CHAPTER 9: MANUFACTURED SUBSTANCES IN INDUSTRY

9.1 Sulphuric Acid

1. Sulphuric acid, H
2
SO
4
is used to produce:
synthetic fertilizers
o Example: Ammonium sulphate is prepared from the reaction between sulphuric
acid and aqueous ammonia.
o H
2
SO
4

(aq)
+ 2NH
3

(aq)
(NH
4
)
2
SO
4

(aq)

detergents
synthetic fibers (polymers)
electrolyte in car batteries
paints
dyes

2. Sulphuric acid is manufactures in industry in large scale through the Contact Process. The
Contact process consists of four stages. The raw materials used in the Contact process are
sulphur, air and water.

Stage 1
1. Molten sulphur is burnt in dry air to produce sulphur dioxide.
2. The gas produced is then purified and cooled.
S + O
2
SO
2

3. Sulphur dioxide can also be produced by burning metal sulphide such as lead(II)
sulphide or zinc sulphide in dry air.
2PbS + 3O
2
2PbO + 2SO
2


Stage 2
1. In a converter, sulphur dioxide and excess oxygen are passed through vanadium(V)
oxide.
2. Vanadium(V) oxide act as catalyst to expedite the process.
3. The optimum condition for maximum amount of product are as follow:
i. Temperature: 450 500 C
ii. Pressure: 1 atm
4. About 99.5% of the sulphur dioxide, SO
2
is converted into sulphur trioxide, SO
3
through
this reversible reaction.

Stage 3
Sulphur trioxide is dissolved in concentrated sulphuric acid to form oleum H
2
S
2
O
7
.

SO
3
+ H
2
SO
4
H
2
S
2
O
7


Stage 4
The oleum, H
2
S
2
O
7
is then diluted with water to produce concentrated sulphuric acid, H
2
SO
4
in
large quantities.

H
2
S
2
O
7
+ H
2
O 2H
2
SO
4


Note:
1. The two reactions in the third and fourth stages are equivalent to adding sulphur trioxide,
SO
3
directly to water.
SO
3
+ H
2
O H
2
SO
4

2. However, this is not done in industry because sulphur trioxide, SO
3
reacts too violently
with water.
3. This produces a lot of heat and a large cloud of sulphuric acid, H
2
SO
4
mist. Thus,
sulphuric acid will vaaporises.
4. The mist is also corrosive, pollutes the air and is difficult to condense.


3. Pollution by sulphur dioxide
The sources of sulphur dioxide emission include
(a) Burning of fossil fuels such as petroleum
(b) Volcanic eruption
(c) Burning of products manufactured from sulphuric acid such as rayon

4. Sulphur is a poisonous and acidic gas. Effects of sulphur dioxide pollution:
Acid rain:
Sulphur dioxide reacts with oxygen to form sulphur trioxide.
2 SO
2
+ O
2
2SO
3
Both oxides of sulphur dissolve in rainwater to form sulphurous and sulphuric
acid respectively.
SO
2
+ H
2
O H
2
SO
3
(Sulphurous acid)
SO
2
+ H
2
O H
2
SO
4
(Sulphuric acid)
Effects of acid rain
(i) Corrodes concrete buildings and metal structures
(ii) Destroys trees and plants in forest
(iii) Decreases the pH of the soil which becomes acidic and unsuitable for
growth of plants and destroys the roots of plants
(iv) Reacts with minerals in the soil to produce salts which are leached out
of the top soil; essential nutrients for plants growth are depleted
(v) Acid rain flows into lakes and rivers. This increases the acidity of
water and may kill fish and other aquatic living things.

Respiratory problems

Sulphur dioxide causes respiratory difficulties such as coughing, chest pains,
shortness of breath and bronchitis.






9.2 Ammonia and Its Salt
1. The physical properties of ammonia are:
Colourless and alkaline gas
Strong pungent smell
Very soluble in water
2. Reacts with hydrogen chloride to form white fumes of ammonium chloride (this is used
as a test for ammonia gas).
3. The main uses of ammonia are:
Manufacturing nitrogen fertilizers
Manufacturing nitric acid through Ostwald process.
To make explosives, dyes, household cleaners and nylon
As an alkali to prevent the coagulation of latex
To produce ammonium chloride that is used as electrolyte in dry cells
Manufacturing of synthetic fibers such as nylons.
As a cooling agent.

Making of Ammonia
Ammonia is manufactured by combining nitrogen and hydrogen in an important industrial
process called the Haber process. The reaction is reversible and the production of ammonia is
exothermic.



Nitrogen gas is obtained from the fractional distillation of liquid air.
Hydrogen gas is obtained through the reaction between natural gas and steam.
Nitrogen and hydrogen are mixed in the ratio of 1 : 3
The gas mixture is passed through:
Catalyst: Iron
Temperature: 450 - 550C
Pressure: 200 500atm

9.3 Alloys
1. An alloy is a mixture of two or more elements with a certain composition in which the
major component is metal.
2. Pure metal are weak and soft because the arrangement of atoms in pure metals makes
them ductile and malleable.
Arrangment of atoms in a pure metal
3. (a) Ductility
-Pure metals are soft because of the orderly arrangement of atoms enables the layers of
atoms to slide over each other easily when an external force is applied on them. This makes the
metals ductile and metals can be drawn to form long wires.

(b) Malleability
- There are imperfections in the natural arrangement of metal atoms. Empty space exists
in the structures of pure metals. When pressed together, groups of metal atoms may slide into
new positions. This makes the metal malleable, able to be made into different shapes or pressed
into thin sheets.


4. In making alloys, one or more foreign elements are added to molten metal. When the
alloy hardens, the positions of some of the metal atoms are replaced by atoms of foreign
elements, with sizes bigger or smaller than the original metal atoms. These atoms disrupt
the orderly arrangement of the metal atoms and also fill up any empty spaces in the
metal structure. Hence, layers of metal atoms are prevented from sliding over each
other easily. This makes the alloy harder and stronger than its pure metal.


5. Three aims of alloying a pure metal :
To increase the hardness and strength of a metal
To prevent corrosion or rusting
To improve the appearance of the metal surfaces, with a better finish and luster.

6. Comparison between alloy and pure metal

Properties Pure metal Alloy
Hardness Soft Hard
Corrosion Less resistant to corrosion More resistant to corrosion
Appearance Dull Shiny





The Composition, Properties and Uses of Some Common Alloys
Alloy Composition Properties Uses
Steel 99% Iron
1% Carbom
Hard and Strong Construction of building and
bridges
Stainless steel 74% Iron
8% Carbom
18% Chromium
Shiny
Strong
Non-rusty
Making cutlery
Making surgery instruments
Bronze 90% Copper
10% Tin
Hard and strong
Has Shiny surface
Making of medals, swords.
Building statues or
monuments
Brass 70% Copper
30% Zinc
Harder than copper Making of kitchenware.
Making of electrical
connectors and musical
instruments.
Duralumin 93% Aluminium
3% Copper
3% Magnesium
1% Manganese
Light
Strong
Hard
Building of body of
aeroplanes and bullet trains.
Magnalium 70% Aluminium
30% Magnesium
Light
Hard
Strong
Building aeriplanes and
bullet trains.
Making rims of racing car
tyres.
Pewter 96% Tin
3% Copper
1% Antimony
Lustre
Shiny
Strong
Making of souvenirs and
decorative ornaments.
Cupro-nickel Copper, nickel
(% according to
colour)
Hard
Shiny
Resists corrosion
To make coins of 10 cents,
20 cents and 50 cents.








9.4 Synthetic Polymers
1. Polymers are large molecules consisting of monomers which are joined together by covalent
bond.
2. Monomers are joined together by a process called polymerization.
3. There are two types of polymerization reaction.
a. Addition polymerization
i. a process of joining many monomers to form a large molecules without
any loss of small molecules
b. Condensation
i. a process of joining many monomers to form a large molecule with the
loss of small molecules such as water.
4. There are two types of polymers:
(a) Natural polymers
- polymers that occur naturally in plants and animals
Examples: Starch, cellulose, wool, protein, and natural rubber
Protein is a natural polymer consisting of many amino acids.
Starch is a natural polymer consisting of many glucose molecules.
Natural rubbers are elastomers with elastic properties able to regain original shape
when unstretched. The monomer for natural rubber is isoprene.

(b) Synthetic polymers
-manufacture polymers, made using chemicals derived mostly from fractions of petroleum or
crude oil.
-mainly classified into plastics, synthetic rubbers and synthetic fibres.
-Some of the various types of synthetic polymers and their uses are shown in table below.



Synthetic Polymer Monomer Uses
Polythene

Ethene Shopping bags, plastic bags, and
insulation for electrical wiring
Polypropene

Propene Plastic containers, bottles and
automobile battery casings.
Polyvinyl chloride,
PVC
Chloroethene / vinyl chloride Artificial leather, Waterproof and
insulating materials such as
raincoats, water pipes, insulator for
electrical wires and cables.
Polystyrene Styrene Food containers, wrappers and
packaging materials
Perspex Methylmethacrylate Safety glass
Terylene Ethan-1,2-diol
Benzene-1,4-dicarboxylic acid
Clothing, ropes
Teflon Tetrafluoroethene Coating for surface of non-stick pans
Nylon Hexane-1,6-diamine
Hexane-1,6-dioic acid
Clothing, ropes
Effects of improper disposal of Synthetic Polymers
1. Most synthetic polymers are stable and resistant to oxidation, chemicals and
microorganisms. They cannot be broken down easily by microorganisms and therefore, they
are classified as non-biodegradable.
2. They may cause pollution, blockage of drainage systems, suffocation of aquatic animals and
flash floods.
3. Burning synthetic polymers release toxic gases such as hydrogen cyanide, hydrogen
chloride, and carbon monoxide.
Ways to control the disposal problems of Synthetic Polymers
1. The use of synthetic polymers depleted natural resources such as petroleum (Main source of
raw materials for the production of synthetic polymers) which is a non-renewable resource.
The wastes pollute the environment.
2. Use synthetic polymers in a wiser manner
(a) Use of biodegradable synthetic polymers
(b) Recycling of synthetic polymers
(c) Replace synthetic polymers with other materials (eg. Recycled paper)
(d) Pyrolysis Process of heating the plastic in the absence of air to break it down

9.5 Glass and Ceramics
1. Glass is often regarded as supercooled liquid. The particles in glass are not arrange
orderly like in a liquid but their movement is restricted to vibrations about a fixed
position. The major component of glass is silica, SiO
2


2. The types of glass, properties and their uses.
Type of glass Composition Properties Uses
Fused glass
(quartz glass)
Silicon dioxide, SiO
2
High melting point
Ultraviolet light able to pass
through
Resistant to chemical attack
Laboratory apparatus,
optical lenses
Soda lime glass Silicon dioxide
Calcium oxide
Sodium oxide
Low melting point
Mouldable into shapes
Good chemical durability
Glass containers,
Plates and bowls,
Windows, bulbs, and
lamps, bottles
Borosilicate
glass (Pyrex)
Silicon dioxide,
Boron dioxide
Resistant to heat due to low
expansion coefficient
High melting point
Laboratory apparatus,
cooking utensils
Lead glass
(Crystal glass)
Silicon dioxide,
Lead(II) oxide
High refractive index
High density
Soft and easy to melt
Prisms, lenses, crystal
glassware, ornaments

3. Ceramics are made from clay. The main elements contained in ceramics are silicon,
oxygen and aluminium.
4. The common clay used is the china white clay or kaolinite.
5. Kaolinite contains hydrated alumino-silicate Al
2
O
3
.2SiO
2
.2H
2
O.
6. The process of forming ceramic objects involves the adding of water to make the clay
mouldable. The clay is moulded and then heated in a furnace at about 1300C. Once it is
dried, the ceramic object hardens.
7. Ceramic has the following properties :
Strong and hard but brittle
Inert towards chemical
Can withstand compression
Resistant to corrosion
Good electrical insulator
8. The uses of ceramics:
Construction materials (eg. Bricks, tiles, cement and pipes)
Ornamental articles (eg. Bowls, cups, plates, vase and porcelain)
Electrical insulator (eg. Spark plugs, fuses, insulators in electric iron and ovens)
Refractory materials for lining of furnace, nuclear reactors and space shuttles tp
withstand high temperature
9.6 Composite Materials
1. Modern technologies require materials with unusual combinations of properties.
2. The new structural materials must have stronger properties, more durable, lighter, and
resistance to heat and corrosion.
3. Composite materials are formed by combining two or more different substances for specific
application.
4. Table below shows the comparison between various composite materials.
Composite Content Properies Uses
Superconductor Ceramic,
sodium oxide,
barium oxide,
copper (II) oxide
Zero electrical
resistance
Elevated trains,
Electromagnets
(magnets which are
light but thousands of
times stronger than
the normal magnet),
MRI
Photochromic glass Glass, Silver chloride Transparent and
darkens in the
presence of light
Sunglasses, windows
Reinforced concrete Cement, steel Stronger, harder, and
able to withstand
stronger weight or
force
Concrete pillars for
buildings, bridges and
highways
Fibre glass Glass, polyester resin Light, resistant to
corrosion, stronger,
inflammable
Water tanks, boats,
electrical appliances,
racquets
Fibre optic Glass, Copper,
Aluminium
Transmit data, sounds
and images in a digital
format
Telecommunication
cables, endoscopes
Ceramic glass Glass that contains
certain amounts of
metal to UV rays and
heating at high T
Strong, translucent,
heat resistant
Cooking utensils,
Rocket heads
Plastic strengthened
with glass fibres
Plastic, glass Very strong
Light
Easily formed
Withstands corrosion
Helmets, body of cars
and aeroplanes