in their atomic weights. These atoms were found to have identical chemical properties but
were unique in their masses. These different forms of an element are called it’s isotopes. Two isotopes of an
element have the same number of protons in their nuclei but different differ in their weights. Hydrogen has three
isotopes, protium, deuterium and tritium. Among these protium has an atomic weight equal to the weight of a
proton and hence we infer that it has only a proton in it’s nucleus. In fact it is this protuim nucleus that is called a
proton. This meant that there was something else present in the nucleus which was electrically neutral and contributed
to the remaining mass of the atom. This mass is provided by neutrons which are nearly equal in mass to protons.
James Chadwick was the first to characterise the neutron and calculate it’s mass to be approximately
1.67 × 10–27 kg. Neutrons were first observed in 1930 when beryllium was bombarded by alpha particles. It was
found that they had vast amounts of kinetic energy but were non-ionizing in nature. The mass of the nucleus is equal
LOCUS 7
to the sum of the masses of the protons and the neutrons in it. Hence an isotope can be characterised by the
number of neutrons in it’s nucleus. Protium has no neutrons while deuterium and tritium have one and two neutrons
respectively. Along these lines the atomic mass number (A) is defined as the sum of the number of protons and
neutrons in an atom’s nucleus or the number of nucleons in an atom. Neutrons and protons are collectively called
nucleons. The atomic mass numbers of protium, deuterium and tritium are 1, 2 and 3 respectively.
3. Models of the Atom:

3.1 J.J. Thompson’s Plum Pudding Model:
The plum pudding model has already been handled in the section pertaining to the discovery of protons. It is also
obvious that the Rutherford’s α -particle scattering experiment proves that this model is incorrect. The plum
pudding model does not explain the scattering of α -particles. If the positive charge was uniformly distributed
throughout the volume of the atom the α -particles would be repelled equally in all directions and the net force on
them being zero, no deflection should be observed.
3.2 The Rutherford’s Model of the Atom:

This model of the atom too has been adequately discussed in the section on the proton and does not solicit further
discussion. The Rutherford model however had certain inconsistancies which could not be explained and was
soon replaced by the Bohr model of the atom.
3.2.1 The Deficiencies of the Rutherford Model:

(a) According to the laws of classical electromagnetism when a charge accelerates it emits light and looses
energy. If electrons travel around the nucleus in a circle, as the direction of their velocity changes at
every instant they are continuously accelerating. So according to the classical laws of physics the
electrons should loose energy, slow down and spiral into the nucleus. This event if it were to occur was
calculated to take 10–8 sec. But we know that atoms are stable entities and that electrons do not fall
into the nucleus. The Rutherford model hence has no explanation for the stability of an atom:
(b) The Rutherford model does not completely characterise an atom. The radii of the electron orbits are
not given in this model. In the next section we will come across several phenomenon associated with
the atomic species which are not explained by the Rutherford model.
3.3 The Bohr Model of the Atom:

Neils Bohr proposed the Bohr model of the hydrogen in 1913. This model was able to explain several atomic
phenomena. To appreciate the Bohr model one needs to know about certain concepts concerning the nature of
light and also about the phenomena which were explained by the Bohr model.
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3.3.1 Pre-requisite Concepts and Phenomena for the Bohr Model

3.3.1.1 The Electromagnetic Nature of Light
In 1856 James Clerk Maxwell published a paper on electromagnetism in which he logically proved that light was
an electromagnetic disturbance traveling through space. The equations that he used will be explained as a part of
the physics courses in college. As of now we need only know that light is a synchronised disturbance in an electric
field and a magnetic field in planes perpendicular to each other.
c
Thus light has a frequency (v) and a wavelength ( λ ) related as λ × v = where c is the speed of light in free space
η
and η is the refractive index of the material through which it is passing.
The wavelengths between 400 nm and 700 nm consist of the visible range of light, longer wavelengths belong to
the infrared region and shorter ones to the ultra violet region.
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3.3.1.2 Max Planck’s Quantum Theory:

Some objects when heated emit light. Before the advent of electrical lighting the only way that man could generate
light was by burning objects. When an object (usually wood or charcoal) is burnt light is emitted by the molecules
that have been heated to a great temperature. When a blacksmith heats an iron rod it begins to glow red. As he
heats it further it becomes yellow and finally it glows white hot. From the examples given above we can make two
inferences.
(a) When an object is heated it emits light
(b) As the temperature is gradually increased a glowing object glows more brightly and it gradually changes
colour form red to blue.
It is possible to draw a graph of intensity of light emitted versus the wavelength of the light at any temperature.
Towards the last years of the 19th century scientists were studying such plots for the light emitted by a black body.
A black body is a body which can absorb any wavelength of light incident on it and hence when heated, emits all
wavelengths. Conventional objects always reflect some wavelength or the other and hence they are seen to have
that particular colour they reflect (a leaf is green because it reflects the wavelength corresponding to the green
colour). Now at any temperature there is always a particular wavelength which has the greatest intensity and hence
the glowing object is percieved to have that particular colour (note that the colour of a glowing object is of a
different origin than the colour of an object that is not heated). The diagrams given below show an example of a
black body and the intensity-wavelenght plots at various temperatures.
Frequency (sec–1)
14 14 14
3×10 1×10 0.5×10
6 T=2000 K
Relative intensity
5
4
3 T=1700 K
2
1
T=1500 K
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Wavelength (units of 10-4 cm)
λm3 λm2 λm1
Fig - 5 b
From these plots we see that as the temperature is increased

(a) the intensity of all the wavelengths increases, i.e. the blackbody emits more light of all the wavelengths.
(b) the value of the wavelength which has the greatest intensity decreases i.e shifts from red to blue.
Several scientists tried to logically derive the equations for the curves. You will learn about some of these attempts
while studying modern physics in XIIth standard. Planck came up with a formula that agreed very closely with
experimental data but the formula only made sense if he assumed that the energy of a vibrating molecule, vibrating
at a particular frequency was quantised, i.e the energy could only have certain discrete values and is not continuous
LOCUS 10
as previously believed. Any quantity which can only take discrete values is said to be quantised . Charge is a
common example of a quantity which is quantised. An object cannot have a charge which is not equal to an integral
number of electron charges (1.6 ×10–19 coulombs).
The molecules in an object are continuously vibrating. Temperature is a macroscopic measure of the amount of
vibration of the molecules of a material. The exact relation between the temperature and the average frequency of
vibration of the molecules in the gaseous phase will be given while studying the kinetic theory of matter but as of
now it is sufficient to know that the greater the temperature the greater the frequency of vibration of the constituent
molecules. The central assumption in Planck’s quantum theory was that the energy of the vibrating particles is equal
to the frequency of their vibration multiplied by integral multiples of a certain constant. This constant came to be
know as the Planck’s constant, (h) and it has a value h = 6.625 × 10–34 J.s.
Therefore the energy E is written as E = n h v. (v – Frequency of vibration)
(E – Energy of the particle)
(n = 1, 2, 3 ....... 00)
If we draw horizontal lines to represent energy the above assumption can be shown as :
E= hv
E=3hv
E=2hv
E=hv
Fig - 6
For a molecule vibrating at v all energies between these levels are not permissible. This is a very non intuitive
assumption but it has wide applications and the entire field of quantum physics is based on this assumption about
energy being quantised. Several theories which are based on this assumption have been experimentally justified
and the assumption itself has been used to explain experimental observations. It has to be accepted as a fundamental
property of matter.
If a vibrating molecule gains energy it goes from one level of energy to another. The change in energy is also a
natural number multiple of hv. When the molecule looses energy in the form of light the energy of the light emitted
is also a natural number multiple of hv. Therefore the energy of the light emitted is also quantised. Look at the
diagram given below for a better idea about what we are referring to.
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The energy of the light emitted by a vibrating body is quantised. This assumption however does not qualitatively
explain the shape of the graph of intensity versus wavelength. How is it possible that (1) all wavelengths are
emitted? (2) there is a particular wavelength which has maximum intensity ?
To answer these questions we consider the following facts

(a) All molecules in an object are continuously vibrating.
(b) All molecules do not vibrate at the same frequency
(c) At any given temperature there is a particular frequency at which most of the molecules vibrate. If we
draw a graph of the number of molecules versus the frequency of their vibration we get plots which are
very similar to the ones in fig - 5 b.
From these facts we go on and say that, as there is a particular frequency of vibration which is dominant among the
molecules, the light emitted by the molecules vibrating at the dominant frequency will be the most intense. Hence
there is a maximum in the intensity-wavelength plot. Since there is no frequency at which not even one molecule is
vibrating, every wavelength of light emitted has a non zero intensity.
3.3.1.3 Einstein’s Explanation of the Photoelectric Effect:
The photoelectric effect was first observed in 1980 by Iteriz and Lenord. They found that when light was incident
on a cathode in an evacuated tube electrons were emitted. Since electrons are emitted when light is incident on the
surface and light energy is being transformed into electrical energy this phenomenon is called the photo electric
effect and the ejected electrons are called photo electrons. In a given experiment there are only three parameters
which can be altered. These are (a) The intensity of the beam (b) The frequency of the light which constitutes the
beam. Note that if one defines the wavelength of an electromagnetic wave then the frequency is automatically fixed
 c
because all electromagnetic radiation travels at c = 3 × 108 m/s in vacuum  v =  (c) The material of the metal
 λ
cathode. The observable that is measured in this experiment is the current flowing through the circuit, which is
LOCUS 12
measured by the ammeter. It is also a common practice to include a battery in the circuit. The purpose of this
battery is just to make sure that the electrons ejected from the metal surface travel towards the electrode at the
other end of the tube. The polarity of the battery is set such that the metal surface has a negative charge and the
other electrode which has to collect the electrons has a positive charge. The reasons for this are very obvious.
The following are the approximate graphs of the observable current versus each of the two light parameters.
Current v > vr
v < vr
I
Intensity
Fig - 9 b
From these plots we can note the following
(a) Below a certain frequency (called the threshold frequency) no current is observed and is immune to
any change in the intensity.
(b) Above the threshold frequency the current is proportional to the intensity.
Apart from these, two more observations were made.
i. The threshold frequency was uniquely dependent on the material of the cathode.
ii. An increase in the voltage of the battery did not increase the ejection rate it just improved the
chances of all the electrons which were emitted reaching the positive anode.
These observations can not be explained by considering light energy to be a wave. If light was a wave, as the
intensity of light is increased, the energy transferred to the electron should be built up until it is ejected.But as
asserted by observation (a), this does not happen.
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Einstein extended Max Planck’s quantum theory for the energies of vibrating bodies to the energy of light. He
proposed that light was a stream of particles of energy called photons. The truth is, even today we can not say that
light is a particle, or that light is a wave and it really does not make sense if we say that light both consists of
particles and is also a wave at the same time. Light is energy. We consider light as a wave to explain certain
phenomenon and consider light as a set of photonic particles to explain certain other phenomenon which cannot be
explained by assuming that it is a wave. Einstein said that light of a given frequency v consisted of discrete photons
each having an energy of hv.
When we try to understand the photo electric effect now, we see that an electron is emitted if and only if the energy
of an individual photon is enough to knock the electron out. The interaction between a photon and an atom is
always a complete one i.e the photon either completely transfers it’s energy to the atom or does not interact with
it at all. It can never happen that the photon transfers only a part of it’s energy to the atom. As soon as it does
interact with the atom, it seizes to exist. If a photon has excess energy, then the photoelectron emitted will have
more kinetic energy. Now If a light beam is said to be more intense this only means that there are more photons
present in it. One could have a very intense beam with a gargantuan number of photons in it but each of those
photons could have very little energy and photo electrons are not generated. Now we can do more analysis here.
If v0 is threshold frequency and below this no photo electrons are emitted, then this means that each photon has an
energy hv0 . This means a minimum energy of hv0 is required to eject a photoelectron. This implies that hv0 energy
is consumed just to release an electron. Now suppose the incident photon has a frequency v > v0. The means that
the incident photon has excess energy amounting to hv –hv0.This energy is in the form of kinetic energy of the
1 1
electron, given as mv2 (where v is the observed velocity of the electron). Hence we can write mv 2 = hv − hv0 .
2 2
The quantity hv0 (the minimum energy required to eject the electron) is called the work function of the metal.As
mentioned earlier, each metal has a characteristic threshold frequency and hence must have a characteristic work
function.
The total energy of a beam of light consisting of n photons is given by n × hv (where v is the frequency of all the
photons). Intensity is energy crossing a unit area per unit time. I ∝ n × v . If intensity is to be kept constant while
increasing the frequency, then we have to reduce the number of photons. For example 10 photons of frequency v
would have same intensity as 5 photons of frequency 2v. Every photon with frequency greater than threshold
frequency would generate one photoelectron. When intensity is kept constant above threshold frequency, the
number of photons is reduced and hence the number of photoelectrons emitted is reduced (but their kinetic energy
is increased). As current is only a measure of the number of electrons emitted per unit time the current should
decrease linearly as seen in the graph.
Now since light consists of particles of energy let us try to get a better feel of what they are. Einstein received the
Nobel Prize in physics for his explanation of the photo electric effect but one of the equations he is most renowned
for is E = mc2. The concept of the equivalence of mass and energy was a revolutionary one and will be understood
while talking about energy in physics. We regret to leave the student with so little information at this stage about this
truly marvelous concept but the concepts of relativity from which this equation arises are best understood in a
context of physics. As of now, since we will be using this concept elsewhere in this chapter we ask you to accept
it as a equation that is consistent with all matter and wait till you study relativity. Now since the energy of a photon
hv
is hv and also mc2 this means that the mass of a photon of frequency v is . This is the mass that the photon has
c2
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when it travels at the speed of light where E = mc2 is applicable. However there is no such thing as a photon at rest
or a photon traveling at a velocity v. This is the mass that it has as a virtue of it moving at a velocity c. The mass of
a photon depends on the frequency. A blue photon has more mass than a red photon. Photons can exert a force.
If a stream of photons (a light beam) collides with a stationary object freely floating in space, the object will begin
to accelerate.
3.3.1.4 Atomic Spectra & Series
Issac Newton proved with his prism experiments that white light consisted of several colours. The colours actually
represent different wavelengths. The blue region having a lower value and the red region having a higher one. The
spectrum is the set of wavelengths that constitutes a given light sample. Thus it is obvious that the spectrum of a
bulb would be different from that of a tube light.
Atomic absorption spectra are the set of wavelengths that seem to be absorbed by a set of atoms when continuous
white light which contains all the wavelengths is incident on the sample. This means that the atoms are absorbing
these specific wavelengths of energy. They later loose this energy in the form of photons. The set of photons later
collected constitute the emission spectrum. The spectrum is commonly represented as a set of vertical lines at
various intervals along a horizontal axis ranging in wavelength from the ultraviolet to the infrared.
In 1885 a Swiss school teacher Johans Balmer noticed that there was a unique relationship between the locations
(by location we mean the value of wave number) at which these several lines occurred in the spectrum of a
hydrogen atom. There was no concrete derivation for his relation but it was found give accurate results.
 1 1 
v = R  2 − 2  (where R is called the Rydberg’s constant and has a value of 109, 677 cm–1)
2 n 
where n was a natural number greater than 2. A few years later a Swedish spectrologist proposed that the wave
numbers of all the lines were given by the general expression
 1 1 
v = R  2 − 2  where n1= 1, 2, 3... and n2 = n1+1, n1 + 2, n1 + 3,.....
 n1 n2 
Depending on the values of n1 several series of lines were defined. These have been listed in the table given below.
Series n1 n2 Spectral Region

Lyman 1 2, 3... Ultraviolet
Balmer 2 3, 4... Visible
Paschen 3 4, 5... Infrared
Brackett 4 5, 6... Infrared
Pfund 5 6, 7... Infrared
Fig - 11
LOCUS 15
Now if we were to take a vertical line which represents energy and draw horizontal lines across it at points which
1
had an energy – hc × v n where v n = 109, 677 2 we would get lines at various spacing each corresponding to a
n
value of n.
− hcR
Now when we define En as En = − hc v n = 2
n
we see that:
(a) All energies are negative
(b) Energy increases as the value of n increases (hence the lowest value of energy is E1 = −hcR = −13.6 eV
and the highest value of energy is E∞ = 0 ). (1eV (electron volt) = 1.6 × 10–19 J).
One might wonder why, here we have defined energy as a negative quantity. The reasons for this
definition are given below.
i. In the photo electric effect experiment we saw that we had to give energy to the atomic system in
the form of a light photon for the electron to get liberated. This means that the atomic system is a
configuration which has lower energy than when the electrons and nuclei are floating around freely
without interacting with each other.
ii. Since we need to assign a zero for energy it is best to define the zero as the state when the electron
and nuclei are not interacting with each other. This state corresponds to when n → ∞.
LOCUS 16
Now we know that an atom absorbs unique wavelengths and when it does so it is said to be excited and exist in a
state of higher energy. When this energy is lost it is seen as a photon in the emission spectrum. So the lines in the
energy diagram we have made must signify the various levels of energy possible in the hydrogen atom. The difference
of energy between any two of these levels corresponds to the energy of a photon in the spectrum . It must be noted
that all transitions which involve the level n = 1 are called the Lyman series of lines in the hydrogen spectrum and
those involving n = 2 and all the ones above it are called the Balmer series. The Paschen, Brackett and Pfund series
are defined similarly corresponding to the levels n = 3, 4 & 5 respectively. The lines in the series are numbered
from 1 onwards according to the order of energies of the transitions. For example the first line in the Lyman series
corresponds to the n = 2 to n = 1 transition and the fifth line of the Pfund series corresponds to the n = 11 to
n = 5 transition.
Example – 1
Calculate the number of photons having a wavelength of 500 nm which would provide 1.2 J of energy
[h = 6.63 × Js, c = 3.0 × ms–1]
Solution: The total energy of the photons = 1.2 J

hc
The energy of the each photon = hv =
λ
Eλ 1.2 × 500 × 10 −9
∴ The number of photons = = = 3.02 × 1018 photons
hc 6.63 × 10 −34 × 3 × 108
Example – 2
For silver metal, the threshold frequency v0 is 1.13 × 1017 Hz . What is the maximum kinetic energy of the
photoelectrons produced by shining ultraviolet light of wavelength 15.0 Å on the metal?
Solution: Since the threshold frequency has been given it is best to calculate the frequency of the incident
photon to check first if it is greater than v0.
3 × 108 m / s 0.2 × 108 m / s
v= c = = = 2 × 1017 Hz
λ 15 Å −10
10 m
The frequency of the incident photon is greater than v0 so the excess energy it possesses is converted
into the kinetic energy of the electron.
Upon conserving energy we get.
LOCUS 17
Example – 3
When a certain metal was irradiated with light of frequency 3.2 × 1016 Hz , the photoelectrons emitted had twice
the kinetic energy as did photoelectrons emitted when the same metal was irradiated with light of frequency
2.0 × 1016 Hz. Calculate v0 for the metal.
Solution: Since photoelectrons are emitted in both cases the threshold frequency v0 has to be less than the lower
of the two incident frequencies.
So vo < 2 × 1016 Hz
Like we did in the previous problem here too we can use the principle of conservation of energy and
write Kinetic energy of photoelectrons when 2 × 1016 Hz photons were incident (K.E.1 say)
= h × 2 × 1016 – hv0 = h ( 2 × 1016 – v0)
and the kinetic energy of photons electrons when 3.2 × 1016 Hz photons were incident (K.E2)
= h × 3.2 × 1016–hv0 = h (3.2 × 1016–v0)
In the statement of the problem we are told that these two quantities are related as K.E.2 = 2 K.E.1
( ) (
⇒ h 3.2 × 1016 − v0 = 2h 2 × 1016 − v0 )
⇒ v0 = 8 × 1015 Hz
Example – 4
In a photoelectric effect experiment, irradiation of a metal with light of frequency 2.00 ×1016 Hz yields electrons
with kinetic energy 7.5 ×10 −18 J . Calculate v0 for the metal.
Solution: In this problem the kinetic energy of the electrons is given i. e the excess energy that the photons of
frequency 2 × 1016 Hz possessed is given.
∴ We can write the same expression as the one we wrote in example 2. Upon conserving energy we
get K .E. = h (v − v0 )
(
⇒ 7.5 × 10 −18 J = 6.626 × 10 −34 J .s ) ( 2 × 10
16
s −1 − v0 )
⇒ v0 = 8.7 × 1015 Hz
Example – 5
The critical wavelength for producing the photoelectric effect in tungsten is 2600 Å. (a) What is the energy of a
quantum at this wavelength in J and in eV? (b) What wavelength would be necessary to produce photoelectrons
from tungsten having twice the kinetic energy of those produced at 2200 Å?
LOCUS 18
Solutions: (a) The problem states that the critical wavelength for producing photo electrons is 2600 Å. From this
value we can determine the threshold frequency of the metal but since we have been asked to
determine the energy of a photon of this wave length we write
hc (6.626 ×10 J .s ) × (3 × 10 m / s )
−34 8
E = hv0 = =
λ 2600 ×10−10 m
= 7.7 × 10–19 J.
To convert this value into electron volts we divide it by the conversion factor 1.6 × 10–19
(∵1eV = 1.6 × 10 −19
J )
∴ E = 4.8125eV
(b) This part is similar to example 3. If we say that v1 is the frequency corresponding to a 2200 Å
photon and v2 and λ2 are the respective frequency and wavelength of the photon which generates
photo electrons with twice the kinetic energy we can write
h ( v2 − v0 ) = 2h (v1 − v0 )
c c  c c 
⇒ − = 2 −
λ 2 2600 Å  2200 Å 2600 Å 
⇒ λ2 = 1900 Å
LOCUS 19
TRY YOURSELF - I
1. Compare the following quantities for a photon of 400 nm and 600 nm :

(a) Frequency (b) Wave number (c) Velocity (d) Mass
2. The molecules in a heated metal block are vibrating at a frequency of 1.51×1015 Hz . How many
levels of energy are possible for the molecules between 2×10–7J and 13.6×10–7 J ?
(h = 6.626 ×10 –34 J.s)
A system has four levels of energy given by E = 12 1 −  eV, where n takes natural number
1
3.
 n
values from 5 to 8. How many unique photons can be emitted or absorbed by this system? How
would this value change if the energy was given by E = 12 neV (n taking the same values) ?
4. In a photoelectric tube the cathode is such that it’s upper half is a metal of work function 1.2 eV
and it’s lower half is a metal of work function 1.6 eV as shown in the figure below.
1.2 eV
1.6 eV
Fig - 13
The entire cathode is bathed in a beam of light of variable intensity and frequency. Under the
assumption that all the electrons that are emitted are collected by the anode, draw the plots of
current versus frequency and current versus intensity.
5. The metal in a photoelectric tube has a workfunction of 0.5 eV. The source of the light that is
incident on the metal has four energy levels whose energy is given by E = 12 1 −  eV ( n = 5,6,7,8) .
1
 n
How many and what are the possible velocities of the emitted photo electrons ?
! ! ! ! ! ! !
LOCUS 20
3.3.2 The Bohr Model of the Hydrogen Atom

The Bohr model of the atom was designed to explain the phenomenon associated with the hydrogen atom. The
results obtained in this model cannot be applied to larger multielectron systems. The reason for this is that the
analysis of the hydrogen atom which has only one electron is very simple. In a multielectron system as electrons
interact and are influenced by each other’s presence the analysis becomes very complex and is seldom carried out.
By this logic any system which only has one electron can be easily analysed. The truth is the results we will be
deriving in the Bohr model are arrived at by assuming the charge an the nucleus in +Ze. Systems which have only
one electron are H, He+, Li 2+, Be3+, B 4+...The values of Z for these systems are 1, 2, 3, 4... respectively.
Note: 1. Two systems which have the same number of electrons are called isoelectronic.
Example: 126 C , 147 N + , 168 O2+ , 189 F 3+
2. Two systems which have the same number of neutrons are called isotonic.
Example: 146 C, 168 O
Neils Bohr based his atomic model on the following postulates. (A postulate is a statement that is assumed to be
true, that forms the basis of a theory.)
1. The electron in the hydrogen atom can move around the nucleus in a circular path of fixed radius and
energy. These paths are called orbits, stationary states or allowed energy states. These orbits are arranged
concentrically around the nucleus.
2. The energy of an electron in the orbit does not change with time. However, the electron will move from a
lower stationary state to a higher stationary state when required amount of energy is absorbed by the
electron or energy is emitted when electron moves from higher stationary state to lower stationary state.
The energy change does not take place in a continuous manner.
3. The frequency of the photon of radiation absorbed or emitted when transition occurs between two stationary
states is determined by equating the difference in energies of the two stationary states to the energy of the
photon.
4. The angular momentum of an electron in a given stationary state can be expressed as:
h
mvr = n where n = 1, 2, 3........
2π
Thus an electron can move only in those orbits for which it’s angular momentum is an integral multiple of
h / 2π and hence it’s angular momentum is said to be quantised.
Bohr obtained the expressions for the energies and radii of the orbits which are derived here:
nh
v⋅r = from the fourth assumption of Bohr. (1.1)
2π m
mv 2 kZe 2
Now by balancing the electrostatic force and the centrifugal force on the electron we get = 2 ,Z
r r
depending on the charge of the nucleus (1.2)
LOCUS 21
from (1.1) & (1.2)
n2 h2 m n2  h2 
r= 2 2× =  2 2 
4π m kZe 2
Z  4π mke 
n2
= 0.529 × 10−10 m
2
n2
= 0.529 Å Å → Angstrom (1.3)
z
n2
∴ The radius of the orbits are given by r = 0.529 Å where n = 1, 2,3,.....∞ and Z is the atomic number
Z
of the single electron species (for hydrogen Z =1, for He + Z = 2, for Li 2 + Z = 3..... )
The total energy of the system = The kinetic energy of the electron + the potential energy of the system
(As the nucleus is at rest it does not have kinetic energy)
1 kq1q2
E = mv 2 +
2 r2
kinetic energy Potential energy
1 2 k ( −e ) × ( Ze )
E= mv +
2 r2
Substituting the value of mv2 using equation (1. 2) we get
1 kZe 2 kZe 2
E= −
2 r r
−1 kZe2
= ×
2 r
Substituting the value of r from equation (1.3)
Z 2  2π 2 k 2 me 4 
En = 2  
n  h2
− (13.6eV ) z 2
En = 2 - (1.4) where l eV = 1.6×10–19 Joules
n
Z2
= – (2.178 × 10 –18
J) 2
n
1
We can see that En ∝ − and r ∝ n2 . Thus lower the value of n lower the energy and lesser the radius.
n2
LOCUS 22
The Bohr’s model explains that the various levels of energy of an atom correspond to the various radii of the
electronic orbits. We can also note the following from the above formulae:
1. When electrons are closer to the nucleus the system has a more negative net energy and thus has a
lower energy than a system where the electrons are farther away.
2. When an electron is so distant from the nucleus that it is no longer influenced by it and
radius ( r ) = ∞, velocity ( v ) $ 0 the net energy of the atomic system is zero.
From the Bohr model of the atom the formulae of the several series of spectral lines can be derived. If a transition
resulted in an emission of light this means the energy of the final level is less than that of the initial level. If ni is the
number of the initial state and n f is the number of the final state we can say ni < nf. If we consider cases when the
transitions occur to the level n = 2 this implies that n f = 2. The energy lost by the system = Ei – Ef
 1 1 
= −13.6 Z 2  2 − 2 
 n f 
 ni
 1 1   1 1 
= 13.6eVZ 2  2 − 2  = 13.6eVZ 2  2 − 2 
 nf 
 ni   2 ni 
The energy of the resultant photon is related to it’s frequency as
hc
E = hv = = hcv
λ
The energy of the photon is equal to the energy lost by the system.
 1 1 
∴ hcv = 13.6eVZ 2  2 − 2 
2 n 
13.6eV 2  1 1 
v= Z  2− 2
h.c 2 n 
13.6eV  1 1 
If the system is a hydrogen atom then Z = 1 and v =  2 − 2  . This is the same as the expression of the
hc 2 ni 
Balmer series.
 1 1 
v = R 2 − 2 
2 n 
13.6eV
The value of the Rydberg’s constant can thus also be calculated to be R = . It is easy to see that for a
hc
Balmer series transition of any other hydrogen like species the formula for the wave number would be
 1 1 
v = RZ 2  2 − 2  . Thus Balmer series lines occur when the system looses energy and falls to the n = 2 state.
2 n 
By using a similar logic we can say that Lyman series lines occur when the system looses energy and falls to
n = 1 state. This can be extended to all the series of lines. Thus the Bohr model can explain atomic spectra.
LOCUS 23
The energy transitions can also be represented as given in the figure below:
Ly
ma
ns
er
ie s
s
erie
tt s
cke
Bra
1 2 3 4 5 6
eV
eV
eV
eV
- 1 3 .6 2
-13.62
-13.62
2
6
3
.6
E=
- 1 3
esri
se
er
lm
Ba
Pa
sc hen
ser
ies
Fig - 14
The state with n = 1 has the lowest energy and is called the ground state of the system. The next higher level of
energy has n = 2 and is called the first excited state, n = 3 is called second excited state and so on.
3.3.3 The Deficiencies of the Bohr Model

The results obtained in Bohr model were used to explain atomic spectra etc. but the assumptions made to obtain
the results were not justified. Bohr never explained why the angular momentum of an electron was quantised or
why the electron could not loose energy continuously (this same issue came up with the Rutherford model). You
will soon learn as you read section 3.4 that there were certain observations the Bohr model could not explain.
When you reach section 3.5 you will realise that if we go by the quantum mechanical model of the atom the very
analysis and classical logic that Bohr used is not valid for atomic systems.
3.4 The Electronic Configuration of Multielectron Systems

3.4.1 Energy Sub-shell and Orbitals
Bohr’s model of an atom was capable of explaining the simple hydrogen atom but it was soon found that the atom
had many more mysteries to be solved. The hydrogen spectrum upon finer resolution with better spectroscopic
techniques was found to have more lines than known before, infact it was clusters of these finer lines which
constituted the lines previously known. This meant that each energy level consisted of several sub-levels of energy.
It was also observed that when the sample was in an electric field more lines appeared. This was called the Stark
effect. A similar phenomenon was noted in a magnetic field and was called the Zeeman effect. Since these lines
appeared only under the influence of electromagnetic fields it was believed that the sublevels consisted of what
were defined as orbitals which were equal in energy but differed in their electro magnetic behaviour. It should here
be noted that these sub-levels and orbitals will be re-visited from a quantum mechanical perspective once the
Schrödinger equation has been dealt with. Since each level had it’s own set of sub-levels and orbitals, a system
was developed such that they all could be labeled.
LOCUS 24
The energy levels were labeled K, L,M, N in increasing order of energy (These are also referred to as the K shell,
L shell........). They are labeled from 1 to infinity
∴ For example the N shell has a number n = 4
It was found that the nth shell had n-subshells. For example the second shell with n = 2 has 2 subshells. Now the
subshells were labeled as s, p, d, f, g. .. and were assigned numbers from 0 to n – 1 in an increasing sub-level
energy order. The number was called the l value of the subshell. Thus for a given shell with number n the maximum
l value for a sub level in it is l = n – 1.
The orbitals were not alphabetically labeled but were assigned a number m. It was also observed that a subshell
with a number l has 2 × l × 1 orbitals. This meant that m had to take 2l+1 values for the l th sub shell, m was
assigned values from – l to l. Thus for example the f subshell has the m values of it’s orbitals ranging from –4 to 4.
The orbtials in a sub shell all have equal energy in the absence of electrical and magnetic fields and are said to be
degenerate. A subshell was represented as a rectangle which was divided into as many square boxes as it had
orbitals. For example the d subshell with l = 2 has 2×2+1=5 orbitals and is represented as .The
order in which the subshells were filled is described by the rules given in the sections that follow.
3.4.2 The Filling of Atomic Orbitals

The rules for the way in which the electrons were arranged around the nucleus were empirically defined based on
experimental observations of the locations of the ground states (lowest energy states) of multi electron systems.
The ground state (state of lowest energy) of a multi electron system can be identified by observing it’s spectrum.
3.4.2.1 The Pauli’s Exclusion Principle

The Pauli’s exclusion principle states that each orbital can harbour a maximum of two electrons.
As a consequence of this rule the maximum number of electrons in the lth sub shell = (2l +1) × 2.
Hence the maximum number of electrons in the nth shell
= 2 × 2 × (0 + 1 + 2 ..... n – 1 ) + 2 × n
= 4×
(n× (n–1)) + 2n = 2n 2
3.4.2.2 The Hund’s Rule

The Hund’s rule states that electrons in order to minimize the repulsions between each other first occupy all the
empty orbitals in a sub-level before they pair up. So if for example a subshell has five orbitals and five electrons in
it, each electron occupies one orbital.
3.4.2.3 The Aufbau Principle

The number of electrons in an energy level is limited as consequence of the Pauli’s exclusion principle. The Aufbau
principle says that the electrons fill the subshell in an increasing order of energy, ie. they fill a lower energy sub shell
first and only after it is completely filled do they begin to fill the subshell with next higher energy. Note that we do
not talk about the order in which the orbitals are filled because in the absence of electromagnetic fields they have
the same energy and are said to be degenerate.
LOCUS 25
The order of energies between the sub levels of all the energy levels is given by the sum of the two numbers
n & l which uniquely define each sub level. Sub levels with higher n + l values have higher energies. In the case
when two sub levels have the same n + l level then the subshell with the lower n value will be lower in energy.
3.4.3.1 Writing the Electronic Configuration
The orbitals are not taken into consideration while writing the electronic configuration of atoms because under
general conditions (in the absence of an electron magnetic field) they have the same energy and are said to be
degenerate.
The electronic configuration of a multi electronic system (atom or ion) is the systemised representation of the
distribution of electrons in the levels of the said system. While writing the electronic configuration the main energy
shells are denoted numerically (1, 2, 3 .....) and the sub shells are denoted alphabetically ( s, p, d, f ......). The sub
shells are written in a sequence according to their energy (1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d...). Then the number of
electrons present in each sub shell is written as a superscript to the said subshell (1s2 2s2 2p3...). The order in which
the electrons fill the sub shells in the ground state configuration are defined by the rules given above. To write the
electronic configuration of a given system we first see how many electrons it has (for a neutral atom this number is
equal to the atomic number Z). Now while writing the electronic configuration we start filling the sub levels in an
increasing order of energy. We fill as many electrons as possible in a lower energy sub shell and then place the
remaining in the next higher sub shell and go on doing this till we run out of electrons.
Let us arrange the atomic sub levels in a increasing order of energy
n+% = 1 2 3 3 4 4 5 5 5
1s < 2 s < 2 p < 3s < 3 p < 4 s < 3d < 4 p < 5s .....
maximum no. of 2 2 6 2 6 2 10 6 2
electrons possible:
For example the electronic configuration of carbon (Z = 6) is 1s 2 2 s 2 2 p 2 while that of Potassium (Z = 19) is
1s 2 2s 2 2 p 6 3s 2 3 p 6 4s1. Try writing the configuration for other systems for practice.
3.4.3.2 Rules for Ions

When we need to write the electronic configuration of an ion we must first write the electronic configuration of the
parent neutral atom. If it is a positive ion we need to remove as many electrons from the outermost sub shell as the
charge of the ion. The outermost subshell need not be the sub shell of highest energy. For example between 3 d and
4s the 4s is the outer subshell and electrons are removed from 4s first.
If the ion is negatively charged, again we first write the electronic configuration of the parent atom. We then place
as many electrons as the negative charge of the ion in the innermost unfilled subshell. Between an unfilled 4s and an
unfilled 3d the 3d is the inner subshell and the electrons are placed there first.
3.4.4 The Anamalous Stability of Half-filled and Completely Filled Outer Most Sub-shells.
It was observed that in some cases if an electronic configuration was possible in which either the outer most
subshells (those of highest energy) were fully filled or half filled then this configuration was the preferred configuration
and had a lower energy. For example the expected electronic configuration of chromium (Cr) (Z=24)
1s22s23p63s23p63d44s2 but by the above rule it has a configuration 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d54s1. Here the 4s sub shell
and the 3d sub shell are half filled and the system is said to be more stable in this configuration. Another example
LOCUS 26
is the electronic configuration of copper (Z = 29) which is expected to be 1s22s22p63s23p63d94s2 but is found to be
1s22s22p63s23p63d104s1.In this configuration the 3d sub shell is fully filled and the 4s sub shell is half filled. This is
more stable than when 4s is fully filled and 3d is neither fully nor half filled. These are the only two cases a high
school student comes across where we use this rule. In the quantum mechanical model of the atom you will learn
that the orbitals are oriented in different directions. One might explain the stability of half and fully filled configurations
by noting the fact that in both these cases the electrons are more uniformly distributed spatially in the volume
around the nucleus.
Example – 6
Calculate the energy required to cause the ionisation of one mole of hydrogen atoms.
Solution: The word ionisation is self explanative. It means that in the process ions (H+) are being formed. This
would mean that we have to remove the electrons from the system (off course ions are formed even if
electrons are added to the system (H–) but given the context and the fact that we cannot handle
systems with more than one electron it is obvious that we are talking about the formation of H+ ions from
H atoms by removing their electrons). What isn’t obvious is the fact that ionisation energy is defined
under the assumption that initially all the hydrogen atoms are in their ground state. The energy required
to take an hydrogen atom from it’s initial ground state (n = 1, E = –13.6 eV) to a final ionised state
( n = ∞, E = 0 ) is Ef –Ei = –(–13.6 eV) = 13.6 eV = 2.176×10–18J. Now for one mole of hydrogen
atoms energy required would be given by:
E = N A × 2.176 × 10−18 J/mol
= 131.06 × 104 J / mol
= 1310.6 kJ / mol
Example – 7
What electronic transition in the He+ ion would emit the radiation of the same wavelength as that of the first Lyman
transition of hydrogen (i.e., for an electron jumping from n = 2 to n = 1)? Also, calculate second ionisation potential
of He and radius of first Bohr orbit for He +
Solution: As He+ has only one electron, Bohr equations may be applied and for first Lyman transition for hydrogen
(i.e., when an electron jumps from n = 2 to n = 1), we have
LOCUS 27
The wavelength of the radiation emitted in an electronic transition in He+ is given to be the same as for
hydrogen, therefore, for He+ (Z = 2),
we have,
1  1 1  1 1
= RZ 2  2 − 2  = 4 R  2 − 2 
λ  n f ni   n f ni 
 4 4 1 1
R 2 − 2 = R 2 − 2
 nf ni  1 2 
When we compare the two sides we see that
2 2
n f = 4 × 12 & ni = 4 × 22
∴ n f = 2 & ni = 4
Since n f = 2 the final state is the second energy level and this is a line in the Balmer series. Since
ni = 4 this is the second line of the Balmer series.
As the second ionisation potential of He is the energy required to remove the electron from first orbit
to infinite orbit of He+,
2π 2 k 2 e4 mZ 2  1 1 
∴ second IP of He+ =  2− 
h2 1 ∞ 
= 8.67 ×10−18 joules.

Now to calculate r1 for He (Z = 2), we have,
n2h2
r1 =
m Z e2 4π 2 k
12 × ( 6.626 × 10−34 )
2
=
4 × (3.14 ) × (9 × 109 ) × (9.1×10 −31 ) × 2
2
= 2.64 ×10 −11 metres
Example – 8
The energy of the electron in the second and third Bohr orbits of the hydrogen atom is −5 ⋅ 42 × 10 −12 erg and
−2 ⋅ 41 × 10 −12 erg respectively. Calculate the wavelength of the emitted radiation when the electron drops from the
third to second orbit. ( h = 6.62 ×10 −27 erg ⋅ s, c = 3 ×1010 cm / s )
LOCUS 28
Solution: We know that ∆E = E f − Ei . We also know that when the final energy is lower than the initial energy
the system lost energy in the form of light. ∴ When ∆E is negative, energy is lost and light is emitted.
The energy of that light is given by hv = −∆Eatom . When ∆E is positive, light is being absorbed and
the energy of the light absorbed is given by hv = + ∆Eatom . These rules can also be derived
mathematically by applying the law of conservation of energy.
For emission:
Initial energy = Initial energy of atom = Ei
Final energy = Final energy of atom + Energy of emitted light = E f + hv
∴ By the law of conservation of energy we can write:
Initial energy = Final energy
⇒ Ei = E f + hv
⇒ − hv = E f − Ei
(
⇒ − hv = ∆Eatom ∆Eatom is defined as E f − Ei )
⇒ hv = −∆E For emission
For Absorption:
Initial energy = Initial energy of atom + Energy of absorbed a light = Ei + hv
Final energy = Final energy of atom = Ef
Again by applying the law of conservation of energy we get:
E f = Ei + hv
⇒ hv = E f − Ei
⇒ hv = +∆E For absorption
Note: It is important to know that a light photon which does not have either the exact amount of energy to
excite the atomic system to another energy level or enough energy to separate the electron from the
system will not interact with the system. If suppose for example we have a 3 level system with energies
E1 = 0 < E2 < E3 . If a photon with energy E such E2 < E < E3 were to be incident on the system it
would not interact with the system at all. The interactions of photons with systems are complete
interactions. A photon cannot transfer half or any part of it’s energy to a system it can only transfer it’s
entire energy to a system. In the above example if it had transferred it’s energy to the system (and the
system was initially in the state of energy E1 = 0 ) then it would gain energy E and since there is no
state of energy E ( E2 < E < E3 ) this is not possible. This is why in the absorption spectrum there are
so many wavelengths which are not absorbed.
LOCUS 29
We know, E = hv and c = vλ .
−hc
For emission ∆E = .
λ
∆E = E f − Ei = −5.42 × 10−12 − ( −2.41× 10 −12 )
∆E = −3.01×10−12 ergs
hc
∴ = 3.01× 10 −12.
λ
hc
∴λ =
3.01× 10 −12
6.62 ×10 −27 × 3 ×1010
=
3.01×10 −12
= 6.6 × 10 −5 cm
Example – 9
Calculate the wave number for the shortest wavelength transition in the Balmer series of atomic hydrogen.
Solution: First let us understand what this problem is about. When ever we talk about the series of lines (Lyman,
Balmer, Paschen.....) the process is emission. Now the energy of the emitted photon is inversely
proportional to it’s wave length. So if we want the shortest wavelength photon we need the photon
with highest energy. Therefore to calculate the wave number for the shortest wavelength transitions,
we should take nf = 2 and ni = ∞ (as this is the highest energy transition). Here nf and ni are the shell
numbers of the final and initial shells respectively.
In the previous example we wrote ∆E = E f − Ei , hv = −∆E (for emission)
Now we can write.
LOCUS 30
 1 1 
Note: (i) For absorption we write v = R  2 − 2  . (You can derive this on your own).
 
 ni n f 
(ii) Observe that in both cases we get v is positive (for emission n f < ni for absorption n f > ni )
Example – 10
(a) Calculate the radii of the first two Bohr orbits of Li 2+.
(b) Calculate the difference in potential energy between these two orbits.
(c) Calculate the difference in total energy between these orbits.
Solution: (a) We derived the formula for the radius of the nth Bohr orbit of a single electron species like Li2+ to
be
n2
r = 0.529 Å
Z
0.529 2
Since the atomic number of Li2+ is 3, Z = 3 and the formula becomes r = n ( Å ) . Now for
3
0.529 2
the first and second Bohr orbits the radii are r1 = 1 Å = 0.176Å
3
0.529 2
and r2 = 2 Å = 0.705Å
3
− kZe 2
(b) The potential energy of the atomic system was derived to be P.E. = . The total energy was
r
−kZe 2 Z2
found to be E = = −13.6 2 eV
2r n
Z2
By comparing these two formula we can write P.E. = −13.6 × 2eV . The P.E. of the first Bohr
n2
32
orbit of Li2+ is P.E.1 = −13.6 × × 2 = −244.8 eV and the P.E. of the second Bohr orbit of Li2+ is
12
32
P.E.2 = −13.6 × × 2 = −61.2 eV . The difference in P.E . = ∆P.E. = 183.6eV
22
(c) It is obvious that the difference in total energies is half the difference in the potential energies
∴ ∆E = 91.8 eV .
LOCUS 31
Example – 11
If the lowest energy x-rays have λ = 4.0 × 10−8 m, estimate the minimum difference in energy between two Bohr
orbits such that an electronic transition would correspond to the emission of an x-ray. Assuming that it is a single
electron system, at what minimum Z would a transition from the second energy level to the first result in the
emission of an x-ray?
Solution: The lowest energy x-ray is given to have a wavelength λ = 4 × 10 −8 m . This means that the energy of
hc hc
any x-ray photon will be more than the energy of this photon = =
λ 4 × 10−8 m
If a transition in between two Bohr orbits has to result in an x-ray photon, the energy of the transition
should be greater than 5 × 10−18 J . Now since we are talking about emission −∆E ≥ 5 × 10 −18 J
( )
⇒ − E f − Ei ≥ 5 × 10−18 J
⇒ Ei − E f ≥ 5 × 10 −18 J
The difference in energy should be greater than 5 × 10−18 J = 31.25 eV

If this is to correspond to the energy difference between the first and second energy levels of a hydrogen
like atom E2 − E1 ≥ 31.25 eV
13.6 2  13.6 2 
⇒ − Z −  − 2 Z  ≥ 31.25
22  1 
3
⇒ 13.6 × Z 2 ≥ 31.25
4
⇒ Z 2 ≥ 3.06
The first integral value of Z is Z = 2. This would be the He+ system.
Example – 12
Derive an expression for the velocity of an electron in any Bohr orbit of a hydrogen like atom. Calculate the
velocity of an electron in the first orbit of a hydrogen atom. What is the ratio of this velocity to the velocity of light
in a vacuum?
Solution: While deriving the expression for the radii of the Bohr orbits we eliminated the velocity from the
equations(1.1) and (1.2)
nh
mvr = (1.1)
2π
mv 2 kZe 2
= 2 (1.2)
r r
2π ke 2 Z
If we instead eliminate the radius we will get the value of velocity to be v = .
nh
LOCUS 32
Another method would be to substitute the numerical expression for the radius from equation (1.3) in
equation (1.1).
2π ke 2 × 1
For the first Bohr orbit of hydrogen we get v = = 2.18 × 106 m / s . The ratio of this velocity
1h
to the velocity of light in vacuum is v = 2.18 × 10

6
= 7.3 × 10−3 .
c 3 × 10
8
Example – 13
The first line of the Balmer series in the H-atom spectrum has a wavelength of 6563 Å. Calculate the wavelength
of the first line of the Lyman series in the same spectrum.
Solution: Given, λ1 = 6563 Å

1  1 1  5R
We know that for Balmer series (1st line) = R 2 − 2  = ... (i)
λ1  2 3  36
Similarly, for Lyman series (1st line), 1  1 1  3R ... (ii)
= R 2 − 2  =
λ2 1 2  4
Dividing (i) by (ii) we get
λ2 5
=
λ1 27
5 5
λ2 = × λ1 = × 6563 = 1215 Å
27 27
Example – 14
Calculate the frequency of the spectral line emitted when the electron in n = 3 in hydrogen atom de-excites to the
ground state (Rydberg constant = 109,737 cm-1)
 1 1
Solution: Since the process is emission we write v = R  2
− 2  . Here nf = 1 (ground state) and ni = 3
 nf ni 
1 1 
∴v = R  − 
1 9 
c
The frequency is given by v = = cv
λ
8
∴v = R × c × = 2.9263 × 1015 s −1
9
LOCUS 33
Example – 15
The ionisation energy of hydrogen in excited state is +0.85 eV. What will be the energy of photon emitted when it
returns to the ground state?
Solution: The energy of a hydrogen atom in its ground state is –13.6 eV.
The ionisation energy of hydrogen in excited state is + 0.85 e V ⇒ Energy of the excited
state = –0.85eV
Energy emitted = −∆E = Ei − E f = – 0.85 – (–13.6) = –0.85 + 13.6 = 12.75 eV
Example – 16
The energy of the ground state of hydrogen atom works out to be –1.312×106 J mol–1 .What change will occur in
the position of the electron in this atom if an energy of 9.84×105 J mol–1 is added to the hydrogen atom?
Solution: Here E1 = −1.312 × 106 J mol −1 , ∆E = 9.84 × 105 J mol −1

Let En = E1 + ∆E
1
Now we know that for one atom in the nth state is times the energy of an atom in it’s ground state
n2
and this does not change if we are talking of a mole of atoms. So En = E1 / n2
E1
Then = E1 + ∆E
n2
−1.312 × 106
2
= −1.312 × 106 + 9.84 ×105 = −3.28 × 105
n
1.312 ×106
n =
2
=4 ⇒ n=2
3.28 × 105
The electron jumps to the second Bohr orbit
Example – 17
−13.12
The quantised energy of hydrogen atom for the nth energy level is given by En = × 105 J mol −1
n2
Calculate the minimum energy required to remove the electron completely from hydrogen atom when it is in
quantised energy level n equals 2. [h = 6.6 × 10–34 Js, c = 3 × 108 ms–1].
LOCUS 34
Solution: Like in one of the previous example the final state has n f = ∞ and Ef = 0
Energy of required absorbed photon E = ∆E (for absorption)
Example – 18
Calculate (i) frequency and (ii) wave number of the radiations required for the excitation of the electron in hydrogen
atom from second to third energy level. Ionisation energy of hydrogen atom is 1.312 × 103 kJ mol–1 .
Solution: The energy of the nth state is given by:
Ionisation energy
En = −
n2
1.312 × 103
=− 2
kJ mol −1
n
1.312 × 106 J atom −1
=−
n 2 × 6.023 × 1023
Energy required for excitation of an electron from second to third energy level = ∆E (absorption)
∆E 0.0303 ×10−17
(i) Frequency , v = = −34
= 4.573 ×1014 Hz.
h 6.626 × 10
1 ∆E 4.573 × 1014
(ii) Wave number, v = = = = 1.52 × 106 m−1.
λ hc 3 × 108
LOCUS 35
TRY YOURSELF - II
1. The energy of the electron in the second and third Bohr’s orbits of the hydrogen atom
is −5.42 × 10−12 erg and −2.41× 10 −12 erg respectively. Calculate the wavelength of the emitted
radiation when the electron drops from the third to the second orbit.
2. Calculate the wavelength in Angstroms of the photon that is emitted when an electron in the Bohr’s
orbit, n = 2 returns to the orbit, n = 1 in the hydrogen atom. The ionisation potential of the ground
state hydrogen atom is 2.17 × 10 −11 erg per atom.
21.7 × 10−12
3. The electron energy in hydrogen atom is given by E = − ergs. Calculate the energy
n2
required to remove an electron completely from the n = 2 orbit. What is the longest
wavelength (in cm) of light that can be used to cause this transition?
4. According to Bohr’s theory, the electronic energy of hydrogen atom in the nth Bohr’s orbit is given
by:
−21.76 × 10−19
En = J
n2
Calculate the longest wavelength of the photon emitted when an electron leaves the third Bohr’s
orbit of the He+ ion.
5. Estimate the difference in energy between 1st and 2nd Bohr’s orbit for a hydrogen atom. At what
minimum atomic number, a transition from n = 2 to n = 1 energy level would result in the emission
of X-rays with λ = 3.0 × 10−8 m? Which hydrogen atom-like species does this atomic number
correspond to?
6. What transition in the hydrogen spectrum would have the same wavelength as the Brackett transition
from n = 8 to n = 4 of He + spectrum?
7. Calculate the wave number for the shortest wavelength transition in the Balmer series of atomic
hydrogen.
! ! ! ! ! ! !
LOCUS 36
3.5 The Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom :

The laws of classical physics cannot be used to explain the behaviour of all matter. When dealing with tiny systems
on the atomic scale scientists needed to develop entirely new laws and rules which constitute the theory of
quantum mechanics. (It was also found that at speeds approaching the speed of light the classical mechanical laws
became invalid and the theory of relativity is used to explain behaviour).
According to quantum mechanics, matter of very tiny dimensions does not behave classically and has some
unusual properties which we will discuss in the sections that follow. Many of the concepts of quantum mechanics
are counter intuitive but they have been either experimentally proved or been universally accepted because the
results derived from them agree with experimental observations.
3.5.1 Pre-requisite Concepts for the Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom.
In the following sections two of the fundamental concepts of quantum mechanics will be introduced. An understanding
and knowledge of these seemingly abstract ideas is crucial for understanding the quantum mechanical model of the
atom.
3.5.1.1 The Duality of Matter Particles and Waves

For a long time the Bohr model was assumed to be correct because it provided correct results, but this only meant
that Bohr’s assumptions were correct, it did not validate them. In 1924 a French physicist de-Broglie attempted to
explain the Bohr’s postulate that the angular momentum of an electron in an atom was quantised by making a more
general postulate that electrons and all other matter in fact, exhibit dual characteristics, some times they are considered
as particles and at other times it is more convenient to consider them as waves. This postulate was later proved to
be correct in 1926 by Davison and Germer who found experimental evidence that electrons undergo diffraction
which is a phenomenon possible only if electrons were waves.
From his central assumption de-Broglie obtained certain results which are derived below.
(i) Einstein’s mass energy equivalence
E = mc2
(ii) Planck’s law
E = hv
⇒ hv = mc 2
h
⇒ = mc
λ
What de-Brogile did was, he replaced the velocity of light written as c here by the velocity of the particle
h
∴ = mv = p
λ
∴ The wavelength is given by
h
λ=
p
LOCUS 37
h
This is called the de Broglie’s wavelength. So the wavelength of an electron = , where me & ve are
me × ve
respectively electron mass and velocity.
Let us now look at the Bohr orbits considering an electron to be a matter wave. As the electron can be considered
to be a wave we can represent it as a wave traveling in a circle.
Fig - 16
As is seen from the diagram it is possible to draw a continuous wave around the circle. Now this is only possible
when the circumference is multiple of the wavelength. (It is a good idea to try and draw such a continuous wave on
your own)
⇒ 2π r = nλ
h
Now the wavelength of the electron wave is given by λ =
p
nh
∴ 2π r =
mv
nh
∴ mvr =
2π
Thus validating Bohr’s assumption that the angular momentum of the electron in the hydrogen atom is quantised. de
Broglie’s assumption is a generalised assumption about the nature of matter and hence we feel more comfortable
in deriving the Bohr postulate from the de Broglie’s assumption.
Since de Broglie’s assumption is a generalisation about all matter it seems counter intuitive to say that macroscopic
objects like cricket balls have wave nature. If one does calculate the value of wavelength for such objects we see
that it is so phenomenally small that it isn’t a wavelength that is perceivable. For example a 1 kg object traveling at
h
1 m/s has a wavelength of = h = 6.625 ×10−34 m . This is such a small value that we do not consider this kind
1× 1
of a macroscpic entity as a wave.
LOCUS 38
3.5.1.2 The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle

The Bohr model of the atom requires the precise information about the radius of revolution i.e. position and the
velocity of the electron. The Heisenberg uncertainty principle states and quantifies the fact that the position and
velocity of the electron cannot be simultaneously determined beyond a certain level of accuracy. The following
explanation does not arrive at the mathematical result but provides an understanding of why this is so. Our general
and first perceptions and observations of objects are optical in nature (i.e. we see them). This is basically light
bouncing off these objects and striking our retini. Electrons apart from being to tiny to bounce of enough light for
our eyes to perceive them are strongly affected by the very process of light bouncing off of them and whatever
information was gained by collecting the reflected light is obsolete as the electron’s position and velocity have
changed. So any method we devise to characterise an electron’s position or velocity in itself affects these quantities
and hence limits accuracy. Note that it is possible to have precise information about either one of these quantities
but not the both of them at the same time. Mathematically if ∆x is the uncertainty (this can be taken to be
h
synonymous to maximum error) in position and ∆p is the uncertainty in momentum then ∆x.∆p ≥ .
4π
In the Bohr model of the atom we have calculated the exact velocity of the electron and it’s exact radial position.
This according to the ideas discussed above is not possible. The electron being a form of energy which can be
considered as a wave can never be located and said to precisely have a certain velocity. Thus according to the new
rules of quantum mechanics Bohr’s model and Bohr’s formula for the radii of the orbits are not possible.
Example – 19
A microscope using suitable photons is employed to locate an electron in an atom within a distance of 0.1 Å. What
is the uncertainty involved in the measurement of its velocity?
Solution: The uncertainty in the location is 0.1 Å i.e. ∆x = 0.1Å
By the Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle:
h h
∆x ∆p ≥ or ∆x m∆v ≥
4π 4π
h
∆v ≥
4π∆xm
6.626 ×10−34 Js
∆v ≥
4 × 3.14 × 0.1×10−10 m × 9.11×10−31 kg
= 5.79 × 106 m s −1
Example – 20
Calculate the de Broglie wavelength of an electron traveling with a speed equal to 10 % of the speed of light.
LOCUS 39
Solution: The speed of an electron traveling at 10% the speed of light is:
10
v = 3 × 108 ms −1 × = 3 × 107 ms −1 (velocity of light is 3 × 108 ms–1)
100
It’s de Broglie’s wavelength would be:
h 6.62 × 10−34 kg m2 s −1
λ= = = 24.4 pm
mv 9.1× 10−31 kg × 3 × 107 ms −1
Example – 21
Establish a relation between wavelength of a moving particle and its kinetic energy. The wavelength of a moving
particle of mass 1.0 × 10–6 kg is 3.313 × 10–29m. Calculate its kinetic energy. [h = 6.626×10–34 Js]
1
Solution: The kinetic energy of α particle of mass m moving at a velocity v is given by K .E. = mv2 . The
2
de-Broglie wavelength of a particle of mass m moving at a velocity v is given by λ = h mv .
The de Broglie wave length of a mass 1×10−6 kg is given to be 3.313 × 10−29 m. Hence
(6.626 × 10−34 )
2
h2
K .E . = =
2mλ 2 2 × 10−6 × (3.313 ×−29 )2
= 2 × 10−4 J
Example – 22
13.6 eV is needed for ionisation of a hydrogen atom. An electron in a hydrogen atom in its ground state absorbs
1.50 times as much energy as the minimum energy required for it to escape from the atom. What is the wavelength
of the emitted electron ?
Solution: 1.5 times of 13.6 eV, i.e. 20.4 eV, is absorbed by the hydrogen atom out of which 6.8 eV
(20.4 – 13.6) is converted to kinetic energy of the electron.
1
Now, K .E. = mv 2
2
⇒ v=
2 K .E .
=
(
2 1.09 × 10 −18 J )
m (9.109 × 10 −31
kg )
= 1.55 × 106 m / s
LOCUS 40
∴ The de Broglie’s wavelength is:
λ=
h
=
(
6.63 × 10 −34 J ⋅ s )
mv ( )(
9.109 × 10 −31 kg 1.55 × 106 m / s )
= 4.70 ×10 −10 metres.
Example – 23
Two particles ‘A’ and ‘B’ are in motion. The momentum of particle ‘B’ is half of ‘A’ . If the wavelength associated
with the particle ‘A’ is 5 ×10–8 m, calculate the wavelength associated with the particle ‘B’.
Solution: The de Broglie’s wavelength of a particle is given by:

h
λ= .
p
λ p
Thus A = B
λB p A
pA p
⇒ λB = λ A = 5 × 10−8 × A = 10−7 m
pB 1
pA
2
Example – 24
If an electron and proton when in motion have the same wavelength associated with each of them, which would be
moving faster and why?
h
Solution: As λ =
mv
1
v∝ , if λ is constant.
m
∴ Electron would be moving faster than proton due to its lesser mass.
Example – 25
Calculate the wavelength of an electron that has been accelerated in a particle accelerator through a potential
difference of 100 million volts. [1 eV = 1.6 × 10–19 J, me = 9.1×10–31 kg, h = 6.0 × 10–34 Js, c = 3.0 ×108 ms–1]
Solution: The kinetic energy gained is equal to the potential energy lost
P2
K .E . = e × V ; K .E . =
2m (This will be understood after doing electrostatics in physics)
∴ P = 2meV
LOCUS 41
Therefore the de Broglie’s wavelength is:
Example – 26
(a) Suppose the velocities of an electron and a rifle bullet of mass 0.03 kg are each measured with an
uncertainty of ∆v = 10−3 ms −1 . Calculate the minimum uncertainties in their positions. (Given : mass of
an electron = 9.1×10–31 kg)
(b) Comment on the calculated values of uncertainties in positions in the two cases.
Solution: (a) According to Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle,

h
∆x × ∆p ≥
4π
h h
or ∆x.m∆v ≥ ; ∆x ≥
4π 4π m∆v
6.625 × 10−34
∆x for bullet ≥ −3
= 1.76 × 10−30 m.
4 × 3.14 × 0.03 ×10
6.625 × 10−34
∆x for electron ≥ = 0.058 m
4 × 3.14 × 9.1 ×10−31 × 10−3
(b) As the uncertainty in the position measurement of the bullet is negligibly small, it indicates that we
can measure the position of a macroscopic object like a bullet very accurately but not of the
microscopic object like an electron.
Example – 27
Show that the Heisenberg uncertainty principle is of negligible significance for an object of 10–6 kg mass.
( h / 4π = 0.528 × 10−34 kg m 2 s −1 )
Solution: According to Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle,
As the product of uncertainty in position and velocity is very small, the uncertainty principle is of
negligible significance for an object of mass 10–6 kg.
LOCUS 42
Example – 28
On the basis of the Heisenberg uncertainty principle, show that the electron can not exist within an atomic nucleus
of radius 10–15 m.
(mass of electron = 9×10–31 kg; h/4 π = 0.528×10–34 kg m2 s–1)
Solution: The uncertainty principle is defined for an error only in one dimension ( ∆x is the error in measuring the
x coordinate). In this case when we speak of uncertainty in position, as the system is spherically
symetric the dimension that has to be used is the radial location. If the electron is located in the nucleus
the uncertainty in it’s radial position is given by ∆r = 10 −15 m
h
According to uncertainty principle, ∆r × ∆p ≥
4π
or
Thus the uncertainty in velocity is greater than the speed of light (3×108 ms –1), which is not possible.
Hence an electron cannot be present inside the nucleus of an atom.
Example – 29
An electron has a speed of 50 ms–1 accurate upto 99.99%. What is uncertainty in its position?
[Mass of electron = 9.1 × 10–31 kg, h = 6.6 × 10–34 Js]
Solution: Uncertainty in velocity = 100 – 99.99 = 0.01%

0.01
∴∆v = 50 × = 50 × 10−4 = 5 × 10−3 ms −1
100
By the Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle:
3.5.2 The Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom and Schrödinger’s Wave Equation.
In the quantum mechanical model of the atom the dual nature of the electron is considered. If we consider an
electron as a wave, then it has to have a wave function. Every wave has a wave function which gives the displacement
from the mean position as a function of position. Consider the wave shown below
y
A
x
0 λ
Fig - 17
LOCUS 43
This is a typical sine wave. The vertical displacement of the wave from the mean position is given by
 2π
y = A sin  x .
 λ 
When x = λ y = A sin 2π = 0
x=λ y = A sin π = 0
2
π
x=λ y = A sin =A
4 2
3π
x = 3λ y = A sin = −A
4 2
2π
The wave function of the wave is f ( x ) = A sin x.
λ
This wave is a one dimensional wave as the wave function only depends on the x coordinate.
The wave function for an electron is written as ψ ( x, y , z ) . This wave function depends on all three spatial
coordinates.An electron is a three dimensional wave. To visualise what a three dimensional wave looks like let us
first try and imagine a two dimensional wave. We all know how if a stone is dropped in a pool of water, ripples
which are waves on the surface of the water spread outward in concentric circles. The figure for this is given below.
Y
(x,y)
Fig - 18
The displacement from the mean position depends on both the x and y coordinates, therefore this is an example of
a two dimensional wave. Suppose we have a rubber balloon and we pinch it at a point, stretch it and release it what
would we see ? We would see a wave pattern similar to the one shown in the diagram below.
(1) (2)
Z
Y
O
X
(3)
Fig - 19
LOCUS 44
It is easy to see that the displacement from the mean position depends on all three coordinates ( x, y, z ) . This wave
is a three dimensional wave .
In 1925 Erwin Schrödinger derived an equation which could be used to relate the wave function of an electron
with it’s energy. This equation came to be known as the Schrödinger’s equation. This equation is given below :
h 2  ∂ 2ψ ∂ 2ψ ∂ 2ψ 
−  + +  + Vψ = Eψ
8π 2 m  ∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2 
it is also commonly written as
Ĥψ = Eψ
where Ĥ is called the Hamiltonion operator.
h2  ∂ 2 ∂2 ∂2 
Hˆ = − 2  2 + 2 + 2  + V
8π m  ∂x ∂y ∂z 
The meaning of these mathematical operators will be understood in college and it is not even necessary for you to
remember the above expression. What you need to know is that the Schrödinger equation relates the wavefunction
to the energy of the electron. We know that each orbital has a different energy in an electro magnetic field so an
electron in an orbital has a unique wavefunction depending on the values of n, l, m. Thus a unique wave function
can be written ψ n ,l ,m . These values can be determined by solving the Schrödinger equation. In fact we say that n,
l, m come out as automatic predictions and necessities required for writing the solutions of the Schrödinger equation.
3.5.3 Results of the Schrödinger’s equation

When Schrödinger obtained the solutions to his equation they were nothing more than wavefunctions of the electronic
2
wave. Max Born interpreted the function ψ n ,l , m to be the probability density function for the location of the
electron. The best way to understand the concept of probability density is to say that it is analogous to mass
density. Mass density is defined as the mass per unit volume at a given location. Similarly the probability density is
the probability per unit volume at a given location. As you are a student who has cleared his/her matriculation level
exams the author assumes you know what probability means in a mathematical sense. If you do not then you will
have to wait till you cover the topic as a part of you 11th standard mathematics course. The probability of an event
which is sure to happen is one and that of an impossible event is zero. Consider the following problem:
If the mass density of a cube of side one metre is given by d = 2x kg/m3 what is the mass of the :
(a) whole cube ?
(b) right half of the cube ?
(c) left half of the cube ?
LOCUS 45
1m
m
y
1
z
o x dx
1m
Fig - 20
Consider a slice of dx thickness parallel to the Y-Z plane at a distance x from the origin. The mass density is the
same every where in this slice as dx is a very small value.
The mass of this slice is dm = density × volume
= 2x × 1 × 1× dx
= 2xdx
x2
The mass between two planes parallel to Y-Z at x1 and x2 is given by mx → x = ∫ 2 xdx
1 2
x1
= x2 x2
x1 = x22 − x12
(a) For the mass of the whole cube we take x1 = 0 and x2 = 1m
∴ m0 −1 = 1 kg
(b) For the mass of the right half x1 = 1 2 m and x2 = 1m

2
 1 3
∴ m1 = 12 −   = kg
2 −1  2 4
(c) The mass of the left half is the difference in masses between the whole block and the right half.
3 1
∴ m0 − 1 = 1 − = kg
2 4 4
If we wanted to convert this into a problem of probability all we would have to do is to say that the probability
density function is ψ 2 = 2 xm −3 and you would require to find the probability of finding the electron in :
(a) the whole box
(b) the right half
(c) the left half.
LOCUS 46
Since the mathematical procedure is the same and the values are the same, the results are the same.
(a) The probability of finding the electron in the box = 1. Thus the electron is surely present in the box.
(b) The probability of finding it in the right half =3/4
(c) The probability of finding it in the left half = 1/4
From these values we can infer that the electrons spends more time in the right half than in the left half. The
probability of finding the electron at a point is zero. The reason for this is that the dimensions of a point are zero and
hence it’s volume which is multiplied by the probability density function is zero.
The above example is very simplified and probability density function only varied with the x - coordinate. For an
electron in a hydrogen atom the probability density function is usually a complex exponential function. The probability
of finding the electron in an infinitesimal volume element of dimensions dx, dy and dz at a location (x, y, z) is
2
ψ ( x , y , z ) × dx × dy × dz. A volume element can be written as d τ = dx × dy × dz . Hence the probability of finding
2
and electron in a dτ volume at (x, y, z) is ψ ( x , y , z ) × dτ .
3.5.4 The quantum numbers revisited

Prior to the derivation of the Schrödinger’s equation the numbers n, l and m had, meanings similar to the way
geographical coordinates have a meaning. They were just an indexing system by which the different energy levels
can be differentiated. The solutions of the Schrödinger’s equation vary according to the values of n, l and m. These
are called quantum numbers as they quantise the possible values of energy. n is called the principal quantum
number, l the azimuthal quantum number and m the magnetic quantum number.
The value of the azimuthal quantum numbers determines the value of the orbital angular momentum of the electron
with that l value. This will be proven in university level courses on quantum mechanics. The author regrets to
include this fact and the following formula and requests those inquisitive peoples among his readers to be patient
and assures them that like the author himself they too will be able to understand the implications of this formula in
time.
The orbital angular momentum (L) is given by
h
L = l (1 + 1) ⋅ , l = 0,1, 2,...
2π
When an atom has angular momentum, L, the atom acts like a small magnet. We say that it has a magnetic dipole
moment, µ . The natural unit of magnetic dipole moment is expressed by Bohr magneton ( µ B ) for electronic
states.
eh eђ h
µ B ( BM ) = = (often h is replaced by ђ = )
4π m 2m 2π
Where m is the mass of an electron.
µB = 9.27 ×10−24 JT −1 ( SI )
= 9.27 × 10 −28 JG −1
= 9.27 ×10−21 erg G −1.
LOCUS 47
In 1922 Otto Stern and Walther Gurlach showed experimentally that the magnetic moment of cesium atoms is
quantised. Magnetic moment will be understood in electro magnetism in physics. From this result they deduced the
1 1
presence of a fourth quantum number ‘s’ which had values of + or − . This spin quantum number represents
2 2
1
the spin of the electron. Two electrons in an orbital have opposites spins i.e. one of them has s = and the other
2
1
has s = − . These are often called as an up spin and a down spin respectively. In the box representation of the
2
orbitals of a sublevels (section 3.4.1) the electrons are shown as either an upward arrow or a downward arrow. If
electrons are unpaired they are mostly shown to have an upward spin. For example 2p3 would be represented as
↑ ↑ ↑ and 3d7 would be shown as ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑ ↑ ↑ .
As the two electrons in an orbital have a different quantum number we can rephrase the Paul’s exclusion principle
as : No two electrons in a system can have the same set of four quantum numbers.
Later Dirac incorporated the theory of relatively in the Schrödinger’s equation and the spin quantum number ‘s’
came out as a theoretical prediction. ‘s’ can have values of +½ or –½
Spin angular momentum is given by
h
S = s ( s + 1) ⋅
2π
The spin magnetic moment ( µ ) of the electron is given by
µ = n ( n + 2 )BM
where n is the number of unpaired electrons.
3.5.5 Nodes and Nodal planes

2
Born explained that the value ψ dz gave the value of the probability of finding the electron in a dτ = dx ⋅ dy ⋅ dz
2
volume of space. Now there are certain points in space where the value of ψ (probability density) is zero. In fact
2
there are entire regions in space where the value of ψ is zero. These regions are called nodes and when the set
2
of points where ψ is zero, forms and a plane it is called a nodal plane. For a given wave function ψ corresponding
2
to n, l, m values there are certain radial locations where ψ = 0 i.e There are spherical regions in space where
2
the value of ψ is zero. These are called radial nodes. See the figure given below for a better idea of what we are
referring to.
LOCUS 48
radial
node
Fig - 21
Here the shaded region represents the region where we have a maximum probability of finding the electron.
3.5.6 Shapes of Atomic Orbitals

Orbits and orbitals prior to the quantum mechanical model of the atom had meaning only in the sense of being
2
states of different energies. After the Born interpretation of the Schrödinger’s equation which said that ψ was
the probability density and that the probability of finding an electron in an infinitesimal volume dτ = dx ⋅ dy ⋅ dz at
2
a point ( x, y, z ) in space was ψ ( x , y , z ) × dτ the plots of the probabilities were drawn for the various values of n,
2
l, m. Since the probability density functions ψ are continuous and extend unto infinity the regions where the
probability of finding an electron is maximum have been shaded in a darker colour and the surfaces drawn are such
that within the volume they enclose, the probability of the electrons presence is maximum. The probability density
is the same at all points on these surfaces. It should also be noted that different orbitals correspond to different
energies and hence for a given energy of the system we can draw the spatial probability distribution of it’s electron’s
location. These have been drawn below.
1s 2s
Fig - 22 a
LOCUS 49
Consider a sphere of radius r. This sphere has a surface area 4π r 2 . The volume of a spherical shell of radius r and
2
thickness dr is 4π r 2 × dr. So we can write the probability of finding an electron in this volume as ψ 4π r 2 × dr .
2
The quantity ψ 4π r 2 is the probability per unit radial distance and is called the radial probability density function.
The plots of the radial probability distribution function are given below
LOCUS 50
At the radial points where the radial probability density function is zero if we take a shell of that radius and
thickness dr the probability of finding the electron in this region will be zero as the radial density function is zero.
Therefore if you recall the definition for a radial node you will see that this is where a radial node occurs. Thus we
can see that 2s has one radial node while 3s has two radial nodes (origin and r = ∞ are not considered) because
their radial density functions are zero at one and two radial locations respectively.
LOCUS 51
The points where the radial probability distribution function becomes zero are called radial nodes. We can see
from the plots that the 2p orbital has no radial nodes. Empirically by observing the plots for the various probability
density functions we say that the number of radial nodes for a given orbital = n – l – 1.
Now have a look at the plots of the 2 px , 2 p y , 2 pz orbitals in Fig . 22 b. We see that the 2px orbital does not have
a probability of finding an electron on the entire yz plane. Therefore the yz plane is a nodal plane to the 2px orbital.
Similarly we see that each of the 2p orbitals has a nodal plane. We also see that each of the 3d orbitals has two
nodal planes. Empirically we write the number of nodal planes for a given orbital = l
Thus the total number of nodes for a given orbital = n – l – 1 + l = n – 1
Example – 30
What is the maximum number of electrons in an atom in which the last electron, filled, has the following quantum
numbers?
(a) n = 3, l =1 (b) n = 3, l = 2
1
(c) n = 3, l = 2 and m = -1 (d) n = 3, l = 2, m = 0 and s = −
2
Solution: The solution to this problem has been presented in the form of a table.
LOCUS 52
Example – 31
The following incorrect set of quantum numbers in the order n, l, m, s are written for paired electrons or for one
electron in an orbital. Correct them, assuming n values are correct and only one of the four quantum numbers is in
correct.
1 1 1 1
(a) 1, 0, 0, + , + (b) 2, 2, 1, ± (c) 3, 2, 3, ± (d) 2, 1,
2 2 2 2
Solution: (a) Two electrons in the same orbital cannot have the same spin so the set of quantum numbers must
be 1,0,0, ± 1 2
(b) The highest value a azimuthal quantum number can take of a given principal quantum number n is
n –1 . ∴ the azimuthal quantum number needs correction and can be 0 or 1. As the magnetic
quantum number is m = 1, l can only be 1. Thus the corrected set is 2,1,1, ±1/ 2
(c) The magnetic quantum number for a given azimuthal quantum number can take values from –l to l.
Therefore for l = 2, m cannot be 3. To correct one of them we may write l ≥ 3 & m = 3 or l = 2
& m = 2 ,1,0,–1, –2 but l ≥ 3 would not be possible for n = 3 ∴ l = 2 and m = 2 ,1,0,–1, –2
∴ A corrected set would be
3, 2,(2,1,0,–1,–2), ±1/ 2
(d) The spin quantum number cannot be zero it has to be either +1/2 or –1/2
∴The corrected set should be
2, 1, –1, +1/2 or –1/2
Example – 32
How many electrons can be placed (a) in the shell with n = 2 (b) in the shell with n = 3 (c) in the shell with n = 3
before the first electron enters the shell with n = 4?
Solution: (a) This is a direct application of the formula derived for the maximum number of electrons in the nth
shell.
The principal quantum number is n = 2
2(n)2 = 2(2)2 = 8
(b) The principal quantum number is n = 3
2n2 = 2×(3)2 = 18
(c) We know that in the order of filling of atomic orbitals 4s comes before 3d. So the maximum no. of
electrons in the n = 3 shell before the n = 4 shell has any electrons would be when the last
electrons are filled in the 3 p sub shell. Then the configuration would be 1s22s22p63s23p6.
∴ No of electrons in n = 3 is 8
LOCUS 53
Example – 33
Which shell would be the first to have a g sub shell?
Solution: Since the angular momentum quantum number, l, must be less than the principal quantum number, n,
and since the g sub shell designation represents a l value of 4, the minimum n value possible is 5. In
alphabetical notation (KLMNO), the fifth shell is designated the O shell.
Example – 34
In what ways do the spatial distributions of the orbitals in each pair differ from each other?
(a) 1s and 2s (b) 2s and 2p (c) 2 px and 2py
Solution: (a) The 2s orbital is large, and it has a spherical node, which the 1s orbital does not have.
(b) The 2p orbital is directed in space, aligned along one of the x, y, or z axes. It has planar node
which includes the other two axes.
(c) Each orbital is aligned along the axis corresponding to its subscript.
Example – 35
The nucleus of an atom is located at x = y = z = 0. (a) If the probability of finding an s-orbital electron in a tiny
volume around x = a, y = z = 0, is 1.0 × 10–5, what is the probability of finding the electron in the same sized
volume around x = z = 0, y = a? (b) What would be the probability at the second site if the electron were in a pz
orbital? Explain.
Solution: (a) 1.0 × 10 –5 . Since the distance from the nucleus is the same, and the s orbital is spherically
symmetrical, the probability in each of the two volumes is the same.
(b) Since the pz orbital has a node at z = 0 , the probability of finding the electron in this volume is 0.
Example – 36
Suppose a particle has four quantum numbers such that the permitted values are those given below. How many
particles could be fitted into the n = 1 shell? into the n = 2 shell? into the n = 3 shell?
n : 1,2,3....
l : (n-1), (n-3), (n-5),..... but no negative number
j :  l + 1  or  l − 1  if the latter is not negative

 2  2
m : –j in integral steps to +j
LOCUS 54
Solution: (a) For the n = 1 shell

n = 1 ⇒ l = 0 ⇒ j = 1/ 2 ⇒ m = −1/ 2 or + 1/ 2
There are two sets possible and hence two particles can be filled in accordance with the Pauli’s
exclusion principle.
(b) For the n = 2 shell
3
n = 2 ⇒ l = 1 ⇒ j = 1/ 2 or
2
For j = 1/2, m = 1/2 or –1/2
For j = 3/2, m = –3/2 or –1/2 or 1/2 or 1/2
Thus there are six distinct values.
(c) For n = 3 shell.

To simplify the representation let us use a tree structure
Fig - 24
There are twelve unique values and 12 particles can be filled.
Example – 37
The solution to the Schrödinger equation for an electron in the ground state of the hydrogen atom is
1
ψ 1s = e − r / ao
πa 3
0
where r is the distance from the nucleus and a0 is 0.529 × 10 –8 cm. The probability of finding an electron at any
2
point in space is proportional to ψ . Using calculus, show that the maximum probability of finding the electron in
the 1s orbital of hydrogen occurs at r = a0.To solve this problem one needs to know how to find the maximum value
of a function using calculus.
LOCUS 55
Solution: In this question we are asked to show that the probability of finding an electron at r = a0 is maximum.
We know that the probability we define, has to be associated with a volume. Here the set of points for
whom the distance from the origin is a0(r = a0) form a spherical surface. A surface has an area but no
volume so there should not be any probability associated with it and the probability of finding the
electron on it should be zero. This answer should be perfectly agreeable but this is not what the person
who framed the question had in mind. Questions such as this one, which do not completely communicate
what the person who framed the question desires are common in quantum mechanics. The reason for
this is probably that most writers in their hurry neglect something fundamental like we saw in this
problem. This is precisely why this problem has been included here. We can be linient to the author of
the problem and miss interpret his question as, the proof that if we consider spherical shells of a
thickness dr then the shell with radius r = a0 has the maximum probability of finding the electron in it.
This is most probably what he had in mind. The probability of finding the electron in a shell of radius r
and thickness dr is equal to the product of the probability density at that radial location and the
volume = ψ 1s 2 × 4π r 2 dr
We have to find the value of r where this quantity has a maximum value. As dr is the infinitesimal
thickness of the shell we are considering for all shells, it does not vary with the radial location r. Thus
2
we only need to find the value of r for which ψ 1s × 4π r 2 is maximum (recall that this is the radial
2
 1 
probability density function ). To find the maximum of function f ( r ) =  e − r / a0  × 4π r 2 we follow
 π a3 
 0 
the standard methods we learn in calculus.
Let us draw the graphs of r2 and e–2r/a0.
r2
e-2r/a 0
Fig - 25
LOCUS 56
4r 2 e−2 / a0
The plot of the function f ( r ) =
a03
This is the same as the plot of the radial probability density function of the 1s orbital in Fig - 23. The
function is zero at r = 0 and r = ∞ . The function is positive in between these values. The Rolle’s
theorem of calculus tells us that a maximum or a minimum has to occur between two points which have
the same value. Since the function is positive (i.e f(r) > 0) between r = 0 and r = ∞ only a maximum
can occur. The location of this maximum is determined by differentiating f(r) and determining the value
df ( r )
of r for which = 0.
dr
On differentiation :
This is equal to zero when r = 0 or r = a0 or r = ∞

Thus the maximum occurs at r = a0.
Here a0 = 0.529 Å. This is the Bohr radius for 1s shell. The radial probability density function of 1s is
maximum at the Bohr radius for 1s. The probability of finding the 1s electron in a shell of thickness dr
is maximum when the radius of that shell is equal to the Bohr radius for 1s.
Example – 38
How many unpaired electrons are there in the Ni 2+ ion?
Solution: According to the rules written in section 3.3.3.2 we must first write the electronic configuration of Ni.
This is 1s 2 2 s 2 2 p 6 3s 2 3 p 6 3d 8 4 s 2 . Now we have to remove two electrons from the outer most sub
shell, which is 4s. Thus the electronic configuration is 1s 2 2s 2 2 p 6 3s 2 3 p 6 3d 8 . The box representation
given below shows that there are two unpaired electrons.
8
3d
LOCUS 57
Example – 39
Predict the magnetic moment for Co3+.
Solution: By using the same logic as we did for the previous problem we get the electronic configuration of Co3+
as 1s 2 2s 2 2 p 6 3s 2 3 p 6 3d 6 . The box representation given below shows that there are four unpaired
electrons. Thus the magnetic moment is µ = n ( n + 2 ) = 4 ( 4 + 2 ) = 4.9 B.M
3d6
Example – 40
Complete the following statements:

(a) Two electrons in the same_________ must have opposite spins.
(b) When l = 3, ml may have values from __________ to __________.
(c) Orbitals with the same energy are said to be__________.
(d) The 2p orbitals of an atom have identical shapes but differ in their __________.
(e) A nodal surface is one at which the probability of finding an electron is __________.
Solution: (a) orbital (b) –3 to +3 (c) degenerate

(d) orientations in space (e) zero.
LOCUS 58
CHAPTER SUMMARY
Equations and rules to be noted

1. General
1
i. Kinetic energy of a particle of mass m moving with a velocity v.K.E = mv 2 (1.1)
2
ii. Potential Energy of a system of two charges (q1, q2)separated by a distance r
kq1q2
P.E = k = 9 ×109 Nm 2 / coulumb 2 (1.2)
r
iii. The momentum of a particle (m) moving at a velocity v is defined as P = mv (1.3)

iv. The angular momentum of a particle (mass = m, velocity = v) at a distance r from
a point of reference O is given as L = mvr (1.4)
v. Total Energy = K.E. + P.E.
2. Wave nature of light

c
i. The wavelength (λ) and frequency (v) of a light wave are related by vλ = where η is the
η
refractive index of the medium η = 1 for free space and for general considerations (1.5)
1
ii. Wave number v = (1.6)
λ
c×v
⇒ v= (1.7)
η
3. Particle Nature of light and photo electric effect
i. Energy of a photon of frequency v
hc
E = hv = = hcv (1.8)
λ
h = 6.625 × 10−34 J .s = 4.14 × 10−15 eV .s
ii. Work function of a material:
The work function is defined as the energy required to eject an electron from the metal plate
w = Energy of threshold photon
= hv0 where v0 is the threshold frequency of the material for observing photo electrons.
4. Atomic Spectra and Series

 1 1 
= ×  − (for emission)where n f = 1, 2...∞
 n 2 n 2 
i. Wave number v R (1.9)
 f i 
ni = n f + 1...∞ ,
R = 1.097 × 107 m −1
LOCUS 59
1 1 
ii.Lyman series v = R ×  2 − 2  where n = 2, 3,... ∞ (1.10)
1 n 
 1 1 
Balmer series v = R ×  2 − 2  where n = 3, 4,... ∞ (1.11)
2 n 
1 1 
Paschen series v = R ×  2 − 2  where n = 4... ∞ (1.12)
3 n 
Brackett series v = R ×  2 − 2 
1 1
where n = 5... ∞ (1.13)
4 n 
1 1 
Pfund series v = R ×  2 − 2  where n = 6, 7... ∞ (1.14)
5 n 
1 −13.6eV
E = − hcv = −hc × R × 2 =
n n2
5. The Bohr Model of the atom
nh
i. mvr = (1.15)
2π
ii. Electro static force between two charges q1, & q2 separated by a distance of r
k × q1q2
F= (1.16)
r2
LOCUS 60
iii. Radial force on a body in an orbit of radius r when it has mass m and velocity v
mv 2
(centrifugal force) F = (1.17)
r
iv. Radial forces on an electron
Net force in radial direction = Centrifugal force + electrostatic force.
mv 2
Centrifugal force = (1.18)
r
kze ( −e ) − kze2
Electro static force = = (1.19)
r2 r2
Net Force = 0
mv 2 kze 2
∴ − 2 =0 (1.20)
r r
v. Radius of Bohr orbit 1.5 & 1.20 we get
n2h2
rn = 2 (1.21)
4π mzke2
n2
= 0.529 × 10 −10 m
z
n2
= 0.529 Å
z
vi. Energy of Bohr Orbit
E = Potential energy + Kinetic energy
kq1q2 − kze 2
Potential energy of system = = (1.22)
r r
Kinetic Energy of System = K.E. of electron + K.E. of nucleus
1 1
= me × v e2 + mn × 0 (1.23)
2 2
1
= mv 2
2
1 2 − Kze 2 − Kze 2 z2
En = mv + = = 13.6 2 eV (1.24)
2 r 2r n
leV = 1.6 × 10−19 Joules,1erg = 10−7 Joules
−18 z2
∴ En = −2.178 ×10 Joules
n2
 P.E. = 2T .E. 
 P.E. = 2 K .E.

⇒ T .E. = − K .E.
vii. Velocity of electron in nth orbit
To be completed by the student
LOCUS 61
6. Rules for writing electronic configuration

i. Pauli’s Exclusion principle
Only two electrons allowed per atomic orbital
ii. Hund’s rule
Electrons fill all atomic orbitals in a sub shell before pairing up
iii. Autbau principle
Lower n + l values are preferred
For same n + l value lower n values preferred
iv. Half filled and Fully filled sub shells
Half filled and fully filled sub shells have greater stability
v. Order filing of sub-shells
To be filled by student.
7. de-Broglie’s Wave particle duality
i. Einstien’s mass energy equivalence
E = mc2 (1.25)
ii. de-Broglie’s formula
h h
λ= = (1.26)
p mv
iii. Number of wavelengths in the nth orbit
2π r 2π r 2π
n= = = × mvr (1.27)
λ h / mv h
8. Heisenberg’s Uncertainty principle

h
i. ∆x.∆p ≥ (1.28)
4π
9. Quantum numbers
i. Orbital angular momentum
h
L = l (l + 1) (1.29)
2π
ii. Spin angular momentum
h
S = s ( s + 1) (1.30)
2π
iii. Spin magnetic moment
µ = n ( n + 2 )BM (1.31)
where n is the number of unpaired electrons
iv. No. of radial nodes = n – l –1 (1.32)
v. No. of planar nodes = l (1.33)
vi. Total no. of nodes = n – 1 (1.34)
LOCUS 62
EXERCISE
1. What are the values of the frequencies of a red light (700nm) and a violet light (420nm)?
2. How many photons are emitted per second by a radio transmitter of power 5kW which emits radio waves
of wavelength 6626 micrometers?
3. A light beam consists of 2500 photons. Some of a wavelength λ1 = 400nm and some of wavelength
λ2 =100nm and the total energy of the beam is 1.9878×10-15 J. Find the composition of the beam (no of
photons of wavelength λ1 and no of photons of wavelength λ2).
4. In a photoelectric effect experiment if the work function of the metal that was used was 16eV, calculate:
(a) The threshold frequency and also identify the region in which this frequency lies.
(b) The velocity of the photo electrons emitted when light of wavelength 600nm is incident on the surface
of the metal.
(c) Repeat part b for a 40nm incident light.
5. There are two tubes in which the photoelectric effect experiment is being carried out. Let them be A and B.
Tube A has a metal of work function 12eV and tube B has a metal of work function 15eV. In tube A light
of wavelength 80nm is incident while in tube B light of wavelength 60nm is incident. Which of the tubes has
faster photoelectrons?
6. If a hydrogen atom is in it’s 5th excited state, calculate:
(a) The maximum wavelength an emitted photon can have.
(b) The minimum wavelength an emitted photon can have.
(c) The photon of highest wavelength that can be absorbed by the system.
(d) The wavelength of a photon of maximum wavelength that can ionise the atom.
7. Which line in the Pfund series of He+ corresponds to a photon of the same wavelength as the photon which
corresponds to the second line in the Balmer series of hydrogen?
8. An electron drifting in space comes across a Li3+ ion. The electron falls into the ground state of the Li3+ and
converts it into Li2+. In this process light is emitted. What is the wavelength of this light? This light is now
focused onto a metal in a photoelectric tube of work function 2.56×10-18J.Are photo electrons emitted? If
they are, what are their velocities?
9. A can has two chambers separated from each other by a glass window (light can pass through it). In one
chamber we have hydrogen atoms and in the other we have He2+ ions (this is strictly a hypothetical
system). A stray electron is introduced into the chamber with the He2+ ions and the photon emitted due to
the interaction of a He2+ ion and the electron travels through the window into the chamber with hydrogen.
(a) If a hydrogen atom gets ionised and the velocity of the photo electron emitted is zero, what is the state
of excitation of the He+ ion which emitted the photon?
(b) If the He+ ion which emitted the photon was found to be in it’s ground state, what is the velocity and
wavelength (de Broglie) of the photo electron emitted by the hydrogen?
LOCUS 63
10. What is the de Broglie’s wavelength of a tennis ball of mass 100gm traveling across a tennis court at
100kmph?
11. In the above problem if the uncertainty in the velocity of the tennis ball (the camera which was used in
measuring the velocity was not too sensitive) is 0.5kmph. What is the uncertainty in it’s location? Compare
the value obtained to the approximate radius of a tennis ball (2.5cm).
12. An electron travels at a constant speed in a circular track of length 200m and it completes one revolution
in 20 seconds. What is it’s de Broglie’s wavelength? Assume that the electron is a wave and calculate how
many complete wavelengths are formed along the entire circular path. (Hint: - See how we derived the
Bohr postulate about the quantisation of angular momentum from the de Broglie’s postulate). What is the
minimum change in the radius of the track required so that the electron is a continuous wave around the
circular track?
13. A S-R-71 Blackbird was a reconnaissance plane used by the United States of America during the cold
war. The Blackbird weighed about 100 tons. A Soviet ground controller claims that a Blackbird has
entered Soviet air space. The Americans claim that their plane is flying a kilometre outside Soviet air
space. What should the uncertainty in the plane’s velocity be for there to be even the slightest chance that
the soviet soldier is correct? Compare this uncertainty to the approximate speed of the Blackbird which
was around three times the speed of sound (usually referred to as Mach3). Take the speed of sound as
300ms-1.
14. A psychopath climbs a water tower and starts shooting people with his sniper rifle. He spots a man hiding
behind a telegraph pole and only about an inch (2.5cm) of his body is visible. What should the minimum
uncertainty in the velocity of the 10gram bullet for it to hit it’s target?
15. Write the electronic configurations of Ca2+, Mg, Si, F, Na and Cl-.
16. If the spin quantum number could have four values implying that each orbital can have four electrons in it,
what are the electronic configurations for the systems given in the previous problem?
17. A compound of vanadium (Z=23) has a magnetic moment of 1.73BM. Calculate the number of unpaired
electrons and hence determine the electronic configuration and the state of ionisation of the vanadium ion
in the compound.
18. (i) Find the orbital angular momentum of a 2p orbital in terms of h/2π units.
(ii) How many radial nodes and how many planar nodes does the 7g sub shell have?
19. An iodine (I2) molecule dissociates into atoms after absorbing 450nm photons. If one quantum of radiation
is absorbed by each molecule, calculate the kinetic energy of the iodine atoms. (Hint:- One quantum
means one photon). Bond energy of I2 (energy required to break the I-I bond) = 240kJ per mole
20. The Schrödinger’s equation for the 3s orbital of hydrogen atom is
18r 2r 2 − 3ra
ψ 3s = α (27 − + 2 )e
a a
Where ‘a’ and α are constants
Recall how many nodes the 3s orbital has. Also recall what types of nodes they are. Now try to mathematically
prove that it has that many nodes. Also calculate the locations where the nodes occur.

Physics Essentials: Locus Locus Locus Locus Locus

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LOCUS 1

Dynamics and Energy

ii. Frequency (v):

iii. Amplitude (A):

2. The Discovery and Characterisation of Sub-atomic Particles.

Rutherford's scattering experiment

Trajectories of alpha-particles through an atom

3. Models of the Atom:

3.2 The Rutherford’s Model of the Atom:

3.2.1 The Deficiencies of the Rutherford Model:

3.3 The Bohr Model of the Atom:

3.3.1 Pre-requisite Concepts and Phenomena for the Bohr Model

3.3.1.2 Max Planck’s Quantum Theory:

From these plots we see that as the temperature is increased

To answer these questions we consider the following facts

3.3.1.3 Einstein’s Explanation of the Photoelectric Effect:

Series n1 n2 Spectral Region

Solution: The total energy of the photons = 1.2 J

1. Compare the following quantities for a photon of 400 nm and 600 nm :

3.3.2 The Bohr Model of the Hydrogen Atom

from (1.1) & (1.2)

3.3.3 The Deficiencies of the Bohr Model

3.4 The Electronic Configuration of Multielectron Systems

3.4.2 The Filling of Atomic Orbitals

3.4.2.1 The Pauli’s Exclusion Principle

3.4.2.2 The Hund’s Rule

3.4.2.3 The Aufbau Principle

3.4.3.2 Rules for Ions

= 8.67 ×10−18 joules.

= 2.64 ×10 −11 metres

The difference in energy should be greater than 5 × 10−18 J = 31.25 eV

to the velocity of light in vacuum is v = 2.18 × 10

Solution: Given, λ1 = 6563 Å

Solution: Here E1 = −1.312 × 106 J mol −1 , ∆E = 9.84 × 105 J mol −1

The electron jumps to the second Bohr orbit

Energy of required absorbed photon E = ∆E (for absorption)

3.5 The Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom :

3.5.1.1 The Duality of Matter Particles and Waves

3.5.1.2 The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle

∴ The de Broglie’s wavelength is:

Solution: The de Broglie’s wavelength of a particle is given by:

Therefore the de Broglie’s wavelength is:

Solution: (a) According to Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle,

Solution: According to Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle,

Solution: Uncertainty in velocity = 100 – 99.99 = 0.01%

3.5.3 Results of the Schrödinger’s equation

(b) For the mass of the right half x1 = 1 2 m and x2 = 1m

3.5.4 The quantum numbers revisited

The spin magnetic moment ( µ ) of the electron is given by

where n is the number of unpaired electrons.

3.5.5 Nodes and Nodal planes

3.5.6 Shapes of Atomic Orbitals

Which shell would be the first to have a g sub shell?

j :  l + 1  or  l − 1  if the latter is not negative

Solution: (a) For the n = 1 shell

(c) For n = 3 shell.

There are twelve unique values and 12 particles can be filled.

This is equal to zero when r = 0 or r = a0 or r = ∞

How many unpaired electrons are there in the Ni 2+ ion?