Isaac Barrow on the Mathematization of Nature: Theological Voluntarism and the Rise of

Geometrical Optics
Author(s): Antoni Malet
Source: Journal of the History of Ideas, Vol. 58, No. 2 (Apr., 1997), pp. 265-287
Published by: University of Pennsylvania Press
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I s a a c B a r r o w o n t h e
Ma t h e ma t iza t io n o f N a t u r e :
Th e o lo gic a l
Vo lu n t a r is ma n d t h e
R is e o f Ge o me t r ic a l
O p t ic s
An t o n iMa le t
I n t r o d u c t io n
I s a a c N e w t o n 's Ma t h e ma t ic a l
Pr in c ip le s o f
N a t u r a l
Ph ilo s o p h y
e m-
bo d ie s a
s t r o n g p r o gr a m
o f ma t h e ma t iza t io n t h a t
d e p a r t s
bo t h f r o mt h e
me c h a n ic a l
p h ilo s o p h y
o f Ca r t e s ia n
in s p ir a t io n
a n d f r o m
B o yle 's e xp e r i-
me n t a l
p h ilo s o p h y.
Th e r o o t s o f N e w t o n 's ma t h e ma t iza t io n o f
n a t u r e ,
t h is
p a p e r
a ims t o
d e mo n s t r a t e ,
a r e t o be f o u n d in I s a a c B a r r o w 's
(1630-77)
p h ilo s o p h y
o f t h e ma t h e ma t ic a l s c ie n c e s .
B a r r o w 's a t t it u d e t o w a r d s n a t u r a l
p h ilo s o p h y
e vo lve d f r o mh is e a r n e s t
in t e r e s t in me d ic in e o f a r o u n d
1650,
w h e n a
yo u n gCa mbr id ge gr a d u a t e ,
t o
n a t u r a l
p h ilo s o p h y (a p p a r e n t ly
u n d e r
He n r y
Mo r e 's
in f lu e n c e );
f r o mh is
t h e s is o n t h e
in s u f f ic ie n c y
o f t h e Ca r t e s ia n
h yp o t h e s is
t o
ge o me t r ic a l
o p t ic s
a n d t h e
s t r o n gp r o gr a m
o f ma t h e ma t iza t io n o f n a t u r a l
p h ilo s o p h y
o f
t h e mid d le
1660s ;
f r o mLu c a s ia n
p r o f e s s o r
o f Ma t h e ma t ic s t o
Ch a p la in
o f
h is
Ma je s t y
a n d e min e n t R e s t o r a t io n d ivin e .
Co n t e mp o r a r y
a c c o u n t s o f
B a r r o w 's lif e
s u gge s t
t h a t h e
gr e w
e ve r mo r e
s ke p t ic a l
a bo u t t h e w o r t h o f
n a t u r a l
p h ilo s o p h y
a n d ma t h e ma t ic s .' I n h is la s t
ye a r s
h e be c a me a
p r o lif ic
Fin a n c ia l
s u p p o r t
f r o mt h e
Sp a n is h
Min is t e r io d e Ed u c a c i6n
(R e s e a r c h Pr o je c t
PS89-0060),
a n d t r a ve l
gr a n t s
f r o mit a n d f r o mt h e Ca t a la n CI R I T a r e
gr a t e f u lly
a c kn o w le d ge d . My
r e s e a r c h o n t h is
p a p e r
be n e f it e d f r o ma t w o -mo n t h vis it in t h e
s u mme r o f 1991 t o t h e
His t o r y
o f Sc ie n c e R e s e a r c h I n s t it u t e o f t h e De u t s c h e s Mu s e u m,
Mu n ic h .
Ma n y
t h a n ks a r e d u e t o E.
Sa ge n g,
D.
Qu e s a d a ,
X.
R o qu e ,
a n d A. Do u f o r t h e ir
c o mme n t s o n a f ir s t d r a f t o f t h is
p a p e r ,
a n d
e s p e c ia lly
t o Pr o f e s s o r Ch a r le s C.
Gillis p ie
a n d Jo h n
He n r y.
'
Se e t h e "Lif e " w h ic h
p r e f a c e s
Th e Wo r ks
o f
I s a a c B a r r o w
(4 vo ls .; Lo n d o n ,
1683-
87),
a n d A.
Hill,
"So me Ac c o u n t o f t h e Lif e o f Dr . I s a a c
B a r r o w ,"
in Th e
Th e o lo gic a l
265
Co p yr igh t
1997
by
Jo u r n a lo f t h e
His t o r y
o f
I d e a s , I n c .
This content downloaded from 93.115.16.120 on Fri, 11 Apr 2014 09:04:21 AM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
a u t h o r o f s e r mo n s a n d
t h e o lo gic a l
w o r ks . Pu blis h e d
s h o r t ly
a f t e r h is d e a t h
by
Jo h n Tillo t s o n
(1630-94),
la t e r
a r c h bis h o p
o f
Ca n t e r bu r y, t h e y o c c u p y
o ve r t w o t h o u s a n d f o lio
p a ge s .
O ve r lo a d e d w it h in vo lve d
p h ilo s o p h ic a l
a r gu me n t s ,
B a r r o w 's s e r mo n s w e r e
a p p a r e n t ly
n o t
ve r y p o p u la r ,
bu t
t h e y
w e r e
h igh ly r e ga r d e d by
s c h o la r s a n d t h e
An glic a n h ie r a r c h y.2
I t is o n
c e r t a in o f h is
s e r mo n s ,
a s w e ll a s o n t h e
p h ilo s o p h ic a l
d is c u s s io n s c o n -
t a in e d in t h e Ma t h e ma t ic a l Le c t u r e s t h a t o u r a c c o u n t o f B a r r o w 's
p h ilo s o -
p h y
o f t h e ma t h e ma t ic a l s c ie n c e s w ill r e s t .3 B a r r o w 's
u n d e r s t a n d in g
o f t h e
ma t h e ma t ic a l s c ie n c e s w ill a llo w u s t o d is c u s s
t o ge t h e r
t h r e e is s u e s o f t e n
a n a lyze d in d e p e n d e n t ly:
t h e
t h e o lo gic a l ba c kgr o u n d
t o
En glis h
n a t u r a l
p h ilo s o p h y,
t h e
c h a n gin g
n o t io n o f mixe d ma t h e ma t ic a l s c ie n c e s
d u r in g
t h e s e ve n t e e n t h
c e n t u r y,
a n d
f in a lly
t h e
p h ilo s o p h ic a l
f o u n d a t io n s o f
mo d e r n
ge o me t r ic a l o p t ic s .
I t h a s
lo n g
be e n
r e c o gn ize d
t h a t
s ign if ic a n t r e la t io n s h ip s
e xis t be t w e e n
t h e o lo gic a l
vo lu n t a r is mo r in t e lle c t u a lis ma n d vie w s o n n a t u r a l
p h ilo s o -
p h y.
I n
p a r t ic u la r
R o be r t
B o yle 's t h e o lo gic a l
vo lu n t a r is mis s e e n a s
gr o u n d in g
h is
e xp e r ime n t a lis t a p p r o a c h
t o n a t u r a l
p h ilo s o p h y.
I t is n o t
qu it e
s o
c le a r , h o w e ve r ,
h o w w e ll
t h e o lo gic a l
vo lu n t a r is m
ma y
r e la t e t o a
s t r o n gp r o gr a m
o f ma t h e ma t iza t io n s u c h a s t h e o n e e mbo d ie d in N e w t o n 's
Pr in c ip ia
Ma t h e ma t ic a . I n f a c t it h a s be e n
s u gge s t e d
t h a t t h e
r e la t io n s h ip
is a
n e ga t ive
o n e . Th is is d e r ive d f r o mt h e
n e c e s s a r y
c h a r a c t e r o f ma t h -
e ma t ic a l
la w s ,
w h ic h w o u ld
p u t
u n w a n t e d r e s t r ic t io n s o n Go d 's a bs o lu t e
d o min io n o ve r
n a t u r e ,
a n d a ls o f r o mt h e n o t io n t h a t
t h e o lo gic a l
in t e lle c t u -
a lis mis c o n d u c ive t o a
d e d u c t ive ,
a
p r io r i
s c ie n c e -t h e
p a r a d igm
o f w h ic h
is o f c o u r s e
ge o me t r y.
Ho w e ve r ,
B a r r o w 's
t h e o lo gic a l
vo lu n t a r is mle a d
h imt o
h e igh t e n
t h e r o le o f ma t h e ma t ic s w it h in n a t u r a l
p h ilo s o p h y.
Du r in g
t h e s e ve n t e e n t h
c e n t u r y
t h e s o -c a lle d mixe d o r s u ba lt e r n a t e
ma t h e ma t ic a l s c ie n c e s
c h a n ge d p r o f o u n d ly.
I n t h e
En ligh t e n me n t
mixe d
ma t h e ma t ic s -me a n in g
a bo ve a ll r a t io n a l me c h a n ic s -be c a me o n e o f t h e
mo s t
p r e s t igio u s
a n d in f lu e n t ia l
d is c ip lin e s .
Th e mixe d ma t h e ma t ic s o f t h e
En ligh t e n me n t , h o w e ve r ,
w a s
ma r ke d ly
d if f e r e n t f r o mt h e Ar is t o t e lia n
Wo r ks
o f
I s a a c
B a r r o w ,
e d . A.
N a p ie r (9 vo ls .;
Ca mbr id ge , 1859), 1,
xxxvii-liv. Fo r
r e c e n t
bio gr a p h ic a l
s t u d ie s ,
s e e M.
Fe in go ld
a n d J. Ga s c o in e in
B e f o r e
N e w t o n : Th e
lif e
a n d t ime s
o f
I s a a c
B a r r o w ,
e d . M.
Fe in go ld (Ca mbr id ge , 1990).
2
J.
Ga s c o ign e ,
"I s a a c B a r r o w 's a c a d e mic milie u :
I n t e r r e gn u m
a n d R e s t o r a t io n
Ca mbr id ge ,"
in
B e f o r e N e w t o n ,
279-81.
3
B a r r o w 's t h r e e ma in s c ie n t if ic
w o r ks ,
w r it t e n be t w e e n 1664 a n d
1669,
a r e Ma t h -
e ma t ic a l Le c t u r e s
(1683), O p t ic a l
Le c t u r e s
(1669),
a n d Ge o me t r ic a l Le c t u r e s
(1670);
qu o t a t io n s
a r e f r o mTh e Ma t h e ma t ic a l Wo r ks
o f
I s a a c
B a r r o w ,
e d . W. Wh e w e ll
(Ca m-
br id ge , 1860).
Un le s s o t h e r w is e
s t a t e d ,
En glis h qu o t a t io n s
f r o mMa t h e ma t ic a l Le c t u r e s
w ill c o me f r o mJo h n
Kir kby's
t r a n s la t io n , Th e
Us e f u ln e s s o f
Ma t h e ma t ic a l
Le a r n in g
e xp la in e d
a n d d e mo n s t r a t e d
(Lo n d o n , 1734),
a n d
O p t ic a l
Le c t u r e s f r o mI s a a c B a r r o w 's
O p t ic a l Le c t u r e s , e d s . A. G.
B e n n e t t ,
D. F.
Ed ga r ,
t r . H. C.
Fa y (Lo n d o n , 1987).
266 An t o n iMa le t
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mixe d ma t h e ma t ic a l s c ie n c e s . Th e d if f e r e n c e s a r e n o t ic e a ble bo t h in t h e
s u bje c t
ma t t e r a n d in t h e s u bs t it u t io n o f ma t h e ma t ic a l in f in it e s ima l
a n a ly-
s is f o r
ge o me t r ic a l s yn t h e s is ,
bu t a ls o in t h e
w a y
o f
gr o u n d in g
ma t h e ma t i-
c a l
t h e o r y
o n
e mp ir ic a l
e vid e n c e . B a r r o w 's Ma t h e ma t ic a l Le c t u r e s
(d e liv-
e r e d a t
Ca mbr id ge
f r o m1664 t o
1666)
o f f e r a f r e s h
in s igh t
in t o t h e
me t a mo r p h o s is
o f t h e s e s c ie n c e s
ju s t
w h e n N e w t o n 's "ma t h e ma t ic a l
p r in -
c ip le s "
w e r e in t h e
ma kin g.
N o t t h e le a s t
in t e r e s t in g
f e a t u r e o f B a r r o w 's
d is c u s s io n is t h a t Go d 's
o mn ip o t e n c e
a llo w s a n e va lu a t io n o f t h e t r u t h o f
ma t h e ma t ic a l t h e o r ie s t h a t d o n o t
a p p ly
t o t h is w o r ld .
Th e r e f o r e ,
B a r r o w is
le d t o in t r o d u c e t h e d is t in c t io n be t w e e n t h e in t e r n a l
c o n s is t e n c y,
o r ma t h -
e ma t ic a l
t r u t h ,
o f a ma t h e ma t ic a l
t h e o r y
a n d it s
p h ys ic a l
t r u t h .
Th is ,
in
t u r n ,
le a d s h imt o t h e n o t io n t h a t t h e o r ie s n e e d
t e s t in g.
B a r r o w o n Ma t t e r a n d Go d
R e c e n t lit e r a t u r e h a s e s t a blis h e d
s ign if ic a n t
c o r r e la t io n s be t w e e n t h e o -
lo gic a l
vo lu n t a r is ma n d
e mp ir ic is m,
a s w e ll a s be t w e e n
t h e o lo gic a l
in t e l-
le c t u a lis ma n d r a t io n a lis m. As E. B . Da vis
w r it e s ,
"t h e Ch r is t ia n d o c t r in e
o f c r e a t io n is a
d ia lo gu e
be t w e e n Go d 's u n c o n s t r a in e d
w ill,
w h ic h
u t t e r ly
t r a n s c e n d s t h e bo u n d s o f h u ma n
c o mp r e h e n s io n ,
a n d Go d 's
o r d e r ly
in t e l-
le c t ,
w h ic h s e r ve s a s t h e mo d e l f o r t h e h u ma n min d ." I n t e lle c t u a lis t
t h e o lo gy
c o n s id e r s Go d 's o mn is c ie n c e His
p r ima r y
a t t r ibu t e . He c a n d o
w h a t e ve r He
p le a s e s ,
bu t He
o n ly
a c t s
a c c o r d in g
t o His in f in it e w is d o m
a n d
go o d n e s s .
His o mn is c ie n c e
gu id e s
His
o mn ip o t e n c e ,
a n d t h e la w s o f
n a t u r e
e xp r e s s
t h e o r d e r a n d
p e r f e c t io n
Go d 's w o r ks
n e c e s s a r ily
h a ve .
Vo lu n t a r is t
t h e o lo gy
c o n s id e r s
o mn ip o t e n c e
t o be Go d 's
p r ima r y
a t t r ibu t e .
His a c t io n s kn o w n o c o n s t r a in s s h o r t o f
lo gic a l
c o n t r a d ic t io n . His c r e a t io n
n e e d s n o t t o
e xp r e s s
a
u n iqu e , p e r f e c t
o r d e r . Go d
migh t
h a ve c r e a t e d a
ve r y
d if f e r e n t
w o r ld ,
e n d o w e d w it h o t h e r n a t u r a l la w s -t h e vo lu n t a r is t h a s n o
qu a lms
a bo u t t h e e xis t e n c e o f w o r ld s d if f e r e n t f r o mo u r o w n . Th e vo lu n t a -
r is t is a ls o
p r o n e
t o s t r e s s t h e n o n me d ia t e d c h a r a c t e r o f t h e
r e la t io n s h ip
be t w e e n Go d a n d His c r e a t io n a n d t o
d is p e n s e
w it h
me d ia t in g a ge n c ie s
be t w e e n bo t h .
Ta ke n t o t h e
limit ,
t h is vie w le a d s t o r a d ic a l
s u p e r n a t u r a lis m,
t h a t
is ,
t o
d e n yin g
t h a t
s e c o n d a r y
c a u s e s w o r k a t a ll. Th is vie w u n d e r s t a n d s
mir a c le s t o be u n u s u a l ma n if e s t a t io n s o f Go d 's
w ill,
r a t h e r t h a n Go d -
in d u c e d mo d if ic a t io n s o f n a t u r e 's c a u s a l c h a in s .4 Th e r o le o f
t h e o lo gic a l
4 Se e F.
O a kle y, O mn ip o t e n c e , Co ve n a n t ,
a n d O r d e r : An Exc u r s io n in t h e
His t o r y
o f
I d e a s
f r o m
Abe la r d t o Le ibn iz
(Lo n d o n , e t c ., 1984);
a n d "Ch r is t ia n
Th e o lo gy
a n d t h e
N e w t o n ia n Sc ie n c e : Th e R is e o f t h e
Co n c e p t
o f t h e La w s o f
N a t u r e ,"
Ch u r c h
His t o r y,
30
(1961), 433-57;
K.
Hu t c h is o n ,
"Su p e r n a t u r a lis m
a n d t h e Me c h a n ic a l
Ph ilo s o p h y,"
His t o r y o f Sc ie n c e ,
21
(1983), 297-333;
E. B .
Da vis , "Th e u s e s o f vo lu n t a r is t
t h e o lo gy
I s a a c B a r r o w 267
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vo lu n t a r is min
f o s t e r in ge mp ir ic is m
a n d
e xp e r ime n t a lis m
in s o me
a u t h o r s ,
in c lu d in g B o yle ,
Ch a r le t o n , Ga s s e n d i,
a n d
N e w t o n ,
is w e ll e s t a blis h e d .5
B a r r o w 's vo lu n t a r is ma ls o
p la ye d
a
ke y
r o le in h is
c o n c e p t u a liza t io n
o f a
s t r o n g p r o gr a m
o f ma t h e ma t iza t io n o f n a t u r a l
p h ilo s o p h y
t h a t e n t a ils
r a d ic a l
c h a n ge s
in t h e
ve r y
n o t io n o f "ma t h e ma t ic a l s c ie n c e ." Th e
ma n y
t h in ke r s w h o
gr o u n d e d
t h e ir n a t u r a l
p h ilo s o p h ie s
o n t h e in vo c a t io n o f
va r io u s a t t r ibu t e s o f Go d w e r e
ju s t r e s p o n d in g
t o t h e
p r in c ip le e xp lic it
in
N e w t o n 's
f r a gme n t a r y h is t o r y
o f s c ie n c e -t h a t
"kn o w le d ge
o f Go d s w o r ks
t h r ive d in t h o s e
e p o c h s
in w h ic h t h e r e w a s a t r u e
c o n c e p t io n
o f t h e
De it y;
a n d
c o n ve r s e ly...."6
B a r r o w t a ke s f o r
gr a n t e d
t h a t s c ie n t if ic d e mo n s t r a t io n
r e qu ir e s
"n e c e s -
s it y"
w h ile h e
c r it ic a lly e xp lo r e s
t h e n o t io n o f
c a u s a lit y, e ve n t u a lly d e n y-
in g
t h a t s c ie n t if ic
kn o w le d ge
a bo u t t h e
s e c o n d a r y
o r e f f ic ie n t c a u s e s is
a t t a in a ble . I n
c o n t r a d is t in c t io n ,
f o r ma l
c a u s a lit y,
id e n t if ie d w it h ma t h -
e ma t ic a l
d e mo n s t r a t io n ,
is h e ld t o be mo s t
p r o p e r
t o n a t u r a l
p h ilo s o p h y,
f o r
o n ly
ma t h e ma t ic a l d e mo n s t r a t io n s e s t a blis h
n e c e s s a r y
c o n n e c t io n s
be t w e e n
p r in c ip le s
a n d r e s u lt s .
B a r r o w 's a t t a c k o n t h e n o t io n o f e f f ic ie n t
c a u s a lit y
in t r o d u c e s a
s u p e r -
n a t u r a lis t ic
u n d e r s t a n d in g
o f n a t u r e 's
p h ys ic a l
e f f e c t s . Give n Go d 's d e c i-
s ive r o le in t h e
d a y-t o -d a y w o r kin g
o f h is
c r e a t io n ,
h is "f r e e -w ill a n d
p o w e r " p r e c lu d e
u s f r o m
a t t r ibu t in gn e c e s s it y
t o
a n y
w o u ld -be e f f ic ie n t
c a u s a l c o n n e c t io n :
Fo r t h e r e c a n be n o s u c h c o n n e c t io n o f a n
e xt e r n a l,
e x.
gr .
e f f ic ie n t
c a u s e w it h it s
e f f e c t , (a t
le a s t n o n e s u c h c a n be u n d e r s t o o d
by u s )
t h r o u gh
w h ic h ,
s t r ic t ly s p e a kin g,
t h e e f f e c t is
n e c e s s a r ily s u p p o s e d
in
17t h -c e n t u r y
s c ie n c e ,"
Pr o c e e d in gs
o f t h e I n t e r n a t io n a l
Co n f e r e n c e
o n Sc ie n c e a n d
B e lie f (Pa s c a l
Ce n t r e f o r Ad va n c e d St u d ie s in Fa it h a n d
Sc ie n c e , La n c a s t e r ,
Au gu s t
1992,
f o r t h c o min g), qu o t a t io n
c o me s f r o m
p .
3.
5
J. E.
Mc Gu ir e ,
"B o yle 's Co n c e p t io n
o f N a t u r e ," JHI ,
33
(1972), 523-42;
J.
He n r y,
"He n r y
Mo r e ve r s u s R o be r t
B o yle :
Th e
Sp ir it
o f N a t u r e a n d t h e N a t u r e o f
Pr o vid e n c e ,"
in
He n r y
Mo r e
(1614-1687),
e d . S. Hu t t o n
(Do r d r e c h t , 1990), 55-76;
S.
Sh a p in ,
"R o be r t
B o yle
a n d Ma t h e ma t ic s :
R e a lit y, R e p r e s e n t a t io n ,
a n d
Exp e r ime n t a l
Pr a c t ic e ,"
Sc ie n c e
in
Co n t e xt ,
2
(1988), 32-58;
M.
O s le r ,
"Th e I n t e lle c t u a l So u r c e s o f R o be r t
B o yle 's
Ph ilo s o p h y
o f N a t u r e : Ga s s e n d i's Vo lu n t a r is ma n d
B o yle 's Ph ys ic o t h e o lo gic a l
Pr o -
je c t ,"
in
Ph ilo s o p h y,
Sc ie n c e a n d
R e ligio n
in
En gla n d 1640-1700,
e d s . R .
Kr o ll,
e t a l.
(Ca mbr id ge , 1992), 178-98;
"Pr o vid e n c e a n d Divin e Will: Ga s s e n d i's Vie w s o n Sc ie n -
t if ic
Kn o w le d ge ,"
JHI ,
44
(1983), 549-60; "Fo r t u n e , Fa t e ,
a n d Divin a t io n : Ga s s e n d i's
Vo lu n t a r is t
Th e o lo gy
a n d t h e
B a p t is m
o f
Ep ic u r e a n is m,"
in
At o ms , Pn e u ma ,
a n d Tr a n -
qu illit y,
e d . M. J. O s le r
(Ca mbr id ge , 1991), 155-74;
"Et e r n a l Tr u t h s a n d t h e La w s o f
N a t u r e : Th e
Th e o lo gic a l
Fo u n d a t io n s o f De s c a r t e s 's
Ph ilo s o p h y
o f
N a t u r e ," JHI ,
46
(1985), 349-62;
J. E.
Fo r c e ,
R . H.
Po p kin , Es s a ys
o n t h e
Co n t e xt ,
N a t u r e a n d
I n f lu e n c e
o f
I s a a c N e w t o n 's
Th e o lo gy (Do r d r e c h t , 1990);
D.
Ku br in ,
"N e w t o n a n d t h e
Cyc lic a l
Co s mo s : Pr o vid e n c e a n d t h e Me c h a n ic a l
Ph ilo s o p h y,"
JHI ,
28
(1967),
325-46.
6
F. E.
Ma n u e l,
Th e
R e ligio n o f
I s a a c N e w t o n
(O xf o r d , 1974),
42.
268 An t o n i Ma le t
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I s a a c B a r r o w
by
t h e
s u p p o s it io n
o f t h e e f f ic ie n t
c a u s e ;
o r
a n y
d e t e r min a t e c a u s e
by
t h e
s u p p o s it io n
o f t h e e f f e c t .
N a y
t h e r e c a n be n o e f f ic ie n t c a u s e
in t h e n a t u r e o f
t h in gs
o f a
p h ilo s o p h ic a l
c o n s id e r a t io n w h ic h is
a lt o ge t h e r n e c e s s a r y.
Fo r
e ve r y
a c t io n o f a n e f f ic ie n t c a u s e ...
d e p e n d s u p o n
t h e f r e e -w ill a n d
p o w e r
[libe r r ima vo lu n t a t e ,
s u mma qu e p o t e s t a t e ]
o f
Almigh t y
Go d ,
w h o c a n h in d e r t h e in f lu x
a n d
e f f ic a c y
o f
a n y
c a u s e a t h is
p le a s u r e ;
n e it h e r is t h e r e
a n y
e f f e c t
s o c o n f in e d t o o n e
c a u s e ,
bu t it
ma y
be
p r o d u c e d by p e r h a p s
in n u me r a ble o t h e r s . He n c e it is
p o s s ible
t h a t t h e r e
ma y
be s u c h a
c a u s e w it h o u t a
s u bs e qu e n t
e f f e c t ,
o r s u c h a n e f f e c t a n d n o
p e c u lia r
c a u s e t o a f f o r d
a n y t h in g
t o it s e xis t e n c e . Th e r e c a n t h e r e f o r e be n o
a r gu me n t a t io n
f r o ma n e f f ic ie n t c a u s e t o t h e
e f f e c t ,
o r
c o n t r a r ily
f r o ma n e f f e c t t o t h e
c a u s e ,
w h ic h is
la w f u lly n e c e s s a r y.7
I n B a r r o w 's in t e lle c t u a l c o n t e xt
"e xt e r n a l,
e f f ic ie n t "
c a u s a lit y
me a n t
me c h a n ic a l
c a u s a lit y-t h e
d ir e c t a c t io n o f ma t t e r in mo t io n
u p o n
ma t t e r .
B a r r o w 's
p o s it io n
is illu s t r a t e d w it h "t h a t mo s t c e le br a t e d a n d t r it e e x-
a mp le ,"
t a ke n f r o mAr is t o t e lia n
t e xt bo o ks ,
o f t h e e a r t h 's
bo d y be in g
t h e
e f f ic ie n t c a u s e o f a mo o n 's
e c lip s e .
B a r r o w
d is a gr e e s .
Th e r e is n o n e c e s -
s a r y c a u s a lit y
in vo lve d
h e r e ,
h e
s a ys ,
f o r ,
if Go d
p le a s e ,
t h e s o la r
r a ys ma y p a s s t h r o u gh
t h e
bo d y
o f t h e
e a r t h ,
o r r e a c h t h e mo o n
by
a n in d ir e c t
p a s s a ge
w it h o u t
t o u c h in g
t h e
e a r t h ;
o r o t h e r w is e t h e mo o n
ma y
be
e n ligh t e n e d
s o me o t h e r
w a y: n a y
t h e s u n it s e lf d o e s n o t in f e r
ligh t ;
f o r a t t h e d e a t h o f o u r
Lo r d ... t h e s u n a s if s t r u c k w it h f e a r a n d c o n f o u n d e d w it h
s h a me ,
d r e w in h is
r a ys ,
a n d h id h is
f a c e ,
a n d e ve n a t
n o o n -d a y
s u f f e r e d a n
e c lip s e ,
w it h o u t
a n y
mo o n t o
in t e r c e p t
h is
ligh t ....
A d e f e c t o f
ligh t
t h e n c a n n o t be c o n c lu d e d f r o mt h e
in t e r p o s it io n
o f a n
o p a qu e
bo d y,
n o r t h is f r o mt h a t .8
Sin c e w e c a n n o t kn o w h o w Go d t a ke s c a r e o f t h e
w o r ld ,
t r u e
e xp la n a -
t io n s o f t h e r e a l me c h a n is ms be h in d t h e w o r ks o f n a t u r e a r e
imp o s s ible :
B e c a u s e t h e r e f o r e t h e
e f f ic a c y
o f
a ge n t s ma y
be
s t o p p e d ,
o r
c h a n ge d ,
a n d
e ve r y
e f f e c t
ma y p r o c e e d
f r o mva r io u s
c a u s e s ,
t h e r e
c a n be n o d e mo n s t r a t io n f r o ma n e f f ic ie n t
c a u s e ,
o r f r o ma n e f f e c t .
B a r r o w a llo w s t h a t
r e gu la r it ie s
in n a t u r e
ma y s u gge s t
t h a t e f f ic ie n t s e c o n d
c a u s e s d o
a c t u a lly
w o r k. Ye t
r e gu la r it ie s
d o n o t
imp ly
r e a l c a u s a l c o n n e c -
7
Us e f u ln e s s o f
Ma t h e ma t ic a l
Le a r n in g,
88-89.
8
I bid .,
89-90.
269
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All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
t io n s .9 Go d 's d ir e c t in f lu e n c e o n
p h ys ic a l
e f f e c t s a ls o e n s u r e s t h e "c o n -
s t a n c y"
o f n a t u r e . Wh e n
p r o p o s it io n s
a r e c o n f ir me d
by
a f e w
r e p e a t e d
e xp e r ime n t s , t h e y
c a n be t a ke n t o be
u n ive r s a lly
t r u e ,
a n d n o t
s u s p e c t
t h a t
N a t u r e is
in c o n s t a n t ,
a n d t h e
gr e a t
Au t h o r o f t h e Un ive r s e u n like h ims e lf .'0
B a r r o w 's Go d
p e r va d e s
s o
in t ima t e ly
t h e w o r ld t h a t h is a c t io n
u p o n
it
is B a r r o w 's illu s t r a t io n f o r t h e u n io n o f h u ma n s o u l a n d
bo d y-a me t a p h o r
N e w t o n u s e d a s w e ll:
As
He ,
in a ma n n e r
be yo n d
o u r
c o n c e p t io n
... d o t h c o e xis t
w it h ,
p e n e t r a t e s ,
a n d
p a s s e t h t h r o u gh
a ll
t h in gs ;
So is
[t h e s o u l],
in a
ma n n e r a ls o
u n c o n c e iva ble ,
e ve r y
w h e r e
p r e s e n t
w it h in h e r
bo u n d s ,
a n d
p e n e t r a t e s
a ll t h e d ime n s io n s o f h e r lit t le
w o r ld ."I
Go d 's c a t h o lic in t e r ve n t io n in t h is w o r ld t a ke s B a r r o w t o t h e br in k o f
blu r r in g
t h e d is t in c t io n be t w e e n
ge n e r a l
a n d
s p e c ia l p r o vid e n c e -a p r o mi-
n e n t
f e a t u r e ,
Ja me s Fo r c e h a s
f o u n d ,
o f
e a r ly e igh t e e n t h -c e n t u r y
N e w -
t o n ia n
a p o lo gy.
B e c a u s e
p r o vid e n c e
is d if f ic u lt t o
r e c o gn ize ,
B a r r o w
d e vo t e d o n e s e r mo n t o d e s c r ibe it s a c t io n . "Th e
s p e c ia l
Pr o vid e n c e o f
Go d ,"
s a ys
B a r r o w ,
"is in d e e d
c o mmo n ly
n o t d is c e r n ible w it h o u t
go o d
ju d gme n t
a n d
gr e a t
c a r e ;...
t h e t r a c t s
[o f
t h e
s p e c ia l Pr o vid e n c e ]
a r e t o o
f in e a n d s u bt ile t o be d e s c r ie d
by
a d imme
s igh t ."12
As B a r r o w
s a ys
e ls e w h e r e ,
d ivin e a n d h u ma n e
a ge n c y
a r e s o kn it a n d t w is t e d o n e w it h t h e
o t h e r ,
t h a t it is n o t e a s ie t o d is c r imin a t e
t h e m,
s o a s t o s e ve r t h e
bo u n d s o f c o mmo n a n d
s p e c ia l p r o vid e n c e ....'3
B a r r o w
me n t io n s ,
a mo n g
Go d 's
p r o p e r t ie s , "in s e n s ibilit y,"
"c o e xis t -
in g
w it h
ma t t e r ,"
a n d
"p e n e t r a t in gbo d y."14
Th e r e is
n o t h in g
ma t e r ia l in
9
I bid .,
90.
1' I bid .,
74. N e w t o n w ill s e c u la r ize t h is id e a in h is f a mo u s r e ma r k a bo u t n a t u r e
be in g
"w o n t t o be
s imp le
a n d
a lw a ys
c o n s o n a n t t o
it s e lf ";
c f . E.
Mc Mu llin , N e w t o n o n
Ma t t e r a n d
Ac t ivit y (N o t r e Da me , 1978),
13-20.
" "Th e
B e in g
o f Go d Pr o ve d f r o mt h e Fr a me o f Hu ma n N a t u r e ," Wo r ks , I I ,
105.
N e w t o n s e t f o r t h t h e n o t io n t h a t Go d c a n mo ve bo d ie s in in f in it e
s p a c e
a s s o u ls mo ve
h u ma n bo d ie s in h is De
gr a vit a t io n e ;
s e e ,
Un p u blis h e d Sc ie n t if ic Pa p e r s o f
I s a a c
N e w t o n ,
e d s . A. R . Ha ll a n d M. B . Ha ll
(Ca mbr id ge , 1962),
141-43. E. B .
Da vis ,
"N e w t o n 's
R e je c t io n
o f t h e 'N e w t o n ia n Wo r ld Vie w ': Th e R o le o f Divin e Will in
N e w t o n 's N a t u r a l
Ph ilo s o p h y,"
Sc ie n c e a n d Ch r is t ia n
B e lie f ,
3
(1991), 103-17,
s h o w s
t h a t t h e
me t a p h o r r e a p p e a r s
in
ma n y p la c e s
in N e w t o n 's
p a p e r s .
12 "A Se r mo n o n t h e
Gu n p o w d e r Tr e a s o n ," Wo r ks , I ,
144. Se e
Es s a ys
o n N e w t o n 's
Th e o lo gy,
144-49.
13 "Th e u n s e a r c h a ble n e s s o f Go d 's
Ju d gme n t s ,"
Wo r ks , I I I ,
263. Se e a ls o "Th e
B e in g
o f Go d Pr o ve d f r o m
Su p e r n a t u r a lEf f e c t s ," ibid ., I I ,
128-29.
14
I bid ., I I ,
130.
270 An t o n i Ma le t
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Go d 's
w a y
o f
a c t in g u p o n
ma t t e r ,
w h ic h is
u t t e r ly p a s s ive
a n d a c t e d
u p o n
by
Go d in in s c r u t a ble
w a ys .
He a c t s
"by
me r e w ill a n d c o mma n d "-a
ke y
n o t io n a s w e ll in N e w t o n 's De
gr a vit a t io n e .
"He
in c o mp r e h e n s ibly by
a
w o r d o f h is
min d ,
o r
by
a me r e a c t o f w ill d o t h mo ve t h e w h o le f r a me o r
a n y p a r t
o f n a t u r e ."'5 Go d t h e r e f o r e
p e r f o r ms
mir a c le s w it h t h e s a me
a c t io n s t h a t He t a ke s c a r e o f t h e w o r ld :
w it h o u t
a n y p r e p a r a t o r y d is p o s it io n s
in d u c e d in t o t h e
s u s c ip ie n t
ma t t e r ,
in t h e s a me ma n n e r
by
me r e
w illin g, s a yin g,
o r c o mma n d -
in g....
Go d u s e s n o o t h e r
me a n s ,
in s t r u me n t s o r
a p p lic a t io n s
in
t h e s e
p r o d u c t io n s ,
t h a n h is ba r e w o r d o r c o mma n d .'6
B a r r o w 's mir a c le s d o n o t
imp ly br e a kin g a n y
ma t e r ia l,
c a u s a l c o n n e c t io n
in n a t u r e . Th is
n o t io n ,
w h ic h
p la ye d
a
ke y
r o le in t h e Le ibn iz-Cla r ke
c o r r e s p o n d e n c e ,
c o in c id e s w it h N e w t o n 's vie w s o n mir a c le s .'7
Th e
a c t io n s , w o r ks ,
a n d a ims o f B a r r o w 's Go d a r e
h o p e le s s ly be yo n d
o u r
gr a s p .
His
p o w e r ,
w h ic h "is
in c o mp r e h e n s ibly gr e a t ,
a n d e xc e e d e t h a ll
d e f in it e
limit s ,"'8
c a n n o t be me a s u r e d
by
t h e limit e d
c o mp a s s
o f o u r
e xp e r ie n c e :
[T]h e r e ma y
be f o r a ll t h a t w e ... c a n
by a n y
me a n s
kn o w ,
a ge n t s
o f
a n o t h e r
s o r t ,
a n d
p o w e r s
in ma n n e r o f
e f f ic a c y
mu c h
d if f e r in g
f r o ma ll t h o s e w h ic h c o me w it h in t h e n a r r o w
c o mp a s s
o f o u r
o bs e r va t io n .
Es p e c ia lly
t o
ima gin e ,
t h a t t h e
s u p r e me B e in g
...
c a n n o t h ims e lf a c t o t h e r w is e t h a n w e s e e t h o s e in f e r io u r
t h in gs
...
d o
a c t ,
is
gr o s ly
va in a n d u n r e a s o n a ble : I t is
imp o s s ible (s a ys
S.
Ch r ys o s t o me w e ll) f o r
ma n 's n a t u r e
by
c u r io u s
in qu ir y
t o
p e n -
e t r a t e t h e
w o r kma n s h ip o f
Go d .... I n
f in e ,
n o t h in g
is mo r e r e a s o n -
a ble t h a n t o
c o n f e s s ,
t h a t o u r r e a s o n c a n n o -w is e r e a c h t h e e xt e n t
o f a ll
p o w e r s ,
a n d a ll
p o s s ibilit ie s ;
a n d t h a t w e mu c h ... d o t r a n s -
15
"Th e
B e in g
o f Go d Pr o ve d f r o mt h e Fr a me o f Hu ma n
N a t u r e ," ibid ., I I ,
105.
16
"Ma ke r o f He a ve n a n d
Ea r t h ," ibid ., I I ,
178-79. B a r r o w in s is t s o n t h is n o t io n o n
p a ge
184.
Co mp a r e
w it h
N e w t o n , Un p u blis h e d Sc ie n t if ic Pa p e r s ,
138-41. Fo r in s t a n c e :
"it mu s t be
a gr e e d
t h a t
Go d ,
by
t h e s o le a c t io n o f
t h in kin g
a n d
w illin g,
c a n
p r e ve n t
a
bo d y
f r o m
p e n e t r a t in ga n y s p a c e
d e f in e d
by
Ce r t a in limit s "
(ibid ., 139).
17
Se e E. B . Da vis 's "N e w t o n 's
R e je c t io n
o f t h e 'N e w t o n ia n Wo r ld
Vie w ,'"
114-
16. Fr o ma
ma n u s c r ip t
o f N e w t o n 's
ke p t
a t t h e
Le h igh Un ive r s it y libr a r y,
Da vis
qu o t e s
t h e
f o llo w in g f r a gme n t :
"Fo r Mir a c le s a r e s o c a lle d n o t be c a u s e
t h e y
a r e t h e w o r ks o f
Go d bu t be c a u s e
t h e y h a p p e n
s e ld o ma n d f o r t h a t r e a s o n c r e a t e w o n d e r ...." Se e a ls o , Sir
I s a a c N e w t o n
Th e o lo gic a l Ma n u s c r ip t s ,
e d . H. Mc La c h la n
(Live r p o o l, 1950), 17-18;
a n d H. Gu e r la c a n d M. C.
Ja c o b,
"B e n t le y,
N e w t o n ,
a n d Pr o vid e n c e
(Th e B o yle
Le c t u r e s O n c e
Mo r e )," JHI ,
30
(1969),
307-18.
18 "Th e Fa t h e r
Almigh t y," Wo r ks , I I ,
157.
I s a a c B a r r o w 271
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gr e s s
o u r me a s u r e s a n d
bo u n d s ,
if w e
p r e t e n d
t o kn o w w h a t
t h in gs
Go d is a ble t o
p r o d u c e ,
o r h o w h e d o e s
p r o d u c e a n y.19
B a r r o w 's ma t t e r is
u t t e r ly p a s s ive , c o mp le t e ly
d e vo id o f
a n y "p o w e r
o f
mo vin g
it s e lf ,"
a n d a
f o r t io r i
o f
a n y "kn o w le d ge ,
o r
a p p e t it e
o r
p a s s io n ."
Th e
p r o p e r t ie s
o f
"t h in g c o r p o r e a l
a r e
e xt e n s io n ...;
a p t n e s s
t o r e c e ive
mo t io n
f r o m,
o r t o
imp a r t
mo t io n u n t o e a c h
o t h e r ...;
t o
d ivid e ,
a n d
u n it e ,
o r t o be
d ivid e d ,
a n d u n it e d a n d s o
t h e y
a r e
a lt o ge t h e r
d if f e r e n t f r o mt h e
p r o p e r t ie s
o f t h e
s o u l,
w h ic h r e f e r t o
"w a ys
o f
kn o w le d ge ...,
o f
w illin g...,
o f
p a s s io n ...,
o f
a vTO Kivr La t a
o r
s e lf -mo vin g (t h e p o w e r
a n d a c t o f
mo vin g
w it h o u t
a n y
f o r c e e xt r in s e c a l
w o r kin g u p o n it .)"20
Wh e n c e it
c o me s t h e ir
ir r e d u c ibilit y:
Le t
a n y p a r t
o f t h is
c o r p o r e a l
ma s s be r e f in e d
by
t h e s u bt le s t
d ivis io n ,
le t it be
a git a t e d by
t h e
qu ic ke s t
mo t io n ,
le t it be
mo d e ll'd in t o w h a t
s h a p e
o r f a s h io n
yo u p le a s e ,
h o w c a n
a n y
ma n
ima gin e
e it h e r
kn o w le d ge ,
o r
a p p e t it e ,
o r
p a s s io n
t h e n c e t o r e s u lt ?
o r t h a t it s h o u ld t h e n c e
a d qu ir e
a
p o w e r
o f
mo vin g
it s e lf ...? Eve n
... t h is in f e r io r lo c o mo t ive
f a c u lt y
is t o o
h igh
f o r ma t t e r
by a n y
c h a n ge
it c a n
u n d e r go
t o o bt a in .21
Go d ,
s a ys B a r r o w ,
c a n
"p r o d u c e ,
a n d in s e r t a n a c t ive
p r in c ip le
in t o
ma t t e r ... d is t in c t f r o m
ma t t e r ,
w h ic h
d is p o s e t h ,
a n d d e t e r min e t h it t o t h e
p r o d u c t io n
o f s u c h e f f e c t s
[a s
t h e s e min a l
p r o p a ga t io n
a n d n u t r it io n o f
p la n t s ,
a n d t h e
ge n e r a t io n ,
mo t io n , s e n s e ,
f a n c y, a p p e t it e , p a s s io n
o f
a n ima ls ]."22
As
o p p o s e d
t o
"p la s t ic
n a t u r e s ,"
w h ic h w e r e
e xp lic it ly
d e -
f in e d a s imma t e r ia l
s u bs t a n c e s ,
"a c t ive
p r in c ip le s "
c o u ld be u s e d w it h o u t
c la r if yin g
t h e ir
o n t o lo gic a l
s t a t u s . B a r r o w u s e d "a c t ive
p r in c ip le s "
bo t h t o
h igh ligh t
ma t t e r 's
p a s s ivit y
a n d a s a
w a y
t o
s e p a r a t e
h ims e lf f r o mt h e
Ca mbr id ge
Pla t o n is t s . B a r r o w 's Go d d id c r e a t e "imma t e r ia l
be in gs ,
o r
s imp le ,
a n d
u n c o mp o u n d e d
s u bs t a n c e s d is t in c t f r o m
ma t t e r ,
s u c h a s An -
ge ls ,
a n d t h e s o u ls o f me n ."23 Ye t t h e r e is n o
s u gge s t io n
t h a t
s p ir it s
(a lw a ys
id e n t if ie d w it h
a n ge ls
a n d h u ma n
s o u ls )
o r a
"p la s t ic
n a t u r e " c a u s e
p h ys ic a l
e f f e c t s . O n t h e
c o n t r a r y
it is
s t r o n gly s u gge s t e d
in
ma n y p la c e s
t h a t Go d is
d ir e c t ly r e s p o n s ible
f o r t h e m.
Go d ,
B a r r o w s a id in o n e o f t h e
f e w in s t a n c e s w h e r e h e u s e d me c h a n ic a l
a n a lo gie s ,
'9 "Ma ke r o f He a ve n a n d
Ea r t h ," ibid ., I I ,
175-76
(B a r r o w 's e mp h a s is ).
20
"Th e
B e in g
o f Go d Pr o ve d f r o mt h e Fr a me o f Hu ma n
N a t u r e ," ibid ., I I ,
103.
21
I bid .
22
I bid .,
178.
23
I bid .
272 An t o n i Ma le t
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by
a n o d o f h is
h e a d ,
by
a
w h is p e r
o f h is
mo u t h ,
by
a t u r n o f h is
h a n d ,
h e d o t h e f f e c t h is
p u r p o s e s : w in d in g u p
a c lo s e
s p r in g,
h e
s e t t e t h t h e
gr e a t e s t
w h e e ls in
mo t io n ,
a n d
t h r u s t in g
in a n in s e n s ible
s p o ke
h e
s t o p p e t h
t h e
gr e a t e s t
w h e e ls in t h e ir
c a r r ie r e ;
in je c t in g
a
t h o u gh t , e xc it in g
a
h u mo u r ,
p r e s e n t in g
a n
o c c a s io n ...,
h e
br in ge t h
a bo u t t h e mo s t n o t a ble e ve n t s .24
B a r r o w 's w o r d s s o u n d like a
r e p ly
t o t h e
Ca mbr id ge
Pla t o n is t 's t h e s is
t h a t a
h yla r c h ic s p ir it
d o e s a c t a s "Go d 's
vic e ge r e n t "
o n
p a s s ive
ma t t e r .
Th e y migh t
h a ve be e n in t e n d e d a s s u c h -a
r e p ly
bo t h t o a t h e s is
He n r y
Mo r e s t ill
e mbr a c e d ,
a n d t o a n o t io n B a r r o w h ims e lf h a d e n t e r t a in e d
t w e n t y ye a r s
be f o r e . I n t h e
e a r ly
1650s B a r r o w e mbr a c e d Mo r e 's vie w s o n
De s c a r t e s ,
c r it ic ize d Ca r t e s ia n is m's ma t e r ia lis t ic
imp lic a t io n s ,
a n d
s u g-
ge s t e d
t h a t a
"s p ir it
o f n a t u r e " w a s t h e s o u r c e o f
c h a n ge
in Ca r t e s ia n
ma t t e r . O ve r a d e c a d e la t e r B a r r o w 's vie w s mu s t h a ve
a lr e a d y
be e n
d if f e r e n t f r o m
Mo r e 's ,
s t ill
t e a c h in g
a t
Ca mbr id ge
h is o w n ve r s io n o f t h e
Ca r t e s ia n
p h ilo s o p h y.
B a r r o w a n d Mo r e
s h a r e d , h o w e ve r ,
a c o n c e r n f o r
o f f e r in g
a
"B o d y
o f N a t u r a l
Ph ilo s o p h y"
a s a n "e f f e c t u a l a n t id o t e " t o
me c h a n ic is m.25
I n t h e
ba c kgr o u n d
t o B a r r o w 's vie w s o n ma t t e r a n d Go d w e
ma y
d is c e r n a t le a s t t w o in t e lle c t u a l
d e ve lo p me n t s .
O n t h e o n e
h a n d ,
a s Jo h n
He n r y
h a s
r e c e n t ly a r gu e d , s e ve n t e e n t h -c e n t u r y En glis h
n a t u r a l
p h ilo s o -
p h y
w a s
la r ge ly
in n o c e n t o f t h e
p h ilo s o p h ic a l
bia s w h ic h
ign o r e d
a ll
p h ys ic a l c a u s a lit y
n o t r e d u c ible t o t h e t r a n s mis s io n o f mo t io n
by
d ir e c t
ma t e r ia l c o n t a c t be t w e e n in e r t
ma t t e r ,
a n d w h ic h c a me t o d o min a t e Co n t i-
n e n t a l n a t u r a l
p h ilo s o p h y
in t h e w a ke o f De s c a r t e s .26
24
"Th e Un s e r c h a ble n e s s o f Go d 's
Ju d gme n t s ,"
ibid ., I I I ,
263.
25
Ac c o r d in g
t o M.
N ic h o ls o n ,
"Th e
Ea r ly St a ge
o f Ca r t e s ia n is min
En gla n d ,"
St u d ie s in
Ph ilo lo gy,
26
(1929), 362-64,
Mo r e w a s
t e a c h in g
De s c a r t e s 's
Dio p t r ic s
a n d
Me t e o r s in t h e
1670s ;
s e e a ls o A.
Ga bbe y, "Ph ilo s o p h ia
Ca r t e s ia n a
Tr iu mp h a t a : He n r y
Mo r e
(1646-1671),"
Pr o ble ms
o f Ca r t e s ia n is m,
e d s . T. M.
Le n n o n ,
J. M.
N ic h o la s ,
J.
W. Da vis
(Kin gs t o n , 1982), 171-250;
"He n r y
Mo r e a n d t h e Limit s o f
Me c h a n is m,"
He n r y
Mo r e , 19-35;
C.
We bs t e r ,
"He n r y
Mo r e a n d De s c a r t e s : So me N e w So u r c e s ,"
B r it is h Jo u r n a l
f o r
t h e
His t o r y o f Sc ie n c e ,
4
(1969),
359-77. O n Mo r e 's "a n t id o t e " t o
me c h a n ic is m,
s e e t h e
Mo r e -Wo r t h in gt o n c o r r e s p o n d e n c e ,
a s
qu o t e d
in A. R .
Ha ll,
He n r y
Mo r e :
Ma gic , R e ligio n
a n d
Exp e r ime n t (O xf o r d , 1990),
158.
26 Jo h n
He n r y,
"A
Ca mbr id ge
Pla t o n is t 's ma t e r ia lis m:
He n r y
Mo r e a n d t h e
Co n c e p t
o f
So u l,"
Jo u r n a l
o f
t h e
Wa r bu r g
a n d Co u r t a u ld
I n s t it u t e s ,
49
(1986), 172-95;
"Me d i-
c in e a n d
Pn e u ma t o lo gy: He n r y
Mo r e ,
R ic h a r d
B a xt e r ,
a n d Fr a n c is Glis s o n 's Tr e a t is e o n
t h e
En e r ge t ic
N a t u r e o f
Su bs t a n c e ,"
Me d ic a l
His t o r y,
31
(1987), 15-40;
"O c c u lt
Qu a li-
t ie s a n d t h e
Exp e r ime n t a l Ph ilo s o p h y:
Ac t ive
Pr in c ip le s
in Pr e -N e w t o n ia n Ma t t e r
Th e o r y," His t o r y o f Sc ie n c e ,
24
(1986), 335-81;
a n d "Ma t t e r in Mo t io n : Th e Pr o ble mo f
Ac t ivit y
in
Se ve n t e e n t h -c e n t u r y En glis h
Ma t t e r
Th e o r y" (Ph .D.
d is s ., Th e
O p e n
Un ive r -
s it y, 1983).
I s a a c B a r r o w 273
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Se c o n d ly,
a s w e mo ve in t o t h e R e s t o r a t io n
p e r io d ,
a
gr o w in g
c o n c e r n
w it h t h e
d a n ge r s
o f
a t h e is m, ma t e r ia lis m,
a n d d e t e r min is mis
c le a r ly
d is c e r n ible -a c o n c e r n a n s w e r e d
by
f o r c e f u l a t t a c ks o n t w o
p h ilo s o p h ic a l
t h e s e s . Th a t ma t t e r is e t e r n a l a n d
u n c r e a t e d ,
w a s o n e o f t h e m
(a bo u t
w h ic h
mo r e
be lo w ).
Th a t a
c o mp le t e a u t o n o my
o bt a in e d be t w e e n Go d a n d h is
c r e a t io n ,
w a s t h e s e c o n d . Th a t blin d ma t t e r c o u ld
p r o d u c e
t h e w h o le
r a n ge
o f
p h ys ic a l
e f f e c t s w it h o u t Go d 's
in t e r ve n t io n ,
w a s t a n t a mo u n t t o t h e
n o t io n o f a Go d le s s w o r ld . I t w a s a
d a n ge r o u s p h ilo s o p h ic a l
n o t io n bo u n d
t o
p r o mo t e
mo r a l
r e la t ivis m,
r e ligio u s
in d if f e r e n c e ,
a n d
p o lit ic a l
in s t a bil-
it y.27
As
He n r y
Mo r e
p u t
it ,
o n e o f t h e c a u s e s o f a t h e is mis
"ign o r a n c e
o f
t h e s c a n t n e s s a n d
in s u f f ic ie n c y
o f s e c o n d c a u s e s ."28 B a r r o w 's r a d ic a l
s u p e r n a t u r a lis m
w a s t h e r e f o r e a n a n s w e r t o t h e me c h a n ic a l
p h ilo s o p h y,
p r o mp t e d by
t h e
p e r c e p t io n
t h a t it t h r e a t e n e d
r e ligio u s ,
mo r a l,
a n d
p o lit i-
c a l id e a s d e e me d e s s e n t ia l t o t h e
p r e s e r va t io n
o f o r d e r a n d c ivilize d
s o c ie t y.
Ho bbe s e a n s a n d o t h e r a t h e is t s c o u n t e n a n c e d -o r s o it w a s
p e r -
c e ive d -a d e t e r min is t ic
w o r ld ,
a c lo c kw o r k w o u n d
u p
s in c e c r e a t io n in
w h ic h Go d 's
o r d in a r y p r o vid e n c e
w a s r e d u c e d t o h is
c o n t in u o u s ly w illin g
t h e w o r ld 's e xis t e n c e .
I n
c o n t r a d is t in c t io n , B a r r o w a n d mo s t R e s t o r a t io n t h in ke r s
e mp h a -
s ize d Go d 's r o le in
ke e p in g
t h is w o r ld
w o r kin g t h r o u gh c o n t in u o u s ly
in f u s in g e n e r gy
a n d
a c t ivit y
in t o n a t u r e .
Ac c o r d in gly, t h e y d e -e mp h a s ize d
t h e r o le o f "s e c o n d c a u s e s " a n d e limin a t e d
n e c e s s it y
f r o mt h e
w o r kin gs
o f
n a t u r e . Th is le f t f e w
o p t io n s ,
t h e be s t kn o w n o f t h e m
be in g B o yle 's
e xp e r ime n t a lis m. B o yle
c o u ld e mbr a c e t h e
o n t o lo gy
o f t h e me c h a n ic a l
p h ilo s o p h y,
bu t h e w o u ld n e ve r
a t t e mp t
t o bu ild a
s ys t e m
o f n a t u r a l
p h ilo s o p h y
o n me c h a n ic a l
h yp o t h e s e s .
O n t h e
c o n t r a r y
h is
e xp e r ime n t a l
p r o gr a m,
it h a s be e n
a r gu e d ,
w a s ba s e d o n h is c o n vic t io n t h a t
a t t e mp t s
t o
u n d e r s t a n d h o w ma t e r ia l
p a r t ic le s
w o r k w ill
p r o ba bly
f a il.
Th e r e
w a s , h o w e ve r ,
a n a lt e r n a t ive : B a r r o w 's
s t r o n gp r o gr a m
o f ma t h -
e ma t iza t io n o f n a t u r a l
p h ilo s o p h y,
t o w h ic h w e n o w t u r n .
27
M.
Hu n t e r ,
"Sc ie n c e a n d
He t e r o d o xy:
An
e a r ly
mo d e r n
p r o ble mr e c o n s id e r e d ,"
R e a p p r a is a ls o f
t h e
Sc ie n t if ic R e vo lu t io n ,
e d s . D. C.
Lin d be r g
a n d R . S. We s t ma n
(Ca mbr id ge , 1990), 437-60;
"
'Aike n h e a d t h e At h e is t ': Th e Co n t e xt a n d
Co n s e qu e n c e s
o f Ar t ic u la t e
I r r e ligio n
in t h e La t e Se ve n t e e n t h
Ce n t u r y,"
At h e is m
f r o m
t h e
R e f o r ma t io n
t o t h e
En ligh t e n me n t ,
e d s . M. Hu n t e r a n d D. Wo o t t o n
(O xf o r d , 1992),
221-54. Se e a ls o
S. I .
Min t z,
Th e
Hu n t in g o f
Le via t h a n :
Se ve n t e e n t h -Ce n t u r y
R e a c t io n s t o t h e Ma t e r ia l-
is ma n d Mo r a l
Ph ilo s o p h y o f
Th o ma s Ho bbe s
(Ca mbr id ge , 1970), 69-88;
R . L.
Co lie ,
Ligh t
a n d
En ligh t e n me n t :
A
St u d y o f
t h e
Ca mbr id ge
Pla t o n is t s a n d t h e Du t c h Ar min ia n s
(Ca mbr id ge , 1957);
J.
R e d w o o d , R e a s o n , R id ic u le a n d
R e ligio n :
Th e
Age o f
t h e
En ligh t -
e n me n t in
En gla n d
1660-1750
(Lo n d o n , 1976);
a n d 0.
Ma yr , Au t h o r it y, Libe r t y
&
Au t o ma t ic
Ma c h in e r y
in
Ea r ly
Mo d e r n
Eu r o p e (B a lt imo r e , 1986).
28
An t id o t e
Aga in s t
At h e is m
(1712), 141,
qu o t e d
in
Min t z, Hu n t in go f Le via t h a n ,
88.
274 An t o n iMa le t
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Th e
Ch a n gin g
N o t io n o f "Mixe d " Ma t h e ma t ic a l Sc ie n c e s
B a r r o w 's Ma t h e ma t ic a l Le c t u r e s o f f e r a
ma jo r
r e f o r mu la t io n o f t r a d i-
t io n a l vie w s a bo u t t h e
o bje c t
a n d
me t h o d o lo gy
o f t h e ma t h e ma t ic a l s c i-
e n c e s .
Up
t o t h e s e ve n t e e n t h
c e n t u r y
a n e s t a blis h e d t r a d it io n h a d d e a lt
s u c c e s s f u lly
w it h t h e ma t h e ma t iza t io n o f a f e w f a c e t s o f t h e n a t u r a l w o r ld .
Th e ma t h e ma t iza t io n s o f
a s t r o n o my, o p t ic s ,
me c h a n ic s ,
o r
h yd r o s t a t ic s
w e r e kn o w n a s "in t e r me d ia t e ," "s u bo r d in a t e ," "s u ba lt e r n a t e ,"
o r "mixe d "
ma t h e ma t ic a l s c ie n c e s .
I n t h e c o n t e xt o f
s t u d yin g
t h e n a t u r e o f
s c ie n c e ,
Ar is t o t le in t r o d u c e d
t h e n o t io n o f s u bo r d in a t io n t o c h a r a c t e r ize t h o s e s c ie n c e s
u s in g
ma t h e ma t -
ic s .29 Su bo r d in a t e
s c ie n c e s ,
w h ic h w e r e
p e r c e p t u a l,
a s
o p p o s e d
t o t h e
ma t h e ma t ic a l
s u bo r d in a t in g
s c ie n c e s
(u s u a lly ge o me t r y
o r
a r it h me t ic ),
bo r r o w e d f r o mma t h e ma t ic s t h e ir
p r o o f s
a n d
(s o me ) p r in c ip le s ;
a n d
t h e y
d e a lt w it h
"kn o w le d ge
o f t h e f a c t "
(o t i),
a s
o p p o s e d
t o t h e
"kn o w le d ge
o f
t h e r e a s o n e d f a c t "
(d io t i) p r o p e r
o f t h e
s u bo r d in a t in g
s c ie n c e s .30 Me d ie va l
a n d R e n a is s a n c e c o mme n t a t o r s o f t e n
qu a lif ie d
t h e n o t io n o f s u bo r d in a t io n
be t w e e n s c ie n c e s in d if f e r e n t
w a ys .31
Th e
p r e c is e in t e r p r e t a t io n
o f t h is
n o t io n a n d it s r o le w it h in Ar is t o t e lia n
gn o s io lo gy
is s t ill
o p e n
t o d e ba t e -
in d e e d
ma n y c o u p le s
o f s u bo r d in a t e d a n d
s u bo r d in a t in g
s c ie n c e s me n -
t io n e d in Ar is t o t le 's t e xt s d o n o t f it w e ll in h is o w n c h a r a c t e r iza t io n o f
s u bo r d in a t io n .
Ye t ,
w h ile it
ma y
n o t be
e a s y
t o e lu c id a t e Ar is t o t le 's n o t io n o f s u bo r -
d in a t io n in
ge n e r a l,
it s e e ms t h a t Eu c lid 's
o p t ic s p r o vid e s
o n e o f t h e be s t
e xa mp le s
o f Ar is t o t e lia n s u bo r d in a t io n . Kin d r e d in
s p ir it
a n d
s t yle
t o h is
Ele me n t s ,
Eu c lid 's
o p t ic s
is
o r ga n ize d s yn t h e t ic a lly.
Ge o me t r ic a l
o bje c t s
s u c h a s
p o in t s , s t r a igh t
lin e s ,
a n d c ir c le s a r e s u bs t it u t e d f o r
p h ys ic a l
29
Se e J. G.
Le n n o x, "Ar is t o t le , Ga lile o ,
a n d 'Mixe d
Sc ie n c e s ,'" R e in t e r p r e t in g
Ga lile o ,
e d . W. A. Wa lla c e
(Wa s h in gt o n , D.C., 1986), 29-51;
R . D. Mc Kir a h a n
Jr .,
"Ar is t o t le 's Su bo r d in a t e
Sc ie n c e s ,"
B r it is h Jo u r n a l
f o r t h e
His t o r y o f
Sc ie n c e ,
11
(1978), 197-220;
W. A.
Wa lla c e ,
"Ar is t o t e lia n I n f lu e n c e s o n Ga lile o 's
Th o u gh t ,"
Ar is t o t e lis mo ve n e t o e s c ie n za mo d e r n a ,
e d . L. O livie r i
(2 vo ls .; Pa d u a , 1983), I ,
349-
78;
S. J.
Live s e y,
"Willia mo f
O c kh a m,
t h e Su ba lt e r n a t e
Sc ie n c e s ,
a n d Ar is t o t le 's
Pr o h ibit io n o f
Me t a -ba s is ,"
B r it is h Jo u r n a l
f o r
t h e
His t o r y o f
Sc ie n c e ,
18
(1985),
127-
45. Th e mixe d ma t h e ma t ic a l s c ie n c e s o f t h e la t e s e ve n t e e n t h
c e n t u r y
h a ve r e c e ive d
lit t le
a t t e n t io n ,
bu t s e e J. A.
B e n n e t t ,
"Th e Me c h a n ic s '
Ph ilo s o p h y
a n d t h e Me c h a n ic a l
Ph ilo s o p h y," His t o r y o f Sc ie n c e ,
24
(1986),
1-28.
30
Mc Kir a h a n ,
"Ar is t o t le 's Su bo r d in a t e
Sc ie n c e s ,"
201.
31
Se e
Th e o lo gy
a n d Sc ie n c e in t h e Fo u r t e e n t h
Ce n t u r y:
Th e Qu e s t io n s o n t h e
Un it y
a n d Su ba lt e r n a t io n
o f
t h e Sc ie n c e s
f r o m
Jo h n
o f R e a d in g's Co mme n t a r y
o n t h e Se n -
t e n c e s ,
e d . S. J.
Live s e y (Le id e n , 1989), 22-53;
a n d N .
Ja r d in e ,
"Ep is t e mo lo gy
o f t h e
Sc ie n c e s ,"
a n d W. A.
Wa lla c e , "Tr a d it io n a l N a t u r a l
Ph ilo s o p h y," Ca mbr id ge His t o r y
o f
R e n a is s a n c e
Ph ilo s o p h y,
e d s . C. B . Sc h mit t e t a l.
(Ca mbr id ge , 1988),
685-711 a n d
201-35.
I s a a c B a r r o w 275
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o bje c t s
s u c h a s vis ible
p o in t s ,
vis u a l
r a ys ,
a n d r e f le c t ive o r r e f r a c t ive
s u r f a c e s . I t c o n t a in s a s e t o f
p o s t u la t e s
o r d e t e r min a t io n s
(o r o i)
c o u c h e d in
ma t h e ma t ic a l t e r ms -bu t
e mbo d yin g e mp ir ic a l
c o n t e n t . Th e r e s u lt s w e r e
t h e o r e ms
ge o me t r ic a lly
d e r ive d f r o mt h e
p o s t u la t e s .32
N o w t h e Ar is t o t e lia n n o t io n o f s c ie n t ia
r e qu ir e s
t h a t f ir s t
p r in c ip le s
a n d
p o s t u la t e s
o f ma t h e ma t ic a l s c ie n c e s be s e lf -e vid e n t f a c t s -like t h e
r e c t ilin e a r c h a r a c t e r o f
ligh t r a ys
o r t h a t t h e
gr e a t e r
t h e
a p p a r e n t
vis u a l
a n gle
s u bt e n d e d
by
a n
o bje c t ,
t h e
gr e a t e r
t h e
o bje c t a p p e a r s .33
To e n s u r e
t h e
u n ive r s a lit y
a n d u n c o n t r o ve r s ia l c h a r a c t e r o f
p o s t u la t e s ,
t h e
p la in e r
a n d mo r e
s t r a igh t f o r w a r d
t h e ir
p h ys ic a l
c o n t e n t ,
t h e be t t e r . Th e o r e ms
migh t
be
give n e mp ir ic a l s u p p o r t ; ye t
t h e id e a t h a t
e mp ir ic a l
o bs e r va t io n s
p r o vid e d
a c r u c ia l t e s t f o r t h e t r u t h o f a
ge o me t r ic a lly
d e d u c e d r e s u lt w a s
a lie n bo t h t o t h e
o r ga n iza t io n
o f t h e ma t e r ia l a n d t o t h e
s p ir it
o f
s yn t h e t i-
c a l mixe d s c ie n c e s . Th e r e s u lt s d e d u c e d f r o mt h e
p o s t u la t e s
w e r e t r u e in
t w o s e n s e s :
ma t h e ma t ic a lly,
be c a u s e
t h e y
h a d be e n
c o r r e c t ly
d e d u c e d ,
a n d
p h ys ic a lly,
be c a u s e
t h e y
s a id
s o me t h in g
t r u e a bo u t t h e
p h ys ic a l
w o r ld . Th e
t w o f a c e t s w e r e
in s e p a r a ble
be c a u s e t h e ir
ma t h e ma t ic a lly
t r u e t h e o r e ms
mu s t a ls o be
p h ys ic a lly
t r u e . I n d e e d o n e o f t h e f e a t u r e s o f t h e c la s s ic a l
ma t h e ma t ic a l s c ie n c e s is t h a t t h e d is t in c t io n be t w e e n ma t h e ma t ic a l a n d
p h ys ic a l
t r u t h d o e s n o t
a p p ly
t o t h e m.
Tw o c a ve a t s a r e n e e d e d h e r e .
Fir s t ,
t h e
f o r e go in g
c h a r a c t e r iza t io n f it s
p a r t ic u la r ly
w e ll t h e e a r lie s t e xt a n t
e xa mp le s
o f mixe d
ma t h e ma t ic s ,
s u c h
a s Eu c lid 's
o p t ic s
o r Ar c h ime d e s ' me c h a n ic a l a n d
h yd r o s t a t ic a l
w o r ks ,
bu t
t h a t is n o
lo n ge r
t h e c a s e w it h la t e r w o r ks . Th e
s p ir it
o f
s yn t h e t ic a l
mixe d
ma t h e ma t ic s , h o w e ve r ,
w a s s o me h o w
r e ga in e d
in t h e la t e s ixt e e n t h c e n -
t u r y.
I t
r e a p p e a r s
in in f lu e n t ia l w o r ks s u c h a s Pa s c a l's
h yd r o s t a t ic s
a n d
Hu yge n s 's
De mo t u
c o r p o r u m
e x
p e r c u s s io n e ,
a n d w a s
w id e ly a d o p t e d by
s e ve n t e e n t h -c e n t u r y
Ca t h o lic w r it e r s o f ma t h e ma t ic a l
e n c yc lo p e d ia s .34
Se c o n d ly,
s u c h c h a r a c t e r iza t io n is n o t me a n t t o
a p p ly
t o
a s t r o n o my.
As
r e c e n t ly
s t r e s s e d
by
N ic h o la s
Ja r d in e ,
t h e r o le o f
h yp o t h e s e s
in me d ie va l
a n d R e n a is s a n c e
a s t r o n o my,
s t ill
o p e n
t o
h is t o r io gr a p h ic a l
d e ba t e ,
c a n n o t
be t a ke n a s
r e p r e s e n t a t ive
o f w h a t w a s
go in g
o n in t h e o t h e r ma t h e ma t ic a l
s c ie n c e s . I n t h is
r e s p e c t a s t r o n o my
w a s a w o r ld o f it s o w n .35
32
Mc Kir a h a n ,
"Ar is t o t le 's Su bo r d in a t e
Sc ie n c e s ," 199-201;
A.
Le je u n e ,
Eu c lid e e t
Pt o le me e , d e u x s t a d e s d e
l'o p t iqu e ge o me t r iqu e gr e c qu e (Lo u va in e , 1948).
33
Eu c lid e ,
L'o p t iqu e
e t la
c a t o p t r iqu e ,
e d . P. Ve r Ee c ke
(Pa r is , 1959),
d e t e r min a -
t io n
I V,
1. P.
De a r ,
"Je s u it Ma t h e ma t ic a l Sc ie n c e a n d t h e R e c o n s t it u t io n o f
Exp e r ie n c e
in t h e
Ea r ly
Se ve n t e e n t h
Ce n t u r y,"
St u d ie s in
His t o r y
a n d
Ph ilo s o p h y o f
Sc ie n c e ,
18
(1987),
133-75.
34
Se e P.
De a r , Me r s e n n e a n d t h e
Le a r n in g o f
t h e Sc h o o ls
(I t h a c a , N .Y., 1988),
62-
66. Se e A.
Ma le t , "Ma t h e ma t ic s a n d Ma t h e ma t iza t io n in t h e Se ve n t e e n t h
Ce n t u r y,"
St u d ie s in t h e
His t o r y
a n d
Ph ilo s o p h y o f Sc ie n c e ,
22
(1991),
673-78.
35
N .
Ja r d in e ,
"Ep is t e mo lo gy
o f t h e
Sc ie n c e s ," 709-10.
276 An t o n iMa le t
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I s a a c B a r r o w
B a r r o w in t r o d u c e d r e ma r ka ble in n o va t io n s in
s yn t h e t ic a l
mixe d ma t h -
e ma t ic s
by c h a n gin g
t h e n a t u r e o f
p r in c ip le s
a n d
d e f in it io n s ,
a n d t h e
r e la t io n s h ip
be t w e e n ma t h e ma t ic a l
t h e o r y
a n d o bs e r va t io n s . B a r r o w 's f ir s t
p r in c ip le s
n e e d n o t be
s e lf -e vid e n t ly t r u e -t h e y o n ly
mu s t be f r e e f r o m
c o n t r a d ic t io n . He mo d if ie d t h e
ke y
n o t io n o f "t r u e " ma t h e ma t ic a l
h yp o t h -
e s is o r
r e s u lt ,
a llo w in g
it t o e mbr a c e
p r o p o s it io n s
t h a t w e r e n o t t r u e w h e n
a p p lie d
t o "t h is w o r ld ." Wit h o u t
p r o vid in g
a f o r ma l d e f in it io n , B a r r o w
lo o s e ly
id e n t if ie d ma t h e ma t ic a l t r u t h w it h la c k o f c o n t r a d ic t io n .
B a r r o w a ls o d is c u s s e d t h e is s u e o f t h e "s c ie n t if ic " s t a t u s o f ma t h -
e ma t ic s -"s c ie n t if ic "
ma kin g
r e f e r e n c e h e r e t o Ar is t o t le 's s c ie n t ia . Th is
h a d be e n t h e
s u bje c t
o f a
r a gin g
d e ba t e ,
w h ic h t o o k
p la c e ma in ly
in
I t a ly
d u r in g
t h e s e c o n d h a lf o f t h e s ixt e e n t h
c e n t u r y.
B a r r o w
a p p e a r s
t o be
p e r f e c t ly a c qu a in t e d
w it h
it ,
t h a n ks
p r o ba bly
t o h is
lo n g s t a y
in
I t a ly
in t h e
la t e 1650s . He
c a t e go r ic a lly
a s s e r t e d t h e s c ie n t if ic c h a r a c t e r o f ma t h e ma t i-
c a l d e mo n s t r a t io n .
Mo r e o ve r ,
a r gu in g
t h a t ma t h e ma t ic s d e a lt w it h f o r ma l
c a u s a lit y,
h e
s u gge s t e d
t h a t t h is w a s t h e
o n ly
kin d o f
c a u s a lit y
w it h a
le git ima t e p la c e
in n a t u r a l
p h ilo s o p h y.
We s h a ll s e e t h a t B a r r o w 's r e ma r k-
a ble in n o va t io n s d o ve t a ile d
p e r f e c t ly
w it h h is vo lu n t a r is t ic
t h e o lo gy.
B a r r o w o n De f in it io n s a n d Fir s t
Pr in c ip le s
B a r r o w c r it ic ize d t h e vie w t h a t d e f in it io n s "a f f ir m
n o t h in g"
bu t
me r e ly give
n a me s ,
a n d h e w a n t e d d e f in it io n s t o be
p r o p o s it io n s .
Fo r in -
s t a n c e ,
s a ys
B a r r o w ,
"r a t io n a l a n ima l" is s a id t o be t h e d e f in it io n o f
"ma n ,"
a n d t h is is in c o r r e c t . Th e d e f in it io n
is ,
"ma n is a r a t io n a l a n ima l."
Th e la s t
s e n t e n c e ,
a
p r o p o s it io n
a bo u t
ma n ,
e n a ble s u s t o d e d u c e s o me -
t h in g
e ls e a bo u t ma n . B a r r o w id e n t if ie d a s Ar is t o t e lia n t h e vie w t h a t
d e f in it io n s a r e
la be ls ,
bu t it h a d be e n
r e c e n t ly
h e ld
by
R o be r va l a n d
Ho bbe s ,
a mo n g
o t h e r s .36 We r e d e f in it io n s me r e
la be ls ,
s a ys
B a r r o w ,
t h e y
c o u ld n o t be
"p r in c ip le s
o f d e mo n s t r a t io n "-t o be
s o ,
t h e y
s h o u ld
e xp r e s s
a n e s s e n t ia l
p r o p e r t y.
I n h is
w o r d s ,
a d e f in it io n "is
r e a lly
a
c o mp le a t p r o p -
o s it io n
p r e d ic a t in g, c o n c e r n in g
t h e
p r o p o s e d s u bje c t ,
s o me
p r o p e r t y
o f
it s e lf w h ic h is u s e f u l f o r
d e d u c in g
o t h e r
p r o p e r t ie s ."37 An a c h r o n is t ic a lly
p u t ,
B a r r o w d is mis s e d
t a u t o lo gic a l
d e f in it io n s .
As f o r
p o s t u la t e s ,
B a r r o w n o
lo n ge r r e qu ir e d
t h e mt o be
o bvio u s ly
t r u e -o n ly
t h a t
t h e y
be f r e e f r o m
c o n t r a d ic t io n ,
a n d "r e a s o n a ble " o r
36
O n Ho bbe s a n d
d e f in it io n ,
s e e
Min t z,
Hu n t in go f
Le via t h a n , 24-25;
S.
Sh a p in ,
S.
Sc h a f f e r ,
Le via t h a n a n d t h e
Air -Pu mp (Pr in c e t o n , 1985),
100-101. Se e
R o be r va l,
"Ava n t -p r o p o s
s u r le s
ma t h e ma t iqu e s ," p u blis h e d
in V.
Co u s in ,
"R o be r va l
p h ilo s o p h e ,"
Fr a gme n t s p h ilo s o p h iqu e s p o u r
s e r vir a 1'h is t o ir e d e la
p h ilo s o p h ie (5 vo ls .; Pa r is ,
1866), I I I , 229-58,
e s p e c ia lly
236.
37
Us e f u ln e s s o f
Ma t h e ma t ic a l
Le a r n in g,
120-21.
277
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s u gge s t e d by "p la u s ible
r e a s o n s ."
"[T]r u e
Hyp o t h e s e s ," s a ys
B a r r o w ,
a r e
t h o s e "s u c h a s
imp ly
n o in c o n s is t e n c e in t h e ms e lve s "; a n d "t h e f a ls e h o o d
o f
a n y h yp o t h e s is
s e e ms t o be
n o t h in g
bu t t h e
c o n c e p t io n
o r
p o s it io n
o f
t h in gs
a s e f f e c t e d o r
e xis t in g,
w h ic h c a n n o t be e f f e c t e d o r e xis t ."38 Th is
br o a d e n s t h e f ie ld
o p e n
t o ma t h e ma t ic a l
d e mo n s t r a t io n ,
f o r it
ma y
d e a l
n o w w it h
n o n -e xis t in g t h in gs :
He n c e a ls o it
f o llo w s ,
t h a t d e mo n s t r a t io n s
ma y
be ma d e o f
t h in gs ,
w h ic h n e ve r h a d e xis t e n c e
a n y
w h e r e ;
be c a u s e it is s u f f ic ie n t f o r a
d e mo n s t r a t io n t o a s s u me t r u e
h yp o t h e s e s ,
i.e . s u c h a s
imp ly
n o
in c o n s is t e n c e in t h e ms e lve s .39
Wh a t is t h e n t h e s t a t u s o f r e s u lt s
ma t h e ma t ic a lly
d e d u c e d f r o m
p o s t u -
la t e s n o t
p h ys ic a lly
t r u e ?
Th e y, s a ys
B a r r o w ,
ma ke
u p
t h e o r ie s
t h a t ,
t h o u gh
o f n o u s e in o u r
w o r ld ,
d e s c r ibe
"ima gin a r y"
w o r ld s w h ic h Go d
migh t
c r e a t e . Ma t h e ma t ic a l c o n c lu s io n s
ma y
be
p h ys ic a lly
t r u e o r f a ls e -
it
d e p e n d s
o n t h e a xio ms
be in g
s o -bu t
t h e y
w ill
a lw a ys
be "la w f u l"-
me a n in g ma t h e ma t ic a lly u n o bje c t io n a ble .
He
s u p p o r t e d
h is vie w s w it h
t w o
illu min a t in ge xa mp le s .
Ga lile o ,
s a ys
B a r r o w ,
"t h in ks t h a t h e in ve n t e d
a n e w s c ie n c e
c o n c e r n in g
mo t io n " o n t h e
a s s u mp t io n
t h a t
h e a vy t h in gs
f a ll
w it h a mo t io n
u n if o r mly
a c c e le r a t e d .
B u t if it be f a ls e
(a s
I t h in k it n o t
a lw a ys
t r u e
c o n c e r n in g ma n y
c a u s e s )
t h a t t h e r e is s u c h a mo t io n in t h e
p r e s e n t o e c o n o my
o f
n a t u r e ;
ye t
be c a u s e s u c h a mo t io n
ma y
e xis t a t t h e
p le a s u r e
o f
Go d ,
a s
imp lyin g n o t h in g
in it
c o n t r a r y
t o
p o s s ibilit y,
t h e r e f o r e t h e
c o n c lu s io n s ,
w h ic h r e s u lt
by
a la w f u l in f e r e n c e f r o ms u c h a
s u p p o -
s it io n ,
o u gh t
t o be a c c o u n t e d f o r la w f u l d e mo n s t r a t io n s .40
I n a s e c o n d
e xa mp le
B a r r o w t a ke s t o t a s k a s t r o n o mic a l
h yp o t h e s e s
a d va n c e d
by "Pt o le my, Co p e r n ic u s ,
a n d a ll o t h e r As t r o n o me r s ." B a r r o w
t h in ks t h a t t r u e a s t r o n o mic a l mo ve me n t s a r e
u n kn o w n ,
bu t t h a t a s t r o n o -
me r s a r e
c e r t a in ly
e n t it le d t o c o n s t r u c t
ima gin a r y
w o r ld s :
ye t
be c a u s e
n o t h in g
h in d e r s ,
bu t Go d
ma y
c r e a t e s u c h a
w o r ld ,
w h e r e t h e s t a r s w ill
e xa c t ly a gr e e
w it h s u c h
mo t io n s ;
t h e r e f o r e t h e
d e mo n s t r a t io n s
d e p e n d in g u p o n
s u c h
h yp o t h e s e s
a r e mo s t
t r u e ,
a n d t h e ir
a s t r o n o my
t r u e ,
n o t in d e e d o f t h is
w o r ld ,
bu t o f s o me
38
Us e f u ln e s s o f
Ma t h e ma t ic a l
Le a r n in g,
109.
39
I bid .,
110.
40
I bid .
278 An t o n i Ma le t
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o t h e r w h ic h Go d c a n c r e a t e . Fo r Go d h a s
give n
u s t h e
p o w e r
o f
c r e a t in g
a lmo s t in n u me r a ble
ima gin a r y
w o r ld s in o u r
t h o u gh t s ,
w h ic h
h ims e lf ,
if h e
p le a s e ,
c a n c a u s e t o be r e a l.4'
Th e o bvio u s
c o r o lla r y
is t h a t t h e o r ie s n e e d
t e s t in g
t o e n s u r e t h a t
t h e y
a p p ly
t o t h is w o r ld . B a r r o w 's
"ma n y
w o r ld s " a r e
e xp lic it ly
a t t a c h e d t o
t h e o lo gic a l
vo lu n t a r is m. B e c a u s e Go d 's c r e a t io n o f o u r w o r ld w a s t h e
r e s u lt o f a "w is e f r e e -c h o ic e " a n d n o t a
n e c e s s a r y
e ma n a t io n ,
"He ... c o u ld
h a ve f r a me d
[t h e w o r ld ] o t h e r w is e ,
a c c o r d in g
t o a n in f in it e
va r ie t y
o f
w a ys ."42
Th e w o r d s a r e c lo s e t o N e w t o n 's r e ma r k a bo u t t h e
p lu r a lit y
o f
w o r ld s ,
a lr e a d y p r e s e n t
in h is
e a r ly
1670s
ma n u s c r ip t s .43
Th e
p r in c ip le
t h a t Go d c a n d o "w h a t e ve r in vo lve s n o
c o n t r a d ic t io n ,"
w it h
p r o f o u n d t h e o lo gic a l imp lic a t io n s ,
is
e a s ily
f o u n d in
c o n t e mp o r a r y
t h e o lo gic a l
lit e r a t u r e ,
a n d a ls o in N e w t o n 's
p a p e r s
a n d
B o yle 's
w o r ks .44
O f t e n d is c u s s e d in c o n n e c t io n w it h t h e e xis t e n c e o f d if f e r e n t
w o r ld s ,
it h a s
a
lo n g h is t o r y s t r e t c h in g
ba c k t o c la s s ic a l
a n t iqu it y
a n d f o r w a r d t o t h e
En ligh t e n me n t .
I n h is s e r mo n s B a r r o w u s e d it in a c r u c ia l
c o n t e xt ,
t o
d is p e l p h ilo s o p h ic a l a r gu me n t s a ga in s t
Go d 's
c r e a t in g
ma t t e r o u t o f n o t h -
in g.
Th r o u gh
t h e s e ve n t e e n t h
c e n t u r y
t h in ke r s
u p h e ld w id e ly
d if f e r e n t ,
in d e e d
c o n t r a d ic t o r y,
vie w s o n ma t t e r . Wh e t h e r it w a s e t e r n a l o r c r e a t e d
h a d s e r io u s
t h e o lo gic a l imp lic a t io n s .
Mo s t
p h ilo s o p h e r s -Ho bbe s
a n d
Sp in o za be in g
t h e
e xc e p t io n a mo n gma jo r
t h in ke r s -a n s w e r e d in
ke e p in g
w it h
r e ligio u s o r t h o d o xy.
Th e ma in
a r gu me n t a ga in s t
c r e a t e d ma t t e r w a s
t h e
me t a p h ys ic a l p r in c ip le
t h a t
n o t h in g
c a n r e s u lt f r o m
n o t h in g.
Wit h
w o r d s
r e min d in g
u s o f
St illin gf le e t 's O r igin e s
s a c r a e
(1662),
B a r r o w
a r gu e d
t h a t t h is
a r gu me n t r e qu ir e s ,
in t h e f ir s t
p la c e , d e mo n s t r a t in g
t h a t a
p r o p o s it io n
s u c h a s
"'s o me t h in g ma y
be
p r o d u c e d
o u t o f
n o t h in g,'
o r
s o me t h in g e qu iva le n t
... d o in vo lve a c o n t r a d ic t io n ." B u t n o
p h ilo s o p h e r
w ill be a ble t o d o
s o ,
s a ys
B a r r o w ,
be c a u s e t h e n o t io n o f s u bs t a n c e is n o t
41
Ma t h e ma t ic a l
Wo r ks ,
112
(my t r a n s la t io n ).
42
"Ma ke r o f He a ve n a n d
Ea r t h ," Wo r ks , I I ,
183. Th e
"ma n y
w o r ld s " d e ba t e h a s
be e n o f t e n
bo u n d u p
w it h
t h e o lo gic a l
d is c u s s io n s o n Go d 's
o mn ip o t e n c e .
Cf . S. J.
Dic k,
Plu r a lit y o f
Wo r ld s : Th e
O r igin s o f
t h e Ext r a t e r r e s t r ia l
Lif e
De ba t e
f r o m
De mo c r it u s t o
Ka n t
(Ca mbr id ge , 1984), 23f f ;
A.
Fu n ke n s t e in , Th e o lo gy
a n d t h e
Sc ie n t if ic I ma gin a t io n
f r o m
t h e Mid d le
Age s
t o t h e Se ve n t e e n t h
Ce n t u r y (Pr in c e t o n , 1986),
163f f .
43
Do bbs ,
Ja n u s Fa c e s
o f Ge n iu s ,
114. As is w e ll
kn o w n ,
e ve n t u a lly
N e w t o n
p u blis h e d
it in
Qu e r y
31 o f t h e
O p t ic ks .
44
R .
B o yle ,
R e c o n c ile a ble n e s s
o f
R e a s o n a n d
R e ligio n ,
in
Wo r ks , I V,
159
(qu o t e d
by O a kle y, O mn ip o t e n c e , Co ve n a n t ,
a n d
O r d e r , 88).
O n N e w t o n 's a r t ic u la t io n o f t h e
p r in c ip le
in t h e
e a r ly
1670s ,
s e e
Do bbs ,
Ja n u s Fa c e s
o f Ge n iu s ,
113-14.
I s a a c B a r r o w 279
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in c o n s is t e n t w it h t h e n o t io n o f
be in g p r o d u c e d
o r w it h
"n o vit y
o f e xis t -
e n c e ."45 So t h e r e is n o
me t a p h ys ic a l a r gu me n t a ga in s t
Go d 's c r e a t io n .
R e d e f in in g
Mixe d Ma t h e ma t ic s
Th e
c h a n ge s
B a r r o w in t r o d u c e d in t h e ma t h e ma t ic a l s c ie n c e s s u bs t a n -
t ia lly
br o a d e n t h e ir
a p p lic a bilit y.
He r e in f o r c e d t h is mo ve
by r e d e f in in g
mixe d ma t h e ma t ic s a s t h o s e s c ie n c e s in w h ic h "c o n s id e r a t io n o f
qu a n t it y
in t e r ve n e s ."
St r e s s in g
t h a t in a ll s c ie n c e s
o bje c t s
r e s u lt f r o m"me n t a l
a bs t r a c t io n "
(i.e .,
like w is e ma t h e ma t ic a l
o bje c t s ),
h e
o p p o s e d
t h e o ld d is -
t in c t io n -s t ill a live in
c o n t e mp o r a r y
t h in ke r s s u c h a s
He r igo n e ,
Gu ld in ,
a n d B ia n c a n i-be t w e e n
p u r e
ma t h e ma t ic s
(p u r p o r t e d ly d e a lin g
w it h
"t h in gs o n ly p e r c e p t ible
t o t h e
u n d e r s t a n d in g")
a n d mixe d ma t h e ma t ic s
(d e a lin g
w it h
"t h in gs s e n s ible ").
I n
r e a lit y e ve r y
o n e o f
[t h e
ma t h e ma t ic a l] O bje c t s
a r e a t t h e s a me
t ime bo t h
in t e lligible
a n d s e n s ible in a d if f e r e n t
r e s p e c t ;
in t e lli-
gible
a s t h e Min d
a p p r e h e n d s
a n d
c o n t e mp la t e s
t h e ir u n ive r s a l
I d e a s ,
a n d s e n s ible a s
t h e y a gr e e
w it h s e ve r a l
p a r t ic u la r Su bje c t s
o c c u r r in g
t o t h e Se n s e .46
Sin c e
ma gn it u d e s a p p e a r e ve r yw h e r e ,
B a r r o w c la ims t h a t
ge o me t r y
w ill be
r e qu ir e d e ve r yw h e r e
a n d t h e ma t h e ma t ic a l s c ie n c e s w ill e mbr a c e
a lmo s t t h e w h o le o f n a t u r a l
p h ilo s o p h y.47
I n d e e d ,
t h e ma t h e ma t ic a l s c i-
e n c e s w ill be bu t t h e br a n c h e s o f
p h ys ic s :
"t h e r e is n o br a n c h o f n a t u r a l
s c ie n c e t h a t
ma y
n o t
a r r o ga t e
t h e
[ma t h e ma t ic a l]
t it le t o
it s e lf ;
s in c e t h e r e
is
r e a lly
n o n e ,
f r o mw h ic h t h e c o n s id e r a t io n o f
qu a n t it y
is
w h o lly
e x-
c lu d e d ."48
Ye a ,
be c a u s e n o lo c a l mo t io n ... c a n be o t h e r w is e e s t ima t e d in
it s e lf ,
o r
c o mp a r e d
w it h a n o t h e r
mo t io n ,
bu t f r o mt h e
s p a c e s
... it
p a s s e s t h r o u gh ,
t h e r e f o r e mo s t
p a r t s
o f
p h ys ic s
... a r e t o be a c -
c o u n t e d ma t h e ma t ic a l.... Fr o mw h e n c e a c c r u e s a
p le n t if u l c r o p
o f
s c ie n c e s t o t h e ma t h e ma t ic s .... He n c e I c o n c e ive it
a p p e a r s
s u f f i-
c ie n t ly p la in
(a s
I
p u r p o s e d
t o
s h e w )
t h a t
ma t h e ma t ic s ,
a s it is
45
"Ma ke r o f He a ve n a n d
Ea r t h ," Wo r ks , I I , 174-76;
qu o t a t io n s
c o me f r o m
p a ge
176.
Co mp a r e
w it h
St illin gf le e t , O r igin e s
s a c r a e
(Lo n d o n , 1662), 445,
a n d
229-30,
367-
68.
46
Us e f u ln e s s o f
Ma t h e ma t ic a l
Le a r n in g, 13, 16, 19;
qu o t a t io n
c o me s f r o m19.
47 B a r r o w d e vo t e d t h e w h o le Le c t u r e I I I t o
a n a lyzin g
t h e
r e la t io n s h ip
be t w e e n
a r it h me t ic a n d
ge o me t r y.
48
Us e f u ln e s s o f
Ma t h e ma t ic a l
Le a r n in g, 20-21;
qu o t a t io n
c o me s f r o m21.
280 An t o n i Ma le t
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I s a a c B a r r o w
vu lga r ly
t a ke n a n d
c a lle d ,
is c o -e xt e n d e d a n d ma d e
e qu a l
w it h
p h ys ic s
it s e lf .49
Th a t B a r r o w h a s in min d mixe d s c ie n c e s d if f e r e n t f r o mt h e
s yn t h e t ic a l
s u ba lt e r n a t e s c ie n c e s is
a p p a r e n t
w h e n h e d e a ls w it h t h e
r e la t io n s h ip
be t w e e n ma t h e ma t ic s a n d h is n e w ma t h e ma t ic a l s c ie n c e s o f vis io n a n d
s o u n d . Ma t h e ma t ic a l
o p t ic s ,
B a r r o w c o n c e ive s a s t h e s c ie n c e o f t h e
"a p -
p e a r a n c e s c o min g
f r o m
r a ys
r e f le c t e d
by
a n
o p a qu e bo d y"
o r "in f r a c t e d
by
a d if f e r e n t me d iu m." B a r r o w 's n e w "a c o u s t ic s " is d e f in e d
s imila r ly:
An d if t h e
[ma t h e ma t ic a l] f igu r e
o f t h e a ir 's u n d u la t io n c o u ld be
t h e s a me
w a y
d is c o ve r e d ,
by
w h ic h s o u n d is
p e r f o r me d ,
a n d t h e
s e n s e o f
h e a r in g imp e lle d ,
t h e r e w o u ld d o u bt le s s a r is e t h e n c e a
n e w
p a r t
o f ma t h e ma t ic s t o be c e le br a t e d
by
t h e n a me o f
a c o u s t ic s ,
o r t h e s c ie n c e o f s o u n d s .
B a r r o w be lie ve s a s w e ll t h a t ma t h e ma t ic a l s c ie n c e s o f
"t o u c h e s ,
t a s t e s a n d
s me lls " c o u ld be a c h ie ve d "if t h e s e s e n s a t io n s be
p e r f o r me d by
s u c h
[ma t h e ma t ic a l]
mo t io n s ."50 B a r r o w
e xp lic it ly d is t in gu is h e s
h is n e w ma t h -
e ma t ic a l s c ie n c e s f r o mt h e o ld ma t h e ma t ic a l
s c ie n c e s ,
p e r s p e c t ive ,
h a r -
mo n ic s
(o r mu s ic )
o r c e n t r o ba r ic s
(p a r t
o f me c h a n ic s
d e a lin g
w it h t h e
d e t e r min a t io n o f c e n t e r s o f
gr a vit y).
As h e
p u t s
it ,
t h a t
p a r t
o f me c h a n ic s
d e a lin g
w it h c e n t e r s o f
gr a vit y
a n d t h a t
p a r t
o f
o p t ic s
c a lle d
p e r s p e c t ive
a r e n o t
u n f it ly
n u mbe r e d
a mo n g
t h e
p a r t s
o f
ge o me t r y,
be c a u s e
t h e y
s c a r c e
r e qu ir e a n y t h in g
w h ic h is
n o t
gr a n t e d
a n d
p r o ve d
in t h a t
s c ie n c e ,
n o r u s e
a n y
o t h e r
p r in c ip le s
o r
r e a s o n in gs
t h a n w h a t a r e
s t r ic t ly ge o me t r ic a l.5'
Alo n g
w it h s u c h
"p a r t s
o f
ge o me t r y,"
h o w e ve r ,
t h e r e a r e o t h e r mixe d
s c ie n c e s t h a t c a n n o t be id e n t if ie d w it h
ge o me t r y p r o p e r .
B a r r o w c o n s id e r s
t h a t d if f e r e n t s c ie n c e s
ma y
h a ve d if f e r e n t
d e gr e e s
o f
ma t h e ma t iza t io n ,
in
t h e s e n s e t h a t
t h e y ma y
be mo r e o r le s s c lo s e t o
ge o me t r y:
"t h e mo r e
s imp le
a n d mo s t
e vid e n t ly p o s s ible
t h e
h yp o t h e s e s
a r e ,
t h e n e a r e r d o t h e s e
a r t s
a p p r o a c h
t o
ge o me t r y p r o p e r ."52
B a r r o w 's ma t h e ma t ic a l s c ie n c e
49 "E
qu ibu s
a u t u mo s a t is
liqu id o
c o n s t a r e
(qu o d
mih i
p r o p o s it u m
f u e r a t
o s t e n d e r e )
Ma t h e ma t ic a m,
h a bit a m
d ic t a mqu e vu lgo , ip s i Ph ys ic a e qu a s i
c o e xt e n d i e t
a d a e qu a r i";
c f . Ma t h e ma t ic a l
Wo r ks ,
44
(I
h a ve mo d if ie d
Kir kby's t r a n s la t io n ).
50
Us e f u ln e s s o f
Ma t h e ma t ic a l
Le a r n in g,
24.
51
I bid .,
27.
52
I bid .
281
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c le a r ly
a n n o u n c e s t h e mixe d ma t h e ma t ic s o f t h e
En ligh t e n me n t -s c ie n c e s
t h a t
p r o vid e d
ma t h e ma t ic a l mo d e ls
gr o u n d e d
o n d e f in it io n s a n d
h yp o t h -
e s e s t h e t r u t h o f w h ic h d e r ive d f r o mt h e
a gr e e me n t
be t w e e n t h e mo d e l a n d
o bs e r va t io n s .
Du r in g
t h e s e c o n d h a lf o f t h e s ixt e e n t h a n d t h e
e a r ly
s e ve n t e e n t h
c e n t u r y
t h e s t a t u s o f ma t h e ma t ic a l
kn o w le d ge
w a s t h e
o bje c t
o f in t e n s e
d e ba t e . Th o s e w h o d e n ie d "s c ie n t if ic " s t a t u s t o ma t h e ma t ic s r e lie d
u p o n
Ar is t o t le 's n o t io n o f s c ie n t ia .
Ac c o r d in g
t o
it ,
"s c ie n t if ic "
kn o w le d ge
p r o c e e d s
f r o mt r u e
p r in c ip le s ,
e s t a blis h e s
n e c e s s a r y
c o n n e c t io n s be t w e e n
t h e
p r in c ip le s
a n d t h e ir
c o n s e qu e n c e s ,
a n d is c a u s a l-t h a t
is ,
it
e xp la in s
w h y s o me t h in g
is a s it is a n d n o t o t h e r w is e . N o w ma t h e ma t ic a l kn o w l-
e d ge ,
it w a s
o bje c t e d ,
d e a ls w it h t h e a c c id e n t s r a t h e r t h a n t h e e s s e n c e s o f
t h in gs ,
a n d mo s t
imp o r t a n t ly,
it is n o t c a u s a l.53 I n t h e I t a lia n
c o n t e xt ,
a s
Ma r io
B ia gio li
h a s
s h o w n ,
t h e s e a t t a c ks a r e be s t u n d e r s t o o d a s
p a r t
o f a n
in s t it u t io n a l
s t r u ggle
f o r s o c ia l s t a t u s be t w e e n
p h ilo s o p h e r s
a n d
p r o f e s s o r s
o f ma t h e ma t ic s .54
B a r r o w u s e d t h e o ld d e ba t e t o s e t f o r t h h is c la imt h a t ma t h e ma t iza t io n
w a s t h e
o n ly w a y
t o a c h ie ve s c ie n t ia . He r e e la bo r a t e d t h e n o t io n o f
c a u s a lit y
in t w o f u n d a me n t a l
r e s p e c t s .
Fir s t ,
a s w e h a ve
a lr e a d y
s e e n ,
h e
a t t a c ke d t h e n o t io n o f e f f ic ie n t
c a u s a lit y. Se c o n d ly, t a kin gu p
a n id e a
a lr e a d y p r e s e n t
in
s ixt e e n t h -c e n t u r y
I t a lia n
d is c u s s io n s ,
h e r e d e f in e d f o r -
ma l
c a u s a lit y by a s s imila t in g
it t o ma t h e ma t ic a l d e mo n s t r a t io n .55
B a r r o w in t r o d u c e d t h e d is t in c t io n be t w e e n c h a r a c t e r is t ic
p r o p e r t ie s
(p a s s io p r o p r ia )
o f a n
o bje c t ,
a n d
p r o p e r t ie s
c o mmo n t o o t h e r
o bje c t s
(p a s s io c o mmu n is ).
Fo r
in s t a n c e ,
it is n o t a c h a r a c t e r is t ic
p r o p e r t y
o f a n
53
A. C.
Cr o mbie ,
"Ma t h e ma t ic s a n d Pla t o n is min t h e
s ixt e e n t h -c e n t u r y
I t a lia n
Un ive r s it ie s a n d in Je s u it Ed u c a t io n a l
Po lic y,"
Pr is ma t a :
N a t u r w is s e n s c h a f t s ge s -
c h ic h t lic h e ,
e d s . Y.
Ma e ya ma
a n d W. G. Sa lt ze r
(Wie s ba d e n , 1977), 63-94;
G. C.
Gia c o bbe ,
"I I Co mme n t a r iu md e c e r t it u d in e ma t h e ma t ic a r u m
d is c ip lin a r u m
d i Ale s s a n -
d r o
Pic c o lo min i," Ph ys is ,
14
(1972), 162-93;
"La r if le s s io n e me t a ma t e ma t ic a d i Pie t r o
Ca t e n a ," Ph ys is , 15, (1973), 178-96;
"Ep igo n i
d e l s e ic e n t o d e lla
'qu a e s t io
d e
c e r t it u d in e ma t h e ma t ic a r u m':
Giu s e p p e B ia n c a n i," Ph ys is ,
18
(1976), 5-40;
"Un
ge s u it a
p r o gr e s is t a
n e lla
'Qu a e s t io
d e c e r t it u d in e ma t h e ma t ic a r u m' r in a s c ime n t a le : B e n it o
Pe r e yr a ," Ph ys is ,
19
(1977), 51-86;
A.
Ca r u go , "Giu s e p p e
Mo le t o : Ma t h e ma t ic s a n d t h e
Ar is t o t e lia n
Th e o r y
o f Sc ie n c e a t Pa d u a in t h e Se c o n d Ha lf o f t h e Sixt e e n t h
Ce n t u r y,"
Ar is t o t e lis mo ve n e t o e s c ie n za mo d e r n a , 509-17;
P.
Ma n c o s u ,
"Ar is t o t e lia n
Lo gic
a n d
Eu c lid e a n Ma t h e ma t ic s :
Se ve n t e e n t h -Ce n t u r y De ve lo p me n t s
o f t h e Qu a e s t io d e Ce r t i-
t u d in e Ma t h e ma t ic a r u m," St u d . His t . Ph il.
Sc i.,
23
(1992), 241-65;
M. R . Da vi
Da n ie le ,
"B e r n a r d in o To mit a n o e la
qu a e s t io
d e c e r t it u d in e ma t h e ma t ic a r u m," Ar is t o t e lis mo ve -
n e t o e s c ie n za mo d e r n a ,
607-21.
54
"Th e So c ia l St a t u s o f I t a lia n Ma t h e ma t ic ia n s , 1450-1600,"
His t .
Sc i.,
27
(1989),
41-95;
"Th e
An t h r o p o lo gy
o f
I n c o mme n s u r a bilit y,"
St u d ie s in t h e
His t o r y
a n d Ph ilo s o -
p h y o f Sc ie n c e ,
21
(1990),
183-209. Se e a ls o h is "Ga lile o 's
Sys t e m
o f
Pa t r o n a ge ,"
His t o r y o f Sc ie n c e ,
28
(1990),
1-62.
55
Se e M. R . Da vi
Da n ie le , "B e r n a r d in o
To mit a n o ," 615f f ; Ma n c o s u ,
"Ar is t o t e lia n
Lo gic ,"
261.
282 An t o n iMa le t
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I s a a c B a r r o w
is o s c e le s
t r ia n gle
t h a t it s t h r e e
a n gle s
a r e
e qu a l
t o t w o
r igh t o n e s , f o r t h is is
t r u e o f a ll
t r ia n gle s .
B u t it is a c h a r a c t e r is t ic
p r o p e r t y
o f a c ir c le "t h a t
e ve r y
t w o
r igh t
lin e s t h a t c a n be d r a w n f r o mt h e e xt r e mit ie s o f t h e d ia me t e r t o
a n y p o in t
in it s c ir c u mf e r e n c e w ill ma ke a
r igh t a n gle "-f o r
t h is
a gr e e s
w it h a c ir c le ,
"a n d
r e c ip r o c a lly e ve r y f igu r e
w it h w h ic h t h is a f f e c t io n
a gr e e s
w ill be a c ir c le ." Ch a r a c t e r is t ic
p r o p e r t ie s
d e t e r min e t h e ir
o bje c t
t o
t h e
p o in t
t h a t
"a n y
o f t h e s e
[p r o p e r t ie s ] ma y
be
r igh t ly s u p p o s e d
o r
a s s u me d in
d e f in in g
t h e
s u bje c t ,
s in c e
t h e y
a r e c o n n e c t e d w it h s u c h a n
e s s e n t ia l, c lo s e a n d
r e c ip r o c a l t ie , t h a t if
a n y
o n e be
s u p p o s e d ,
t h e r e s t
mu s t
n e c e s s a r ily
f o llo w ."56
As Mc Kir a h a n s t r e s s e d , a c c o r d in g
t o Ar is t o t le t h e ma t h e ma t ic a l s c i-
e n c e s "d e a l w it h f o r ms -n o t o f c o u r s e Pla t o n ic f o r ms , w h o s e e xis t e n c e is
s t r o n gly
d e n ie d in t h e Po s t e r io r
An a lyt ic s
...-bu t f o r min t h e s e n s e o f
w h a t r e ma in s w h e n a bs t r a c t io n is ma d e o f t h e ma t e r ia l s u bs t r a t e ."57
B y
t a kin g
"f o r ms " t o be t h e c h a r a c t e r is t ic
p r o p e r t ie s
o f ma t h e ma t ic a l
o bje c t s ,
B a r r o w c o u ld c la imt o be
ju s t f o llo w in g
Ar is t o t le 's vie w s a n d c o u ld
id e n t if y
ma t h e ma t ic a l d e mo n s t r a t io n w it h f o r ma l
c a u s a lit y.
I n d e e d B a r -
r o w t o o k c h a r a c t e r is t ic
p r o p e r t ie s
t o be c a u s e s :
I f
a n y
o n e s u c h
[p r o p e r ]
a f f e c t io n be t a ke n ... f o r t h e d e f in it io n o f
it s
s u bje c t ,
it s o f a r
s u p p lie s
t h e
p la c e
o f a c a u s e , in
r e s p e c t
o f t h e
r e s t ; be c a u s e
by
t h e in t e r ve n t io n o f it , a s a me a n , t h e r e s t d o
n e c e s s a r ily
f o llo w a n d be c o me kn o w n .58
B a r r o w
t h e r e by
c o n c lu d e d t h a t t h e
"c a u s a lit y
a n d
d e p e n d e n c e
o f t h e
t e r ms o f a ma t h e ma t ic a l d e mo n s t r a t io n ...
ma y
be c a lle d a
f o r ma l
c a u s a l-
it y,
be c a u s e t h e
r e ma in in g p r o p e r t ie s
d o r e s u lt f r o mt h a t o n e
p r o p e r t y,
w h ic h is f ir s t a s s u me d
[a s d e f in it io n o r
p r in c ip le ],
a s f r o ma f o r m(e x
f o r ma )" (B a r r o w 's e mp h a s is ).59 Fu r t h e r mo r e , "a ll o t h e r
c a u s a lit y,
w h ic h is
h e r e
a p p lic a ble ,
be s id e s t h is
[ma t h e ma t ic a l]
c o n n e c t io n ... is me r e f ic t io n ,
s u p p o r t e d by
n o
a r gu me n t ,
n o r c o n f ir me d
by a n y e xa mp le ."60
Th e
f o r e go in g p h ilo s o p h ic a l ba c kgr o u n d
illu min a t e s t h e s t r u c t u r e o f
B a r r o w 's
ge o me t r ic a l o p t ic s
a n d s h o w s t h a t it w a s a d e libe r a t e a n s w e r t o
f u n d a me n t a l
s h o r t c o min gs
B a r r o w
p e r c e ive d
in t h e me c h a n ic a l
p h ilo s o -
p h y.
56
B a r r o w , Us e f u ln e s s o f Ma t h e ma t ic a l
Le a r n in g,
85.
An a c h r o n is t ic a lly s p e a kin g,
a
p a s s io p r o p r ia
is a
n e c e s s a r y
a n d s u f f ic ie n t c o n d it io n .
57
Mc Kir a h a n , "Ar is t o t le 's Su bo r d in a t e Sc ie n c e s ," 204.
58
Us e f u ln e s s o f Ma t h e ma t ic a l
Le a r n in g,
86.
59
I bid ., 88.
60
I bid ., 99.
283
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B a r r o w 's Ge o me t r ic a l
O p t ic s
B a r r o w s e t
u p
h is
ge o me t r ic a l o p t ic s
in
e xp lic it
c o n t r a s t t o t h e
o p t ic s
in s p ir e d by
t h e me c h a n ic a l
p h ilo s o p h y.
Un d e r t h e in f lu e n c e o f Ca r t e s ia n -
is m, ma n y
Co n t in e n t a l a u t h o r s lo o ke d f o r
e xp la n a t io n s
o f t h e
p r o p e r t ie s
o f
ligh t
in t e r ms o f me c h a n ic a l mo d e ls . Th e r e c t ilin e a r mo t io n o f
ligh t ,
t h e
la w s o f r e f le c t io n a n d
r e f r a c t io n ,
d o u ble
r e f r a c t io n , e t c .,
t h e y
d e d u c e d
f r o mt h e me c h a n ic a l
p r o p e r t ie s
o f
p u ls e s
t r a n s mit t e d
t h r o u gh
a n e t h e r .
Hu yge n s ,
Pa r d ie s ,
a n d Ma le br a n c h e a r e
a mo n g
t h e f o r e mo s t c o n t r ibu t o r s
t o t h is lin e o f
t h o u gh t ,
a n d
Hu yge n s 's
Tr a it e d e la lu mie r e it s mo s t
a c c o mp lis h e d p r o d u c t .61
B a r r o w 's 1669
O p t ic a l
Le c t u r e s , h o w e ve r ,
ma d e
a
p o in t
o f
d o w n p la yin g a n y
me c h a n ic a l
u n d e r s t a n d in g
o f
ligh t .62
Wh ile
e mp h a s izin g
t h e
me r e ly h yp o t h e t ic a l
c h a r a c t e r o f bo t h
c o r p u s c u la r
a n d
u n d u la t o r y
t h e o r ie s o f
ligh t ,
B a r r o w s t r e s s e d t h a t t h is s o r t o f
"me c h a n ic a l,
h yp o t h e t ic a l p h ys ic s "
w a s
in c o n s e qu e n t ia l:
"I s h a ll ma ke n o e f f o r t t o
p r o ve
w h a t I h a ve s a id
[a bo u t
t h e n a t u r e
o f ligh t ],
s in c e ... it s e e ms c le a r e r
t h a n
ligh t
it s e lf t h a t s u c h
p r o o f s
c a n n o t be
give n ."63
I n c o n t r a d is t in c t io n t o
t h e
(t o h im)
u s e le s s t a s k o f
e lu c id a t in g
t h e me c h a n ic a l n a t u r e o f
ligh t ,
B a r r o w 's
o p t ic s
r e s t e d o n a
ma t h e ma t ic a lly
c o n s t r u e d n o t io n o f
o p t ic a l
ima ge s ,
t e s t e d
it ,
a n d
p u r s u e d
t h e
d e s c r ip t io n
o f t h e ir ma t h e ma t ic a l
p r o p -
e r t ie s .
Le t u s a s s u me
(s e e Figu r e 1),
t h a t
r a ys
s e n t f o r t h
by
A a r e r e f le c t e d in
t h e mir r o r in s u c h a
w a y
t h a t t h o s e
r e a c h in g
t h e
e ye ,
E,
if
p r o lo n ge d
ba c kw a r d s ,
ga t h e r
in s o me
p o in t
A'.
Th e n ,
A' is t a ke n t o be t h e
ima ge
o f A.
Th e
e ye
E s h o u ld s e e A in A' be c a u s e it is a s s u me d t h a t t h e
r a ys c o min g
f r o mA r e a c h t h e
e ye
a s
if t h e y
c a me f r o mA'. Th is is a
t r u ly ge o me t r ic a l
d e f in it io n in t h e s e n s e t h a t A' is d e t e r min e d
by
t h e
p o s it io n s
o f
A,
t h e
e ye
E,
a n d t h e
p o s it io n
a n d
s h a p e
o f t h e
r e f le c t in g
s u r f a c e . I s h a ll c a ll it t h e
"Gr e go r ie -B a r r o w p r in c ip le
o f
ima ge
lo c a t io n " a n d
"ge o me t r ic a l ima ge s "
t h e
o bje c t s
it d e t e r min e s . Ja me s
Gr e go r ie gr o u n d e d
o n it t h e f ir s t ma t h -
e ma t ic a l
t h e o r y
o f
o p t ic a l
d e vic e s
(in
h is 1663
O p t ic a p r o mo t a ),
bu t it
be c a me
w id e ly
kn o w n
t h r o u gh
B a r r o w 's 1669
O p t ic a l
Le c t u r e s .64
61
Se e A. I .
Sa br a ,
Th e o r ie s
o f Ligh t f r o m
De s c a r t e s t o N e w t o n
(Lo n d o n , 1967);
A.
E.
Sh a p ir o ,
"Kin e ma t ic
O p t ic s :
A
St u d y
o f t h e Wa ve
Th e o r y
o f
Ligh t
in t h e Se ve n t e e n t h
Ce n t u r y,"
Ar c h ive
f o r
t h e
His t o r y o f
Exa c t
Sc ie n c e s ,
11
(1973), 134-266;
P.
Du h e m,
"L'o p t iqu e
d e
Ma le br a n c h e ,"
R e vu e d e
me t a p h ys iqu e
e t d e la
mo r a le ,
23
(1916),
37-91.
I n R e s t o r a t io n
En gla n d ,
Ho o ke w a s
e s s e n t ia lly
a lo n e in
e mbr a c in g
a n
u n d u la t o r y t h e o r y
o f
ligh t .
62
Se e R .
Ka r go n ,
At o mis min
En gla n d f r o m
Ha r io t t o N e w t o n
(O xf o r d , 1966),
78-79
a n d
118-21;
a n d A. E.
Sh a p ir o ,
"Th e
O p t ic a l Le c t u r e s ,"
in M.
Fe in go ld (e d .), B e f o r e
N e w t o n ,
105-78.
63
Ma t h e ma t ic a l
Wo r ks ,
18. Th e r e a r e
ma n y
d e c la r a t io n s t o t h e s a me
p u r p o s e
in t h e
f ir s t t w o le c t u r e s .
64
O n
Gr e go r ie 's o p t ic s ,
s e e A.
Ma le t , "St u d ie s o n Ja me s
Gr e go r ie (1638-1675)"
(Ph .D. Dis s .,
Pr in c e t o n
Un ive r s it y, 1989), 99-173;
a n d
"Gr e go r ie , De s c a r t e s ,
Ke p le r ,
284 An t o n i Ma le t
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I s a a c B a r r o w
E473
p ic n iu . p a u n t i
,
S ve r ia u o o
p u
lo -n o a c o n c u r r t in , A
s u lI u s d bic u r ,^d iin .
s , c t
d e t c r mu n a m
t t I c u s imi
/n /is
Q.Z
o mn ia
p a t e ic
a c o n lla r ii
a d s
o
Pr o p bu is :
c o d e ma
.w '
qu o qu e mo d o ie ,
ia n e t
',
me n d u s e f t lo c u s
4^
>^
n a ii
ia Dio p .
/
A'
Figu r e
1
R e p r in t e d
w it h
p e r mis s io n
f r o mt h e Divis io n o f R a r e a n d
Ma n u s c r ip t
Co lle c t io n s ,
Co r n e ll
Un ive r s it y Libr a r y
Th e
Gr e go r ie -B a r r o w p r in c ip le
o f
ima ge
lo c a t io n r e lie s o n a d e ba t e d
in t e r p r e t a t io n
o f a w e ll-e s t a blis h e d
p h e n o me n o n ,
o c u la r a c c o mmo d a t io n .
O c u la r h u mo r s
c h a n ge
t h e ir
s h a p e s
a s t h e d is t a n c e be t w e e n t h e
e ye
a n d t h e
o bje c t
t h e
e ye
is
f o c u s in g
o n
c h a n ge s .
I t w a s d e d u c e d f r o m
h e r e ,
a s
Gr e go r ie p u t
it ,
t h a t t h e
e ye
E
(Figu r e 1)
a c c o mmo d a t e s it s e lf a s
if
t h e
r a ys
c a me f r o mA'. Fr o mt h is a c t o f o c u la r a c c o mmo d a t io n t h e o bs e r ve r s h o u ld
c o n c lu d e t h a t t h e
r a ys
c o me
a c t u a lly
f r o mA'. To s u m
u p ,
t h e
Gr e go r ie -
B a r r o w
p r in c ip le
a s s u me s t h a t t h e
e ye
lo c a t e s
o bje c t s
in
p h ys ic a l s p a c e by
me a n s o f t h e
d ive r ge n c e
o f t h e
ligh t r a ys
r e c e ive d -a
h yp o t h e s is
w it h
s o me
e mp ir ic a l
ba s is in t h e "a c c o mmo d a t io n " o f o c u la r h u mo r s . Ta ke n t o
be
e qu iva le n t
t o a s s u me t h e
a bilit y
o f
a s c e r t a in in g
t h e d is t a n c e
s e p a r a t in g
a n d t h e La w o f
R e f r a c t io n ,"
Ar c h ive s I n t e r n a t io n a le s d 'His t o ir e d e s
Sc ie n c e s ,
40
(1990),
278-304. O n t h e
Ke p le r ia n p r e -h is t o r y
o f t h e ma t h e ma t ic s o f f o c a l
p o in t s ,
s e e A.
Ma le t ,
"Ke p le r ia n
I llu s io n s : Ge o me t r ic a l Pic t u r e s ve r s u s
O p t ic a l I ma ge s
in
Ke p le r 's
Vis u a l
Th e o r y,"
St u d ie s in t h e
His t o r y
a n d
Ph ilo s o p h y o f Sc ie n c e ,
21
(1990),
1-40. Fo r
a d is c u s s io n o f t h e t e c h n ic a lit ie s o f B a r r o w 's
O p t ic a l
Le c t u r e s a n d it s
r e c e p t io n t h r o u gh
t h e
e igh t e e n t h c e n t u r y,
s e e A. E.
Sh a p ir o ,
"Th e
O p t ic a l
Le c t u r e s ,"
in M.
Fe in go ld (e d .),
B e f o r e N e w t o n ,
105-78.
285
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o bje c t s
f r o mt h e
e ye ,
t h is
h yp o t h e s is
w a s
w id e ly
d is c u s s e d in t h e
p h ilo -
s o p h ic a l
lit e r a t u r e .65
Th e
Gr e go r ie -B a r r o w p r in c ip le
o f
ima ge
lo c a t io n d e s c r ibe s ma t h e ma -
t ic a lly
w h e r e t h e
o bje c t
A s h o u ld be
p e r c e ive d .
N o w A
ma y
be
a c t u a lly
p e r c e ive d
t h e r e ,
o r it
ma y
n o t . Wh a t t h e
p r in c ip le s a ys
a bo u t
ima ge s ma y
be t r u e o r f a ls e . Th e r e f o r e it is a
p r o p o s it io n
r a t h e r t h a n a d e f in it io n -
w h ic h
a gr e e s
w it h B a r r o w 's
u n d e r s t a n d in g
o f d e f in it io n s . Th e t h e o r e t i-
c a lly
d e r ive d lo c a t io n o f t h e
ima ge ,
A',
w ill
c h a n ge
a s A is r e mo ve d t o
a n o t h e r
lo c a t io n ,
o r t h e
s h a p e
o f t h e
r e f le c t in g
s u r f a c e is
c h a n ge d ,
o r t h e
e ye ga in s
a n e w
s it u a t io n ,
o r t h e
ligh t
is r e f r a c t e d in s t e a d o f r e f le c t e d . Th is
p r o vid e s
in n u me r a ble o c c a s io n s t o t e s t t h e "d e f in it io n " o f
ima ge s ,
a n d t h a t
is w h a t w e f in d in B a r r o w 's
O p t ic a l
Le c t u r e s . He
h igh ligh t e d
r e s u lt s t h a t
e xp la in e d
o bs e r va t io n a l
f a c t s ,
p a r t ic u la r ly
t h o s e c o n c e r n e d w it h t h e w o r k-
in g
o f le n s e s a n d
t e le s c o p e s ,
bu t it w a s o n e o f B a r r o w 's ma in c o n c e r n s t o
s h o w t h a t t h e
ge o me t r ic a l ima ge a gr e e s
w it h t h e o bs e r ve d
ima ge .66
He
a llo w e d t h a t s o me e vid e n c e d id n o t
s u p p o r t
h is ma t h e ma t ic a l c h a r a c t e r iza -
t io n o f
ima ge s ,
bu t d is mis s e d it a s
be in g
in c o n s id e r a ble vis -a -vis t h e
e vid e n c e
s u p p o r t in g
it .67
Ge o r ge B e r ke le y's
1709 N e w
Th e o r y o f
Vis io n ,
it s mo s t r e c e n t c o m-
me n t a t o r
e mp h a s ize s ,
w a s me a n t t o c o u n t e r "t h e
ge o me t r ic t h e o r y"
o f
vis io n a n d it s n a ive s o lu t io n t o t h e
p r o ble m
o f d is t a n c e
p e r c e p t io n .68
I n d e e d ,
p r io r
t o t h e
p u blic a t io n
o f
B e r ke le y's s h a r p
c r it ic is m
ge o me t r ic a l
o p t ic s
f lo u r is h e d in B r it a in -a ll
ma jo r
B r it is h
o p t ic a l
w r it e r s ,
in c lu d in g
Ja me s
Gr e go r ie ,
Da vid
Gr e go r y,
Willia m
Mo lyn e u x,
a n d t h e
gr e a t o p t ic a l
c o mp ile r s
o f t h e
e a r ly e igh t e e n t h c e n t u r y
c o n t r ibu t e d t o
it ,
n o t t o me n t io n
65
Se e L. S.
Jo y,
Ga s s e n d i t h e At o mis t
(Ca mbr id ge , 1987), 123-24; O .
R .
B lo c h ,
La
p h ilo s o p h ie
d e Ga s s e n d i
(La Ha ye , 1971),
15f f . J.
Lo c ke ,
Es s a y Co n c e r n in g
Hu ma n
Un d e r s t a n d in g (2 vo ls .; O xf o r d , 1894), I , 219-25. R .
B o yle ,
A Dis c o u r s e
o f Th in gs
a bo ve
R e a s o n ,
in Wo r ks
(Lo n d o n , 1772), I V, 406-69,
p .
414. R .
De s c a r t e s ,
La
Dio p t r iqu e ,
in C.
Ad a m,
P.
Ta n n e r y (e d s .),
O e u vr e s d e De s c a r t e s
(12 vo ls .; Pa r is ,
1897-
1910), VI ,
144. O n R o be r va l a n d
Hu yge n s ,
s e e be lo w .
66
Se e ,
f o r in s t a n c e , Ma t h e ma t ic a l
Wo r ks , 118,
w h e r e h e c o r r e c t s
Ga lile o ,
a n d
101,
w h e r e h e
e xp la in s
a
p h e n o me n o n
"o f s u bs t a n t ia l
a d va n t a ge
in t h e
ma kin g
o f t e le -
s c o p e s ."
Fo r in s t a n c e s o f o bs e r va t io n s a n d
e xp e r ime n t s
a d d u c e d a s c o r r o bo r a t io n o f h is
t h e o r y,
s e e Ma t h e ma t ic a l
Wo r ks ,
Le c t u r e
I V, ?21, 53; V, ?20, 61; V, ?22, 63-64; VI ,
?19, 69; VI I , ?21, 76; X, ?26, 93-94; XV,
a p p e n d ix,
133-36; XVI , ?14,
140-41.
B a r r o w 's
h a n d lin g
o f o bs e r va t io n s a n d
e xp e r ime n t s r a n ge s
f r o mt h e t r ivia l t o t h e
s o p h is t ic a t e d .
I h a ve
a n a lyze d
in f u ll a n d t e c h n ic a l d e t a il t h is f a c e t o f B a r r o w 's
o p t ic s
in
"St u d ie s o n Ja me s
Gr e go r ie (1638-1675)," 158-62,
t o
a p p e a r
in "Th e Se ve n t e e n t h -
Ce n t u r y
Ma t h e ma t iza t io n o f
O p t ic a l I ma ge s ," f o r t h c o min g.
67 Ma t h e ma t ic a l
Wo r ks ,
152-53. Se e "St u d ie s o n Ja me s
Gr e go r ie (1638-1675),"
162-63,
t o
a p p e a r
in "Th e
Se ve n t e e n t h -Ce n t u r y
Ma t h e ma t iza t io n o f
O p t ic a l I ma ge s ,"
f o r t h c o min g.
68
M. At h e r t o n ,
B e r ke le y's
R e vo lu t io n in Vis io n
(I t h a c a , 1990), 77-86,
a n d
p a s s im.
286 An t o n iMa le t
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s u c h s e min a l w o r ks a s B a r r o w 's Le c t u r e s a n d N e w t o n 's
Ca mbr id ge o p t i-
c a l le c t u r e s .
We c a n n o t
a n a lyze
h e r e t h e
f a c t o r s -in c lu d in g
in c o n c lu s ive
e mp ir ic a l
s u p p o r t -w h ic h d u r in g
t h e f ir s t d e c a d e s o f t h e
e igh t e e n t h c e n t u r y
u n d e r -
min e d t h e s t a t u s o f
ge o me t r ic a l o p t ic s
a s it w a s
o r igin a lly
c o n c e ive d .
Su f f ic e it t o
s a y
t h a t n a t u r a l
p h ilo s o p h e r s (mo s t ly
f r o mt h e
Co n t in e n t )
o p p o s in g
t h e
Gr e go r ie -B a r r o w p r in c ip le e ve n t u a lly p r e va ile d ,
a n d f r o m
t h e mid d le o f t h e
e igh t e e n t h c e n t u r y
it w a s n o
lo n ge r
a s s u me d t h a t
ge o -
me t r ic a l
ima ge s t r u ly
d e s c r ibe d t h e
ima ge s p e r c e ive d t h r o u gh
le n s e s a n d
t e le s c o p e s .
Th u s
ge o me t r ic a l o p t ic s
lo s t t h e
p h ys ic a l
c o n t e n t it h a d h a d in
t h e s e ve n t e e n t h
c e n t u r y,
a n d B a r r o w 's
O p t ic a l
Le c t u r e s h a s e ve r s in c e
be e n c o n s id e r e d
p r ima r ily
a ma t h e ma t ic a l w o r k-a s e r ie s o f
be a u t if u lly
d if f ic u lt ma t h e ma t ic a l r e s u lt s
p r o d u c e d
f o r t h e ir o w n
s a ke ,
in d e p e n d e n t ly
o f t h e
e mp ir ic a l kn o w le d ge t h e y migh t
c o n t a in . B u t t h is is a n a n a c h r o n is -
t ic
r e a d in g
o f h is
w o r k,
be c a u s e B a r r o w w a s
d e e p ly
c o n c e r n e d in e s t a b-
lis h in g
t h e t r u t h o f h is r e s u lt s o n o bs e r va t io n s . He
ga ve o p t ic s
n e w
p h ilo s o p h ic a l
f o u n d a t io n s -a n d
e ve r yt h in g s u gge s t s
t h a t
t h e o lo gic a l
c o n -
vic t io n s w e r e c r u c ia l in
s h a p in g
h is
a p p r o a c h
t o it .
Th e e ve n t u a l f a ilu r e o f t h e
s e ve n t e e n t h -c e n t u r y a t t e mp t
t o ma t h e -
ma t ize
o p t ic a l ima ge s
ma ke s it a ll t h e mo r e
in t e r e s t in g
t h a t
Gr e go r ie ,
B a r r o w ,
a n d
N e w t o n ,
a mo n g
o t h e r s ,
c o mmit t e d t h e ms e lve s t o
ge o me t r ic a l
ima ge s
a n d t h e s c ie n c e o f
o p t ic s
t h a t
h in ge s
o n t h e m.
Aga in s t
t h e ba c k-
gr o u n d
o f
t h e o lo gic a l
vo lu n t a r is m,
ge o me t r ic a l o p t ic s
w a s a
p r o mis in g
e n t e r p r is e ,
a t t r a c t ive bo t h be c a u s e it e mbo d ie d a n e w
u n d e r s t a n d in g
o f
w h a t is a ma t h e ma t ic a l s c ie n c e a n d be c a u s e it o f f e r e d a n a lt e r n a t ive t o t h e
s e a r c h f o r me c h a n ic o -d e t e r min is t ic
e xp la n a t io n s .
I t w a s a
p h ilo s o p h ic a l
e n t e r p r is e n e a t ly a n s w e r in g
t o
ke y t h e o lo gic a l
a n d
p h ilo s o p h ic a l
c o n c e r n s
o f R e s t o r a t io n
En gla n d .
Un ive r s it a t
Po mp e u
Fa br a ,
B a r c e lo n a .
I s a a c B a r r o w 287
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