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    Failure of Metals

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    Asmawi Mohd Khailani
    The document summarizes key aspects of failure of metals including: 1) Fracture can occur by either ductile or brittle modes, with ductile fracture preferred as it provides warning and absorbs more energy. Ductile fracture involves microvoid formation and coalescence leading to a cup-and-cone profile. 2) Fatigue is failure from fluctuating stresses and can occur at stresses below typical strength limits. It involves crack initiation and propagation in stages over numerous cycles. The S-N curve relates stress amplitude to cycles to failure. 3) Other failure modes discussed include creep, which is time-dependent plastic deformation at high temperatures and stresses.

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    Failure of Metals

    Uploaded by

    Asmawi Mohd Khailani
    196 views15 pages
    The document summarizes key aspects of failure of metals including: 1) Fracture can occur by either ductile or brittle modes, with ductile fracture preferred as it provides warning and absorbs more energy. Ductile fracture involves microvoid formation and coalescence leading to a cup-and-cone profile. 2) Fatigue is failure from fluctuating stresses and can occur at stresses below typical strength limits. It involves crack initiation and propagation in stages over numerous cycles. The S-N curve relates stress amplitude to cycles to failure. 3) Other failure modes discussed include creep, which is time-dependent plastic deformation at high temperatures and stresses.

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    Failure of metal

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    The document summarizes key aspects of failure of metals including: 1) Fracture can occur by either ductile or brittle modes, with ductile fracture preferred as it provides warning and absorbs more energy. Ductile fracture involves microvoid formation and coalescence leading to a cup-and-cone profile. 2) Fatigue is failure from fluctuating stresses and can occur at stresses below typical strength limits. It involves crack initiation and propagation in stages over numerous cycles. The S-N curve relates stress amplitude to cycles to failure. 3) Other failure modes discussed include creep, which is time-dependent plastic deformation at high temperatures and stresses.

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    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as DOC, PDF, TXT or read online from Scribd
    Download as doc, pdf, or txt
    196 views15 pages

    Failure of Metals

    Uploaded by

    Asmawi Mohd Khailani
    The document summarizes key aspects of failure of metals including: 1) Fracture can occur by either ductile or brittle modes, with ductile fracture preferred as it provides warning and absorbs more energy. Ductile fracture involves microvoid formation and coalescence leading to a cup-and-cone profile. 2) Fatigue is failure from fluctuating stresses and can occur at stresses below typical strength limits. It involves crack initiation and propagation in stages over numerous cycles. The S-N curve relates stress amplitude to cycles to failure. 3) Other failure modes discussed include creep, which is time-dependent plastic deformation at high temperatures and stresses.

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    of 15

    Chapter 6 : Failure of Metals

    1) Cite the three usual causes of failure.


    2) (a) Cite the two modes of fracture and the diferences
    between them.
    (b) Note which tpe of fracture is preferred! and "i#e two
    reasons wh.
    $) %escribe the mechanism of crac& propa"ation for both
    ductile and brittle modes of fracture.
    ') %escribe the two diferent tpes of fracture surfaces for
    ductile metals! and! for each! cite the "eneral mechanical
    characteristics of the material.
    () )rie* describe the mechanism of crac& formation and
    "rowth in moderatel ductile materials.
    6) )rie* describe the macroscopic fracture pro+le for a
    material that has failed in a brittle manner.
    ,) Name and brie* describe the two crac& propa"ation
    paths for polcrstalline brittle materials.
    -) %e+ne fatigue and specif the conditions under which it
    occurs.
    .) Name and describe the three diferent stress/#ersus/time
    ccle modes that lead to fati"ue failure.
    10) 1i#en a sinusoidal stress/#ersus/time cur#e! be able to
    determine the stress amplitude and mean stress.
    11) %escribe the two diferentl tpes of fati"ue surface
    features! and cite the conditions under which the occur.
    12) Cite +#e measures that ma be ta&en to impro#e the
    fati"ue resistance of a metal.
    1$) %e+ne creep and specif the conditions under which it
    occurs.
    1') Ma&e a schematic s&etch of a tpical creep cur#e! and
    then note on this cur#e the three diferent creep sta"es.
    1() 1i#en a creep plot for some material! determine (a) the
    stead/state creep rate! and (b) the rupture lifetime.
    Fracture
    Fracture is a form of failure where the material separates in pieces
    due to stress, at temperatures below the melting point
    The usual causes of fracture are improper materials selection, wrong
    processing technique, inadequate design of the component and
    misuse.
    The fracture is termed ductile or brittle depending on the ability of a
    material to experience plastic deformation
    Any fracture process involves two steps
    1) crac formation
    !) crac propagation
    Ductile Fracture
    "uctile fracture is always preferred because #
    1) the presence of plastic deformation gives warning that fracture is
    imminent $due to happen soon), allowing preventive measures to
    be taen. Alas, brittle fracture occurs suddenly and
    catastrophically without any warning as a consequence of the
    spontaneous and rapid crack propagation
    !) more strain energy is required to induce ductile fracture because
    ductile materials are generally tougher
    %acroscopic fracture profile of #
    $a) &ighly ductile fracture in which the specimen necs down to a point
    $b) %oderately ductile fracture after some necing
    $c) 'rittle fracture without any plastic deformation
    The most common type of tensile fracture profile for ductile metals is
    shown in Figure $b) in which fracture is preceded by only a moderate
    amount of necing.

    The ductile fracture process occurs in several stages.
    First, after necing begins $Figure a), small cavities, or microvoids,
    form in the interior of the cross section $Figure b)
    (ext, as deformation continues, these microvoids enlarge, come
    together, and coalesce to form an elliptical crac, which has its
    long axis perpendicular to the stress direction $Figure c).
    The crac continues to grow in a direction parallel to its ma)or axis
    by this microvoid coalescence process $Figure d).
    Finally, fracture ensues by the rapid propagation of a crac around
    the outer perimeter of the nec by shear deformation at an angle of
    about *+, with the tensile axis - this is the angle at which the shear
    stress is a maximum $Figure e).
    "uctile fracture is also termed cup-and-cone because one of the
    mating surfaces is in the form of a cup, the other lie a cone.
    The fractured specimen of ductile material shows that the central
    interior region of the surface has an irregular and fibrous
    appearance.
    Fractographic examination of the fibrous central region by
    scanning electron microscope shows that it consists of many
    spherical .dimples/. At *+, shear lip of the cup-and-cone fracture,
    elongated or 0-shaped dimples are formed.
    0up-and-cone fracture in aluminum
    scanning electron fractograph showing
    $a) spherical dimples
    $b) elongated or 0-shaped dimples
    Brittle Fracture
    1n brittle fracture, there is no appreciable deformation occured and
    crac propagation is very fast.
    'rittle fracture in mild steel
    1n most brittle materials, crac propagation $by bond breaing) is
    along specific crystallographic planes $cleavage planes). This type of
    fracture is transgranular $through grains) producing grainy texture $or
    faceted texture) when cleavage direction changes from grain to grain.
    1n some materials, fracture is intergranular
    a) 2chematic cross-section profile showing crac propagation through the interior
    grains for transgranular fracture
    b) 2canning electron fractograph of ductile cast iron showing a transgranular fracture
    surface

    a) 2chematic cross-section profile showing crac propagation along grain
    boundaries for intergranular fracture
    b) 2canning electron fractograph showing an intergranular fracture surface
    Ductile Brittle
    Plastic
    deformation
    extensive little
    crack propagation slow, stable, needs stress Fast, unstable
    type of materials most metals $not too cold) ceramics, ice, cold metals
    warning permanent elongation none
    strain energy higher lower
    fractured surface rough smoother
    necking yes no
    Variation of properties with temperatures
    The yield strength and tensile strength vary with prior thermal and
    mechanical treatment, impurity levels, etc. This variability is related to
    the bahaviour of dislocations in the material. 'ut elastic modulus is
    relatively insensitive to these effects
    The yield strength, tensile strength and modulus of elasticity
    decrease with increasing temperature, ductility increases with
    temperature.
    Fatigue and Creep
    Fatigue
    Fatigue is a form of failure that occurs in structures sub)ected to
    dynamic and fluctuating stresses.
    3nder these circumstances it is possible for failure to occur at a
    stress level lower than the tensile or yield strength for a static load
    and after a lengthy period of repeated stress or strain cycling.
    Fatigue failure can happen in bridges, airplanes, machine
    components, etc.
    1t is the most usual $456) of metallic failures $happens also in
    ceramics and polymers)
    The failure is brittle-lie even in ductile metals, with little plastic
    deformation
    1t occurs in stages involving the initiation and propagation of cracs
    Cyclic Stresses
    These are characteri7ed by maximum, minimum and mean stress,
    the stress amplitude, and the stress ratio. The three types of stress
    cycle are#
    $a) reversed stress cycle $the stress alternates from a maximum
    tensile steress $8) to a maximum compressive stress $-))
    $b) repeated stress cycle $maximum stresses are asymmetrical
    relative to 7ero-stress level)
    $c) random stress cycle.
    %ean stress,
    2
    min max

    +
    =
    m
    9ange stress,
    min max
    =
    r
    2tress amplitude,
    2 2
    min max


    = =
    r
    a
    2tress ratio,
    max
    min

    = R
    The S-N Cure
    The curve is obtained by using fatigue testing apparatus
    The specimen is sub)ected to stress cycle at large maximum stress
    amplitude then the number of cycles to failure is counted.
    The procedure is repeated at decreasing maximum stress amplitude.
    "ata are plotted as stress 2 $normally taen as stress amplitude)
    versus the logarithm of the number ( of cycles to failure
    The higher the magnitude of the stress, the smaller the number of
    cycles the material is capable of sustaining before failure
    Fatigue limit !endurance limit" : a limiting stress level below which
    fatigue failure will not occur. 1n this case, the SN curve becomes
    hori7ontal at large N
    Fatigue strength : the stress level at which failure will occur for
    some specified number of cycles
    Fatigue life N
    f
    : the number of cycles to cause failure at a specified
    stress level
    The scatter in results $fatigue data) is a consequence of the fatigue
    sensitivity to a number of test and material parameters that are
    impossible to control precisely. The parameters include
    specimen fabrication and surface preparation
    metallurgical variables
    specimen alignment in the apparatus
    mean stress
    test frequency
    Crack #nitiation and Propagation
    Fatigue failure is characteri7ed by three steps#
    1. crac initiation $a small crac forms at some point of high stress
    concentration)
    11. crac propagation $this crac advances incrementally with each
    stress cycle)
    111. final failure $occurs very rapidly once the advancing crac has
    reached a critical si7e)
    0rac nucleation sites include surface scratches, sharp fillets,
    eyways, threads, dents etc.
    The region of a fracture surface that formed during the crac
    propagation step may be characteri7ed by two maring, beachmars
    and striations.
    'oth features indicate the position of the crac tip at some point in
    time and appear as concentric ridges that expand away from the
    crac initiation site in a circular or semicircular pattern.
    'eachmars are found for components that experienced interruptions
    during the crac propagation stage
    2triations
    ;ith regard to si7e, beachmars are normally macroscopic
    dimensions and may be observed with the naed eye< fatigue
    striations are of microscopic si7e and it is necessary to observe them
    using electron microscopy.
    ;ith regard to origin, beachmars result from interruptions in the
    stress cycles< each fatigue striation is corresponds to the advance of
    a fatigue crac during a single load cycle.
    Factors That $ffect Fatigue %ife
    %ean stress $lower fatigue life with increasing mean stress 2
    m
    ).
    2urface effects
    Design factors $any notches or geometrical discontinuity act as a
    stress raiser and fatigue crac initiation sites - scratches, sharp
    transitions and edges)
    Surface treatments $surface marings can limit the fatigue life)
    Four measures that may be taen to increase the fatigue resistance
    of a metal alloy are#
    1) =olish the surface to remove stress amplification sites
    !) 9educe the number of internal defects $pores etc.) by means of
    altering processing and fabrication techniques
    >) %odify the design to eliminate notches and sudden contour
    changes
    *) &arden the outer surface of the structure by case hardening
    $carburi7ing, nitriding) or shot peening
    Creep
    0reep is the time-varying plastic deformation of a material stressed
    at high temperatures $greater than about 5.*T
    m
    ). ?xamples# turbine
    blades, steam generators. @eys are the time dependence of the
    strain and the high temperature
    &enerali'ed Creep Behaior
    A typical creep curves $strain vs. time) exhibit three distinct
    regions.
    rimary or transient creep# the slope of the curve diminishes with
    time
    Secondary creep $steady!state creep) # the rate is constant and the
    plot becomes linear
    Tertiary creep# there is an acceleration of the rate and ultimate
    fracture $rupture)
    Stress and Temperature (ffects
    'oth temperature and the level of the applied stress influence the creep
    characteristics.
    0reep becomes more pronounced at higher temperatures. There is
    essentially no creep at temperatures below *56 of the melting point.
    0reep increases at higher applied stresses.
    ;ith increasing stress or temperature, the following will be noted#
    1) the instantaneous strain at the time of stress application increases
    !) the steady-state creep rate is increased
    >) the rupture lifetime is diminished
    "ependence of creep strain rate on stress
    A
    s
    =K
    1
    B
    n
    $lloys for )igh-Temperature *se
    These are needed for turbines in )et engines, hypersonic airplanes,
    nuclear reactors, etc. The important factors are a high melting
    temperature, a high elastic modulus and large grain si7e
    2ome creep resistant materials are stainless steels, refractory metal
    alloys $containing elements of high melting point, lie (b, %o, ;, Ta),
    and superalloys $based on 0o, (i, Fe.)

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