This document discusses factors that influence successful communication, focusing on how individuals perceive the world differently based on their unique experiences and backgrounds. It explains that each person's brain constructs its own "reality" by making connections between new information and existing knowledge. This reality acts as a filter through which people interpret situations differently. Communication must take into account these individual differences in perception as well as cultural and organizational influences in order to be effective.
This document discusses factors that influence successful communication, focusing on how individuals perceive the world differently based on their unique experiences and backgrounds. It explains that each person's brain constructs its own "reality" by making connections between new information and existing knowledge. This reality acts as a filter through which people interpret situations differently. Communication must take into account these individual differences in perception as well as cultural and organizational influences in order to be effective.
This document discusses factors that influence successful communication, focusing on how individuals perceive the world differently based on their unique experiences and backgrounds. It explains that each person's brain constructs its own "reality" by making connections between new information and existing knowledge. This reality acts as a filter through which people interpret situations differently. Communication must take into account these individual differences in perception as well as cultural and organizational influences in order to be effective.
This document discusses factors that influence successful communication, focusing on how individuals perceive the world differently based on their unique experiences and backgrounds. It explains that each person's brain constructs its own "reality" by making connections between new information and existing knowledge. This reality acts as a filter through which people interpret situations differently. Communication must take into account these individual differences in perception as well as cultural and organizational influences in order to be effective.
The previous chapters have been focused on understanding the necessary relationships between the project, the project manager and team, and their stakeholders. These relationships are as unique as the individuals themselves and have different application depending on the type of stakeholder. The different types of stakeholders, whether they are categorized by directions of influence upwards, downwards, sidewards and outwards (Bourne, 2009) , or by the typology of (Fassin, 2012) stakeowner, stakewatcher, stakekeeper or stakesseeker 1 or any other typology, will have different relationships and by extension will require different communication strategies.
Communication is all there is to build and sustain these relationships, but planning and implementation of communication are complicated by the uniqueness of the projects stakeholders. Communication can never be just a standard process and a standard set of reports if the relationships really matter to the project and its success. Processes for effective communication will be described in the next chapter; this chapter will analyze the factors that make the individuals and social groups of the projects stakeholder community unique. The answer to that question What makes us who we are and how we operate in our social world? - lies in a complex web of our own reality formed by our own experiences (and how our brain makes sense of those experiences), our culture, whether national, professional, generational, and our gender. This web influences how we live and work and relate to others. Within the work
1 Chapter 2 describes stakeholder theories and typologies. 2
environment, the culture of organizations affects the project and its stakeholders so will also be discussed briefly.
This chapter is organized as follows: how each of us perceives the world and how that perception filters what each person sees and thinks. The second section will focus on personality and preferences of the individual and how that may affect sending and receiving information to maintain the relationship. The next section analyzes culture in its various forms. Finally, there will be a brief section on organizational culture as an influence on the structures, outcomes and success of projects and those who work within them.
Perception and reality Researchers have long taken an interest in the different ways that individuals make sense of their surroundings their world. (Weick, 1995) developed the concept of sensemaking by which people make sense of their organizational environment. Sensemaking refers to how we structure the unknown so as to be able to act in it. It is an interpretation of the situation within the framework of previous experience, and possibly those of others. Sensemaking is the starting point for learning new things, or resolving current issues, or adapting to a new environment. To illustrate this concept, Weick (1995:55) relates the story of a small military unit sent on a training mission into the Swiss Alps and who became lost in a snow storm. One of the unit had a map, and with the assistance of that map they planned their journey back to their base. When the storm subsided they began their journey back to base. On that journey, they didnt always find the landmarks that the map showed, but with the help of residents of the villages they passed through they eventually found their way back to base, tired, hungry and cold. That was when 3
they discovered that the map was a map of the Pyrenees and not the Alps! This example of sensemaking shows that even with a bad map the soldiers survived because they had a sense of purpose (survival), and had an image of where they were and where they were going even though they were in many ways mistaken. The map was not the blueprint, it was only the artifact that helped them get started; the rest of the journey was facilitated by cues from the environment, incorporating new information and acting with purpose. It is the stories and maps (their frameworks) and encouragement for those involved as they discuss and contribute ideas, and act, that are important. Weick (1995:15) summarizes: To talk about sensemaking is to talk about reality as an ongoing accomplishment that takes form when people make retrospective sense of the situations in which they find themselves and their creations. people make sense of things by seeing a world on which they already imposed what they believe.
The starting point for sensemaking then, is an individuals interpretation of their environment: the reality that they have constructed from their beliefs, experiences, culture and language. This reality is unique to the individual and is the filter through which everything they experience, either consciously or unconsciously, is passed. Weick (1995) has interpreted this process in one way, neuroscientists have taken a completely different approach for how we construct our reality and how we learn and make sense of new situations 2 .
2 There are obviously many other theories contributing to an understanding of how we construct reality. It has long been a question that philosophers have grappled with reality and the relationships between the mind and reality through the means of language and culture. 4
The role of the brain The primary function of the brain is one of finding associations, connections and links between bits of information (Rock, 2006). Our thoughts, memories, skills, and attributes are vast sets of connections or maps joined together via complex chemical and physical pathways 3 . Every thought, skill, and attribute is stored in the brain, but not necessarily in the same part of the brain. New ideas are processed by comparing it to existing maps, and creating a new map that becomes a part of the layout of our brain. Brains like to create order out of the chaos of data they receive, making links between information so that our lives make more sense. The more frequently we repeat an action or a thought or receive information, the stronger the connection within the brain. This is hardwiring - freeing up working memory for higher-level tasks that require conscious thought.
The brain hardwires everything it can The brain is constantly trying to automate processes so that the unconscious part of the brain can manage them. If you observe a young baby learning to walk: she struggles to stay upright, perhaps holding on to furniture, walls or people in her early attempts. As her muscles become stronger, her balance improves and she becomes more confident, she needs to think less about the process of putting one step after another. Before long, walking is unconscious this function has been transferred to an automatic process. Normally we will never have to think about walking again, unless a misfortune affects us such as a stroke - and we have to learn to walk all over again. Our habits are equally unconscious a person sitting near you with an annoying whistle or pencil tapping may not even be conscious that he is doing it and even less conscious
3 These can also be referred to as: circuits, wiring, or neural pathways (Rock, 2006). 5
that it is annoying you.
You create your own reality When new information is presented to us this new data is compared to our existing mental maps to find connections between new data and existing frameworks. If there are no connections the brain will try to make the connections fit into the existing framework. New information or stimulation bombards the brain continually; so the brain will take shortcuts. For example when we read we glance at the first part and guess the rest in the context of all the words in the sentence. We have expectations about what we are going to read and therefore we see the sentence in that frame not necessarily what is actually written. Such approximation means that often we misunderstand or misinterpret what we read.
There is no reality out there only the reality we are deciding to see through the filters of our experiences, our knowledge and interests. Each person will therefore have constructed a different reality so that they may describe the same scene in totally different ways 4 . The brain truly sees the world according to its own wiring, selecting and ignoring information depending on its filters.
Up to the end of the 20 th century scientists thought that the brain was fixed by early childhood and then over time slowly declined as the neurons deteriorated and the connections become
4 (Horowitz, 2013) describes what happens when she turns a daily walking around the block with her dog into an exercise of perception by inviting people from different professions to walk with her and describe what they saw. Each one of them drew her attention to different aspects of the same pathways she had walked on many times before: psychiatrist, economist, her 19 month-old son, an architect and eight others. They all saw aspects of that block that she could never have imagined. 6
weaker with age. Within this paradigm 5 the theory was that the brain could not regenerate new connections, this seemed to be supported by observations about how as people aged they became more forgetful. A new paradigm was developed with the advent of Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) developed in the 1990s. The fMRI provided a non-invasive way to develop understanding of the brain and its activities, and enabled scientists and other researchers to observe activity in the brain. A branch of neuroscience - neuroplasticity was developed, growing out of studies of stroke patients and those with other degenerative brain diseases, who were able to restore some of the functions through re-routing of connections within the brain. It has a remarkable ability to rewire itself when things go wrong: if one part of the brain is affected, other parts of the brain can often take over the missing function.
How do we know these things? The fMRI measures and records changes in blood flow that occur in response to neural activity. When the brain is active it consumes more oxygen which causes more blood to flow to this area. What is shown in the fMRI picture is a map of the areas of the brain involved in any particular mental process. It is important to note that the fMRI doesnt measure neuronal activity directly, it measures change in the blood flows and oxygen levels. Using fMRI to understand the brain and how it works is a new science, with many claims that may or may not be substantiated through research and the passage of time 6 .
5 From Kuhn (1962): the scientific community maintains continuity of beliefs through accumulation of research and documentation until anomalies are discovered which lead to revolutions and new approaches in science paradigms. 6 Its meteoric rise as the new science has been compared with phrenology in the 19 th century. Phrenology is a process that involved the observing and/or feeling the skull to determine an individual's psychological attributes (Fine, 2010). This measurement of the skull and consequent categorization of individuals accordingly led to assumptions about individuals now considered misleading.. 7
Personality Each persons brain has been developed by their experiences and the knowledge they have acquired. The way the brain has made connections to make sense of these experiences and to maximize the benefits and impact of this knowledge has been described in the previous section. Personality is a second factor to consider in communicating to engage a projects stakeholders. The term personality is derived from persona meaning mask, and refers to an individuals distinct pattern of thoughts, motives, values, attitudes and behaviors. It excludes race, gender, and physical attractiveness (Hiriyappa, 2010). There are many typologies for categorizing personality. In this section the focus will be on two the Myers-Briggs Indicator (MBTI) and the OCEAN typology.
The most well-known of the personality categorisers is the Myer-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI). Based on the psychological theories of Carl Jung, the MBTI measures psychological preferences in how people perceive the world and make decisions (Kroeger & Thuesen, 1988). Often people will act in ways that cause another individual confusion or anger, because it seems wrong or unreasonable, but in fact is just different from how another individual might act. Kroeger & Thuesen (1988) state that when this happens it is not the problem of the person who seems to be wrong or unreasonable, it is the person who is feeling the anger! Their view is that it is important to try to understand why these others are acting the way they do and also why it is causing such a reaction. They turn to MBTI to assist in this understanding process 7 .
7 For a quick assessment to get a feel for the MBTI process go to: http://www.personalitypathways.com/type_inventory.html . 8
The MBTI uses four pairs of alternative preferences: Introversion (I) or Extraversion (E) attitudes, Sensing (S) and Intuition (N) functions, Thinking (T) and Feeling (F) functions, Judging (J) and Perception (P) lifestyle. The combination of these four alternatives results in sixteen possible preferences. Table 7.1 provides a summary of each of these preferences and an example of how they would probably talk about salary.
Table 7.1 - Summarizing the MBTI types (Kroeger & Thuesen, 1988:66-71). MBTI types Summary Typical approach to talking about salary ISTJ Doing what should be done Im not concerned with what the other person will think of me. Im more concerned with what theyll think of the data ISFJ A high sense of duty Im always surprised when someone looks you right in the eye and tells you how much they charge INFJ An inspiration to others I know I could make more money as a consultant, but Im still in government because I cant be bothered with selling myself. I need a structure to support me INTJ Everything has room for improvement I have a high sense of ethics, but Im not going to be taken advantage of ISTP Ready to try anything once I wouldnt leave a salary figure up to them. Id figure out first what I wanted and be prepared to be totally in command of the direction of the discussion ISFP Sees much but shares little If I see the other person wince at what I ask for in negotiating, I try to take care of them INFP Performing noble service to aid society I keep asking myself Can they afford it? I have to remind myself that the work is valuable and I am just the vessel the work flows through 9
INTP A love of problem-solving I dont consider negotiating a game, but a point of clarification. You work together to define the conditions and the logical consequences of taking a job ESTP The ultimate realist I just make up a number. Depending on how they react we usually settle on one between my number and their number ESFP You only go around once in life Two things in my favour when negotiating salary: focus on details for breakdown of my costs and chance to negotiate ENFP Giving life an extra squeeze I hate money and I hate talking about it. Id rather change jobs than ask for more ENTP One exciting challenge after another I constantly go around putting a value on my time ESTJ Lifes administrators Its fun to ask for a raise. I love going in and telling the boss why I deserve more ESFJ Hosts and hostesses of the world Accomplishments should be acknowledged and rewarded without my having to ask ENFJ The great communicators I always cringe when people ask me what my daily rate is. Every doubt of my self-wroth flashes before my eyes ENTJ Lifes natural leaders I dont expect supervisors to know how good I am so I send them periodic updates
A second typology for personality is the OCEAN typology based on trait theory as described in Chapter 4 . This is summarised in the table below 8 . Results from testing in this typology are on a continuum between the extreme characteristics shown in
Table 2.
8 Go to either of these web-sites to use this typology: http://www.outofservice.com/bigfive/; http://www.personalitytest.org.uk/
10
Table 2 - the OCEAN typology O Openness to experience / rigidity
Reflects the degree of intellectual curiosity, creativity and a preference for novelty and variety a person has. It is also described as the extent to which a person is imaginative or independent, and depicts a personal preference for a variety of activities over a strict routine. Some disagreement remains about how to interpret the openness factor, which is sometimes called "intellect" rather than openness to experience. C Conscientiousness / undependability
A tendency to show self-discipline, act dutifully, and aim for achievement; planned rather than spontaneous behavior; organized, and dependable. E Extraversion / introversion
Energy, positive emotions, assertiveness, sociability and the tendency to seek stimulation in the company of others, and talkativeness. A Agreeableness / ill- temperedness
A tendency to be compassionate and cooperative rather than suspicious and antagonistic towards others. It is also a measure of one's trusting and helpful nature, and whether a person is generally well tempered or not. N Neuroticism / emotional stability
The tendency to experience unpleasant emotions easily, such as anger, anxiety, depression, or vulnerability. Neuroticism also refers to the degree of emotional stability and impulse control and is sometimes referred to by its low pole, "emotional stability".
Culture E.H. Schein, (1985) defines culture in terms of systems of symbols, ideas, beliefs, values and of distinctive forms of behavior. The first question to be addressed is: What is culture? Culture can be defined as: how we do things around here and cultural norms are the unwritten rules of behaviour. A persons culture (national, professional, organisational) influences how messages will be sent and received (their communication style), this in turn influences how people from different backgrounds can work together harmoniously. Understanding communication style 11
prevents misunderstandings and helps build empathy.
Culture manifests itself through patterns of thinking, feeling and acting that are learned throughout the persons lifetime, many patterns have been acquired in childhood. Culture is learned from parents, teachers, peers and heroes throughout childhood and well into adult life. Cultural development comes from information as diverse as: Language and other symbols, Role models and heroes such as parents, friends, celebrities, Rituals such as recognising coming of age, courtship, marriage, Basic values.
Hofstede, Hofstede, & Minkov (2010) have defined four ways to describe how culture manifests itself symbols, heroes, rituals and values. From an analysis these four it is possible to develop an understanding of any type of culture and also to provide a means to compare cultures. Firstly it is important to define the four typologies the first three can be further categorised as practice; visible to individuals and groups outside the cultural group, but whose meaning is not necessarily available to them. Symbols are words, gestures, pictures or objects that carry a particular meaning that is recognised as such only by those who share the culture. This can be in the form of dress, language, flags and status symbols. Symbols form one group are often copied by others. 9
9 A good examples of this is the way the current (social media) generation have adopted tools such as Twitter, Facebook, only to move on to a more recent social media tool as it becomes also used by the older generations. Similarly, as the middle classes have been able to acquire more expensive cars or fashion accessories, the rich have attempted to acquire even more expensive or rare items. This is not just the behaviour of the Anglo-American cultures, it now occurs in other developing countries where there is a wealthy class. 12
Heroes are persons, alive or dead real or imaginary, who possess characteristics that ware highly prized in a culture and thus serve as models for behaviour. Heroes from our own era such as Gandhi, Nelson Mandela, or Mother Teresa have been supplanted by sporting heroes or celebrities such as Lady Gaga or Justin Bieber. 10
Rituals are collective activities that are technically superfluous to reach desired end but that within a culture are considered socially essential. They are carried out for their own sake. Rituals can range from how and who we pay respect to, religious ceremonies, or business conferences (a way of reinforcing group identity). Rituals include discourse, the way that language is used in text and talk, in daily interaction and in communicating beliefs. Values are broad tendencies to prefer certain states of affairs over others. Because they are acquired early, many values remain unconscious to those who hold them. However the value system is central to culture. The value system is best understood through understanding pairings such as: Good/evil; dirty/clean; dangerous/safe, Forbidden/permitted; decent/indecent; moral/immoral; ugly/beautiful; unnatural/natural, Abnormal/normal; paradoxical/logical; irrational/rational (Hofstede et al., 2010).
In-group/Out-group Within any culture there is clear understanding of who part of the group (the in-group) is and
10 Celebrities have also led the trend to a focus on outward appearance. 13
who is not (the out-group). This will be reinforced by the distinction between we/they. People in the in-group will develop a feeling of relatedness through sharing symbolic group membership, whether it is shared admiration for a celebrity, or membership of a sports team. The relatedness often extends to willingness to fight and die for the country (culture). Moral rights and duties such as this are built into the cultural development of all.
Belonging, being part of a group and its culture is not limited to countries. We can belong to different groups, based on gender, profession, nationality, religion, sports supporters, and roles in society. This membership may be shown through specific clothing (uniforms), speech (perhaps marking the class you belong to or the school you attended), and possessions. The ties of relatedness are reinforced through rituals and other activities that reinforce the moral code and value system of that culture (Hofstede et al., 2010).
Cultural diversity within a project team may take the following forms: Generational and gender a team may contain representatives from as many as four different generational groups: baby boomers; Gen X, Y, Z. Generational differences may cause misunderstandings based on communication preferences, attitudes to work, and even language. Industrial or professional - managers; professionals (engineers, accountants, teachers); blue collar workers. Once again they will have different communication styles, language and approaches to work. National consider a mix of Asian; Anglo-American; Latino cultures here also there will be different communication styles, language and approaches to work. 14
Organizational - Corporations, Government departments, Universities will all have different structures and focus.
The team culture thus formed will also be a source of support and motivation for its members or a source of stress and conflict. As discussed earlier in this chapter and in other chapters, it is the leaders role to design a team structure that allows all team members to operate effectively to ensure each member is motivated fully. Much of the literature on leadership, teams, management and organizations has been developed in the Anglo-American countries primarily USA, but also Canada and the UK. Therefore it is culturally specific. When operating in a culturally diverse environment it is useful to understand the different dimensions of culture to try to understand the differences between the various cultures that may be represented in the team.
Hofstede et al. (2010) developed typologies of culture from research he carried out for IBM in the 1980s and updated in 2010. He defined five dimensions and with recent collaborations with other researchers added a sixth 11 : Power distance (weak/strong) (PDI), Collectivism/ individualism (IDV), Femininity/masculinity (MAS), Uncertainty avoidance (weak/strong) (UAI), Long term/short term orientation (LTO), Indulgence/restraint (IVR).
11 The website: http://geert-hofstede.com/national-culture.html has profiles for most countries and the ability to compare two countries on all five dimensions. 15
The dimensions should be considered as points along a continuum: there are no absolutes. The dimensions were developed in the context of countries and define as much as possible national culture. Not included are different groupings that may have been absorbed into a national entity such as the Karen in Burma and Western Thailand or the various tribes within African nations.
Power Distance (PDI) PDI is an indicator of dependence relationships in a country. It is defined as the extent to which the less powerful members of institutions and organizations within a country expect and accept that power is distributed unequally. Institutions are the basic elements of society: home, school, community.
Where PDI is small there is: Limited dependence of subordinates on bosses; Preference for consultation (interdependence between bosses and subordinates); Emotional distance is small subordinates will be more likely to approach and contradict their bosses.
Table 7.3 shows a selection of differences 12 within the power distance typology from the
12 These tables only show a small selection of differences.
16
extensive examples provided by (Hofstede et al., 2010).
Table 7.3- Some difference between small power distance and large power distance (Hofstede et al., 2010) SMALL POWER DISTANCE LARGE POWER DISTANCE Inequalities among people should be minimized Inequalities among people are expected and desired Parents treat children as equals Parents teach children obedience Students treat teachers as equals Students give teachers respect, even outside class Teachers expect initiatives from students in class Teachers should take all initiatives in class Hierarchy in organizations means an inequality of roles, established for convenience Hierarchy in organizations reflects existential inequality between higher and lower levels There is a narrow salary range between the top and the bottom of the organization There is a wide salary range between the top and the bottom of the organization Subordinates expect to be consulted Subordinates expect to be told what to do Mostly wealthier countries with a large middle class Mostly poorer countries with a small middle class All should have equal rights The powerful should have privileges
Figure 7.1 shows comparisons between IDV and PDI for selected countries.
Individualism/collectivism (IDV) Individualism defines societies in which the ties between individuals are loose: everyone is expected to look after him/her self and his/her immediate family. Collectivism defines societies in which people from birth onward are integrated into strong, cohesive in-groups which continue to protect people throughout their lifetime in exchange for unquestioning loyalty. Individualist societies value, and people within them expect: 17
Personal time the job will allow time for personal and family life; Freedom to adopt ones own approach to the job; Challenge work which gives a sense of accomplishment; Training to improve or acquire skills; Physical conditions good working conditions; Use of skills fully use skills on job.
Table 7.4 - some differences between collectivist and individualist (Hofstede et al., 2010) COLLECTIVIST INDIVIDUALIST People are born into extended families or other groups that continue protecting them in exchange for loyalty. Everyone grows up to look after him/her self and his/her immediate (nuclear) family only Children learn to think in terms of we Children learn to think in terms of I Harmony should always be maintained and direct confrontations avoided Speaking ones mind is a characteristic of an honest person Resources should be shared with relatives Individual ownership of resources even for children Adult children live with parents Adult children leave the parental home Trespasses lead to shame and loss of face for self and group Trespasses lead to guilt and loss self-respect Brides should be young, industrious and chaste; bridegrooms should be older Criteria for marriage partners are not predetermined Use of I is avoided Use of I is encouraged Showing sadness is encouraged and happiness discouraged Showing sadness is discouraged and happiness encouraged Social network is primary source of information Media is primary source of information Laws and rights differ by group Laws and rights are supposed to be the same for all Lower human rights rating Higher human rights rating Ideologies of equality prevail over ideologies of freedom Ideologies of freedom prevail over ideologies of equality Imported economic theories are unable to Native economic theories are based on 18
deal with collective and particularist interests pursuit on individual self-interests Harmony and consensus in society are ultimate goals Self-actualization by every individual is an ultimate goal Diplomas provide entry into higher status groups Diplomas increase economic worth and/or self-respect
Figure 7.1- Comparison between IDV and PDI adapted from (Hofstede et al., 2010)
Masculinity/femininity Masculine societies have the following characteristics: Earnings opportunity for high earnings; Recognition get the recognition deserved for doing a good job; Advancement opportunity for advancement to higher-level jobs; Challenge have challenging work to do that gives personal sense of accomplishment; 19
A society is called masculine when emotional gender roles are clearly distinct: men are supposed to be assertive, tough and focused on material success, whereas women are supposed to be more modest tender and concerned with quality of life. A society is called feminine when emotional gender roles overlap. In feminine societies both men and women are supposed to be modest tender and concerned with the quality of life. (Hofstede et al., 2010): loc 1608.
Table 7.5 - some differences between feminine and masculine dimensions (Hofstede et al., 2010) FEMININE MASCULINE Relationships and quality of life are important Challenge, earnings, recognition and advancement are important Both men and women should be modest Men should be assertive ambitious and tough Both men and women can be tender and focus on relationships Women are supposed to be tender and focus on relationships In the family both mothers and fathers deal with facts and feelings In the family mothers deal with feelings and fathers deal with facts Girls beauty ideals are influenced by the father and mother Girls beauty ideals are mostly influenced by the media and celebrities Parents share earning and caring roles The standard pattern is that the father earns and the mother cares Both boys and girls are allowed to cry but neither should fight Girls cry but boys dont; boys should fight back, and girls shouldnt fight at all Boys and girls play for the same reasons Boys play to compete; girls play to be together Husbands should be like boyfriends Husbands should be healthy, wealthy and understanding; boyfriends should be fun Womens liberation means that men and women take equal shares both at home and at work Womens liberation means that women are admitted to positions so far occupied by men Single standard: both sexes are subjects Double standard: men are subjects, women objects 20
Jealousy of those who try to excel Jealousy of those who try to excel Failing in school is a minor incident Failing in school is a minor incident Competitive sports are extracurricular Competitive sports are extracurricular Children are socialized to be non-aggressive Children are socialized to be non-aggressive Management as mnage: intuition and consensus Management as mange: decisive and aggressive Resolution of conflicts by compromise and negotiation Resolution of conflicts by letting the strongest win
Uncertainty avoidance (UAI) UAI is defined by the extent to which the members of a culture feel threatened by ambiguous in unknown situations. There is a need for predictability in the form of written and unwritten rules. Western religions share the assumption that there is an absolute Truth, and that this Truth excludes all other truths. Possessing this Truth is the only road to salvation.
Table 7.6 - Some differences between weak and strong uncertainty avoidance (Hofstede et al., 2010) WEAK STRONG Uncertainty is a normal feature life, and each day is accepted as it comes The uncertainty inherent in life is a continuous threat that must be fought Low stress and low anxiety High stress and high anxiety Aggression and emotions should not be shown Aggression and emotions may at proper times and places be vented In personality tests higher scores on agreeableness In personality tests higher scores on neuroticism Comfortable in ambiguous situations and with unfamiliar risks Acceptance of familiar risks; fear of ambiguous situations and of unfamiliar risks Lenient rules for children on what is dirty and taboo Tight rules for children on what is dirty and taboo There are many nurses but few doctors There are many doctors but few nurses Work hard only when needed There is an emotional need to be busy and in inner urge to work hard Time is a framework for orientation Time is money 21
Tolerance of ambiguity and chaos Need for precision and formalization What is different is curious What is different is dangerous If country is affluent: satisfaction with family life If country is affluent: worried about cost of raising children Positive or neutral toward foreigners Xenophobia is prevalent?? Refugees should be admitted Immigrants should be sent back
Figure 7.2 - comparison between PDI and UAI (adapted from Hofstede et al., 2010)
Long-term/short-term Long-term orientation stands for the fostering of virtues oriented toward future rewards in particular perseverance and thrift; short-term orientation stands for the fostering of virtues related to the past and present in particular respect for tradition, preservation of face and fulfilling 22
social obligations.
Table 7.7 - Some differences between STO and LTO (Hofstede et al., 2010) Short Term Orientation (STO) Long Term Orientation (LTO) Social pressure toward spending Thrift being sparing of resources Efforts should produce quick results Perseverance sustained efforts toward slow results Concerned with social and status obligations Willingness to subordinate oneself for a purpose Concern with face Having as sense of shame Respect for traditions Respect for circumstances Concern with personal stability Concern with personal addictiveness Marriage is a moral arrangement Marriage is a pragmatic arrangement Living with in-laws is a source of trouble Living with in-laws is normal Young women associate affection with a boyfriend Young women associate affection with a husband Humility is for women only Humility is for both men and women Old age is an unhappy period but it starts late Old age is a happy period but it starts early Preschool children can be cared for by others Mothers should have time for their preschool children Children get gifts for fun and love Children get gifts for education and development Focus is on the bottom line Focus is on market position Importance of this years profits Importance of profits 10 years from now Managers and workers are psychologically in two camps Owner-managers and workers share the same aspiration Service to others is an important goal Children should learn to save money and things Proud of my country Learn from other countries Tradition is important Children should learn to persevere Family pride Family pragmatism 23
Figure 7.3- comparison between IDV and MAS adapted from (Hofstede et al., 2010)
Indulgent/restrained This dimension has as its focus happiness a universally cherished goal. There are two main aspects: Evaluation of ones life, Description of ones feelings. There appears to be a correlation between nations with a higher percentage of people who state that they are very happy and lower incidence of deaths from cardiovascular diseases (Hofstede et 24
al., 2010). This still holds true even if there are national differences in wealth and quality of health care have been accounted for. The dimension indulgence/restraint has as central components the following: Happiness, Life control, Importance of leisure, Having friends.
The two poles of this dimension then are: For indulgence: Perception that one can act as one pleases; Freedom to spend money; A capacity to indulge in leisurely and fun-related activities with friends or alone. For restraint: Perception that ones actions are restrained by various social norms and prohibitions Feeling that enjoyment of leisurely activities are somewhat wrong
Table 8 - some differences between indulgent and restrained cultures (Hofstede et al., 2010) INDULGENT RESTRAINT Higher percentages of very happy people Lower percentages of very happy people A perception of personal life control A perception of helplessness; what happens ot me is not my own doing Higher importance of leisure Lower importance of leisure Higher importance of having friends Lower importance of having friends Thrift is not very important Thrift is important 25
Less moral discipline Moral discipline Positive attitude Cynicism More extroverted personalities More neurotic personalities Higher percentages of people who feel healthy Lower percentages of people who feel healthy Higher optimism More pessimism In countries with well-educated populations, higher birth-rates In countries with well-educated populations, lower birth-rates Lower death rates from cardiovascular diseases Higher death rates from cardiovascular diseases More satisfying family life Less satisfied with family life Household tasks should be shared between partners Unequal sharing of household tasks is no problem Freedom of speech is viewed as relatively important Freedom of speech is not a primary concern
Figure 7.4 - comparison between UAI and MAS (adapted from Hofstede et al. (2010) 26
Figure 7.5 - comparison between IVR and LTO adapted from (Hofstede et al., 2010)
Generational culture From time immemorial, the older generations have complained about the transgressions and lack of respect of the younger generations: complaints about the loss of respect of younger generation were found in Egyptian scrolls 2000 BC. (Hofstede et al., 2010).
Zemke, Raines, & Filipczak (2013) has categorised the four potential generations that operate in the workplace today as: Traditionalists: born before 1943; 27
Baby Boomers: born 1943 to 1960; Gen Xers: born 1960 to 1980; Gen Yers: born 1980 to 2000.
Table 7.9 - some comparisons between generations (Crumpacker & Crumpacker, 2007; Zemke et al., 2013) Traditionalists before 1943 Baby Boomers 1943 to 1960 Gen Xers 1960 to 1980 Gen Yers (millenials) 1980 to 2000 Defining Events Great Depression WWII
Television Vietnam Birth control Watergate AIDS Internet Facebook Climate Change 9/11 Symbols Swing, big band Jukeboxes Radio Rock n Roll Fallout Shelters Peace sign Personal computers John Lennon assassination Spice Girls Coldplay Digital media Heroes Jack Welch Warren Buffet MacArthur, Gandhi Martin Luther King Jr none Their parents Fire-fighters (9/11) Values Sacrifice Hard work Conformity Law and order Respect for authority
Growth/ expansion Optimism Team orientation Personal gratification Health/wellness Survivor mentality Self reliance Diversity Fun Pragmatism Balance: (work/life) Optimism Civic Duty Confidence Achievement Sociability
Other defining characterist ics Big is beautiful Logic/not magic Law and order Civil rights Workaholics Technology Project management knowledge Over-protective parents Involved parents Consumer style Thrifty and make do Before credit cards Designer brands Buy now, pay later Cautious Conservative
New emphasis on saving and getting out of debt college loans Work ethic Stable Detail-oriented Loyal Uncomfortable with ambiguity Uncomfortable with conflict Go the extra mile Good team players Uncomfortable with conflict Judgemental to those who believe differently Casual approach to authority Cynical Distrustful of authority Inept at office politics Tenacity Adept at change Need supervision and structure Family events are more important than work 28
Leadership style Directive Hierarchical Command-and- control Theory X and Y Consensus Stewardship Managing with heart Participative management Less attracted to leadership Egalitarian Flexiblity Altruistic Collaborative Team structure Large (Army) one right answer Community-sized it takes a village Virtual sometimes no more than three people Large civic-minded teams, Volunteers Communic ation Formal, written, chain-of-command One-on-one in person Direct, as needed Email, lots of CCs, instant messaging
Table 7.9 highlights only some of the differences in the generations. But even from the brief information in the table it is clear that there can be many areas of potential conflict and misunderstanding in the form of: Differences in values and points of view, Ways of working and thinking, Talking and communicating. From the perspective of effective stakeholder engagement and effective communication to build strong relationships between the project and its stakeholders it is important to understand these generational differences in order to bridge the inevitable gaps.
The focus in generational studies seems to be focused only on the differences and influences of the cohorts that have been identified in current studies. It is also important to recognise that each age-group will have distinguishing characteristics that may also have an influence on how the 29
different generational groups operate and how the other generational groups view them 13 .
Generational differences can affect project teams (Crumpacker & Crumpacker, 2007). Because of these differences conflict and misunderstanding may occur and undermine the efforts of the leader. Communication preferences and styles, Work ethic and values, Leadership styles, Attitudes to and knowledge of technology, Motivation strategies;
Professional Culture Even teams from the same generations and national groupings may be made up of different communities - these are professional cultures that exist within any project or organization today. Edgar H Schein (1996) identified three distinct cultures in manufacturing organizations: Operator Exist within the part of the organization that builds the product or delivers the service. Their structure and values are unique to the organization or at least to the industry they operate in. Their culture and norms are built on trust and teamwork.
13 For example twenty-somethings are ideological and believe that the older generations are cynical and complacent; at thirty most individuals will have met a life-partner and may even have begun to raise a family this will change their world-view. At forty, individuals will begin to recognise that many of their dreams may now never be fulfilled this can lead to the phenomena of changing jobs of making lifestyle changes. At fifty people have more money and fewer expenses and can indulge in things that they could not afford in their youth, such as fast cars or motor bikes. These opinions are based on my own observations of Western individuals and groups and some conversations with people in these age groups.
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Technical specialists - Designers and implementers of technology. These categories include project managers, engineers, and hardware specialists. Executive - Fiscal responsibility. They favour command and control systems and management techniques based on command and control.
There are now far more occupations that will contribute to success of the project or the organisation, but these three categories still serve the purpose of understanding the different types of professional cultures in a project. This understanding will assist communication by reducing the possibility of misunderstanding. Communication between these different groups can be improved through the effort of each group understanding the values, symbols, and rituals of the other groups 14 (Edgar H Schein, 1996).
Gender The previous sections on perception, personality and culture have focused on factors that cause individuals to think and act in the way that they do: it also illustrates how each individual is unique. This is an important point to consider when building effective relationships between the project and its stakeholders: they are not all the same; they cannot be treated all the same. There is one more point of difference that needs to be considered within this chapter that is gender.
The social context of gender The more I was treated as a woman the more woman I became. I adapted willy-nilly. If it was
14 This will require the involvement of the groups that will be the recipients of the information to ensure that the message, format and content are appropriate. This will be discussed more in the next Chapter. 31
assumed to be incompetent at reversing cars or opening bottles I found myself becoming. If a case was thought too heavy for me inexplicably I found it so myself. (Morris, 2002) quoted in (Fine, 2010). We think of ourselves in terms of gender even if we dont realize it! (Fine, 2010). The social context we grow up in influences who we are, how we think, and what we do. All our social expectations and stereotypes are formed at an early age.
Gender stereotypes In the Western world the gender stereotypes fit within the framework of the following to a greater or lesser extent: Female traits: Communal personality traits, Compassionate, loves children, dependent, interpersonally sensitive, nurturing, To serve the needs of others. The male traits: Agentic personality traits 15 , Aggressive, leader, ambitious, analytical, competitive, dominant, independent and individualistic, To bend the world to your command and earn a wage for it. 16
15 The capacity to exercise control over the nature and quality of ones life: the capacity to act in the world (National Centre for Biotechnology Information). 16 This is the case for white middle-class heterosexual men (Fine, 2010). 32
Gender associations The automatic associations of categories male and female reveal that that men, more than women, are associated with science, maths, career, hierarchy and high authority: women more than men are associated with liberal, arts, family, and domesticity, egalitarianism and low authority. These associations are formed and emphasized by observations of life and the way people within a persons social group do things and enhanced by media. When we classify someone as male or female, gender stereotypes are automatically primed and this affects the perceptions of others.
Gender priming A person grows and changes in response to social environment. Each person develops a Wardrobe of Self (Fine, 2010) to match all the social identities one person can adopt 17 . Priming gender can influence a persons ideas about gender, and the appropriate Wardrobe. Research that sought to understand the effect of gender priming included a maths test with both male and female participants. Some of the participants were told that previously both women and men did well, others were told nothing. With this gender priming the group who were told that both men and women did well, did do well. But the group who did not have this information matched the stereotype of women not being good at maths. A further test reinforced gender identity by starting with a request to state sex (male/female) by ticking a box. This seemingly innocuous request has been shown to prime (reinforce) the gender stereotype:
17 My Wardrobe is: Melbourne resident, teacher, grandmother, woman, university professor, writer, Baby Boomer. Depending on which identity I need to wear I will have different approaches, perhaps use different language and tone, I will socialize in different ways. Who I am is sensitive to the social context at that moment.
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Women more confident with verbal skills and less confident with maths skills (this is the stereotype), Men succeed at maths and sciences and not so good at verbal skills. One that asks for ethnicity would have a different effect depending on the social stereotypes for the ethnic factor (Fine, 2010).
Gender stereotypes The gender stereotypes that provide the clothing for the Wardrobe of Selfare reinforced by advertising. In newspapers, magazines or television there is usually a focus on womens roles such as cooking or decorating the home, or being a tender, patient mother. Research has shown that these constant images reinforce gender stereotypes and reduce womens interest in taking on leadership roles. Women incorporate these traits into their current self-perception, making it hard to imagine themselves in male dominated professions. Even the spate of images of men as useless dunderheads around the house has built on the strength of the gender roles of the house as the womens domain.
Workplace discrimination This perception of roles and how to fulfil them spills over into the workplace though the lingering bias that places women in the role of caregivers and men as breadwinners. Even now that equal pay legislation has been enacted in many countries, particularly the Anglo-American countries, men still occupy the higher paying jobs, and women are in those roles often face 34
covert (and sometimes overt) hostility 18 .
One of the issues that women in executive roles face is the lack of role models and the minority position that they find themselves in. According to (Fine, 2010) this situation is partly caused by homophily, the tendency for people, in this case males in executive positions, to select and mix with people just like them. Homophily creates barriers to all minority workers not just women, to the extent that clients who are white males will prefer to work with white males, and exhibit resilience to working with people who are not white male. The hostility and isolation that results from this situation can causes women to be unsure about their approach, to have doubts about their own ability. And without other female executives as role models they have to battle in isolation.
Discrimination at home In the Western world, the implacable psychological force of the middle-class marital contract, still defines the roles of husband the breadwinner, working outside the home to provide financial resources for his family and the wife responsible for emotional and household labour created by the family. Even today, with modern women having more interesting and demanding work outside the home, surveys and more formal research has shown that women still bear the burden of the cooking, cleaning, rearing children, keeping everyone happy this is often referred to as the second shift. Women must adapt their career to family commitments
18 This hostility can be in the form of needing to walk the razor edge between being nice and ineffective and being effective but too aggressive. It is often seen in the names that powerful women are given by their staff the Queen, She who must be obeyed, or the Bitch. I have encountered all of this treatment in my own experiences in executive roles; but the most demeaning of all was to be called love. 35
Gender differences What is clear is that there exists in every society a mens culture and a womens culture. In masculine countries, men are supposed to deal with facts, women with feelings (Hofstede et al., 2010). In USA boys choose games that allow them to compete and excel, girls chose games for the fun of being together and for not being left out (Tannen, 2013). Boys play very differently from girls, they focus on status dimension. They usually play in larger groups in which more boys can be included and emphasize rather than downplay their status. They maintain status by displaying their abilities and knowledge, challenging others and resisting challenge. In these games one or several boys will be seen as leader or leaders.
Women focus on rapport building and speak in ways that save face for others: we, this is often interpreted as lack of confidence or lack of knowledge. According to Tannen (2013) this is the result of socialization. Girls play in games that support the relationships in much smaller groups than those of boys, and seek to downplay disagreement. In the same way, women downplay their certainties and men downplay their doubt. Women take failure personally and men much less so: sometimes even blaming others.
In feminine countries, men and women are allowed to deal with the facts and with the soft things in life. In Netherlands, for example, the research of Hofstede et al. (2010) found no significant differences in goals that children seek in playing games.
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Discourse the sharing of information In dealing with communication to stakeholders whatever category they fall into, it is essential to consider all the differences in culture that we have discussed so far. The reason that it is important to understand gender differences is the way the men and women transmit and choose to interpret information. Tannen (2013) describes these differences as Report talk the way that men communicate both formally and informally, transferring information to establish and maintain status that displays their abilities and knowledge. Rapport talk the way that women communicate both formally and informally to build and maintain connections, first validating the relationship to build rapport and then dealing with any business.
Neither of these ways of communicating is necessarily superior to the other this is just how men and women have been socialised. But it also explains why there can be misunderstandings in both formal and informal conversations where men try to fix the problem by giving advice and women want to talk about the problem without necessary needing the advice the men are seeking to provide. This will also explain the impression that many male managers have of the linguistic styles of their female colleagues. For example, women ask more questions, usually for clarification or deeper understanding: this has been interpreted by male managers as not knowing (Tannen, 1995). 19
Support for the concept that gender differences are the result of socialization of children is the information that until the end of the 19 th century all children until they were five years old were
19 And of course there is the story of how women are willing to ask for directions, and men are reluctant to do so. 37
being dressed in white dresses. When colours were introduced it was pink that was first preferred for boys; it was a stronger colour more suitable for the notion of the male being stronger and more positive. Girls were dressed in blue it was considered more delicate and dainty, befitting the role that was expected for girls in that culture 20 .
A persons approach to the world can depend on what kind of social identity is in place or the social expectations that are salient. The girl brain directs not so much a female approach to the world as a flexible context-sensitive one where connections and relationships are more important than status. These gender stereotypes are perpetuated through cultural expectations, from parents, teachers, peers and their environment, where gender is labelled by clothes, hairstyles accessories. Even when parents try to avoid gender stereotyping in the home as soon as the child goes to school or other places outside the home the socialization starts. Other children have clear views of what girls do and what boys do; teachers classify the children often organising activities for the boys and the girls; media and other advertising supports gender stereotyping; even most childrens books support the idea of boys being active and curious and of girls being passive and needing to please.
Organizational culture The final aspect of culture is the specific culture of an organization. When companies are part of international corporations their planning and control systems will be influenced by the national culture specific to the country in which this branch of the company practices, even though
20 This makes a nonsense of the idea that pink is the colour naturally preferred by girls because of the way their brain is hard-wired to love pink! In fact they are influenced from birth to choose pink as does all current society. 38
headquarters will attempt to influence decision making, processes and controls.
Different organizations will display different characteristics, depending on their structure and mission: Corporation (for profit), Not for profit, such as charities, Government Departments or agencies. Within these higher level characteristics will be other distinguishing features based on: Risk tolerance are they risk-avoiding or risk-seeking? Charter are they entrepreneurial or public-service? Who benefits shareholders? Selected groups of society? Or the public at large? Product orientation manufacturing, product sales, service providers, or a mixture? National, regional or multinational?
The culture of the organization will be formed from the mix of features: in turn the culture of the organization will influence how management is done within the organization. Part of peoples mental software consists of their ideas about what an organisation should be like, with power distance and uncertainty avoidance affecting our thinking about organizations(Hofstede et al., 2010). Understanding these dimensions requires answering two questions: Who has the power to decide what? (power distance)? What rules or procedures will be followed to attain the desired ends? (uncertainty avoidance)? Individualism and masculinity affect our thinking about people in organizations and not the 39
processes, practices and symbols of the organizations themselves. Some specific features of organizations are manifested in practices such as meetings, concepts of planning and control, and motivation theories.
Meetings Meetings in organisations with feminine characteristics are primarily for discussion of problems and seeking of solutions through consensus. In masculine cultures meetings provide opportunities for the participants to assert themselves to show how good they are. Decisions are generally made by others in other situations (not meetings). In masculine cultures the stress is on results (not the process of achieving them) and people are rewarded for performance
Planning and control Planning is important in an organization or a project to reduce uncertainty; control can be considered a form of power. The mix of the application of planning and control will vary according to the level of uncertainty avoidance and power distance for any country or organization. Planning and control systems are usually considered to be rational tools, but are really partly ritual where there will be believers and non-believers in the effectiveness of these practices (Hofstede et al., 2010).
Where power distance is high the underlying drivers will be political rather than strategic thinking. Where it is lower, controls systems that place more trust in the subordinates will be the norm. Higher uncertainty avoidance usually has the following features: It is less likely that strategic planning activities are practiced, 40
More detailed planning and more short-term feedback will be the norm, Planning is usually the domain of specialists, There is a more limited view of what information is relevant (Hofstede et al., 2010).
Theories of motivation In an earlier chapter the theories of management of Herzberg, Maslow and McGregor were discussed in terms of managing project teams. This section does not aim to repeat what has already been written but instead seeks to understand these theories in terms of the cultural dimensions of Hofstede et al. (2010) and the assumptions that may have led to the development of these theories. One assumption was that what they observed in the Western cultures was universal an assumption that has been built into most of the leadership, management and organizational development texts available today.
Herzberg assumed that his theories of extrinsic (hygiene) factors and intrinsic (motivator) factors were universal and that the job content not the job context is what makes people act. This theory fits the environment where power distance is small and uncertainty avoidance is weak, where employees do not depend on more powerful superiors to make decisions for them on a day-too- day basis.
McGregor, in developing his Theory X and Y, assumed the following: Work is good for people. It is Gods will that people should work. People's capacities should be maximally utilised. Gods will that people should use their capacities to the fullest extent. 41
There are organizational objectives that exist apart from people. People in organisations behave as unattached individuals. These assumptions could only have been developed in an individualist, masculine society such as USA, they have no application in Southeast Asia where cultural assumptions about work are: Work is a necessity but not a goal in itself. People should find their rightful place in peace and harmony with their environment. Absolute objectives exist only with God. In the world persons in authority positions represent God so their objectives should be followed. People behave as members of a family or group. Those who do not are rejected by society.
Conclusion This chapter looked at many of the factors that need to be taken into consideration when planning and implementing communication strategies to engage and influence stakeholders for the benefit of the project and the project team. The chapter described three major influences of both individuals and groups of various sizes from teams to professional groups to organisations. These influences were an individuals perceptions built from previous experiences, knowledge and an individuals personality. Both individuals and groups will be influenced by their national culture as well as the culture of the profession to which they belong and their gender. Organizations will also influence individuals and groups to the extent that the processes, practices and hierarchies affect how the work is done and how decisions are made.
The next chapter discusses elements of communication, considerations for developing strategies 42
for general and specific information sharing (communication) and factors to ensure that the time and resources spent on this complex, time-consuming but crucial activity are beneficial to the project, its stakeholders and the organizations to which they belong. 43
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