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LTS2 PDF
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net [VMF]
C. F. Gauss
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Contents
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
Introduction
Notations and Abbreviations
Divisibility Theory I
Divisibility Theory II
Arithmetic in Zn
Primitive Roots
Quadratic Residues
Congruences
Primes and Composite Numbers
Composite Numbers
Prime Numbers
Rational and Irrational Numbers
Rational Numbers
Irrational Numbers
Diophantine Equations I
Diophantine Equations II
Functions in Number Theory
Floor Function and Fractional Part Function
Euler phi Function
Divisor Functions
More Functions
Functional Equations
Polynomials
Sequences of Integers
Linear Recurrnces
Recursive Sequences
More Sequences
Combinatorial Number Theory
Additive Number Theory
The Geometry of Numbers
Miscellaneous Problems
Sources
References
3
4
5
12
16
16
17
17
20
20
20
24
24
25
29
34
37
37
39
39
40
41
44
46
46
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51
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61
66
67
71
94
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1. Introduction
The heart of Mathematics is its problems.
Paul Halmos
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3. Divisibility Theory I
Why are numbers beautiful? Its like asking why is Beethovens Ninth
Symphony beautiful. If you dont see why, someone cant tell you. I know
numbers are beautiful. If they arent beautiful, nothing is. Paul Erdos
A 7. Let n be
a positive integer such that 2 + 2 28n2 + 1 is an integer.
Show that 2 + 2 28n2 + 1 is the square of an integer.
A 8. The integers a and b have the property that for every nonnegative
integer n the number of 2n a + b is the square of an integer. Show that a = 0.
A 9. Prove that among any ten consecutive positive integers at least one is
relatively prime to the product of the others.
1This is a generalization of A3 ! Indeed, a2 + b2 abc = c implies that
a2 +b2
ab+1
= c N.
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nn
nn
is divisible by 1989.
A 11. Let a, b, c, d be integers. Show that the product
(a b)(a c)(a d)(b c)(b d)(c d)
is divisible by 12.
p1
Y
k 2kp1
k=1
is an integer.
A 14. Let n be an integer with n 2. Show that n does not divide 2n 1.
A 15. Suppose that k 2 and n1 , n2 , , nk 1 be natural numbers having
the property
n2 | 2n1 1, n3 | 2n2 1, , nk | 2nk1 1, n1 | 2nk 1.
Show that n1 = n2 = = nk = 1.
A 16. Determine if there exists a positive integer n such that n has exactly
2000 prime divisors and 2n + 1 is divisible by n.
A 17. Let m and n be natural numbers such that
(m + 3)n + 1
A=
.
3m
is an integer. Prove that A is odd.
A 18. Let m and n be natural numbers and let mn + 1 be divisible by 24.
Show that m + n is divisible by 24.
A 19. Let f (x) = x3 + 17. Prove that for each natural number n 2, there
is a natural number x for which f (x) is divisible by 3n but not 3n+1 .
A 20. Determine all positive integers n for which there exists an integer m
so that 2n 1 divides m2 + 9.
A 21. Let n be a positive integer. Show that the product of n consecutive
integers is divisible by n!
2There is a strong generalization. See J1
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n
X
2n + 1 3k
2
2k + 1
k=0
1 1
1
+ + +
2 3
p1
2n
n
gcd(m, n) n
n
m
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A 47. Let a and b be integers. Show that a and b have the same parity if
and only if there exist integers c and d such that a2 + b2 + c2 + 1 = d2 .
A 48. Let n be a positive integer with n > 1. Prove that
1
1
+ +
2
n
is not an integer.
A 49. Let n be a positive integer. Prove that
1
1
+ +
3
2n + 1
is not an integer.
A 50. Prove that there is no positive integer n such that, for k = 1, 2, , 9,
the leftmost digit (in decimal notation) of (n + k)! equals k.
A 51. Show that every integer k > 1 has a multiple less than k 4 whose
decimal expansion has at most four distinct digits.
A 52. Let a, b, c and d be odd integers such that 0 < a < b < c < d and
ad = bc. Prove that if a + d = 2k and b + c = 2m for some integers k and
m, then a = 1.
A 53. Let d be any positive integer not equal to 2, 5, or 13. Show that one
can find distinct a and b in the set {2, 5, 13, d} such that ab 1 is not a
perfect square.
A 54. Suppose that x, y, and z are positive integers with xy = z 2 + 1. Prove
that there exist integers a, b, c, and d such that x = a2 + b2 , y = c2 + d2 , and
z = ac + bd.
A 55. A natural number n is said to have the property P , if whenever n
divides an 1 for some integer a, n2 also necessarily divides an 1.
(a) Show that every prime number n has the property P .
(b) Show that there are infinitely many composite numbers n
that possess the property P .
A 56. Show that for every natural number n the product
2
2
2
2
4
4
4
4
1
2
3
n
is an integer.
A 57. Let a, b, and c be integers such that a + b + c divides a2 + b2 + c2 .
Prove that there are infinitely many positive integers n such that a + b + c
divides an + bn + cn .
A 58. Prove that for every n N the following proposition holds : The
number 7 is a divisor of 3n + n3 if and only if 7 is a divisor of 3n n3 + 1.
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2
1 X p(k)
2
> .
n
2
k
3
k=1
A 64. There is a large pile of cards. On each card one of the numbers 1, 2,
, n is written. It is known that the sum of all numbers of all the cards is
equal to k n! for some integer k. Prove that it is possible to arrange cards
into k stacks so that the sum of numbers written on the cards in each stack
is equal to n!.
A 65. The last digit of the number x2 + xy + y 2 is zero (where x and y are
positive integers). Prove that two last digits of this numbers are zeros.
A 66. Clara computed the product of the first n positive integers and Valerid
computed the product of the first m even positive integers, where m 2.
They got the same answer. Prove that one of them had made a mistake.
A 67. (Four Number Theorem) Let a, b, c, and d be positive integers such
that ab = cd. Show that there exists positive integers p, q, r, and s such that
a = pq, b = rs, c = pt, and d = su.
2n
A 68. Prove that n is divisible by n + 1.
A 69. Suppose that a1 , , ar are positive integers. Show that lcm[a1 , , ar ] =
r+1
a1 ar (a1 , a2 )1 (ar1 , ar )1 (a1 , a2 , a3 )(a1 , a2 , a3 ) (a1 , a2 , ar )(1) .
A 70. Prove that if the odd prime p divides ab 1, where a and b are positive
integers, then p appears to the same power in the prime factorization of
b(ad 1), where d is the greatest common divisor of b and p 1.
3The triangular numbers are the t = n(n + 1)/2 with n {0, 1, 2, . . . }.
n
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A 71. Suppose that m = nq, where n and q are positive integers. Prove that
the sum of binomial coefficients
n1
X (n, k)q
(n, k)
k=0
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4. Divisibility Theory II
Number theorists are like lotus-eaters - having tasted this food they can
never give it up. Leopold Kronecker
is a divisor of
abc 1.
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(x+y+z)2
xyz
B 14. Determine
all n N for which (i) n is not the square of any integer,
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B 26. Find all positive integers n that have exactly 16 positive integral
divisors d1 , d2 , d16 such that 1 = d1 < d2 < < d16 = n, d6 = 18, and
d9 d8 = 17.
B 27. Suppose that n is a positive integer and let
d1 < d2 < d3 < d4
be the four smallest positive integer divisors of n. Find all integers n such
that
n = d1 2 + d2 2 + d3 2 + d4 2 .
B 28. Let 1 = d1 < d2 < < dk = n be all different divisors of positive
integer n written in ascending order. Determine all n such that
n 2
2
2
d7 + d10 =
.
d22
B 29. Let n 2 be a positive integer, with divisors
1 = d1 < d 2 < < d k = n .
Prove that
is always less than
n2 ,
d1 d2 + d2 d3 + + dk1 dk
and determine when it is a divisor of n2 .
B 30. Find all positive integers n such that (a) n has exactly 6 positive
divisors 1 < d1 < d2 < d3 < d4 < n, and (b) 1 + n = 5(d1 + d2 + d3 + d4 ).
B 31. Find all composite numbers n, having the property : each divisor d
of n (d =
6 1, n) satisfies inequalities n 20 d n 12.
B 32. Determine all three-digit numbers N having the property that N is
N
divisible by 11, and 11
is equal to the sum of the squares of the digits of N.
B 33. When 44444444 is written in decimal notation, the sum of its digits
is A. Let B be the sum of the digits of A. Find the sum of the digits of B.
(A and B are written in decimal notation.)
B 34. A wobbly number is a positive integer whose digits in base 10 are
alternatively non-zero and zero the units digit being non-zero. Determine
all positive integers which do not divide any wobbly number.
B 35. Find the smallest positive integer n such that
(i) n has exactly 144 distinct positive divisors, and
(ii) there are ten consecutive integers among the positive divisors of n.
B 36. Determine the least possible value of the natural number n such that
n! ends in exactly 1987 zeros.
B 37. Find four positive integers, each not exceeding 70000 and each having
more than 100 divisors.
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B 38. For each integer n > 1, let p(n) denote the largest prime factor of n.
Determine all triples (x, y, z) of distinct positive integers satisfying
(i) x, y, z are in arithmetic progression, and
(ii) p(xyz) 3.
B 39. Find all positive integers a and b such that
a2 + b
b2 a
and
b2 + a
a2 b
P
B 40. For each positive integer n, write the sum nm=1 1/m in the form
pn /qn , where pn and qn are relatively prime positive integers. Determine all
n such that 5 does not divide qn .
B 41. Find all natural numbers n such that the number n(n+1)(n+2)(n+3)
has exactly three prime divisors.
B 42. Prove that there exist infinitely many pairs (a, b) of relatively prime
positive integers such that
a2 5
b2 5
and
b
a
are both positive integers.
B 43. Determine all triples (l, m, n) of distinct positive integers satisfying
gcd(l, m)2 = l + m, gcd(m, n)2 = m + n, and gcd(n, l)2 = n + l.
B 44. What is the greatest common divisor of the set of numbers
{16n + 10n 1 | n = 1, 2, }?
B 45. (I. Selishev) Does there exist a 4-digit integer (in decimal form) such
that no replacement of three its digits by another three gives a multiple of
1992 ?
B 46. What is the smallest positive integer that consists of the ten digits 0
through 9, each used just once, and is divisible by each of the digits 2 through
9?
B 47. Find the smallest positive integer n which makes
21989 | mn 1
for all odd positive integer m greater than 1.
B 48. Determine the highest power of 1980 which divides
(1980n)!
.
(n!)1980
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5. Arithmetic in Zn
Mathematics is the queen of the sciences and number theory is the queen
of Mathematics. Johann Carl Friedrich Gauss
2
p1
C 2. Let p be a prime with p > 4 (p1)
22k , where k denotes the number
of distinct prime divisors of p 1, and let Mh be an integer.
Prove that
i
p1
k
the set of integers M + 1, M + 2, , M + 2 (p1) 2 p 1 contains a
primitive root to modulus p.
C 3. Show that for each odd prime p, there is an integer g such that 1 <
g < p and g is a primitive root modulo pn for every positive integer n.
C 4. Let g be a Fibonacci primitive root (mod p). i.e. g is a primitive root
(mod p) satisfying g 2 g + 1(mod p). Prove that
(a) Prove that g 1 is also a primitive root (mod p).
(b) If p = 4k + 3, then (g 1)2k+3 g 2(mod p) and deduce
that g 2 is also a primitive root (mod p).
C 5. Let p be an odd prime. If g1 , , g(p1) are the primitive roots mod
p in the range 1 < g p 1, prove that
(p1)
gi (p 1)(mod p).
i=1
(m)
2
1 (mod m)
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p
X
ak 2 + bk + c
p
k=1
a
=
.
p
5.3. Congruences.
C 15. If p is an odd prime, prove that
k
k
(mod p).
p
p
C 16. Suppose that p is an odd prime. Prove that
p
X
p p+j
2p + 1 (mod p2 ).
j
j
j=0
p1
2
p1
p1
2
4p1 (mod p3 )
n1
(1)k (mod n)
k
for all k {0, 1, , n 1}.
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n terms
z}|{
2
2
22
(mod n).
22
2, 22 , 22 , 22 , (mod n)
is eventually constant.
C 21. Somebody incorrectly remembered Fermats little theorem as saying
that the congruence an+1 a (mod n) holds for all a if n is prime. Describe
the set of integers n for which this property is in fact true.
C 22. Characterize the set of positive integers n such that, for all integers
a, the sequence a, a2 , a3 , is periodic modulo n.
C 23. Show that there exists a composite number n such that an a (mod n)
for all a Z.
C 24. Let p be a prime number of the form 4k + 1. Suppose that 2p + 1 is
prime. Show that there is no k N with k < 2p and 2k 1 (mod 2p + 1)
C 25. During a break, n children at school sit in a circle around their teacher
to play a game. The teacher walks clockwise close to the children and hands
out candies to some of them according to the following rule. He selects one
child and gives him a candy, then he skips the next child and gives a candy
to the next one, then he skips 2 and gives a candy to the next one, then he
skips 3, and so on. Determine the values of n for which eventually, perhaps
after many rounds, all children will have at least one candy each.
C 26. Suppose that m > 2, and let P be the product of the positive integers
less than m that are relatively prime to m. Show that P 1(mod m) if
m = 4, pn , or 2pn , where p is an odd prime, and P 1(mod m) otherwise.
C 27. Let consist of all polynomials in x with integer coefficients. For f
and g in and m a positive integer, let f g (mod m) mean that every
coefficient of f g is an integral multiple of m. Let n and p be positive
integers with p prime. Given that f, g, h, r and s are in with rf + sg 1
(mod p) and f g h (mod p), prove that there exist F and G in with
F f (mod p), G g (mod p), and F G h (mod pn ).
C 28. Determine the number of integers n 2 for which the congruence
x25 x (mod n)
is true for all integers x.
C 29. Let n1 , , nk and a be positive integers which satify the following
conditions :
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20032002
19811982
19811980
+ 1982
is divisible by 19811981 .
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20
5125 1
525 1
is a composite number.
D 6. Find the factor of 233 219 217 1 that lies between 1000 and 5000.
D 7. Show that there exists a positive integer k such that k 2n + 1 is
composite for all n N0 .
D 8. Show that for all integer k > 1, there are infinitely many natural
n
numbers n such that k 22 + 1 is composite.
D 9. Four integers are marked on a circle. On each step we simultaneously
replace each number by the difference between this number and next number
on the circle in a given direction (that is, the numbers a, b, c, d are replaced
by a b, b c, c d, d a). Is it possible after 1996 such steps to have
numbers a, b, c, and d such that the numbers |bcad|, |acbd|, and |abcd|
are primes ?
D 10. Represent the number 989 1001 1007 + 320 as the product of primes.
D 11. In 1772 Euler discovered the curious fact that n2 + n + 41 is prime
when n is any of 0, 1, 2, , 39. Show that there exist 40 consecutive integer
values of n for which this polynomial is not prime.
6.2. Prime Numbers.
D 12. Show that there are infinitely many primes.
D 13. Find all natural numbers n for which every natural number whose
decimal representation has n 1 digits 1 and one digit 7 is prime.
D 14. Prove that there do not exist polynomials P and Q such that
P (x)
(x) =
Q(x)
for all x N.
D 15. Show that there exist two consecutive squares such that there are at
least 1000 primes between them.
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X
1
n=1
pn
diverges.
D 25. Prove that log n k log 2, where n is a natural number and k is the
number of distinct primes that divide n.
D 26. Find the smallest prime which is not the difference (in some order)
of a power of 2 and a power of 3.
D 27. Prove that for each positive integer n, there exist n consecutive positive integers none of which is an integral power of a prime number.
D 28. Show that n(2n)(n) < 4n for all positive integer n.
D 29. Let sn denote the sum of the first n primes. Prove that for each n
there exists an integer whose square lies between sn and sn+1 .
5For any a, b N with gcd(a, b) = 1, there are infinitely many primes of the form
ak + b.
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D 30. Given an odd integer n > 3, let k and t be the smallest positive
integers such that both kn + 1 and tn are squares. Prove that n is prime if
and only if both k and t are greater than n4
D 31. Suppose n and r are nonnegative integers such that no number of the
form n2 + r k(k + 1) (k N) equals to 1 or a positive composite number.
Show that 4n2 + 4r + 1 is 1, 9 or prime.
D 32. Let n 5 be an integer. Show that n is prime if and only if ni nj 6=
np nq for every partition of n into 4 integers, n = n1 + n2 + n3 + n4 , and for
each permutation (i, j, p, q) of (1, 2, 3, 4).
D 33. Prove that there are no positive integers a and b such that for all
different primes p and q greater than 1000, the number ap+bq is also prime.
D 34. Let pn denote the nth prime number. For all n 6, prove that
( p1 p2 pn ) > 2n.
D 35. There exists a block of 1000 consecutive positive integers containing
no prime numbers, namely, 1001! + 2, 1001! + 3, , 1001! + 1001. Does
there exist a block of 1000 consecutive positive integers containing exactly
five prime numbers?
D 36. (S. Golomb) Prove that there are infinitely many twin primes if and
only if there are infinitely many integers that cannot be written in any of the
following forms :
6uv + u + v, 6uv + u v, 6uv u + v, 6uv u v,
for some positive integers u and v.
D 37. Its known that there is always a prime between n and 2n 7 for all
n 10. Prove that, with the exception of 1, 4, and 6, every natural number
can be written as the sum of distinct primes.
n
D 38. Prove that if c > 38 , then there exists a real numbers such that [c ]
is prime for any positive integer n.
D 39. Let c be a nonzero real numbers. Suppose that
g(x) = c0 xr + c1 xr1 + + cr1 x + cr
is a polynomial with integer coefficients. Suppose that the roots of g(x) are
b1 , , br . Let k be a given positive integer. Show that there is a prime p
such that
p > k, |c|, |cr |
and, moreover if t is a real between 0 and 1, and j is one of 1, , r, then
(p 1)!
.
|( cr bj g(tbj ) )p e(1t)b | <
2r
Furthermore, if
erp1 xp1 (g(x))p
f (x) =
(p 1)!
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then
23
r Z 1
1
(1t)bj
e
f (tbj )dt .
j=1 0
2
D 40. Prove that there do not exist eleven primes, all less than 20000, which
can form an arithmetic progression.
D 41. (G. H. Hardy) Let n be a positive integer. Show that n is prime if
and only if
!
s
X
(u!)r 2
lim lim lim
1 cos
t = n.
r s t
n
u=0
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X
1
S(m, k) =
n(mn + k)
n=1
1
2
and cos k is
E 16. Prove that for any distinct rational numbers of a, b, c, the number
1
1
1
+
+
(b c)2 (c a)2 (a b)2
is the square of some rational number.
7.2. Irrational Numbers.
E 17. Find the smallest positive integer n such that
1
.
a 2 b >
2(a + b)
E 19. Prove that there exist positive integers m and n such that
2
a + b 2 + c 3 > 21 .
10
E 21. Let a, b, c be integers, not all equal to 0. Show that
1
|3 4a + 3 2b + c|.
2
2
2
4a + 3b + 2c
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E 22. (Hurwitz) Prove that for any irrational number , there are infinitely
many rational numbers m
n ((m, n) Z N) such that
n
1
< 2 .
m
5m
E 23. Show that is irrational.
P
1
E 24. Show that e =
n=0 n! is irrational.
E 25. Show that cos 7 is irrational.
1
E 26. Show that 1 arccos 2003
is irrational.
E 27. Show that cos 1 is irrational.
E 28. An integer-sided triangle has angles p and q, where p and q are
relatively prime integers. Prove that cos is irrational.
10
E 29. It is possible to show that csc 3
29 csc 29 = 1.999989433.... Prove
k
that there are no integers j, k, n with odd n satisfying csc j
n csc n = 2.
E 30. For which angles , a rational number of degrees, is it the case that
tan2 + tan2 2 is irrational ?
E 31. (K. Mahler, 1953) Prove that for any p, q N with q > 1 the following
inequality holds. 6
p
q 42
q
E 32. For each integer n 1, prove that there is a polynomial Pn (x) with
rational coefficients such that
x4n (1 x)4n = (1 + x)2 Pn (x) + (1)n 4n .
Define the rational number an by
Z
(1)n1 1
an =
Pn (x) dx, n = 1, 2, .
4n1
0
Prove that an satisfies the inequality
1
| an | < 5n1 , n = 1, 2, .
4
E 33. (K. Alladi, M. Robinson, 1979) Suppose
thatp, q N satisfy the
2
7
inequality e( p + q q) < 1. Show that ln 1 + pq is irrational.
6This is a deep theorem in transcendental number theory. Note that it follows from this
result that is irrational ! In fact, its known that for sufficiently large q, the exponent
42 can be replaced by 30. Here is a similar result due to A. Baker : For any rationals pq ,
one has |ln 2 pq | 10100000 q 12.5 . [AI, pp. 106]
1
7Here, e = P
n0 n! .
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E 34. Show that the cube roots of three distinct primes cannot be terms in
an arithmetic progression.
E 35. Let n be an integer greater than or equal to 3. Prove that there is a
set of n points in the plane such that the distance between any two points is
irrational and each set of three points determines a non-degenerate triangle
with a rational area.
E 36. You are given three lists A, B, and C. List A contains the numbers of
the form 10k in base 10, with k any integer greater than or equal to 1. Lists
B and C contain the same numbers translated into base 2 and 5 respectively:
A
B
C
10
1010
20
100 1100100
400
1000 1111101000 13000
..
..
..
.
.
.
Prove that for every integer n > 1, there is exactly one number in exactly
one of the lists B or C that has exactly n digits.
E 37. (Beatty) Prove that if and are positive irrational numbers satisfying 1 + 1 = 1, then the sequences
[], [2], [3],
and
[], [2], [3],
together include every positive integer exactly once.
E 38. For a positive real number , define
S() = {[n] | n = 1, 2, 3, }.
Prove that N cannot be expressed as the disjoint union of three sets S(),
S(), and S().
Q
x
E 39. Let f (x) =
n=1 1 + 2n . Show that at the point x = 1, f (x) and
all its derivatives are irrational.
E 40. Let {an }n1 be a sequence of positive numbers such that
an+1 2 = an + 1, n N.
Show that the sequence contains an irrational number.
X
X
1
1
and
n2
g n!
g
n=0
n=0
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E 43. Let 1 < a1 < a2 < be a sequence of positive integers. Show that
2a1
2a2
2a3
+
+
+
a1 !
a2 !
a3 !
is irrational.
E 44. (N. Agahanov) Do there exist real numbers a and b such that
(1) a + b is rational and an + bn is irrational for all n N with n 2 ?
(2) a + b is irrational and an + bn is rational for all n N with n 2 ?
E 45. Let p(x) = x3 + a1 x2 + a2 x + a3 have rational coefficients and have
roots r1 , r2 , and r3 . If r1 r2 is rational, must r1 , r2 , and r3 be rational ?
E 46. Let = 0.d1 d2 d3 be a decimal representation of a real number
between 0 and 1. Let r be a real number
P withi |r| < 1.
(a) If P
and r are rational, must
i=1 di r be rational ?
i and r are rational, must be rational ?
(b) If
d
r
i=1 i
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8. Diophantine Equations I
In the margin of his copy of Diophantus Arithmetica, Pierre de Fermat
wrote : To divide a cube into two other cubes, a fourth power or in general
any power whatever into two powers of the same denomination above the
second is impossible, and I have assuredly found an admirable proof of this,
but the margin is too narrow to contain it.
F 1. One of Eulers conjecture8 was disproved in the 1980s by three American
Mathematicians9 when they showed that there is a positive integer n such that
n5 = 1335 + 1105 + 845 + 275 .
Find the value of n.
F 2. The number 21982145917308330487013369 is the thirteenth power of a
positive integer. Which positive integer?
F 3. Does there exist a solution to the equation
x2 + y 2 + z 2 + u2 + v 2 = xyzuv 65
in integers x, y, z, u, v greater than 1998?
F 4. Find all pairs (x, y) of positive rational numbers such that x2 +3y 2 = 1.
F 5. Find all pairs (x, y) of rational numbers such that y 2 = x3 3x + 2.
F 6. Show that there are infinitely many pairs (x, y) of rational numbers
such that x3 + y 3 = 9.
F 7. Determine all pairs (x, y) of positive integers satisfying the equation
(x + y)2 2(xy)2 = 1.
F 8. Show that the equation
x3 + y 3 + z 3 + t3 = 1999
has infinitely many integral solutions.
10
possible to exhibit three fourth powers whose sum is a fourth power, four fifth powers
whose sum is a fifth power, and similarly for higher powers [Rs]
9L. J. Lander, T. R. Parkin, and J. L. Selfridge
10More generally, the following result is known : let n be an integer, then the equation
3
x + y 3 + z 3 + w3 = n has infinitely many integral solutions (x, y, z, w) if there can be
found one solution (x, y, z, w) = (a, b, c, d) with (a + b)(c + d) negative and with either
a 6= b and c 6= d. [Eb2, pp.90]
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F 10. Prove that there are unique positive integers a and n such that
an+1 (a + 1)n = 2001.
F 11. Find all (x, y, n) N3 such that gcd(x, n + 1) = 1and xn + 1 = y n+1 .
F 12. Find all (x, y, z) N3 such that x4 y 4 = z 2 .
F 13. Find all pairs (x, y) of positive integers that satisfy the equation
11
y 2 = x3 + 16.
F 14. Show that the equation x2 + y 5 = z 3 has infinitely many solutions in
integers x, y, z for which xyz 6= 0.
F 15. Prove that there are no integers x and y satisfying x2 = y 5 4.
F 16. Find all pairs (a, b) of different positive integers that satisfy the equation W (a) = W (b), where W (x) = x4 3x3 + 5x2 9x.
F 17. Find all positive integers n for which the equation
a + b + c + d = n abcd
has a solution in positive integers.
F 18. Determine all positive integer solutions (x, y, z, t) of the equation
(x + y)(y + z)(z + x) = xyzt
for which gcd(x, y) = gcd(y, z) = gcd(z, x) = 1.
F 19. Find all (x, y, z, n) N4 such that x3 + y 3 + z 3 = nx2 y 2 z 2 .
F 20. Determine all positive integers n for which the equation
xn + (2 + x)n + (2 x)n = 0
has an integer as a solution.
F 21. Prove that the equation
6(6a2 + 3b2 + c2 ) = 5n2
has no solutions in integers except a = b = c = n = 0.
F 22. Find all integers (a, b, c, x, y, z) such that
a + b + c = xyz, x + y + z = abc, a b c 1, x y z 1.
F 23. Find all (x, y, z) N3 such that x3 + y 3 + z 3 = x + y + z = 3.
11Its known that there are (infinitely) many integers k so that the equation y 2 = x3 +k
has no integral solutions. For example, if k has the form k = (4n 1)3 4m2 , where m
and n are integers such that no prime p 1 (mod 4) divides m, then the equation
y 2 = x3 + k has no integral solutions. For a proof, see [Tma, pp. 191].
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F 38. Suppose that p is an odd prime such that 2p + 1 is also prime. Show
that the equation xp + 2y p + 5z p = 0 has no solutions in integers.
F 39. Let A, B, C, D, E be integers B 6= 0 and F = AD2 BCD +B 2 E 6= 0.
Prove that the number N of pairs of integers (x, y) such that
Ax2 + Bxy + Cx + Dy + E = 0,
satisfies N 2d(|F |), where d(n) denotes the number of positive divisors of
positive integer n.
F 40. Determine all pairs of rational numbers (x, y) such that
x3 + y 3 = x2 + y 2 .
F 41. Suppose that A = 1, 2, or 3. Let a and b be relatively prime integers
such that a2 + Ab2 = s3 for some integer s. Then, there are integers u and
v such that s = u2 + Av 2 , a = u3 3Avu2 , and b = 3u2 v Av 3 .
F 42. Find all integers a for which x3 x + a has three integer roots.
F 43. Find all solutions in integers of x3 + 2y 3 = 4z 3 .
F 44. For a n N, show that the number of integral solutions (x, y) of
x2 + xy + y 2 = n
is finite and a multiple of 6.
F 45. (Fermat) Show that there cannot be four squares in arithmetical progression.
F 46. (Gauss) Let a, b, c, d, e, f be integers such that b2 4ac > 0 is not a
perfect square and 4acf + bde ae2 cd2 f b2 6= 0. Let
f (x, y) = ax2 + bxy + cy 2 + dx + ey + f
Suppose that f (x, y) = 0 has an integral solution. Show that f (x, y) = 0 has
infinitely many integral solutions.
F 47. Show that the equation x4 + y 4 + 4z 4 = 1 has infinitely many rational
solutions.
F 48. Solve the equation x2 + 7 = 2n in integers.
F 49. Show that the only solutions of the equation x3 3xy 2 y 3 = 1 are
given by (x, y) = (1, 0), (0, 1), (1, 1), (1, 3), (3, 2), (2, 1).
F 50. Show that the equation y 2 = x3 + 2a3 3b2 has no solution in integers
if ab 6= 0, a 6 1 (mod 3), 3 6 |b, a is odd if b is even, and p = t2 + 27u2 is
soluble in integers t and u of p|a and p 1 (mod 3).
F 51. Prove that the product of five consecutive integers is never a perfect
square.
F 52. Do there exist two right-angled triangles with integer length sides that
have the lengths of exactly two sides in common?
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F 53. Suppose that a, b, and p are integers such that b 1 (mod 4), p
3 (mod 4), p is prime, and if q is any prime divisor of a such that q
3 (mod 4), then q p |a2 and p 6 |q 1 (if q = p, then also q|b). Show that the
equation
x2 + 4a2 = y p bp
has no solutions in integers.
F 54. Show that the number of integral-sided right triangles whose ratio of
area to semi-perimeter is pm , where p is a prime and m is an integer, is
m + 1 if p = 2 and 2m + 1 if p 6= 2.
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9. Diophantine Equations II
The positive integers stand there, a continual and inevitable challenge to
the curiosity of every healthy mind. Godfrey Harold Hardy
G 1. Given that
34! = 95232799cd96041408476186096435ab000000(10) ,
determine the digits a, b, c, and d.
G 2. Prove that the equation (x1 x2 )(x2 x3 )(x3 x4 )(x4 x5 )(x5 x6 )(x6
x7 )(x7 x1 ) = (x1 x3 )(x2 x4 )(x3 x5 )(x4 x6 )(x5 x7 )(x6 x1 )(x7 x2 )
has a solution in natural numbers where all xi are different.
G 3. (P. Erd
os) Show that the equation nk = ml has no integral solution
with l 2 and 4 k n 4.
G 4. Solve in positive integers the equation 10a + 2b 3c = 1997.
G 5. Solve the equation 28x = 19y + 87z , where x, y, z are integers.
G 6. Show that the equation x7 + y 7 = 1998z has no solution in positive
integers.
G 7. Solve the equation 2x 5 = 11y in positive integers.
G 8. Solve the equation 7x 3y = 4 in positive integers.
G 9. Show that |12m 5n | 7 for all m, n N.
G 10. Show that there is no positive integer k for which the equation
(n 1)! + 1 = nk
is true when n is greater than 5.
G 11. Determine all pairs (x, y) of integers such that
(19a + b)18 + (a + b)18 + (19b + a)18
is a positive square.
G 12. Let b be a positive integer. Determine all 200-tuple integers of nonnegative integers (a1 , a2 , , a2002 ) satisfying
n
X
aj aj = 2002bb .
j=1
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x
y
for any
1
ab = ba .
G 20. Find all pairs (a, b) of positive integers that satisfy the equation
a
aa = bb .
G 21. Let a, b, and x be positive integers such that xa+b = ab b. Prove that
a = x and b = xx .
G 22. Find all pairs (m, n) of integers that satisfy the equation
4mn
.
(m n)2 =
m+n1
G 23. Find all pairwise relatively prime positive integers l, m, n such that
1
1
1
(l + m + n)
+
+
l
m n
is an integer.
G 24. Let x, y, and z be integers with z > 1. Show that
(x + 1)2 + (x + 2)2 + + (x + 99)2 6= y z .
G 25. Find all values of the positive integers m and n for which
1! + 2! + 3! + + n! = m2
1
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(3 a + 3 b 1)2 = 49 + 203 6.
G 30. For what positive numbers a is
q
q
3
3
2+ a+
2 a
an integer ?
G 31. Find all integer solutions to 2(x5 + y 5 + 1) = 5xy(x2 + y 2 + 1).
G 32. A triangle with integer sides is called Heronian if its are is an integer. Does there exist a Heronian triangle whose sides are the arithmetic,
geometric and harmonic means of two positive integers ?
G 33. What is the smallest perfect square that ends in 9009?
G 34. (Leo Moser) Show that the Diophantine equation
1
1
1
1
+
+ +
+
=1
x1 x2
xn x1 x2 xn
has at least one solution for every positive integers n.
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n+2
n+4
n+8
n+1
+
+
+
+ = n
2
4
8
16
H 4. Show that for all positive integers n,
[ n + n + 1] = [ 4n + 1] = [ 4n + 2] = [ 4n + 3].
H 5. Find all real numbers for which the equality
[ n + n + ] = [ 4n + 1]
holds for all positive integers n.
H 6. Prove that for all positive integers n,
[ n + n + 1 + n + 2] = [ 9n + 8].
H 7. Prove that for all positive integers n,
1
[n 3 + (n + 1) 3 ] = [(8n + 3) 3 ]
1
m1
X
k=0
kn
.
m
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k=n+1
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nk 0 (mod p).
k=0
H 24. Let m, n be positive integers. Prove that, for some positive integer
a, each of (a), (a + 1), , (a + n) is a multiple of m.
(n+1)
(n)
is dense
H 30. (a) Show that if n > 49, then there are a > 1 and b > 1 such that
(b)
a + b = n and (a)
a + b < 1. (b) Show that if n > 4, then there are a > 1
(b)
and b > 1 such that a + b = n and (a)
a + b > 1.
10.3. Divisor Functions.
2
H 31. Prove that d(n2 + 1) does not become monotonic from any given
point onwards.
H 32. Determine all positive integers n such that n = d(n)2 .
H 33. Determine all positive integers k such that
d(n2 )
=k
d(n)
for some n N.
H 34. Find all positive integers n such that d(n)3 = 4n.
H 35. Determine all positive integers for which d(n) =
n
3
holds.
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n
d
n
gcd(m,n)
(n)
.
n
gcd(m,n)
.
n!
k
k=1
X
Y
n
(n)x = x
(1 xn )24 ,
n=1
n=1
14
H 44. For every natural number n, Q(n) denote the sum of the digits in
the decimal representation of n. Prove that there are infinitely many natural
numbers k with Q(3k ) > Q(3k+1 ).
H 45. Let S(n) be the sum of all different natural divisors of an odd natural
number n > 1 (including 1 and n). Prove that S(n)3 < n4 .
12In 1947, Lehmer conjectured that (n) 6=
13{ (n)|n 1} = {1, 24, 252, 1472, }.
14This Ramanujans conjecture was proved
15This Ramanujans conjecture was proved
0 for all n N.
For more terms, see the first page !
by Mordell.
by Watson.
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X
2k
2k
(n) =
cos
+ i sin
,
n
n
kRn
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(1) f (2) = 2
(2) f (mn) = f (m)f (n), m, n N,
(3) f (n + 1) > f (n), n N
H 60. Find all functions f : Z Z such that
f (f (m)) = m + 1, m Z
H 61. Find all functions f : Z Z such that
(1) f (m + 8) f (m) + 8, m Z,
(2) f (m + 11) f (m) + 11, m Z
H 62. Find all functions f : Z Z such that
f (m + f (n)) = f (m) n, m, n Z.
H 63. Find all functions f : Z Z such that
f (m + f (n)) = f (m) + n, m, n Z.
H 64. Find all functions h : Z Z such that
h(x + y) + h(xy) = h(x)h(y) + 1, x, y Z.
H 65. Find all functions f : Q R such that
f (xy) = f (x)f (y) f (x + y) + 1, x, y Q.
H 66. Find all functions f : Q+ Q+ such that
y
f (y)
f x+
+ 2y, x, y Q+ .
= f (x) +
x
f (x)
H 67. Find all functions f : Q Q such that
f (x + y) + f (x y) = 2(f (x) + f (y)), x, y Q.
H 68. Find all functions f, g, h : Q Q such that
f (x + g(y)) = g(h(f (x))) + y, x, y Q.
H 69. Find all functions f : Q+ Q+ such that
(1) f (x + 1) = f (x) + 1, x Q+ ,
(2) f (x2 ) = f (x)2 , x Q+ .
H 70. Let Q+ be the set of positive rational numbers. Construct a function
f : Q+ Q+ such that
f (x)
f (xf (y)) =
y
+
for all x, y Q .
H 71. A function f is defined on the positive integers by
f (1)
f (2n)
f (4n + 1)
f (4n + 3)
=
=
=
=
1, f (3) = 3,
f (n),
2f (2n + 1) f (n),
3f (2n + 1) 2f (n),
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x+y
f (x) + f (y)
f
=
, x, y Z {0}
3
2
H 77. Find all functions f : N N such that
f (f (f (n))) + f (f (n)) + f (n) = 3n, n N.
H 78. Find all strictly increasing functions f : such that
f (f (n)) = 3n, n N.
H 79. Find all functions f : Z2 R+ such that
f (i + 1, j) + f (i, j + 1) + f (i 1, j) + f (i, j 1)
, i, j Z.
f (i, j) =
4
H 80. Find all functions f : Q Q such that
f (x+y+z)+f (xy)+f (yz)+f (zx) = 3f (x)+3f (y)+3f (z), x, y, z Q.
H 81. Show that there exists a bijective function f : N0 N0 such that
f (3mn + m + n) = 4f (m)f (n) + f (m) + f (n), m, n N0 .
H 82. Show that there exists a function f : N N such that
f (1996) (n) = 2n, n N.
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11. Polynomials
The only way to learn Mathematics is to do Mathematics. Paul Halmos
I 1. Suppose p(x) Z[x] and P (a)P (b) = (a b)2 for some distinct
a, b Z. Prove that P (a) + P (b) = 0.
I 2. Prove that there is no nonconstant polynomial f (x) with integral coefficients such that f (n) is prime for all n N.
I 3. Let n 2 be an integer.
Prove that if k 2 +k +n is prime for all integers
pn
k such that 0 k 3 , then k 2 + k + n is prime for all integers k such
that 0 k n 2.
I 4. A prime p has decimal digits pn pn1 p0 with pn > 1. Show that
the polynomial pn xn + pn1 xn1 + + p1 x + p0 cannot be represented as a
product of two nonconstant polynomials with integer coefficients
I 5. (Eisenteins Criterion) Let f (x) = an xn + +a1 x+a0 be a nonconstant
polynomial with integer coefficients. If there is a prime p such that p divides
each of a0 , a1 , ,an1 but p does not divide an and p2 does not divide a0 ,
then f (x) is irreducible in Q[x].
I 6. Prove that for a prime p, xp1 + xp2 + + x + 1 is irreducible in
Q[x].
I 7. Let f (x) = xn + 5xn1 + 3, where n > 1 is an integer. Prove that
f (x) cannot be expressed as the product of two nonconstant polynomials with
integer coefficients.
I 8. (Eugen Netto) Show that a polynomial of odd degree 2m + 1 over Z,
f (x) = c2m+1 x2m+1 + + c1 x + c0 ,
is irreducible if there exists a prime p such that
p 6 |c2m+1 , p|cm+1 , cm+2 , , c2m , p2 |c0 , c1 , , cm , and p3 6 |c0 .
I 9. For non-negative integers n and k, let Pn,k (x) denote the rational function
(xn 1)(xn x) (xn xk1 )
.
(xk 1)(xk x) (xk xk1 )
Show that Pn,k (x) is actually a polynomial for all n, k N.
I 10. Suppose that the integers a1 , a2 , , an are distinct. Show that
(x a1 )(x a2 ) (x an ) 1
cannot be expressed as the product of two nonconstant polynomials with integer coefficients.
I 11. Show that the polynomial x8 + 98x4 + 1 can be expressed as the product
of two nonconstant polynomials with integer coefficients.
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I 12. Prove that if the integers a1 , a2 , , an are all distinct, then the
polynomial
(x a1 )2 (x a2 )2 (x an )2 + 1
cannot be expressed as the product of two nonconstant polynomials with integer coefficients.
I 13. On Christmas Eve, 1983, Dean Jixon, the famous seer who had made
startling predictions of the events of the preceding year that the volcanic
and seismic activities of 1980 and 1981 were connected with mathematics.
The diminishing of this geological activity depended upon the existance of an
elementary proof of the irreducibility of the polynomial
P (x) = x1981 + x1980 + 12x2 + 24x + 1983.
Is there such a proof ?
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a1 = 1, an+1 = an + [ an ]
Show that an is a square if and only if n = 2k + k 2 for some k N.
J 16. Let f (n) = n + [ n]. Prove that, for every positive integer m, the
sequence
m, f (m), f (f (m)), f (f (f (m))),
contains at least one square of an integer.
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p
1
y0 = 1, yn+1 =
3yn + 5an 2 4 (n 0)
2
consists only of integers.
J 21. (C. von Staudt) The Bernoulli sequence16 {Bn }n0 is defined by
n
1 X n+1
Bk (n 1)
B0 = 1, Bn =
k
n+1
k=0
X1
,
p
is an integer where the summation being extended over the primes p such
that p|2k 1.
J 22. An integer sequence {an }n1 is defined by
3
a1 = 2, an+1 =
an
2
Show that it has infinitely many even and infinitely many odd integers.
J 23. An integer sequence satisfies an+1 = an 3 +1999. Show that it contains
at most one square.
J 24. Let a1 = 1111 , a2 = 1212 , a3 = 1313 , and
an = |an1 an2 | + |an2 an3 |, n 4.
Determine a1414 .
J 25. Let k be a fixed positive integer. The infinite sequence an is defined
by the formulae
a1 = k + 1, an+1 = an 2 kan + k (n 1).
Show that if m 6= n, then the numbers am and an are relatively prime.
16B = 1, B = 1 , B =
0
1
2
2
1
, B3
6
1
= 0, B4 = 30
, B5 = 0, B6 =
1
,
42
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J 35. Let a, and b be odd positive integers. Define the sequence (fn ) by
putting f1 = a, f2 = b, and by letting fn for n 3 be the greatest odd
divisor of fn1 + fn2 . Show that fn is constant for sufficiently large n
and determine the eventual value as a function of a and b.
J 36. Numbers d(n, m) with m, n integers, 0 m n, are defined by
d(n, 0) = d(n, n) = 1 (n 0), md(n, m) = md(n 1, m) + (2n m)d(n
1, m 1) (0 < m < n). Prove that d(n, m) are integers for all m, n N.
J 37. Let k be a given positive integer. The sequence xn is defined as
follows : x1 = 1 and xn+1 is the least positive integer which is not in
{x1 , x2 , ..., xn , x1 + k, x2 + 2k, ..., xn + nk}. Show that there exist real number
a such that xn = [an] for all positive integer n.
J 38. Let {an }n1 be a sequence of positive integers such that
0 < an+1 an 2001 for all n N.
Show that there are infinitely many pairs (p, q) of positive integers such that
p > q and aq | ap .
J 39. Let p be an odd prime p such that 2h 6= 1 (mod
p p) for all h N
with h < p 1, and let a be an even integer with a 2 , p . The sequence
{an }n0 is defined by a0 = a, an+1 = p bn (n 0), where bn is the
greatest odd divisor of an . Show that the sequence {an }n0 is periodic and
find its minimal (positive) period.
J 40. Let p 3 be a prime number. The sequence {an }n1 is defined by
an = n for all 0 n p 1, and an = an1 + anp , for all n p. Compute
ap3 (mod p).
J 41. Let {un }n0 be a sequence of integers satisfying the recurrence relation
un+2 = un+1 2 un (n N). Suppose that u0 = 39 and u1 = 45. Prove that
1986 divides infinitely many terms of this sequence.
J 42. The sequence {an }n1 is defined by a1 = 1 and
an+1 =
q
Prove that
2
2an 2 1
an
1
+
(n N).
2
4an
J 43. Let k be a positive integer. Prove that there exists an infinite monotone
increasing sequence of integers {an }n1 such that
an divides an+1 2 + k and an+1 divides an 2 + k
for all n N.
J 44. Each term of an infinite sequence of natural numbers is obtained from
the previous term by adding to it one of its nonzero digits. Prove that this
sequence contains an even number.
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2 + xn
(n N).
1 2xn
Prove that (a) xn 6= 0 for all n N and (b) {xn }n1 is not periodic.
J 47. (A. Perlin) The sequence of integers {xn } is defined as follows :
x1 = 1, xn+1 = 1 + x1 2 + + xn 2 (n = 1, 2, 3 ).
Prove that there are no squares of natural numbers in this sequence except
x1 .
J 48. The first four terms of an infinite sequence S of decimal digits are 1,
9, 8, 2, and succeeding terms are given by the final digit in the sum of the
four immediately preceding terms. Thus S begins 1, 9, 8, 2, 0, 9, 9, 0, 8, 6,
3, 7, 4, . Do the digits 3, 0, 4, 4 ever come up consecutively in S ?
12.3. More Sequences.
X
1
ai
i=1
converges.
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J 55. Let {nk }k1 be a sequence of natural numbers such that for i < j,
the decimal representation of ni does not occur as the leftmost digits of the
decimal representation of nj . Prove that
X
1
1 1
1
+ + + .
nk
1 2
9
k=1
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J 64. Does there exist positive integers a1 < a2 < < a100 such that for
2 k 100, the greatest common divisor of ak1 and ak is greater than the
greatest common divisor of ak and ak+1 ?
J 65. Suppose that a and b are distinct real numbers such that
a b, a2 b2 , , ak bk ,
are all integers. Show that a and b are integers.
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K 10. Let m 2 be an integer. Find the smallest integer n > m such that
for any partition of the set {m, m + 1, , n} into two subsets, at least one
subset contains three numbers a, b, c such that c = ab .
K 11. Let S = {1, 2, 3, . . . , 280}. Find the smallest integer n such that each
n-element subset of S contains five numbers which are pairwise relatively
prime.
K 12. Let m and n be positive integers. If x1 , x2 , , xm are positive
integers whose average is less than n + 1 and if y1 , y2 , , yn are positive
integers whose average is less than m + 1, prove that some sum of one or
more xs equals some sum of one or more ys.
K 13. Let n and k be given relatively prime natural numbers, k < n. Each
number in the set M = {1, 2, ..., n 1} is colored either blue or white. It is
given that
for each i M, both i and n i have the same color;
for each i M, i 6= k, both i and |i k| have the same
color.
Prove that all numbers in M have the same color.
K 14. Let p be a prime number, p 5, and k be a digit in the p-adic representation of positive integers. Find the maximal length of a non constant
arithmetic progression whose terms do not contain the digit k in their p-adic
representation.
K 15. Is it possible to choose 1983 distinct positive integers, all less than
or equal to 105 , no three of which are consecutive terms of an arithmetic
progression?
K 16. Is it possible to find 100 positive integers not exceeding 25000 such
that all pairwise sums of them are different ?
K 17. Find the maximum number of pairwise disjoint sets of the form
Sa,b = {n2 + an + b | n Z},
with a, b Z.
K 18. Let p be an odd prime number. How many p-element subsets A of
{1, 2, . . . 2p} are there, the sum of whose elements is divisible by p?
K 19. Let m, n 2 be positive integers, and let a1 , a2 , , an be integers, none of which is a multiple of mn1 . Show that there exist integers
e1 , e2 , , en , not all zero, with |ei | < m for all i, such that e1 a1 + e2 a2 +
+ en an is a multiple of mn .
K 20. Determine the smallest integer n 4 for which one can choose
four different numbers a, b, c, and d from any n distinct integers such that
a + b c d is divisible by 20
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K 31. Prove that, for any integer a1 > 1, there exist an increasing sequence
of positive integers a1 , a2 , a3 , such that
a1 + a2 + + an | a1 2 + a2 2 + + an 2
for all k N.
K 32. An odd integer n 3 is said to be nice if and only if there is at
least one permutation a1 , , an of 1, , n such that the n sums a1 a2 +
a3 an1 + an , a2 a3 + a3 an + a1 , a3 a4 + a5 a1 + a2 ,
, an a1 + a2 an2 + an1 are all positive. Determine the set of
all nice integers.
K 33. Assume that the set of all positive integers is decomposed into r
distinct subsets A1 , A2 , , Ar A1 A2 Ar = N. Prove that one
of them, say Ai , has the following property : There exist a positive integer
m such that for any k one can find numbers a1 , , ak in Ai with 0 <
aj+1 aj m (1 j k 1).
K 34. Determine for which positive integers k, the set
X = {1990, 1990 + 1, 1990 + 2, , 1990 + k}
can be partitioned into two disjoint subsets A and B such that the sum of
the elements of A is equal to the sum of the elements of B.
K 35. Prove that n 3 be a prime number and a1 < a2 < < an be
integers. Prove that a1 , , an is an arithmetic progression if and only if
there exists a partition of {0, 1, 2, } into classes A1 , A2 , , An such that
a1 + A1 = a2 + A2 = = an + An ,
where x + A denotes the set {x + a|a A}.
K 36. Let a and b be non-negative integers such that ab c2 where c is an
integer. Prove that there is a positive integer n and integers x1 , x2 , ,
xn , y1 , y2 , , yn such that
x1 2 + + xn 2 = a, y1 2 + + yn 2 = b, x1 y1 + + xn yn = c
K 37. Let n, k be positive integers such that n is not divisible by 3 and k
is greater or equal to n. Prove that there exists a positive integer m which
is divisible by n and the sum of its digits in the decimal representation is k.
K 38. Prove that for every real number M there exists an infinite arithmetical progression such that
each term is a positive integer and the common difference
is not divisible by 10.
the sum of digits of each term exceeds M .
K 39. Find the smallest positive integer n, for which there exist n different
positive integers a1 , a2 , , an satisfying the conditions :
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2n
2 /2
L 12. The positive function p(n) is defined as the number of ways that the
positive integer n can be written as a sum of positive integers. 17 Show that,
for all positive integers n 2,
2[
n]
n]
p1
p1
1 X i(i2 r)
1 X i(i2 s)
a=
,b =
.
2
p
2
p
i=1
i=1
Here, kp denotes the Legendre Symbol.
17For example, 5 = 4 + 1 = 3 + 2 = 3 + 1 + 1 = 2 + 2 + 1 = 2 + 1 + 1 + 1 = 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1
gives us p(5) = 7.
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L 18. Let p be a prime with p 1(mod 4). Let a be the unique integer such
that
p = a2 + b2 , a 1(mod 4), b 0(mod 2)
Prove that
p1 3
X
i + 6i2 + i
i=0
2
=2
a.
p
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(a) Prove that for any two integers b and c, there exists a
natural number n and a quadratic sequence with a0 = b and
an = c.
(b) Find the smallest natural number n for which there exists
a quadratic sequence with a0 = 0 and an = 1996.
L 32. A composite positive integer is a product ab with a and b not necessarily distinct integers in {2, 3, 4, . . . }. Show that every composite positive
integer is expressible as xy + xz + yz + 1, with x, y, z positive integers.
L 33. Let a1 , a2 , , ak be relatively prime positive integers. Determine the
largest integer which cannot be expressed in the form
x1 a2 a3 ak + x2 a1 a3 ak + + xk a1 a2 ak1
for some nonnegative integers x1 , x2 , , xk .
L 34. If n is a positive integer which can be expressed in the form n =
a2 + b2 + c2 , where a, b, c are positive integers, prove that, for each positive
integer k, n2k can be expressed in the form A2 + B 2 + C 2 , where A, B, C
are positive integers.
L 35. Prove that every positive integer which is not a member of the infinite
set below is equal to the sum of two or more distinct numbers of the set
{3, 2, 22 3, 23 , , 22k 3, 22k+1 , } = {3, 2, 12, 8, 48, 32, 192, }.
L 36. Let k and s be odd positive integers such that
3k 2 1 s 4k.
Show that there are nonnegative integers t, u, v, and w such that
k = t2 + u2 + v 2 + w2 , and s = t + u + v + w.
L 37. Let Sn = {1, n, n2 , n3 , }, where n is an integer greater than 1.
Find the smallest number k = k(n) such that there is a number which may
be expressed as a sum of k (possibly repeated) elements in Sn in more than
one way. (Rearrangements are considered the same.)
L 38. Find the smallest possible n for which there exist integers x1 , x2 , ,
xn such that each integer between 1000 and 2000 (inclusive) can be written
as the sum without repetition, of one or more of the integers x1 , x2 , , xn .
L 39. In how many ways can 2n be expressed as the sum of four squares of
natural numbers ?
L 40. Show that
(a) infinitely many perfect squares are a sum of a perfect square and a
prime number, and
(b) infinitely many perfect squares are not a sum of a perfect square and
a prime number.
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L 41. The infamous conjecture of Goldbach is the assertion that every even
integer greater than 2 is the sum of two primes. Except 2, 4, and 6, every
even integer is a sum of two positive composite integers : n = 4 + (n
4). What is the largest positive even integer that is not a sum of two odd
composite integers?
L 42. Prove that for each positive integer K there exist infinitely many even
positive integers which can be written in more than K ways as the sum of
two odd primes.
L 43. A positive integer n is abundant if the sum of its proper divisors
exceed n. Show that every integer greater than 89 315 is the sum of two
abundant numbers.
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N 1. (a) Two positive integers are chosen. The sum is revealed to logician
A, and the sum of squares is revealed to logician B. Both A and B are
given this information and the information contained in this sentence. The
conversation between A and B goes as follows : B starts
B : I cant tell what the two numbers are.
A : I cant tell what the two numbers are.
B : I cant tell what the two numbers are.
A : I cant tell what the two numbers are.
B : I cant tell what the two numbers are.
A : I cant tell what the two numbers are.
B : Now I can tell what the two numbers are.
What are the two numbers ?
(b) When B first says that he cannot tell what the two numbers are, A
receives a large amount of information. But when A first says that he cannot
tell what the two numbers are, B already knows that A cannot tell what the
two numbers are. What good does it do B to listen to A ?
N 2. It is given that 2333 is a 101-digit number whose first digit is 1. How
many of the numbers 2k , 1 k 332, have first digit 4?
N 3. Is there a power of 2 such that it is possible to rearrange the digits
giving another power of 2 ?
N 4. If x is a real number such that x2 x is an integer, and for some
n 3, xn x is also an integer, prove that x is an integer.
N 5. (Tran Nam Dung) Suppose that both x3 x and x4 x are integers
for some real number x. Show that x is an integer.
N 6. Suppose that x and y are complex numbers such that
xn y n
xy
are integers for some four consecutive positive integers n. Prove that it is
an integer for all positive integers n.
N 7. Let n be a positive integer. Show that
n
X
k=1
is an odd integer.
tan2
k
2n + 1
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n=1
where a1 , a2 , ..., am are nonzero and k1 < k2 < < km . Find a1996 .
N 10. Let p be an odd prime. Show that there is at most one non-degenerate
integer triangle with perimeter 4p and integer area. Characterize those
primes for which such triangle exist.
N 11. For each positive integer n, prove that there are two consecutive
positive integers each of which is the product of n positive integers > 1.
N 12. Let
1 n
1 n
+ b+
a+
2
2
is an integer for only finitely many positive integer n.
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N 17. Determine the maximum value of m2 +n2 , where m and n are integers
satisfying m, n {1, 2, ..., 1981} and (n2 mn m2 )2 = 1.
N 18. Denote by S the set of all primes p such that the decimal representation of p1 has the fundamental period of divisible by 3. For every p S such
that p1 has the fundamental period 3r one may write
1
= 0.a1 a2 a3r a1 a2 a3r ,
p
where r = r(p) ; for every p S and every integer k 1 define f (k, p) by
f (k, p) = ak + ak+r(p) + ak+2r(p) .
a) Prove that S is finite.
b) Find the highest value of f (k, p) for k 1 and p S.
N 19. Determine all pairs (a, b) of real numbers such that a[bn] = b[an] for
all positive integer n. (Note that [x] denotes the greatest integer less than
or equal to x.)
N 20. Let n be a positive integer that is not a perfect cube. Define real
numbers a, b, c by
1
1
1
a = n3 , b =
, c=
,
a [a]
b [b]
where [x] denotes the integer part of x. Prove that there are infinitely many
such integers n with the property that there exist integers r, s, t, not all zero,
such that ra + sb + tc = 0.
N 21. Find, with proof, the number of positive integers whose base-n representation consists of distinct digits with the property that, except for the
leftmost digit, every digit differs by 1 from some digit further to the left.
N 22. The decimal expression of the natural number a consists of n digits,
while that of a3 consists of m digits. Can n + m be equal to 2001?
N 23. Observe that
1 1
4
+ = , 42 + 32 = 52 ,
1 3
3
1 1
8
+ = , 82 + 152 = 172 ,
3 5
15
1 1
12
+ = , 122 + 352 = 372 .
5 7
35
State and prove a generalization suggested by these examples.
N 24. (C. Cooper, R. E. Kennedy) A number n is called a Niven number,
named for Ivan Niven, if it is divisible by the sum of its digits. For example,
24 is a Niven number. Show that it is not possible to have more than 20
consecutive Niven numbers.
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17. Sources
Divisibility Theory I
A 1 (Ksk).
19
http://www-math.mit.edu/kedlaya/papers
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A 27.
A 28. Putnam 2000
A 29. Amer. Math. Monthly, Problem E2623, Proposed by Ivan Niven
A 30.
A 31. Kazakhstan 1998
A 32. IMO 1979/1
A 33. IMO Short List 1996
A 34. IMO Short List 2002 N3
A 35. IMO Short List 2001 N4
A 36. Australia 2002
A 37. Poland 2002
A 38. Bosnia and Herzegovina 2002
A 39. Math. Magazine, Problem 1438, Proposed by David M. Bloom
A 40.
A 41 (PJ pp.110). UC Berkeley Preliminary Exam 1990
A 42 (Ae pp.137).
A 43.
A 44. Iran 1994
A 45. Germany 1982
A 46. IMO Short List 1997
A 47. Romania 1995, Proposed by I. Cucurezeanu
A 48 (Imv, pp. 15).
A 49 (Imv, pp. 15).
A 50. IMO Short List 2001 N1
A 51. Germany 2000
A 52. IMO 1984/6
A 53. IMO 1986/1
A 54. Iran 2001
A 55. IMO ShortList 1993 IND5
A 56. Czech and Slovak Mathematical Olympiad 1999
A 57. Romania 1987, Proposed by L. Panaitopol
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20
B 4. APMO 1997/2
B 5. APMC 2002
B 6. IMO 1992/1
B 7. Russia 2001
B 8. IMO 1994/4
B 9. IMO 2003/2
B 10. IMO 2002/3
B 11. IMO Short List 2000 N4
B 12. Amer. Math. Monthly, Problem 10382, Proposed by Richard K. Guy
B 13 (Tma pp. 73).
B 14. India 1989
20Contributor, Date
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21
22
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79
E 25.
E 26.
E 27.
E 28.
E 29.
E 30. CRUX, Problem 2305, Proposed by Richard I. Hess
E 31. Amer. Math. Monthly, Problem 10630, Proposed by Richard Strong
E 32. Math. Magazine, Problem 1372, Proposed by Nick Lord
E 33 (AI, pp. 106). For a proof, See [Kmh].
E 34 (KhKw, pp. 11).
E 35 (AI, pp. 116). For a proof, See [KaMr].
E 36. USA 1973
E 37. IMO 1987/5
E 38. APMO 1994/5
E 39.
E 40. Putnam 1995
E 41. Math. Magazine, Problem 1385, Proposed by Howard Morris
E 42 (Ae, pp. 226).
E 43 (PeJs, pp. 95).
E 44 (PeJs, pp. 99).
E 45 (PbAw, pp. 2).
E 46 (Ams, pp. 14).
Diophantine Equations I
F 1. AIME 1989/9
F 2. UC Berkeley Preliminary Exam 1983
F 3. Taiwan 1998
F 4.
F 5.
F 6.
F 7. Poland 2002
F 8. Bulgaria 1999
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F 9. Ireland 1995
F 10. Putnam 2001
F 11. India 1998
F 12.
F 13. Italy 1994
F 14. Canada 1991
F 15. Balkan Mathematical Olympiad 1998
F 16. Poland 2003
F 17. Vietnam 2002
F 18. Romania 1995, Proposed by M. Becheanu
F 19 (UmDz pp.14). Unused Problem for the Balkan Mathematical Olympiad
F 20. APMO 1993/4
F 21. APMO 1989/2
F 22. Poland 1998
F 23.
F 24. IMO 1982/4
F 25. IMO Short List 2002 N1
F 26. Ukraine 2002
F 27. IMO Short List 2000 N5
F 28. IMO Short List 1997 N6
F 29. Belarus 2000
F 30. IMO Short List 1993 GEO3
F 31 (Eb1, pp. 19). Amer. Math. Monthly 61(1954), 126; 62(1955), 263
F 32. IMO Long List 1987 (Romaina)
F 33. IMO Long List 1967 P (PL)
F 34. IMO Long List 1985 (SE1)
F 35. IMO Long List 1985 (TR3)
F 36. Italy 1996
F 37. Bulgaria 1996 - Arne Smeets : 2003/12/12
F 38 (JeMm, pp. 10).
F 39 (KhKw, pp. 9).
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23
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82
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83
diendantoanhoc.net [VMF]
84
24
H 52. Unknown
H 53. IMO unused 1997
H 54. Balkan 2002
H 55. USAMO Summer Program 2001
H 56. Austria 1989
H 57. IM0 1996/3
H 58. Canada 2002
H 59. Canada 1969
24I dont know the origin of the problem.
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89
diendantoanhoc.net [VMF]
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L 17.
L 18. Amer. Math. Monthly, Problem 2760, Proposed by Kenneth S.
Williams
L 19. APMO 1994/3
L 20. India 1998
L 21. Romania 1997, Proposed by Marcel Tena
L 22.
L 23.
L 24.
L 25.
L 26. IMO 1983/3
L 27. IMO 1976/4
L 28.
L 29. IMO Short List 2000 N6
L 30. IMO Short List 1998 P21
L 31. IMO Short List 1996 N3
L 32. Putnam 1988/B1
L 33. Math. Magazine, Problem 1561, Proposed by Emre Alkan
L 34 (KhKw, pp. 21).
L 35 (EbMk, pp. 46).
L 36 (Wsa, pp. 271).
L 37 (GML, pp. 37).
L 38 (GML, pp. 144).
L 39 (DNI, 28).
L 40 (JDS, pp. 25).
L 41 (JDS, pp. 25).
L 42. Math. Magazine, Feb. 1986, Problem 1207, Proposed by Barry Powell
L 44. Math. Magazine, Nov. 1982, Problem 1130, Proposed by J. L. Selfridge
The Geometry of Numbers
M 1. Math. Magazine, Problem 1409, Proposed by Gerald A. Heur
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92
M 2. Putnam 1993/B5
M 3.
M 4. Israel 1994
M 5.
M 6 (Hua pp.535).
M 7 (GjJj pp.215).
M 8. IMO Short List 1990 USS3
M 9 (PeJs, pp. 125).
M 10 (PeJs, pp. 125).
M 11 (PeJs, pp. 125).
M 12 (Jjt, pp. 75).
Miscellaneous Problems
N 1. Math. Magazine, May 1984, Problem 1173, Proposed by Thomas S.
Ferguson
N 2 (Tt). Tournament of the Towns 2001 Fall/A-Level
N 3 (Pt). Tournament of the Towns
N 4. Ireland 1998
N 5. Vietnam 2003 - Tran Nam Dung : 2003/12/13
N 6. Amer. Math. Monthly, Problem E2998, Proposed by Clark Kimberling
N 7.
N 8. British Mathematical Olympiad 1997 - Arne Smeets : 2003/12/13
N 9. Turkey 1996 - Arne Smeets : 2003/12/12
N 10. CRUX, Problem 2331, Proposed by Paul Yiu
N 11 (Rh, pp. 165). Unused problems for 1985 Canadian Mathematical
Olympiad
N 12. Putnam 1985/B3
N 13. Latvia 1995
N 14. IMO Short List 1992 P17
N 15.
N 16 (Ns pp.4).
N 17. IMO 1981/3
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18. References
AaJc Andrew Adler, John E. Coury, The Theory of Numbers - A Text and
Source Book of Problems, John and Bartlet Publishers
Ab Alan Baker, A Consise Introduction to the Theory of Numbers, Cambridge University Press
Ac Allan Clark, Elements of Abstract Algebra, Dover
Ae Arthur Engel, Problem-Solving Strategies, Springer-Verlag
Ams A. M. Slinko, USSR Mathematical Olympiads 1989-1992, AMT25
AI A. N. Parshin, I. R. Shafarevich, Number Theory IV - Encyclopaedia
of Mathematical Sciences, Volume 44, Spinger-Verlag
DfAk Dmitry Fomin, Alexey Kirichenko, Leningrad Mathematical Olympiads
1987-1991, MathPro Press
Dmb David M. Burton, Elementary Number Theory, MathPro Press
DNI D. O. Shklarsky, N. N. Chentzov, I. M. Yaglom, The USSR Olympiad
Problem Book, Dover
Dz http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/john/Zagier/Problems.html
Eb1 Edward J. Barbeau, Pells Equation, Springer-Verlag
Eb2 Edward J. Barbeau, Power Play, MAA26
EbMk Edward J. Barbeau, Murry S. Klamkin Five Hundred Mathematical
Challenges, MAA
ElCr Edward Lozansky, Cecil Rousseau, Winning Solutions, SpringerVerlag
En Eugen Netto, ??, Mathematische Annalen, vol 48(1897)
Er Elvira Rapaport, Hungarian Problem Book I, MAA
GhEw G. H. Hardy, E. M. Wright, An Introduction to the theory of numbers,
Fifth Edition, Oxford University Press
GjJj Gareth A. Jones, J. Mary Jones, Elementary Number Theory, SpringerVerlag
GML George T. Gilbert, Mark I. Krusemeyer, Loren C. Larson, The Wohascum County Problem Book, MAA
Her H. E. Rose, A Course in Number Theory, Cambridge University
Press
Hs The MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive, http://www-gap.dcs.stand.ac.uk/history/index.html
Hua Hua Loo Keng, Introduction to Number Theory, Springer-Verlag
IHH Ivan Niven, Herbert S. Zuckerman, Hugh L. Montogomery, An Introduction to the Theory of Numbers, Fifth Edition, John Wiley and
Sons, Inc.
Imv I. M. Vinogradov, An Introduction to The Theory of Numbers, Pergamon Press
25Australian Mathematics Trust
26Mathematical Association of America
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