CHAPTER- 1

THE OVERVIEW OF ATOMIC THEORY AND

PERIODIC TABLE

1.1 Atomic theory

1.2 Principles of quantum mechanics
1.3 Quantum Numbers
1.4 The periodic table and chemical periodicity

1
 1.1 Atomic theory
 A theory of the structure and behavior of atoms has taken more than
two millennia.

 The first person to hypothesize that atoms exist was Democritus.

 Democritus was a Greek philosopher who lived in the fourth century

BC.

 He suggested that everything in the universe was made of tiny,

indivisible units. He called these units atoms.

 The word atom comes from the Greek word atomos, means “unable to
be cut or divided.”

 The atomic theory of matter was first proposed by John Dalton. He

published ‘a new system of chemical philosophy listed below
2
 h
1. All matter is composed of very small particles called atoms.
2. All the atoms of a given element have identical properties including
mass. Atoms of different elements differ in mass.
3. Compounds are formed when atoms of different elements combined
in a fixed ratio.
4. In chemical reactions, atoms combine with each other in simple,
whole-number ratios to form molecules.
5. Atoms are neither created nor destroyed in a chemical reaction. They
retain their identities in a chemical reaction.

3
 1.2. Atomic Model
1.2.1. Thomson atomic model
 J.J Thomson defined atoms are solid spheres made-up of a solid positive
mass (or core) and tiny negative particles embedded in the positive core
(Plums pudding model).

 When Thomson discovered the negative electron, he realized that atoms had
to contain positive material as well – otherwise they wouldn’t be neutral
overall.

 As a result, Thomson formulated what’s known as the “plum pudding”

model for the atom.

 According to the “plum pudding” model, the negative electrons were like
pieces of fruit and the positive material was like the batter or the pudding.
 J.J. Thomson used a cathode ray tube to deduce the presence of a
negatively charged particle: the electron
 A cathode ray tube is a small glass tube with a cathode (a negatively
charged metal plate) and an anode (a positively charged metal plate)
at opposite ends.
 J.J. Thomson who described an atom as being a large positively
charged body that contained small, free-floating, negatively charged
particles called electrons.

Figure 1.1: Thomson Atomic Model. 5

 1.2.2 Rutherford atomic model
 In 1911, Ernest Rutherford (1871-1937) discovered the structure of atom
using experiment started with a piece of radioactive material.

 Radioactive material: matter that sends out energetic particles

•Tested Thomson’s theory of atomic structure with the “gold foil”
experiment in 1910
•He thought particles would pass through and most particles did. So,
atoms are mostly empty.
•But some positive α-particles deflected or bounced back
•He concluded that a “nucleus” existed, is positive and holds most of
an atom’s mass.
 • From the results of this experiment, Rutherford proposed the following model of
an atom

 An atom consists of a small and massive central core in which the entire positive
charge and almost the whole mass of the atom are concentrated. This core is called
the nucleus.

 The nucleus occupies a very small space as compared to the size of the atom and
outside of this nucleus; he proposed that the atom was mostly empty space.

 The atom is surrounded by a suitable number of electros so that their total negative
charge is equal to the total positive charge on the nucleus and the atom as a whole
is electrically neutral.

 The electrons revolve around the nucleus in various orbits just as planets revolve
around the sun (Figure 1.2)

Figure 1.2:Rutherford (planetary) model

 Cont….
 Scientists who helped develop atomic theory are:-

Scientist Contribution
Democritus first proposed that the universe is made up of
tiny, indivisible units called atoms

John Dalton carried out scientific experiments that showed

that atoms exist
J. J. Thomson showed that atoms contain smaller particles
called electrons
Ernest Rutherford showed that the positive charge in an atom is
concentrated in a nucleus at its center

8
 cont…
• Modern atomic theory is a little involved in Dalton atomic theory
but the essence of Daltons atomic theory remains valid

• However in modern atomic theory atoms can be destroyed by

nuclear reaction

• Atoms of the same element may not have the same mass (Isotop)

• Dalton considered atoms to be indivisible. We understand now that

all atoms can be broken down into subatomic particles

9
 Cont…
A typical atom consists three sub atomic particles these are:-

• protons

• Neutrons

• electrons
• Protons are positively charged particles with a relative mass of
1.672622×10-24g, which form part of the core nucleus of an atom.

• The other part of the atomic nucleus is made up of neutrons,

electrically neutral particles with a relative mass almost identical to a
proton (1.674927×10-24g).

10
 Cont…
Electrons are extremely small (9.109328×10-28g) negatively charged
particles that form an electron cloud, which orbits the nucleus.

11
 1.2.3 The Bohr Theory of hydrogen atom
 Bohr retained the essential features of the Rutherford model of the atom.
• He states that electrons are found in definite energy levels around the
nucleus. Used atomic spectra to prove that electrons are placed in definite
orbital’s (called shells) around the nucleus.
• Understanding Bohr’s model requires some knowledge of electromagnetic
radiation (or light).
• electromagnetic radiation, is a special type of energy that travels as a wave.
 A wave is an oscillation or periodic movement that can transport energy
from one point in space to another.
 Waves can travel through a vacuum at a constant speed of 2.998 × 108 m/s,
the speed of light (denoted by c). C = λν
o Characteristics of Waves:
 Waves, are electromagnetic radiation, that are characterized by,
 a wavelength (denoted by λ, Greek letter lambda),
 a frequency (ν, Greek letter nu), and
 an amplitude.
The wavelength is defined as the distance between two successive
crests or troughs of a wave.
o It is expressed in centimetres or metres or in angstrom units.
The height of the peak is called the Amplitude.
Frequency is the number of wave cycles that pass a specified point
in space in a specified amount of time. A cycle corresponds to one
complete wavelength. 13
o The unit for frequency, expressed as cycles per second [s−1], is the
hertz (Hz).

• Wave Number Another quantity used to characterise radiation is the

wave number.

• This is reciprocal of the wavelength and is given the symbol .

That is,

• The wave number is the number of wavelengths per unit of length

covered. Its units are cm–1 or m–1

One of the frequencies used to transmit

and receive cellular telephone signals is
850MHz. What is the wavelength in meters 14
of these radio waves?
The Bohr postulates are:

• Electrons revolve around the nucleus in a fixed circular path

termed “orbits” or “shells” or “energy level” , they do not radiate
energy.

• Such orbits are called “stationary orbit or non radiating orbit .”

• Every circular orbit will have a certain amount of fixed energy and
these circular orbits were termed orbital shells.

• The electrons will not radiate energy as long as they continue to

revolve around the nucleus in the fixed orbital shells. These are
called as quantum numbers.
15
 Cont..
• The range of quantum number may vary and begin from the lowest
energy level (nucleus side n=1) to highest energy level.

• The lowest energy level of the electron is called the ground state.

• The change in energy occurs when the electrons jump from one
energy level to other.

• In an atom, the electrons move from lower to higher energy level by

acquiring the required energy. However, when an electron loses
energy it moves from higher to lower energy level.

16
 Cont…
• Various energy levels are designed as K(n=1), L(n=2), M(n=3) ------- etc. Since the
electron present in these orbits is associated with some energy, these orbits are
called energy levels.

 Bohr’s view of the atom, the electron is able to travel along certain
specific orbits of fixed energy

The different energy levels are The different energy levels or

denoted by integers such as n=1 or orbits are represented in two ways
such as 1, 2, 3, 4… or K, L, M,
n=2 or n=3 and so on. N….. shells.
 Cont..
• An electron can move only in those permissive orbits in which the
angular momentum (mvr) of the electron is an integral multiple of
h/2π . Thus, L = mvr = n(h/𝟐𝝅); n = 1, 2, 3….. N

Where, m = mass of the electron, h the Planck constant; h/𝟐𝝅 may be

written as r = radius of the electronic orbit,
v = velocity of the electron in its orbit.
 The angular momentum can be h/ 𝟐𝝅, 𝟐 (h/ 𝟐𝝅), 3(h/ 𝟐𝝅), … …
n(h/ 𝟐𝝅). This principal is known as quantization of angular
momentum.
 In the above equation ‘n’ is any integer which has been called as
principal quantum number. It can have the values n=1,2,3, -------
18
 The energy is radiated when an electron jumps from higher to lower
orbit and the energy is absorbed when it jumps from lower to higher
orbit.

Energy is absorbed or emitted only when an electron moves from

one stationary state to another and the energy change is given by

where n1 and n2 are the principal quantum numbers referring to the

energy levels En1 and En2 respectively.

and ‘h’ =Planck’s constant (h =6.626 10-34 J s),

v=frequency of the radiant energy.

19
Calculating the electron energy of hydrogen using Bohr
model
Electrostatic Attraction force
(Fe)
 This force is resulting from the
attraction between the positive charge
nucleus and the negative charge
electron
 Let the charge on the nucleus be +Ze.
The electron with charge –e revolves
round the nucleus of radius r with Centrifugal force (F )
c
velocity v.
• Where: Ze = The electron charge = This force is resulting from the circular
(1.602x10-19 C).
motion of the electron, this force pushes
• Fe = Electrostatic Attraction force
• ε = space permittivity = (8.85x10-12 the electron away from the nucleus. It can
F/m). r = radius of the orbit (m). be calculated by Newton's second law of

Fe ze2 motion
=
4 πε0 r2 20
 The force of attraction between the nucleus and the electron is equal
to centrifugal force of the moving electron.

Force of attraction towards nucleus = centrifugal force

 In order to have a stable orbit, the two forces must be equal in
magnitude and opposite in direction

If we apply the Bohr model to the H atom, the radius of each allowed
circular orbit can be determined from equation

Balance electrostatic and centripetal forces

 Here n is the “principal quantum number” and a0 is the “Bohr radius”, which is the
minimum radius of an electron orbital.

 The energy of an orbiting electron

where ε0 = space permittivity = (8.85x10-12 F/m). characterized by the principal
h= Planck constant =6.626 x 10-34 J s quantum number (n) is given as
n =1; 2; 3 ... describing a given orbit  Total energy of electron (ET)
me = electron mass =9.109 x 10-31 kg
ET = -1 mZe4) = -2.179 x 10-18J
e = charge on an electron (elementary charge)
• n2 8h2ε02 n²
=1:602 x10-19 C
22
 The Spectrum of hydrogen atom
• spectrum (plural spectra) 1. A range of electromagnetic radiation
emitted or absorbed by a substance under particular circumstances.

• According to Bohr, the spectrum arises when the electron in the

initial stationary orbit of principal quantum number ni jumps to the
final stationary orbit of principal quantum number nf
• so that the difference of the energy associated with these orbits is
emitted as a photon of frequency v, accordingly.

hv = Ef - Ei
= 1/ λ = RH[ 1 - 1 ]
nf2 ni2
Where = Wave Number (cm-1) , n1 and n2 are integers with n2 > n1
RH = Rydberg constant with value 1.09678 X 10-2 nm-1
 An electron will absorb or radiate energy only if it moves from one allowed state to another
allowed energy state.

• - This energy is emitted or absorbed is a photon, E = hv=hc/λ

 From the above equation Bohr derived the following formula for the energy levels of
electron in the hydrogen atom

 E= (-hcRH)(1/n2 ) = -2.8 x 10-18J(1/n2 ) n = 1, 2, 3……..∞ (for H)

Where, [h = plank’s constant,

c= speed of light and

RH= Rydberg’s constant,

n is an integer = 1- infinity = principal quantum number]

• Using the above equation the wave number of photons of various spectral series is as
follows. the optical spectrum of hydrogen consists of several series of lines called Lyman,
Balmar, Paschen, Brackett and Pfund
• These spectral series were named by the name of scientist who discovered them
The energy levels corresponding to the line spectra of hydrogen atom
are given in below figure

26
• Exercise 1.1

1. What is the wave length of light emitted when electron in

a hydrogen atom undergoes a transition from energy level a.
n=5 to n=3 b. n = 4 to n = 2 c. n = 4 to n = 1

2. What is the difference in energy levels of sodium atom if

emitted light has wavelength of 589nm? .

3. Calculate the short and the long wave length limits of

lyman series in the spectrum of hydrogen atom. Given RH
= 109,677cm-1 .
27
• Quantum mechanics is the science of a very small and the body of
scientific principles that explains the behavior of matter and its
interactions with energy on the scale of atoms and subatomic particles.

• The atomic models based on classical mechanics treated e- as a particle

only.

• However, an electron cannot be confined to the boundaries of fixed

energy level. It expands as a cloud outside these energy levels.

• Therefore the currently accepted theory that best explain the distribution
of electrons in atoms is quantum mechanics.

• The atomic model of wave mechanics based on:

1. De Broglie Postulate
2. Heisenberg uncertainty principle
28
 1. De Broglie Postulate

• In the early time electromagnetic radiation were treated only as waves,

sometimes seemed to behave as particles (photons).

• But De Broglie assumed that matter also can behave as a wave.

• He synthesized his postulate from the fact that light has dual nature,
which is particle and wave.
• Electron being a small and moving particle would also behave as a
particle and wave.
• De Broglie stated that every particle with mass (m) and moving with
velocity (v) has wave associated with it and express as:

29
 Cont…

30
applicable only to micro-particles like electrons.
• Justifies the difficulty of constructing model of an atom with electron having
dual characteristics.

• since an electron is too small to see, it can be observed only indirectly by

hitting it with other particles which changes its position or velocity and
direction. Electron changes momentum photon
at the instant of collision

• Therefore, he stated that it is impossible to determine accurately the position

and momentum of an electron simultaneously.

• The uncertainty in this determination of these two parameters vary inversely.

31
 Cont..
 It is impossible to determine simultaneously both the position and velocity
of an electron or any other particle with any great degree of accuracy or
certainty.

• The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle is expressed mathematically as:

ℎ
∆𝑥∆𝑝 ≥
4𝜋

Where Δx = uncertainty in the position of the electron

Δp = uncertainty in the momentum of the electron

 That is, the more precisely one property is known, the less precisely the
other can be known.
 In other words, the more you know the position of a particle, the less you
know about its velocity, and the more you know about the velocity of a
particle, the less you know about its instantaneous position.
Exercise: 1. a microscopic using suitable photons is employed to locate
an electron in an atom with in a distance of 0.1A0 . What is the
uncertainty involved in the measurement of its velocity? Mass of
electron = 9.1x10-31 kg. Plank‘s constant (h) = 6.626x10-34 J s.
Radial and angular wave functions
 A wave function (Ψ) is a mathematical function that contains
detailed information about the behaviour of an electron.
 The region of space defined by a wave function is called an atomic
orbital. The probability of finding an electron at a given point in
space is determined from the function Ψ2.
 In the solution to the Schrödinger equation for atomic orbitals can be
expressed in terms of spherical coordinates r,θ,Ф 33
 Cont…
. polar coordinates
Z

B
Ψ(x, y, z) = Ψ(r,θ,Ф)
D
θ
C
Ф F X
E
The orientation of electrons A
around the nucleus can be obtained Y
by r is the distance from the center of the
atom
X = rsinθcosФ, θ is the angle between CD and the z- axis
Y = rsinθsin Ф,
Ф is the angle between CA and the
Z = rcosθ
positive x- axis
34
 Cont…
 However the wave function involving polar coordinates ψ(r,θ,ф) can
be solved by separate variables so that any wave function can have a
form:- ψ(r,θ,ф) = ψ(r) ψ(θ,ф)

 where ψ(r) is radial wave function and

 ψ(θ,ф) is angular wave function

 The radial wave function is used to describe the size and energy of
orbitals where as angular wave function is used to describe the shape
of orbitals.
 Each set of quantum numbers also describe the wave function of
orbitals the radial wave function depends only on n and ℓ quantum
numbers while angular wave function depends on ℓ and mℓ
35
 Cont…
 so a particular wave function of orbitals can be written as:-
Ψn, l, ml (r,θ,Ф) = Ψn, l (r) ψ l, ml (θ,Ф)

ELECYTRON DENSITY (ψ2) the probability of finding an electron at a given

point in space is determined from the function ψ2 where is the wave function
 The square of the wave function, ψ2, represents electron density at any given
point. Since the square of any real number is zero or positive, it is clear that
electron density cannot be negative

 There are two types of nodes within an atom: These are

angular and radial wave function
 Radial wave functions for a given atom depend only upon the distance, r from the nucleus.

 In many cases Ψ (r) passes through zero and these regions are called radial nodes or

spherical radial nodes.

36
 Cont…
 Angular wave functions depend only upon direction.

 the angular wave function passes through zero or (ψ(θ,ф)

passes through zero) these regions are described as angular
nodes or nodal planes

 Angular nodes are either x, y, and z planes where electrons

aren’t present while radial nodes are sections of these axes that
are closed off to electrons.

 Generally At a node the probability of finding an electron is zero;

which means that we will never find an electron at a node.

37
 Cont…
 The number of radial nodes depends on the principle
quantum number (n) and the number of angular nodes on
(ℓ)
 The total number of nodes is found using
Total Nodes = n-1
To solve for the number of radial nodes, the following simple
equation can be used:
Radial Nodes = n - 1 - ℓ
Example first shell n=1
number of nodes = n -1 = 0 so there aren't any nodes
38
 Cont…
second shell n=2

number of nodes = 2-1 = 1 total nodes

for 2s orbital ℓ =0 so there are 0 angular node and 1 radial node

for 2p orbital ℓ =1 so there is 1 angular node and 0 radial nodes

third shell (n=3)

number of nodes=3-1 = 2 total node

for 3s orbital ℓ =0 so there are 0 angular nodes and 2 radial nodes

39
 Atomic orbital
• An atomic orbital is a region in which an electron may be found within a
single atom.

• Likewise, a molecular orbital is a region in which an electron may be found

in a molecule.

S- Orbitals

• Spherically symmetrical orbitals; that is, ф is a function of R(r) only. For s

orbitals, l = 0 and, therefore, electrons in such orbitals have an orbital

magnetic quantum number ml equal to zero.

Figure of p-orbital
40
 p Orbitals
 These are orbitals with an angular momentum l equal to 1; for each
value of the principal quantum number n ( n =2),

 there will be three p orbitals corresponding to ml = +1, 0, -1. For n =

2, l = 0 and 1

 The p orbitals have lobes pointing along the cartesian axes: the
labels px, py, and pz refer to the axes along which the orbitals point

41
 d Orbitals
• d - Orbitals Orbitals having an angular momentum l equal to 2 and,
therefore, magnetic quantum numbers, (ml) of +2, +1, 0, -1, -2.

• These five magnetic quantum numbers describe the five degenerate d

orbitals.

• In the Cartesian coordinate system, these orbitals are designated as dz2

, dx2 - y2, dxy, dxz, and dyz.

42
Figure of d-orbital
• A quantum number is a number used to parametrise certain properties of particles or
other systems in quantum mechanics.

• It specify the properties of atomic orbitals and their electrons by:

• Quantum numbers work like addresses for electrons in an atom.

• Every electron in an atom will have a unique set of quantum numbers in the form [n,
l, ml, ms].

These 4 quantum numbers combined together give the complete description of the
electron in an atom

1. Principal Quantum Number (n)

 Used to describe the size of orbitals and indicates main energy levels to which
electron belongs. n= 1,2, 3, …….cannot be zero or negative.

It also used to determine the maximum number of electrons present in the main shell,
2n2 43
 Cont…
2 Angular Momentum (Azimuthal) Quantum Number (ℓ): ℓ = 0, ...,
n-1

• Specifies the shape of an orbital with a particular principal quantum

number.

• divides the shells into smaller groups of orbitals called subshells

(sublevels).

• Usually, a letter code is used to identify l to avoid confusion with n:

0 1 2 3 4 5 . . . Letter s p d f g h . . .

• its value relies only on n (i.e., if n = 2, then ℓ = 0 or 1 since n – 1 =

1).
44
 Cont…
 The subshell with n=2 and ℓ =1 is the 2p subshell; if n=3 and ℓ =0, it is the
3s subshell, and so on.
 The value of ℓ also has a slight effect on the energy of the subshell; the
energy of the subshell increases with ℓ (s < p < d < f).
3 Magnetic Quantum Number (mℓ)
 Specifies the orientation in space of an orbital of a given energy (n)
and shape (ℓ).
 This number divides the subshell into individual orbitals which hold
the electrons; there are 2ℓ +1 orbitals in each subshell.
 Thus the s subshell has only one orbital, the p subshell has three
orbitals, and so on. There fore the maximum value of ml is given by
2ℓ+l
45
 Cont…
 The number of ml values is called the degeneracy or the number
of orbitals in the atom that are at the same energy level.
 The ml values are entirely dependent on the l values; each type of
orbital has a set degeneracy.
 its value depend on the values of l and range from – ℓ to +ℓ.
For an s-orbital, mℓ = 0, and degeneracy = 1.
For a p-orbital, mℓ = -1, 0, +1, and degeneracy = 3.
For a d-orbital, mℓ = -2, -1, 0, +1, +2, and degeneracy = 5.
For an f-orbital,mℓ= -3, -2, -1, 0, +1, +2, +3, and
degeneracy = 7.
46
 Cont…
4. Spin Quantum Number (ms)
 Indicates the spin of the electron (clockwise or counterclockwise).
 Values of ms: +1/2, -1/2
An electron can spin in only one of two directions
(sometimes called up and down).
• The Pauli exclusion principle:- states that no two electrons in the same
atom can have identical values for all four of their quantum numbers.
What this means is that no more than two electrons can occupy the
same orbital, and that two electrons in the same orbital must have
opposite spins.
47
If you can’t read this table, follow this link to display it online:
http://www.ptable.com/Images/periodic%20table.png 48
 What does the periodic table tell us?
 The blocks of the periodic table are arranged in to left to right rows
called a period/series and up and down columns called a family/group.

 Each square on the periodic table is known as an element key and

provides the basic information about each element:

 chemical symbol – a one or two letter abbreviation for the name of an

element.

– Some symbols are based on the Greek or Latin name of the element.

• Example Lead = Pb from Plumbus (where we get plumber from)

• Gold = Au from Arium (to shine like the sun).

49
 Periodic Table
• In the periodic table, elements are arranged in order of increasing
number of protons (called the atomic number).

 Vertical groups in the periodic table (families) have similar physical

and chemical properties due to the same outer electron structures.

 Electron Energy Levels - The rows in the periodic table represent the
main electron energy levels of the atom.

• With in each main energy level are sublevels that represent an orbital
shape and orientation.

50
 Periodic law
 Mendeleev‘s principle of chemical periodicity is known as the
periodic law, which states that when the elements are arranged
according to their atomic numbers, elements with similar properties
appear at regular intervals.

Chemical periodicity
The periodic properties of elements
The number of physical and chemical properties of elements show
periodicity based up on the electronic configuration of elements.

51
• It is the actual charge of the nucleus to attract the valence electron.
Z* = Z-S, where Z*=effective nuclear charge,
Z=atomic number, S=screening constant
 Screening or shielding effect(S) is the effect of reduction of the
attractive force between the nucleus and valence electrons.

 Shielding effect depends on the shape of orbitals.

 As a result of shielding and other more subtle interactions between

the electrons, the simple order of orbitals (in order of energy
increasing with increasing n) holds only at very low atomic number
Z and for the innermost electrons of any atom.
52
• For the outer orbitals, the increasing energy difference
between levels with the same n but different 1 values
forces the overlap of energy levels with n = 3 and n=4,
and 4s fills before 3d.

• The greater the number of maxima near the nucleus,

the more penetrating is the orbital.

• The decreasing order of the shielding order of different

orbital is:
s > p > d >f
53
 Cont..
How can we Calculate shielding constant (S)

54
 Cont…
Example calculate the effective nuclear charge for30Zn
Electron configuration 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10
(1s) 2 (2s 2p)8 (3s 3p)8 (3d)10 (4s)2

First considering 4s the shielding constant is

2(0.35) +18(0.85) +8(1.00) =24 then the effective nuclear charge is
Z* = Z-S z=30 and s=24
Z*=30-24=6
Second considering nd
10(0.35) + 18(1.00) =21.5
Z*=30-21.5=8.5

55
 ATOMIC RADIUS
• An atomic radius can be estimated by determining the distance
between the atoms in the combined state (Covalent Radius).

• The electron cloud size determines the atomic radius for an atom.
The radius values are only estimates. These values are measured by
finding the distance between 2 nuclei and dividing the distance by 2.

Example:- Two Br atoms bonded together are 2.86 angstroms apart.

Cl2=198 pm and half this distance = 99pm is radius of chlorine.

56
 cont…
Metallic Radius (Cu crystal = 256pm, half is its radius =128pm.
 The main difficulty is how to determine the ionic radii for ionic
compounds.
Ionic Radius
 The ionic radii can be estimated by measuring the distances
between cations and anions in ionic crystals.
 When an atom loses an electron it has a positive charge.
 The radius of the atom decreases because there’s a smaller
electron cloud. Atomic radius increases as you move from top to
bottom in a family.

57
 Cont…
 When an atom gains an electron it has a negative charge.
 The radius of the atom increases because the electron cloud is larger.
 Atomic radius generally decreases from left to right as atomic number
increases.
 This is because extra electrons are entering the same level while the
nucleus gets larger & more positive.
 This draws the electron cloud in towards the nucleus.

Example: A size Li+ < Li, because it has fewer electrons while its nuclear
charge remains the
58 same. The size Cl- > Cl because the addition of one or

more electrons would result in increased repulsion among the electrons

and a decrease in effective nuclear charge.
 IONIZATION ENERGY (IE)
 The minimum energy required to remove an electron from a
gaseous atom or ion.
 The closer and more tightly bound an electron is to the nucleus, the
more difficult it will be to remove, and the higher its ionization
energy will be.

The larger the atom is, the easier its electrons are to remove.

• Ionization energy and atomic radius are inversely proportional.

• Ionization energy is always endothermic, that is energy is added to

the atom to remove the electron.

IE= always positive 59

 cont…
 If an atom possesses more than one electron, the amount of energy
needed to remove successive electrons increases steadily.
 We can define a first ionization energy ( )
 a second ionization energy( ) and
 in general an nth ionization energy ( ) according to the following
reactions: I=energy required

60
 Ionization energies increase moving from left to right across a
period (decreasing atomic radius).
 Ionization energy decreases moving down a group (increasing
atomic radius)
Factors Affecting Ionization Energy :
 The size of the atom
 The charge of the nucleus
 The screening(shielding) effect of the inner electron shells and
 The type of electron involved

61
 Electron affinity reflects the ability of an atom to accept an electron.
 It is the energy change that occurs when an electron is added to a
neutral gaseous atom (X) to convert it into a negative ion.

 Atoms with stronger effective nuclear charge have greater electron

affinity.
 The electron affinity tends to decrease as you move down a group
because of the increasing effect of electron shielding.
 Electron affinity tends to increase as you move across a period
because of the increasing nuclear charge.
 Generally It depends on the size and effective nuclear charge.
62
• Electro negativity is the tendency of an atom to attract electrons to itself
when combined in a compound.

• The higher the electronegativity of an atom, the greater its attraction for
bonding electrons. Electronegativity is related to ionization energy.

• Electrons with low ionization energies have low electro negativities because
their nuclei do not exert a strong attractive force on electrons.

• Elements with high ionization energies have high electro negativities due to
the strong pull exerted on electrons by the nucleus.
• Generally, metals are electron givers and have low electro negativities.
• Nonmetals are electron takers and have high electro negativities.
• In a group, the electronegativity decreases as atomic number
increases, as a result of increased distance between the valence
electron and nucleus (greater atomic radius). 63
64