Emergency Light
Emergency Light
Emergency Light
on
emergency light
Submitted to:
Submitted by:
Description and Working:
Automatic lamp control is our minor project. We can use this system as our stydy lamp
table.we are using a relay derive circuit at the ouput side. We can also take an example of
L!. "n this project we are tried make L! lamp using leds and !# power supply. We
made $v !# regulated supply for this purpose. An L! lamp %L! light bulb& is a solid'
state lamp that uses light'emitting diodes %L!s& as the source of light. (he L!s
involved may be conventional semiconductor light'emitting diodes) to organic L!s
%*L!&) or polymer light'emitting diodes %+L!& devices) although +L! technologies
are not currently commercially available.
Since the light output of individual light'emitting diodes is small compared to
incandescent and compact fluorescent lamps) multiple diodes are often used together. "n
recent years) as diode technology has improved) high power light'emitting diodes with
higher lumen output are making it possible to replace other lamps with L! lamps. *ne
high power L! chip used in some commercial L! lights can emit ,)$-, lumens while
using only .// watts. L! lamps can be made interchangeable with other types of lamps.
!iodes use direct current %!#& electrical power) so L! lamps must also include internal
circuits to operate from standard A# voltage. L!s are damaged by being run at higher
temperatures) so L! lamps typically include heat management elements such as heat
sinks and cooling fins. L! lamps offer long service life and high energy efficiency) but
initial costs are higher than those of fluorescent lamps.
(his circuit is a small 0/$ volts power supply) which is useful when experimenting with
digital electronics. Small inexpensive wall transformers with variable output voltage are
available from any electronics shop. (hose transformers are easily available) but usually
their voltage regulation is very poor) which makes them not very usable for digital circuit
experimenter unless a better regulation can be achieved in some way. (he following
circuit is the answer to the problem.
(his circuit can give 0/$1 output at about .A current. (he circuit has overload and
terminal protection.
Summary of circuit features
2rief description of operation: 3ives out well regulated 0$1 output) output
current capability of ,// mA.
#ircuit protection: 2uilt'in overheating protection shuts down output when
regulator "# gets too hot.
#ircuit complexity: Simple and easy to build.
#ircuit performance: Stable 041 output voltage) reliable operation.
Availability of components: asy to get) uses only common basic components.
!esign testing: 2ased on datasheet example circuit) " have used this circuit
successfully as part of other electronics projects.
Applications: +art of electronics devices) small laboratory power supply.
+ower supply voltage: 5nregulated !# $'.61 power supply.
+ower supply current: 7eeded output current .A.
#omponents cost: 8ew rupees for the electronic components plus the cost of input
transformer.
Circuit diagram of power supply
T i t l e
S i z e D o c u m e n t N u m b e r R e v
D a t e : S h e e t o f
< D o c > < R e v C o d e >
< T i t l e >
C u s t o m
1 1 S a t u r d a y , e b r u a r y ! " , ! # 1 !
T 1
T R $ N S % R & ' R
1 "
(
) *
C 1
1 # # # u f
+ 1 , & - * # "
. / N
1
0
N
D
1
. % + T
!
C !
) - # u f
D 1 / N ) # # -
D !
/ N ) # # -
R 1
) - # '
D 1
, ' D
220V
A.C
1 2
1 2
0
R 1 (
R ' S / S T % R
2 1 -
R !
) - # '
D )
, ' D
R 1
) - # '
D "
, ' D
R )
) - # '
D (
, ' D
Component list
.. "79//, !iodes
-. ,6/$ regulator "#.
:. ./// uf electrolytic capacitor) at least -$1 voltage rating.
9. 9,/ uf electrolytic capacitor) at least -$1 voltage rating.
$. 9,/ *hms ;esistance
<. L!
We are using center taped full wave rectifier and +i' filter for filtering.
Component Description
1) Voltage egulator !"#$%&:
(he above circuit utili=es the voltage regulator "# ,6/$ for the constant power supply.
(he capacitors must have enough high voltage rating to safely handle the input voltage
feed to circuit. (he circuit is very easy to build for example into a piece of 1ero board.
. - :
+in diagram of ,6/$regulator "#
+"7 . : 5nregulated voltage input
+"7 - : 3round
+"7 : : ;egulated voltage output
') ()out ectifiers
A rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating current %A#& to direct current
%!#&) a process known as rectification. ;ectifiers have many uses including as
components of power supplies and as detectors of radio signals. ;ectifiers may be made
of solid state diodes) vacuum tube diodes) mercury arc valves) and other components.
A device which performs the opposite function %converting !# to A#& is known as an
inverter.
When only one diode is used to rectify A# %by blocking the negative or positive portion
of the waveform&) the difference between the term diode and the term rectifier is merely
one of usage) i.e.) the term rectifier describes a diode that is being used to convert A# to
!#. Almost all rectifiers comprise a number of diodes in a specific arrangement for more
efficiently converting A# to !# than is possible with only one diode. 2efore the
development of silicon semiconductor rectifiers) vacuum tube diodes and copper%"& oxide
or selenium rectifier stacks were used.
arly radio receivers) called crystal radios) used a >cat?s whisker> of fine wire pressing on
a crystal of galena %lead sulfide& to serve as a point'contact rectifier or >crystal detector>.
;ectification may occasionally serve in roles other than to generate !.#. current per se.
8or example) in gas heating systems flame rectification is used to detect presence of
flame. (wo metal electrodes in the outer layer of the flame provide a current path) and
rectification of an applied alternating voltage will happen in the plasma) but only while
the flame is present to generate it.
*alf+wa,e rectification
"n half wave rectification) either the positive or negative half of the A# wave is passed)
while the other half is blocked. 2ecause only one half of the input waveform reaches the
output) it is very inefficient if used for power transfer. @alf'wave rectification can be
achieved with a single diode in a one'phase supply) or with three diodes in a three'phase
supply. (he output !# voltage of a half wave rectifier can be calculated with the
following two ideal eAuations.
-ull+wa,e rectification
A full'wave rectifier converts the whole of the input waveform to one of constant polarity
%positive or negative& at its output. 8ull'wave rectification converts both polarities of the
input waveform to !# %direct current&) and is more efficient. @owever) in a circuit with a
non'center tapped transformer) four diodes are reAuired instead of the one needed for
half'wave rectification. %See semiconductors) diode&. 8our diodes arranged this way are
called a diode bridge or bridge rectifier:
.raet/ )ridge rectifier: a full+wa,e rectifier using 0 diodes1
8or single'phase A#) if the transformer is center'tapped) then two diodes back'to'back
%i.e. anodes'to'anode or cathode'to'cathode& can form a full'wave rectifier. (wice as
many windings are reAuired on the transformer secondary to obtain the same output
voltage compared to the bridge rectifier above.
-ull+wa,e rectifier using a transformer and ' diodes1
-ull+wa,e rectifier2 with ,acuum tu)e ha,ing two anodes.
A very common vacuum tube rectifier configuration contained one cathode and twin
anodes inside a single envelopeB in this way) the two diodes reAuired only one vacuum
tube. (he $59 and $C: were popular examples of this configuration.
( three+phase )ridge rectifier.
:'phase A# input) half D full wave rectified !# output waveforms
8or three'phase A#) six diodes are used. (ypically there are three pairs of diodes) each
pair) though) is not the same kind of double diode that would be used for a full wave
single'phase rectifier. "nstead the pairs are in series %anode to cathode&. (ypically)
commercially available double diodes have four terminals so the user can configure them
as single'phase split supply use) for half a bridge) or for three'phase use.
!isassembled automobile alternator) showing the six diodes that comprise a full'wave
three'phase bridge rectifier.
Eost devices that generate alternating current %such devices are called alternators&
generate three'phase A#. 8or example) an automobile alternator has six diodes inside it to
function as a full'wave rectifier for battery charging applications.
3) ()out filters
lectronic filters are electronic circuits which perform signal processing functions)
specifically intended to remove unwanted signal components andFor enhance wanted
ones. lectronic filters can be:
passive or active
analog or digital
discrete'time %sampled& or continuous'time
linear or non'linear
infinite impulse response %""; type& or finite impulse response %8"; type&
(he most common types of electronic filters are linear filters) regardless of other aspects
of their design. See the article on linear filters for details on their design and analysis.
*istory
(he oldest forms of electronic filters are passive analog linear filters) constructed using
only resistors and capacitors or resistors and inductors. (hese are known as ;# and ;L
single pole filters respectively. Eore complex multipole L# filters have also existed for
many years and the operation of such filters is well understood with many books having
been written about them.
@ybrid filters have also been made) typically involving combinations of analog amplifiers
with mechanical resonators or delay lines. *ther devices such as ##! delay lines have
also been used as discrete'time filters. With the availability of digital signal processing)
active digital filters have become common.
Classification )y technology
Passi,e filters
+assive implementations of linear filters are based on combinations of resistors %;&)
inductors %L& and capacitors %#&. (hese types are collectively known as passive filters)
because they do not depend upon an external power supply.
"nductors block high'freAuency signals and conduct low'freAuency signals) while
capacitors do the reverse. A filter in which the signal passes through an inductor) or in
which a capacitor provides a path to earth) presents less attenuation to low'freAuency
signals than high'freAuency signals and is a low'pass filter. "f the signal passes through a
capacitor) or has a path to ground through an inductor) then the filter presents less
attenuation to high'freAuency signals than low'freAuency signals and is a high'pass filter.
;esistors on their own have no freAuency'selective properties) but are added to inductors
and capacitors to determine the time'constants of the circuit) and therefore the
freAuencies to which it responds.
At very high freAuencies %above about .// Eegahert=&) sometimes the inductors consist
of single loops or strips of sheet metal) and the capacitors consist of adjacent strips of
metal. (hese inductive or capacitive pieces of metal are called stubs.
(he inductors and capacitors are the reactive elements of the filter. (he number of
elements determines the order of the filter. "n this context) an L# tuned circuit being used
in a band'pass or band'stop filter is considered a single element even though it consists of
two components.
Single element types
(he simplest passive filters consist of a single reactive element. (hese are constructed of
;#) ;L) L# or ;L# elements.
(he Auality or >G> factor is a measure that is sometimes used to describe simple band'
pass or band'stop filters. A filter is said to have a high G if it selects or rejects a range of
freAuencies that is narrow in comparison to the centre freAuency. G may be defined as the
ratio of centre freAuency divided by :d2 bandwidth. "t is not commonly employed with
higher order filters where other parameters are of more concern.
0) Diode
A diode is an electrical device allowing current to move through it in one direction with
far greater ease than in the other. (he most common kind of diode in modern circuit
design is the semiconductor diode) although other diode technologies exist.
Semiconductor diodes are symboli=ed in schematic diagrams such as 8igure below. (he
term HdiodeI is customarily reserved for small signal devices) " J . A. (he term rectifier
is used for power devices) " K . A.
Semiconductor diode schematic symbol: Arrows indicate the direction of electron current
flow.
When placed in a simple battery'lamp circuit) the diode will either allow or prevent
current through the lamp) depending on the polarity of the applied voltage. %8igure
below&
!iode operation: %a& #urrent flow is permittedB the diode is forward biased. %b& #urrent
flow is prohibitedB the diode is reversed biased.
When the polarity of the battery is such that electrons are allowed to flow through the
diode) the diode is said to be forward'biased. #onversely) when the battery is HbackwardI
and the diode blocks current) the diode is said to be reverse'biased. A diode may be
thought of as like a switch: HclosedI when forward'biased and HopenI when reverse'
biased. *ddly enough) the direction of the diode symbol?s HarrowheadI points against the
direction of electron flow. (his is because the diode symbol was invented by engineers)
who predominantly use conventional flow notation in their schematics) showing current
as a flow of charge from the positive %0& side of the voltage source to the negative %'&.
(his convention holds true for all semiconductor symbols possessing Harrowheads:I the
arrow points in the permitted direction of conventional flow) and against the permitted
direction of electron flow.
!iode behavior is analogous to the behavior of a hydraulic device called a check valve. A
check valve allows fluid flow through it in only one direction as in 8igure below.
@ydraulic check valve analogy: %a& lectron current flow permitted. %b& #urrent flow
prohibited.
#heck valves are essentially pressure'operated devices: they open and allow flow if the
pressure across them is of the correct HpolarityI to open the gate %in the analogy shown)
greater fluid pressure on the right than on the left&. "f the pressure is of the opposite
Hpolarity)I the pressure difference across the check valve will close and hold the gate so
that no flow occurs. Like check valves) diodes are essentially Hpressure'I operated
%voltage'operated& devices. (he essential difference between forward'bias and reverse'
bias is the polarity of the voltage dropped across the diode. Let?s take a closer look at the
simple battery'diode'lamp circuit shown earlier) this time investigating voltage drops
across the various components in 8igure below.
!iode circuit voltage measurements: %a& 8orward biased. %b& ;everse biased.
A forward'biased diode conducts current and drops a small voltage across it) leaving most
of the battery voltage dropped across the lamp. "f the battery?s polarity is reversed) the
diode becomes reverse'biased) and drops all of the battery?s voltage leaving none for the
lamp. "f we consider the diode to be a self'actuating switch %closed in the forward'bias
mode and open in the reverse'bias mode&) this behavior makes sense. (he most
substantial difference is that the diode drops a lot more voltage when conducting than the
average mechanical switch %/., volts versus tens of millivolts&.
(his forward'bias voltage drop exhibited by the diode is due to the action of the depletion
region formed by the +'7 junction under the influence of an applied voltage. "f no
voltage applied is across a semiconductor diode) a thin depletion region exists around the
region of the +'7 junction) preventing current flow. %8igure below %a&& (he depletion
region is almost devoid of available charge carriers) and acts as an insulator:
!iode representations: +7'junction model) schematic symbol) physical part.
(he schematic symbol of the diode is shown in 8igure above %b& such that the anode
%pointing end& corresponds to the +'type semiconductor at %a&. (he cathode bar) non'
pointing end) at %b& corresponds to the 7'type material at %a&. Also note that the cathode
stripe on the physical part %c& corresponds to the cathode on the symbol.
"f a reverse'biasing voltage is applied across the +'7 junction) this depletion region
expands) further resisting any current through it. %8igure below&
!epletion region expands with reverse bias.
#onversely) if a forward'biasing voltage is applied across the +'7 junction) the depletion
region collapses becoming thinner. (he diode becomes less resistive to current through it.
"n order for a sustained current to go through the diodeB though) the depletion region must
be fully collapsed by the applied voltage. (his takes a certain minimum voltage to
accomplish) called the forward voltage as illustrated in 8igure below.
"nceasing forward bias from %a& to %b& decreases depletion region thickness.
8or silicon diodes) the typical forward voltage is /., volts) nominal. 8or germanium
diodes) the forward voltage is only /.: volts. (he chemical constituency of the +'7
junction comprising the diode accounts for its nominal forward voltage figure) which is
why silicon and germanium diodes have such different forward voltages. 8orward voltage
drop remains approximately constant for a wide range of diode currents) meaning that
diode voltage drop is not like that of a resistor or even a normal %closed& switch. 8or most
simplified circuit analysis) the voltage drop across a conducting diode may be considered
constant at the nominal figure and not related to the amount of current.
&) esistor
A resistor is a two'terminal passive electronic component which implements electrical
resistance as a circuit element. When a voltage 1 is applied across the terminals of a
resistor) a current " will flow through the resistor in direct proportion to that voltage. (he
reciprocal of the constant of proportionality is known as the resistance ;) since) with a
given voltage 1) a larger value of ; further >resists> the flow of current " as given by
*hm?s law:
;esistors are common elements of electrical networks and electronic circuits and are
ubiAuitous in most electronic eAuipment. +ractical resistors can be made of various
compounds and films) as well as resistance wire %wire made of a high'resistivity alloy)
such as nickel'chrome&. ;esistors are also implemented within integrated circuits)
particularly analog devices) and can also be integrated into hybrid and printed circuits.
(he electrical functionality of a resistor is specified by its resistance: common
commercial resistors are manufactured over a range of more than 4 orders of magnitude.
When specifying that resistance in an electronic design) the reAuired precision of the
resistance may reAuire attention to the manufacturing tolerance of the chosen resistor)
according to its specific application. (he temperature coefficient of the resistance may
also be of concern in some precision applications. +ractical resistors are also specified as
having a maximum power rating which must exceed the anticipated power dissipation of
that resistor in a particular circuit: this is mainly of concern in power electronics
applications. ;esistors with higher power ratings are physically larger and may reAuire
heat sinking. "n a high voltage circuit) attention must sometimes be paid to the rated
maximum working voltage of the resistor.
(he series inductance of a practical resistor causes its behavior to depart from ohms lawB
this specification can be important in some high'freAuency applications for smaller
values of resistance. "n a low'noise amplifier or pre'amp the noise characteristics of a
resistor may be an issue. (he unwanted inductance) excess noise) and temperature
coefficient are mainly dependent on the technology used in manufacturing the resistor.
(hey are not normally specified individually for a particular family of resistors
manufactured using a particular technology.
L.M
A family of discrete resistors is also
characteri=ed according to its form factor) that is) the si=e of the device and position of its
leads %or terminals& which is relevant in the practical manufacturing of circuits using
them.
4) Capacitor
A capacitor %formerly known as condenser& is a passive electronic component consisting
of a pair of conductors separated by a dielectric %insulator&. When there is a potential
difference %voltage& across the conductors) a static electric field develops in the dielectric
that stores energy and produces a mechanical force between the conductors. An ideal
capacitor is characteri=ed by a single constant value) capacitance) measured in farads.
(his is the ratio of the electric charge on each conductor to the potential difference
between them.
#apacitors are widely used in electronic circuits for blocking direct current while
allowing alternating current to pass) in filter networks) for smoothing the output of power
supplies) in the resonant circuits that tune radios to particular freAuencies and for many
other purposes.
(he effect is greatest when there is a narrow separation between large areas of conductor)
hence capacitor conductors are often called >plates>) referring to an early means of
construction. "n practice the dielectric between the plates passes a small amount of
leakage current and also has an electric field strength limit) resulting in a breakdown
voltage) while the conductors and leads introduce an undesired inductance and resistance.
#) !5D
A light'emitting diode %L!& %pronounced F l i di F ) L''!
L.M
& is a semiconductor light
source. L!s are used as indicator lamps in many devices) and are increasingly used for
lighting. "ntroduced as a practical electronic component in .4<-)
L-M
early L!s emitted
low'intensity red light) but modern versions are available across the visible) ultraviolet
and infrared wavelengths) with very high brightness. When a light'emitting diode is
forward biased %switched on&) electrons are able to recombine with electron holes within
the device) releasing energy in the form of photons. (his effect is called
electroluminescence and the color of the light %corresponding to the energy of the photon&
is determined by the energy gap of the semiconductor. An L! is often small in area %less
than . mm
-
&) and integrated optical components may be used to shape its radiation
pattern.
L:M
L!s present many advantages over incandescent light sources including lower
energy consumption) longer lifetime) improved robustness) smaller si=e) faster switching)
and greater durability and reliability. L!s powerful enough for room lighting are
relatively expensive and reAuire more precise current and heat management than compact
fluorescent lamp sources of comparable output.
Light'emitting diodes are used in applications as diverse as replacements for aviation
lighting) automotive lighting %particularly brake lamps) turn signals and indicators& as
well as in traffic signals.
(;A7S"S(*; %2#$$6&
A transistor is semi conductor device consisting of three regions
separated by two +'7 junctions. (he three regions are 2ase) mitter D
#ollector.
(he base may be of 7' type or +' type. (he emitter and collector have
same impurities but different from that of base. (hus if base is of 7' type
then emitter and collector are of +' type then transistor is called +'7'+
transistor and vice versa transistor is called 7'+'7 transistor.
(he base is made thin and number density of majority carriers is
always less than emitter and collector. (he base provides junction for proper
interaction between emitter and collector.
lectrons are majority charge carriers in 7' region and in +'region)
holes are the majority charge carriers. (hus two types of charge carriers are
involved in current flow through 7'+'7 or +'7'+ transistor.
S6"78!S -8 9(:S;S98S :
"n schematic symbols) the emitter is always represented by an arrow
indicating the direction of conventional current in the device.
"n case of 7'+'7 transistor arrow points away from base and in case
of +'7'+ transistor it points towards base.
When transistor is used in circuit) emitter ' base junction is always
forward biased while base ' collector junction is always reverse biased.
8ig. Structure and symbol of +'7'+ transistor
7;(S;:. 8- 9(:S;S98 :
(he two junctions can be biased in four different ways:
2oth junctions may be forward biased. "t causes large current to flow
across junctions. (ransistor is to be operated in HSA(5;A("*7
;3"*7I.
2oth junctions may be reversed biased. "t causes very small current to
flow across junctions. (ransistor is to be operated in H#5( *88
;3"*7I.
'2 junction is forward biased and #'2 junction is reverse biased.
(he transistor is said to be operated in HA#("1 ;3"*7I. Eost of
the transistors work in this region.
'2 junction is reversed biased and #'2 junction is forward biased.
(he transistor is said to be operated in H"71;(! E*!I.
8ig. %a& +'7'+ transistor biasing %b& 7'+'7 transistor biasing
#";#5"( #*78"35;A("*7S :
(here are three possible ways in which a transistor can be connected
in the circuit which are following :
#ommon 2ase #onfiguration : 2ase is made common in this
configuration.
Common 5mitter Configuration : mitter is made common in this
configuration.
Common Collector Configuration : #ollector is made common in this
configuration.
8ig. +7+ #ommon 2ase #onfiguration
-ig1 P:P Common 5mitter -ig1 :P: Common Collector
Configuration Configuration
7C&&$
()solute "a<imum ating : (
a
N -$O# unless otherwise noted
Parameter Sym)ol Value
#ollector P mitter 1oltage 1
#*
':/
#ollector P 2ase 1oltage 1
#2*
':/
mitter P 2ase 1oltage 1
2*
'$
#ollector #urrent %!#& "
#
'.//
#ollector !issipation +
#
$//
Qunction (emperature (
Q
.$/
Storage (emperature (
S(3
'<$ to .$/
5lectrical Characteristics : (
a
N -$O# unless otherwise noted
Parameter Sym)ol 9est Condition "in1 9ype
#ollector #ut'off #urrent "#2* 1#2 N ':/1) "N/
!# #urrent 3ain hfe 1#2 N '$1) "#N-mA ../
#ollector mitter Saturation
1oltage
1#%sat& "#N './mA) "2N '/.$mA
"#N './/mA) "2N '$mA
'4/
'-$/
#ollector 2ase Saturation
1oltage
12%sat& "#N './mA) "2N '/.$mA
"#N './/mA) "2N '$mA
',//
'4//
2ase mitter *n 1oltage 12%*n& 1#N '$1) "#N '-mA
1#N '$1) "#N './mA
'<// '<</
#urrent 3ain 2andwidth
+roduct
f( 1#N '$1) "#N './mA)
fN./E@=
.$/
*utput #apacitance #ob 1#2N
'./1)"N/)fN.E@=
7oise 8igure 78 1#N '$1) "#N '-//mA -
D;8D5
"t is a +'type region and 7'type region formed in the same crystal
structure) and hence a +'7 junction is produced. Some of the conduction
electrons near the junction diffuse in to +'type semiconductor from the 7'type
semiconductor across the junction combing with the holes. (he loss of
electrons makes the 7'type semiconductor positively charged and hence the
neutrali=ation of the holes on the other hand makes +'type semiconductor
negatively charged. (his region where positive and negative charges develop is
called depletion region.
-ig1 Diode
"f a +'region is made positive with respect to the 7'region by an external
circuit then junction is forward biased and junction has a very low resistance to
the flow of current. @oles in the positive +'type material are attracted across the
junction to the negative side and the free electrons in the 7'type material are
like wise attracted to the opposite side. "f a positive voltage is applied to 7'
=one with respect to the +'=one terminal) the +'7 junction is reverse biased.
-ig1 Volt+(mpere Characteristics of a P+: Diode
9emperature Dependence of V+; Characteristics
(he cut'in voltage decreases at the rate of -.$ m1FO#. Also above -$O#)
the reverse saturation current "
/
doubles for every <O# %./O#& for Si %3e&
diodes. @owever) the shape of overall characteristic does not alter with
temperature.
Diode esistance
Static esistance : (he static resistance of a diode denoted by ; is the ratio
of diode voltage 1 to diode current ". (he static resistance ; varies
widely as the operating point shifts and it does not constitute a useful
parameter.
Dynamic or ;ncremental esistance : (he dynamic resistance of a diode is
defined as the reciprocal of the slope of the current voltage
characteristic. (hus dynamic resistance is given by '
r d1Fd" RRRR%.&
(he dynamic resistance forms an important parameter for small
signal operation of the diode. (he dynamic resistance) however) is not a
constant but varies with the operating point.
8or a semiconductor diode) the dynamic resistance r as per 1'"
characteristic is given by)
r d1Fd" N 1
(
F"
/
1F1
(
N 1
(
F%"0"
/
& RRR.%-&
"f the reverse bias is greater than a few tenth of a volt) then
|1F1