Marine Hydrodynamics Mit Notes
Marine Hydrodynamics Mit Notes
Marine Hydrodynamics Mit Notes
Introduction
Marine Hydrodynamics is the branch of Fluid Mechanics that studies the motion of incom
pressible fluids (liquids) and the forces acting on solid bodies immersed in them.
Marine hydrodynamics is a large and diverse subject and only a limited number of topics
can be covered in an introductory course. The topics that will be covered throughout the
semester include:
Most of us have taken some courses on solids or related to solids. Even those who haven’t
can get an intuitive feeling about some physical properties of a solid. Thus a comparison
of solids and fluids will give some guidelines as to which properties can be translated to
fluids and on what terms.
Similarities
- Conservation of mass
- Conservation of momentum (Newton’s law of motion)
- Conservation of energy (First law of thermodynamics)
“particle” size
local value
length scale
e.g. The smallest measurement scales are in the order of M ∼ 10−5 m → VM ∼ 10−15 m3 .
This corresponds to ∼ 3 × 1010 molecules of air in STP or ∼ 1013 molecules of water.
Differences
1. Shape
2. Constitutive laws
Constitutive laws are empirical formulas that relate certain unknown variables.
Different constitutive laws are used for solids and different for fluids.
�stress
�� � = f (strain)
� �� �
force/area relative displacement/length
� �
N/m2 [m/m]
•
•• For solid mechanics ‘statics’ is a dominant aspect
�stress
�� � = f (rate of strain)
� �� �
force/area velocity gradient
� �
N/m2 [1/s]
•
•• Fluids at rest cannot sustain shear force. Fluids have to be moving to be non-trivial.
The branch of Fluid Mechanics that studies fluids at rest is referred to as ‘Hydrostatics’.
Hydrostatics study the trivial case where no stresses due to fluid motion exist.
Sometimes distinction between liquids and solids is not a sharp one(honey, jelly, paint, . . . ).
Fortunately most common fluids, such as air and water are very close to ”ideal” fluids.
A fluid is ‘a body whose particles move easily among themselves. Fluid is a generic term,
including liquids and gasses as species. Water, air, and steam are fluids.’ [1] .
A liquid is ‘Being in such a state that the component parts move freely among themselves,
but do not tend to separate from each other as the particles of gases and vapors do; neither
solid nor aeriform.’[1]
A gas is ‘The state of matter distinguished from the solid and liquid states by relatively low
density and viscosity, relatively great expansion and contraction with changes in pressure
and temperature, the ability to diffuse readily, and the spontaneous tendency to become dis
tributed uniformly throughout any container.’[2]
In brief, a liquid is generally incompressible and does not fill a volume by expanding into
it while on the other hand, a gas is compressible and expands to fill any volume containing it.
The science that studies the dynamics of liquids is referred to as ‘Hydrodynamics’, while
the science that studies the dynamics of gasses is referred to as ‘Aerodynamics’.
The main difference between the study of ‘Hydrodynamics’ and the study of ‘Aerodynam
ics’ is the property of incompressibility. In general hydrodynamic flows are treated as
incompressible while aerodynamic flows are treated as compressible.
4
Why is a liquid flow incompressible?
It can be shown that the ratio of the characteristic fluid velocities U in a flow to the
speed of sound C in the medium gives a measure of compressibility of the medium for that
particular flow. This ratio is called the Mach number M . Although the speed of sound
in water is of comparable magnitude to the speed of sound in air, the characteristic fluid
velocities in water are significantly smaller. Thus in the case of water, the Mach number
is very small, indicating that water is virtually incompressible.
Uwater <<Uair
giving thus typical values of Mach numbers in the order of:
Lecture 2
r
υ p (t )
p
• Eulerian description: Rather than following each fluid particle we can record the
evolution of the flow properties at every point in space as time varies. This is the
Eulerian description. It is a field description. A probe fixed in space is an example
of an Eulerian measuring device.
This means that the flow properties at a specified location depend on the location
and on time. For example, the density, velocity, pressure, . . . can be mathematically
represented as follows: v (x, t), p(x, t), ρ(x, t), . . .
y
r r
υ ( x, t )
r
( x, t )
x
• Streakline: Instantaneous locus of all fluid particles that have passed a given point
(snapshot of certain fluid particles).
• Pathline: The trajectory of a given particle P in time. The photograph analogy would
be a long time exposure of a marked particle. It is a strictly Lagrangian concept.
Can you tell whether any of the following figures ( [1] Van Dyke, An Album of Fluid Motion
1982 (p.52, 100)) show streamlines/streaklines/pathlines?
Note 1: To avoid confusion between fixed and repeated indices or different re
peated indices, etc, no index can be repeated more than twice.
Note 2: Number of free indices shows how many quantities are represented by
a single term.
Note 3: If the equation looks like this: (ui ) (x̂i ) , the indices are not summed.
• Material volume remains material. No segment of fluid can be joined or broken apart.
• Material surface remains material. The interface between two material volumes al
ways exists.
• Material line remains material. The interface of two material surfaces always exists.
Material
surface
fluid a
fluid b
v
v
δ x δx(t + δt)
v v
v v x +δ x +
x +δ x
{(υr (xv ) + δ xv ⋅∇υr (xv ) )δt}
After a small time δt:
• The particle initially located at x will have travelled a distance v (x)δt and at time
t + δt will be located at x + {v (x)δt}.
• The particle initially located at x+δx will have travelled a distance (v (x) + δx · ∇v (x)) δt.
(Show this using Taylor Series Expansion about(x, t)). Therefore after a small time
δt this particle will be located at x + δx + {(v (x) + δx · ∇v (x))δt}.
• The difference in position δx(t + δt) between the two particles after a small time δt
will be:
δx(t + δt) = x + δx + {(v (x) + δx · ∇v (x))δt} − (x + {v (x)δt})
⇒ δx(t + δt) = δx + (δx · ∇v (x))δt ∝ δx
Therefore δx(t + δt) ∝ δx because ∇v is finite (from continuous flow assumption).
Thus, if δx → 0 , then δx(t + δt) → 0. In fact, for any subsequent time t + T :
� t+T
δx(t + T ) ∝ δx + δx · ∇v dt ∝ δx,
t
and δx(t + T ) → 0 as δx → 0. In other words the particles will never be an infinite distance
apart. Thus, if the flow is continuous two particles that are neighbors will always remain
neighbors.
6
1.5 Material/Substantial/Total Time Derivative: D/Dt
A material derivative is the time derivative – rate of change – of a property following a
fluid particle ‘p’. The material derivative is a Lagrangian concept.
Consider an Eulerian quantity f (x, t). The time rate of change of f as experienced by a
particle ‘p’ travelling with velocity −
→
vp is the substantial derivative of f and is given by:
r r
f (x p + υ pδt , t + δt )
r r
Df (−
→
xp (t), t) f (−
→
xp + −
→
vp δt, t + δt) − f (−
→
xp , t) r x p (t ) + υ pδt
= lim (1) f ( x p ,t )
Dt δt→0 δt particle r
x p (t )
Let ‘p’ denote a fluid particle. A fluid particle is always travelling with the local fluid
(x, t) as experienced
velocity vp (t) = v (xp , t). The material derivative of a fluid property G
by this fluid particle is given by:
DG
∂G
= + �v ·��
∇G
Dt ∂t �
���� ����
Convective
Lagragian Eulerian
rate of change
rate of change rate of change
Example 2: Material derivative of the fluid velocity v (x, t) as experienced by a fluid par
ticle. This is the Lagrangian acceleration of a particle and is the acceleration that appears
in Newton’s laws. It is therefore evident that its Eulerian representation will be used in
the Eulerian reference frame.
Let ‘p’ denote a fluid particle. A fluid particle is always travelling with the local fluid
velocity vp (t) = v (xp , t). The Lagrangian acceleration DvDt
(
x,t)
as experienced by this fluid
particle is given by:
Dv ∂v
= + �v ·��
∇v�
Dt
���� ∂t
����
Convective
Lagragian Eulerian
acceleration
acceleration acceleration
∂T Point B: 1o
Point A: 10o Point C:
∂t
∂T
At a fixed in space point C, the temperature rate of change is ∂t
which is an Eulerian time
derivative.
DT ∂T v
= + υfly⋅ ∇ T
Point A: 10o Dt ∂t Point B: 1 o
Following a fly from point A to B, the Lagrangian time derivative would need to include
the temperature gradient as both time and position changes: DT
Dt
= ∂T
∂t
+ vf ly · ∇T
∂
1.6.1 Concept of a Steady Flow ( ∂t ≡ 0)
A steady flow is a strictly Eulerian concept.
Assume a steady flow where the flow is observed from a fixed position. This is like watching
∂ D
from a river bank, i.e. ∂t = 0 . Be careful not to confuse this with Dt which is more like
D
following a twig in the water. Note that Dt = 0 does not mean steady since the flow could
speed up at some points and slow down at others.
∂
=0
∂t
Assume a flow where the density of each fluid particle is constant in time. Be careful not
to confuse this with ∂ρ
∂t
= 0, which means that the density at a particular point in the flow
is constant and would allow particles to change density as they flow from point to point.
Also, do not confuse this with ρ = const , which for example does not allow a flow of two
incompressible fluids.
10
Lecture 3
The first index i specifies the direction in which the stress component acts, and the second
index j identifies the orientation of the surface upon which it is acting. Therefore, the ith
component of the force acting on a surface whose outward normal points in the j th direction
is τij .
X2
22
12
32
21
23
11
13 31
33 X1
X3
Figure 1: Shear stresses on an infinitesimal cube whose surfaces are parallel to the coordinate
system.
X2
2
P n̂
A1
1
A3
X1
Q
3
R
area A0
A2
X3
Figure 2: Infinitesimal body with surface PQR that is not perpendicular to any of the Cartesian
axis.
Consider an infinitesimal body at rest with a surface PQR that is not perpendicular to any
of the Cartesian axis. The unit normal vector to the surface PQR is n̂ = n1 x̂1 +n2 x̂2 +n3 x̂3 .
The area of the surface = A0 , and the area of each surface perpendicular to Xi is Ai = A0 ni ,
for i = 1, 2, 3.
Newton’s law: Fi = (volume force)i for i = 1, 2, 3
on all 4 faces
An example of surface forces is the shear force and an example of volumetric forces is the
gravity force. At equilibrium, the surface forces and volumetric forces are in balance. As
the body gets smaller, the mass of the body goes to zero, which makes the volumetric
equal to zero and leaving the sum of the surface forces equal zero. So, as δ →
forces
0, all4f aces Fi = 0 for i = 1, 2, 3 and ∴ τi A0 = τi1 A1 + τi2 A2 + τi3 A3 = τij Aj . But the area
surface ⊥ to Xi is Ai = A0 ni . Therefore τi A0 = τij Aj = τij (A0 nj ), where τij Aj is
of each
the notation (represents the sum of all components). Thus τi = τij nj for i = 1, 2, 3,
where τi is the component of stress in the ith direction on a surface with a normal n . We
call τ i the stress vector and we call τij the stress matrix or tensor.
2
1.7.2 Example: Pascal’s Law for Hydrostatics
In a static fluid, the stress vector cannot be different for different directions of the surface
normal since there is no preferred direction in the fluid. Therefore, at any point in the
fluid, the stress vector must have the same direction as the normal vector n and the same
magnitude for all directions of n .
no summation
Pascal’s Law for hydrostatics: τij = − (pi ) (δij )
⎡ ⎤
−p1 0 0
τ = ⎣ 0 −p2 0 ⎦
0 0 −p3
where pi is the pressure acting perpendicular to the ith surface. If p0 is the pressure acting
perpendicular to the surface PQR, then τi = −ni p0 , but:
j
ij
ji ji
o i
ij
since surface forces are ∼ δ 2 , where the O(δ 2 ) terms include the body forces per unit
depth. Then, as δ → 0, (τij )T OP = (τij )BOT T OM .
2. The of surface torque = body moment + angular acceleration. Assume no sym
metry. Balance of moments about o gives:
M (ϑm ) = ρdϑ
ϑm(t)
Sm(t)
ϑm ( t )
Therefore the time rate of increase of mass inside the material volume is:
d d
M (ϑm ) = ρdϑ = 0,
dt dt
ϑm (t)
which is the integral form of mass conservation for the material volume ϑm .
Newton’s law of motion: The time rate of change of momentum of the fluid in the material
control volume must equal the sum of all the forces acting on the fluid in that volume.
Thus:
d
(momentum)i =(body force)i + (surface force)i
dt
d
ρui dϑ = Fi dϑ + τij nj dS
dt
ϑm (t) ϑm (t) Sm (t) τi
Divergence Theorems For vectors: ∇· vdϑ = ⊂⊃
v .n̂ dS
ϑ
∂vj
S vj nj
∂xj
∂τij
For tensors: dϑ = ⊂⊃ τij nj dS
∂xj
ϑ S
d ∂τij
ρui dϑ = Fi + dϑ
dt ∂xj
ϑm(t) ϑm(t)
which is the integral form of momentum conservation for the material volume ϑm .
Consider a flow through some moving control volume ϑ(t) during a small time interval Δt.
Let f (x, t) be any (Eulerian) fluid property per unit volume of fluid (e.g. mass, momentum,
I(t) = f (x, t) dϑ
ϑ(t)
S(t+Δt)
ϑ ( t + Δt )
ϑ( t ) S(t)
Figure 5: Control volume ϑ and its bounding surface S at instants t and t + Δt.
∂f
f (x, t + Δt) = f (x, t) + Δt (x, t) + O((Δt)2 )
∂t
2. dϑ = dϑ + dϑ
ϑ(t+Δt) ϑ(t) Δϑ
where, dϑ = [Un (x, t)Δt] dS and Un (x, t) is the normal velocity of S(t).
Δϑ S(t)
S(t+Δt)
S(t)
v
U n ( x, t )Δt + O( Δt ) 2 dS
⎧ ⎫
⎪
⎨ ⎪
⎬
d 1 ∂f 2
I(t) = lim dϑf + Δt dϑ + Δt dSUn f − dϑf + O(Δt) (1)
dt ⎪
Δt→0 Δt ⎩ ∂t ⎪
⎭
ϑ(t) ϑ(t) S(t) ϑ(t)
From Equation (1) we obtain the Kinematic Transport Theorem (KTT), which is equivalent
to Leibnitz rule in 3D.
d ∂f (x, t)
f (x, t)dϑ = dϑ + f (x, t)Un (x, t)dS
dt ∂t
ϑ(t) ϑ(t) S(t)
For the special case that the control volume is a material volume it is ϑ(t) = ϑm (t) and Un
= v · n
ˆ, where v is the fluid particle velocity. The Kinematic Transport Theorem (KTT),
then takes the form
d ∂f (x, t)
f (x, t)dϑ = dϑ + f (x, t)(v · n
ˆ)dS
dt ∂t
ϑm (t) ϑm (t) Sm (t) f (vi ni )
(Einstein Notation)
d ∂f (x, t)
f (x, t) dϑ = + ∇ · (fv ) dϑ,
dt ∂t
ϑm (t) ϑm (t) ∂
(f vi )
∂xi
• Differential form of conservation of mass for all fluids Let the fluid property
per unit volume that appears in the 1st KTT be mass per unit volume ( f = ρ):
d ∂ρ
0 = ρdϑ = + ∇ · (ρv ) dϑ
↑ dt ↑ ∂t
conservation ϑm (t) 1st KTT ϑm (t)
of mass
But since ϑm is arbitrary the integrand must be ≡ 0 everywhere.
Therefore:
∂ρ
+ ∇ · (ρv ) = 0
∂t
∂ρ
+ [v · ∇ρ + ρ∇ · v ] = 0
∂t
Dρ
Dt
Dρ
Conservation of Mass: + ρ∇ · v = 0
Dt
10
Note: For a flow to be incompressible, the density of the entire flow need not be
constant (ρ(x, t) =
const). As an example consider a flow of more than one incom
pressible fluids, like water and oil, as illustrated in the picture below.
Constant ρ
fluid particle
ρ2
∂vi
Continuity Equation: ∇ · v ≡ = 0
∂xi
rate of volume dilatation
11
d ∂
ρGdϑ = (ρG) + ∇ · (ρGv ) dϑ
dt ↑ ∂t
ϑm (t) 1st KT T ϑm (t)
⎡ ⎤
⎢
⎥
⎢ ∂ρ ∂G ⎥
⎢ G + ∇ · ρv +ρ + v · ∇G ⎥
= ⎢ ∂t ∂t ⎥ dϑ
⎣ ⎦
ϑm (t)
=0 from mass conservation = DG
Dt
d DG
ρGdϑ = ρ dϑ
dt Dt
ϑm ϑm
Note: The 2nd KTT is obtained from the 1st KTT (mathematical identity) and the
only assumption used is that mass is conserved.
12
• Euler’s Equation
We consider G as the ith momentum per unit mass (vi ). Then,
∂τij d Dvi
Fi + dϑ = ρvi dϑ = ρ dϑ
∂xj ↑ dt ↑ Dt
ϑm (t) conservation ϑm (t) 2nd KTT ϑm (t)
of momentum
But ϑm (t) is an arbitrary material volume, therefore the integral identity gives
Euler’s equation:
⎛ ⎞
Dvi ⎜ ∂vi ⎟ ∂τij
ρ ≡ ρ⎜
⎝ + v · ∇vi ⎟
⎠ = Fi +
Dt ∂t ∂xj
∂v
vj ∂xi
j
Dv ∂v
ρ ≡ρ + v · ∇v = F + ∇ · τ
Dt ∂t
13
Lecture 4
Introduction
Governing Equations so far:
(conservation of mass)
body force Fi Euler 3 stresses τij (x, t) 6
(conservation of momentum)
4 9
3 of the 9 unknowns of the stress tensor are eliminated by symmetry
The number of unknowns (9) is > than the number of equations (4), i.e. we don’t have
closure. We need constitutive laws to relate the kinematics vi to the dynamics τij .
where ps is the hydrostatic pressure and δij is the Kroenecker delta function, equal
to 1 if i = j and 0 if i =
j.
τ ij
Newtonian Fluid
Fluid
∂u k
∂x m
∂uk
i.e. τ̂ij ≈ αijkm i, j, k, m = 1, 2, 3
∂xm
34 =81
empirical coefficients
(constants for Newtonian fluids)
∂ui
∂ui
3. When τ̂ij , i = j the viscous stress is a normal stress and is given by:
∂ui
τ̂ii = 2μ
∂xi
The normal viscous stresses τ̂ii are the diagonal terms of the viscous stress tensor.
The τ̂ii in general are not isotropic.
4. When τˆij , i =
j the viscous stress is a shear stress and is given by:
∂ui ∂uj
τ̂ij = μ +
∂xj ∂xi
The shear viscous stresses τˆij , i = j are the off diagonal terms of the viscous stress
tensor.
⎡ ⎤
∂u ∂u ∂v
⎢ 2 ∂x +
∂y ∂x ⎥
5. A 2D viscous tensor has the form: μ
⎢
⎣
∂u ∂v
⎥
⎦
∂v
+ 2
∂y ∂x ∂y
6. Notation 1: The viscous stresses τ̂ij are often referred to (somewhat confusingly) as
shear stresses, despite the fact that when i = j the viscous stress is a normal stress.
∂ui ∂uj
7. Notation 2: Often τij ↔ τ̂ij and τij is used to denote μ ∂xj
+ ∂xi
.
4
1.10 Navier-Stokes equations(for Incompressible, Newtonian Fluid)
Equations # Unknowns #
Continuity 1 velocities vi (x, t) 3
Euler 3 stresses τ̂ij (x, t) 6
Newtonian 6 pressure p(x, t) 1
fluid symmetry
10 10
closure
To form the Navier-Stokes equations for incompressible, Newtonian fluids, we first substi
tute the equation for the stress tensor for a Newtonian fluid, i.e.
∂ui ∂uj
τij = −pδij + τ̂ij = −pδij + μ +
↑ ∂xj ∂xi
Newtonian Fluid
into Euler’s equation:
Dui ∂τij
ρ = Fi +
Dt ∂xj
∂p ∂ ∂ui ∂uj
= Fi − +μ +
∂xi ∂xj ∂xj ∂xi
2
∂p ∂ ui ∂ ∂uj
= Fi − +μ +
∂xi ∂x2j ∂xi ∂xj
Continuity = 0
Dv ∂v 1 1
5
• Unknowns and governing equations for incompressible, Newtonian fluids
Equations # Unknowns #
4 4
• Notation 1: The Continuity and the Navier-Stokes equations form the Governing
Equations for incompressible, Newtonian fluids.
∂p
Notation 2: Alternatively, we refer to each equation Dv
Dt
i
= − ρ1 ∂xi
+ ν∇2 vi + ρ1 Fi
as the ith Momentum Equation. In this case, the Continuity and the Momentum
equations form the Navier-Stokes System of Equations.
Both notations are equivalent, and in this text it will be made clear from the context
when the term Navier-Stokes refers to the Momentum Equations or to the System of
Governing Equations.
6
1.11 Boundary Conditions
In the previous paragraphs we formulated the governing equations that describe the flow
of an incompressible, Newtonian fluid. The governing equations (N-S) are a system of
partial differential equations (PDE’s). This 4 × 4 system of equations describes all the
incompressible flows, from rain droplets to surface waves.
One of the reasons this system of equations provides such different solutions lies on the
variety of the imposed boundary conditions. To complete the description of this problem
it is imperative that we specify appropriate boundary conditions. For the N-S equations
we need to specify ‘Kinematic Boundary Conditions’ and ‘Dynamic Boundary Conditions’.
• v · n
ˆ = u · n ˆ ‘no flux’ ← continuous flow
• v · tˆ = u · t̂ ‘no slip’ ← finite shear stress
v
v
v
u
p interface, τ ij interface
τij '
p'
τ ij
p
• At the interface of two fluids, surface tension implies in a pressure jump across the
interface. Σ gives rise to Δp across an interface.
• 2D Example:
dθ dθ
cos · Δp · Rdθ = 2Σsin ≈ 2Σ dθ
2
2 2
≈1 ≈ dθ
2
Σ
∴ Δp = R
Higher curvature implies in higher pressure jump at the interface.
8
p
p’=p+Δp dθ/2
Σ
R Σ
dθ
2 2
F · dx = 0 or F · dx = − ∇ϕ · dx = ϕ(x1 ) − ϕ(x2 )
1 1
Dv
ρ = −∇p + F
+ρν∇2v
Dt
body force
pd = p + ρgz
– Re-write Navier-Stokes:
Dv
ρ = −∇ p + ρgz + ρν∇2v
Dt
p d = p + ρgz
Dv
ρ = −∇pd + ρν∇2v
Dt
Therefore:
– Presence of gravity body force is equivalent to replacing the total pressure by a
dynamic pressure (pd = p − ps = p + ρgz) in the Navier-Stokes(N-S) equation.
– Solve the N-S equation with pd . To calculate the total pressure p simply add
back the hydrostatic component p = pd + ps = pd − ρgz.
10
Lecture 5
Similitude: Similarity of behavior for different systems with equal similarity parameters.
Prototype ↔ Model
..
.
For similitude we require that the similarity parameters SP’s (eg. angles, length ratios,
velocity ratios, etc) are equal for the model and the real world.
Example 1 Two similar triangles have equal angles or equal length ratios. In this case
the two triangles have geometric similitude.
Example 2 For the flow around a model ship to be similar to the flow around the prototype
ship, both model and prototype need to have equal angles and equal length
and force ratios. In this case the model and the prototype have geometric
and dynamic similitude.
1
2.1 Dimensional Analysis (DA) to Obtain SP’s
2.1.1 Buckingham’s π theory
xi = Ci M mi Lli T ti , i = 1, 2, . . . , N
where the Ci are dimensionless constants. For example, if x1 = KE = 12 M V 2 =
1
2
M 1 L2 T −2 (kinetic energy), we have that C1 = 12 , m1 = 1, l1 = 2, t1 = −2. Then
π = (C1α1 C2α2 . . . CNαN )M α1 m1 +α2 m2 +...+αN mN Lα1 l1 +α2 l2 +...+αN lN T α1 t1 +α2 t2 +...+αN tN
For π to be dimensionless, we require
⎧ ⎫
⎪
⎪
⎪
N
⎪
⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎨
αi mi = 0 ⎪
⎬
⎪
⎩
⎪ ⎭
Σ notation
Since (1) is homogeneous, it always has a trivial solution,
αi ≡ 0, i = 1, 2, . . . , N (i.e. π is constant)
There are 2 possibilities:
(a) (1) has no nontrivial solution (only solution is π = constant, i.e. independent of
xi ’s), which implies that the N variable xi , i = 1, 2, . . . , N are Dimensionally Independent
(DI), i.e. they are ‘unrelated’ and ‘irrelevant’ to the problem.
(b) (1) has J(J > 0) nontrivial solutions, π1 , π2, . . . , πJ . In general, J < N , in fact,
2
2.1.2 Model Law
Instead of relating the N xi ’s by I(x1 , x2 , . . . xN ) = 0, relate the J π’s by
Note:
• If π1 , π2 are dimensionless, so is π1 × π2 , π1
π2
, π1const1 × π2const2 , etc. . .
In general, we want the set (not unique) of independent πj ’s, for e.g., π 1 , π 2 , π 3 or π 1 , π 1
× π 2 , π 3 , but not π 1 , π 2 , π 1 × π 2 .
ρ,ν
D
Figure 1: Force on a smooth circular cylinder in steady incompressible fluid (no gravity)
A Fluid Mechanician found that the relevant dimensional quantities required to evaluate
the force F on the cylinder from the fluid are: the diameter of the cylinder D, the fluid
velocity U , the fluid density ρ and the kinematic viscosity of the fluid ν. Evaluate the
non-dimensional independent parameters that describe this problem.
3
xi : F, U, D, ρ, ν → N = 5
xi = ci M mi Lli T ti → P = 3
N =5
F U D ρ ν
P = 3 mi 1 0 0 1 0
li 1 1 1 -3 2
ti -2 -1 0 0 -1
π = F α1 U α2 Dα3 ρα4 ν α5
For π to be non-dimensional, the set of equations
αi mi =0
αi li =0
αi ti =0
has to be satisfied. The system of equations above after we substitute the values for the
mi ’s, li ’s and ti ’s assume the form:
⎛
⎞
⎛ ⎞ α 1 ⎛ ⎞
1 0 0 1 0
⎜ α2 ⎟ 0
⎜ ⎟
⎝
1 1 1 −3 2
⎠
⎜ ⎟ ⎝
⎠
⎜
α3 ⎟
=
0
−2 −1 0 0 −1
⎝
α4 ⎠
0
α5
The rank of this system is K = 3, so we have j = 2 nontrivial solutions. Two families of
solutions for αi for each fixed pair of (α4 , α5 ), exists a unique solution for (α1 , α2 , α3 ).
We consider the pairs (α4 = 1, α5 = 0) and (α4 = 0, α5 = 1), all other cases are linear
combinations of these two.
1. Pair α4 = 1 and α5 = 0.
⎛ ⎞⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
1 0 0 α1 −1
⎝ 0 1 0 ⎠ ⎝ α2 ⎠ = ⎝ 4 ⎠
0 0 1 α3 2
α1 −1
⎝ α2 ⎠ = ⎝ 2 ⎠
α3 2
ρU 2 D2
∴ π1 = F α1 U α2 Dα3 ρα4 ν α5 =
F
Conventionally, π1 → 2π1−1 and ∴ π1 = 1
F
ρU 2 D2
≡ Cd , which is the Drag coefficient.
2
2. Pair α4 = 0 and α5 = 1.
⎛ ⎞⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
1 0 0 α1 0
⎝ 0 1 0 ⎠ ⎝ α2 ⎠ = ⎝ −2 ⎠
0 0 1 α3 −1
α1 0
⎝ α2 ⎠ = ⎝ −1 ⎠
α3 −1
ν
∴ π2 = F α1 U α2 Dα3 ρα4 υ α5 =
UD
Conventionally, π2 → π2−1 , ∴ π2 = UD
ν
≡ Re , which is the Reynolds number.
Therefore, we can write the following equivalent expressions for the non-dimensional inde
pendent parameters that describe this problem:
F (π1 , π2 ) = 0 or π1 = f (π2 )
F (Cd , Re ) = 0 or Cd = f (Re )
F UD F UD
F( , )=0 or = f( )
1/2 ρU D
2 2 ν 1/2 ρU D
2 2 ν
5
Appendix A
Dimensions of some fluid properties
Quantities Dimensions
(M LT )
Angle θ none (M 0 L0 T 0 )
Length L L
Area A L2
Volume ∀ L3
Time t T
Velocity V LT −1
Acceleration V̇ LT −2
Angular velocity ω T −1
Density ρ M L−3
Momentum L M LT −1
Volume flow rate Q L3 T −1
Mass flow rate Q M T −1
Pressure p M L−1 T −2
Stress τ M L−1 T −2
Surface tension Σ M T −2
Force F M LT −2
Moment M M L2 T −2
Energy E M L2 T −2
Power P M L2 T −3
Dynamic viscosity μ M L−1 T −1
Kinematic viscosity ν L2 T −1
Lecture 6
v = Uv
where it is evident that v is:
(a) dimensionless (no units), and
(b) normalized (|v | ∼ O(1)).
Similarly we can specify characteristic length, time, pressure etc scales:
Characteristic scale Dimensionless and Dimensional quantity
normalized quantity in terms of characteristic scale
Velocity U v v = Uv
Length L x x = Lx
Time T t t = T t
Pressure po − pv p p = (po − pv )p
∇ · v = 0 ⇒
U
∇ · v = 0 ⇒
L
∇ · v = 0
Where all the () quantities are dimensionless and normalized (i.e., O(1)),
∂v
for example, ∂x = O(1).
∂v 1
+ (v · ∇) v = − ∇p + ν∇2v − g ĵ ⇒
∂t ρ
U ∂v U 2 po − pv νU 2
+ (v · ∇ ) v = − ∇ p + 2 (∇ ) v − g ĵ
T ∂t L ρU 2 L
U2
divide through by L , i.e., order of magnitude of the convective inertia term ⇒
� � � � � �
L ∂v p�
o − pv �ν � 2 � gL
+ (v · ∇)v = − (∇p) + ∇
v − ĵ
U T ∂t ρU 2 UL U2
2
Since all the dimensionless and normalized terms () are of O(1), the SP’s
( � ) measure the relative importance of each term compared to the con
vective inertia. Namely,
∂v
L Eulerian inertia ∂t
• ≡ S = Strouhal number ∼ ∼
UT convective inertia (v · ∇)v
For example assume a ship of length L that has been travelling with velocity
U for time T . If the T is much larger than the time required to travel a ship
length, then we can assume that the ship has reached a steady-state.
L
<< T ⇒
U
L
= S << 1 ⇒
UT
∂v
ignore → assume steady-state
∂t
po − p v
• 1 ≡ σ = cavitation number.
2
ρU 2
The cavitation number σ is a measure of the likelihood of cavitation.
UL inertia force
• ≡ Re = Reynold’s number ∼
ν viscous force
If Re >> 1, ignore viscosity.
�
U2 U � � 12
• = √ ≡ Fr = Froude number ∼ inertia force
gL gL gravity force
3
(c) Substitute into the kinematic boundary conditions
boundary ⇒
u = U
u = U boundary
� ��
1 1 R=LR
p = pa + Δp = pa + + =⇒
R R p=(po −pv )p
� 1 �� 2 �
Δp
� � � �� �
1 1 2 � /ρ
p = pa +
+ = pa +
(po − pv ) L R1 R2 σ U 2L
U 2L inertial forces
• � ≡ We = Weber number ∼
/ρ surface tension forces
SP Definition
Reynold’s number Re UL
∼ inertia
ν viscous
�
Froude number Fr U2
∼ inertia
gL gravity
po pressure
Euler number Eu 1
ρU 2
∼ inertia
2
po −pv pressure
Cavitation number σ 1
ρU 2
∼ inertia
2
Strouhal number S L
∼ Eulerian inertia
UT convective inertia
Weber number We U 2L
∼ inertia
Σ/ρ surface tension
∂u � U� 2
1.2 Viscous forces ∼ μ × area ∼ μ L (L ) = μU L
∂y
����
shear stress
2. For similar streamlines, particles must be acted on forces whose resultants are in the
same direction at geosimilar points. Therefore, the following force ratios must be
equal:
inertia ρU 2 L2 UL
• ∼ = ≡ Re
viscous μU L ν
� �1/2 � �1/2
inertia ρU 2 L2 U
• ∼ =√ ≡ Fr
gravity ρgL3 gL
�1 �−1
2
inertia (po − pv )L2 p o − pv
• ∼ 1 2 2
= 1 2 ≡σ
pressure 2
ρU L 2
ρU
F ρ,ν
g U
L
L p o − pv U 2L U UL
S= , σ= 1 , We = � , Fr = √ , Re =
UT 2
ρU 2 /ρ gL ν
CF transient
Steady-State
S-1 = UT / L
S~O(1)
S~O( 1)
∂
For S << 1, assume steady-state: ∂t =0
For S >> 1, unsteady effect is dominant.
For example, for the case L = 10m and U = 10m/s we can neglect the unsteady
effects when:
L L
S << 1 ⇒ << 1 ⇒ T >> ⇒ T >> 1s
UT U
Therefore for T >> 1s we can approximate S 1 and we can assume steady state.
In the case of a steady flow:
� �
CF = CF S 0, σ −1 , We−1 , Fr , Re−1 ⇒
� �
CF ∼
= CF σ −1 , We−1 , Fr , Re−1
7
po − pv
2. Significance of the cavitation number σ = 1 .
2
ρU 2
CF
Strong
cavitation No cavitation
σinception σ
8
For example, assume a hydrofoil travelling in water of density ρ = 103 kg/m3 .
The characteristic pressure is po = 105 N/m2 and the vapor pressure is pv = 103 N/m2 .
Cavitation will not occur when:
�
1 2
2
ρU p o − pv
σ −1 << 1 ⇒ << 1 ⇒ U << 1 ⇒ U << 14m/s
p o − pv 2
ρ
Therefore for U << 14m/s it is σ >> 1 ⇒ σ −1 0 and cavitation will not occur.
� �
CF = CF 0, σ −1 0, We−1 , Fr , Re−1 ⇒
� �
CF ∼
= CF We−1 , Fr , Re−1
U 2L
3. Significance of the Weber number We = .
Σ/ρ
For example, assume a hydrofoil travelling with velocity U = 1m/s� near an air/water
interface (water density ρ = 103 kg/m3 , surface tension coefficient = 0.07N/m).
Therefore for L >> 7 · 10−5 m it is We >> 1We−1 1 and surface tension effects can
be neglected.
� �
CF = CF 0, 0, We−1 0, Fr , Re−1 ⇒
� �
CF ∼
= CF Fr , Re−1
10
U
4. Significance of the Froude number Fr = √ , which measures the ‘gravity effects’.
gh
‘Gravity effects’, hydrostatic pressure do not create any flow (isotropic) nor do they
change the flow dynamics unless Dynamic Boundary Conditions apply.
√ √
‘Gravity effects’ are not significant when U << gh ⇒ Fr 0, or U >> gh ⇒
Fr−1 0. Physically, this is the case when the free surface is
• absent or
• far away or
• not disturbed, i.e., no wave generation.
The following figures (i - iv) illustrate cases where gravity effects are not significant.
11
In any of those cases the gravity effects are insignificant and equivalently Fr is not
important (i.e. Fr 0 or Fr−1 0).
� �
CF = CF 0, 0, 0, Fr 0 or Fr−1 0, Re−1 ⇒
� �
CF ∼
= CF Re−1
L1 = L2 , and
U1 = U 2
12
UL
5. Significance of the Reynolds number Re = .
ν
CF Sphere
Plate
ν
Re = = 107 → ideal fluid, and Re−1 0
UL
13
Therefore for a steady, non-cavitating, non-surface tension, with no-gravity
effects flow in an ideal fluid:
CF = CF (0, 0, 0, 0, 0) = constant = 0
→D’Alembert’s Paradox
No drag force on moving body in ideal fluid.
14
Lecture 7
The structure of Lecture 7 has as follows: In paragraph 3.0 we introduce the concept of
inviscid fluid and formulate the governing equations and boundary conditions for an ideal
fluid flow. In paragraph 3.1 we introduce the concept of circulation and state Kelvin’s
theorem (a conservation law for angular momentum). In paragraph 3.2 we introduce the
concept of vorticity.
⎧
⎪ Inviscid Fluid ν=0
⎨
Ideal Fluid Flow ≡ +
⎪
⎩ Incompressible Flow (§ 1.1) Dρ
= 0 or ∇ · v = 0
Dt
UL inertia forces
Re = =
ν viscous forces
For many marine hydrodynamics problems studied in 13.021 the characteristic lengths
and velocities are L ≥ 1m and U ≥ 1m/s respectively. The kinematic viscosity in
water is νwater = 10−6 m2 /s leading thus to typical Reynolds numbers with respect to
U and L in the order of
UL
Re = ≥ 106 >>> 1 ⇒
ν
1 viscous forces
∼ 0
Re inertia forces
This means that viscous effects are << compared to inertial effects - or confined
within very small regions. In other words, for many marine hydrodynamics prob
lems, viscous effects can be neglected for the bulk of the flow.
ν = 0 ⇔ inviscid fluid
– Continuity Equation:
∇ · v = 0
∂v 1
+ v · ∇v = − ∇p − g ĵ
∂t ρ
By neglecting the viscous stress term (ν∇2v ) the Navier-Stokes equations reduce
to the Euler equations. (Careful not to confuse this with the Euler equation in
§1.6).
The N-S equations are second order PDE’s with respect to space
(2nd order in ∇2 ), thus: (a) require 2 kinematic boundary conditions, and (b)
The Euler equations are first order PDE’s, thus: (a) require 1 kinematic bound
ary condition, and (b) may allow discontinuities in the velocity field.
– KBC:
� �
v · n̂ = u · n
ˆ=U ← ‘no flux’ + free (to) slip
n
given
The ‘no slip’ condition is required to ensure that the velocity gradients are finite
and therefore the viscous stresses τ̂ij are finite.
∂u
Viscousflow τ w ∝ μ
y u(dy) ∂y
<∞ <∞
u(0) ∂u
U Inviscidflow τ w ∝0
∂y
– DBC:
Similarly to the argument for the KBC, viscous stresses τ̂ij cannot be specified
on any boundary since ν = 0.
ν=0
– Setting ν = 0 the viscous term in the Navier-Stokes equations drops out and we
obtain the Euler equations.
The Euler equations are 1st order PDE’s in space, thus (a) require only one
boundary condition for the velocity and (b) may allow for velocity jumps.
– Setting ν = 0 all the viscous stresses τ̂ij ∝ μ = ρν are identically 0. This may
allow for infinite velocity gradients.
This affects (a) the KBC, allowing free slip, and (b) the DBC, where no viscous
stresses can be specified on any boundary.
4
3.1 Circulation – Kelvin’s Theorem
3.1.1 Γ ≡ Instantaneous circulation around any arbitrary closed contour C.
C v
v v
dx
Γ= v
· dx
C tangential
velocity
dΓ
= 0 following any material contour C,
dt
i.e., Γ remains constant under for Ideal Fluid under Conservative Forces (IFCF).
v1
v2
r1 m1
θ r2 m2
L
= |r × (mv )| = mvr = mr
2 θ̇
L
=
L
1 2
1 2 m =m
m1 v1 r1 = m2 v2 r2 =⇒
v1 r1 = v2 r2 or
r12 θ̇1 = r22 θ̇2
υ2
υ1 r1
r2
Vm
Vm
2π
2π
Γ1 = dθr1 v1 = dθr2 v2 = Γ2
0 0
3.2 Vorticity
3.2.1 Definition of Vorticity
∂w ∂v ∂w ∂u ∂v ∂u
ω
= ∇ × v = − î − − ĵ + − k̂
∂y ∂z ∂x ∂z ∂x ∂y
∂v ∂u
ωz = −
∂x ∂y
time t + Δt
uiˆ + υ ˆj uiˆ + υ ˆj
uiˆ + υ ˆj uiˆ + υ ˆj
time t
∂v ∂u
= 0, = 0 ⇒ ωz = 0 → no vorticity
∂x ∂y
9
(b) Pure Strain (no volume change):
Areat + Δt
Areat
∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v
= − ; u = -v; = 0; = 0 ⇒ ωz = 0
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x
10
δ x = ⎛⎜ ∂u ∂y dy ⎞⎟Δt
⎝ ⎠
r
υ = ∂u ∂y dy iˆ + ∂υ ∂y dy ˆj time
t + Δt
dy
time t
( )
δ y = ∂υ ∂x dx Δt
dx
r r
υ =0 υ = ∂u ∂x dx iˆ + ∂υ ∂x dx ĵ
∂u ∂v
= 0 only if
ω = → δx = δy( for dx = dy)
∂y ∂x
11
time t + Δt r
υ = − Ωdy iˆ
Ω Δt time t
dy
Ω Δt
Ω r
υ =0
dx r
υ = Ωdx ĵ
∂v ∂u
= Ω; = −Ω; ωz = 2Ω
∂x ∂y
i.e. vorticity ∝ 2(angular velocity).
�
ω ≡ 0 everywhere ⇔ Γ ≡ 0 for any C
Further on, if at t = to , the flow is irrotational, i.e., Γ ≡ 0 for all C, then Kelvin’s
theorem states that under IFCF, Γ ≡ 0 for all C for all time t:
12
13.021 – Marine Hydrodynamics, Fall 2004
Lecture 8
r
ω1
Ω1 r
u1
r
u
r
ω
vortex lines
1
• A vortex ring is a closed vortex tube.
A sketch and two pictures of the production of vortex rings from orifices are
(Figures 2,3: Van Dyke, An Album of Fluid Motion 1982 p.66, 71)
side view
v
u v
u
U v
ω
v
u Γ
cross section
v v
u
ω
U
v v
u ω
∇ · (∇ × v) = 0 ⇒
ω
∇ · ω =0⇒
∇ · ω = ω
· n̂
dS = 0
⇑
V Divergence S vorticity flux
Theorem
(ωv ⋅ n̂ )out
v
ω ⋅ nˆ = 0
(ωv ⋅ n̂ )in
(b) Vorticity cannot stop anywhere in the fluid. It either traverses the fluid begin
ning or ending on a boundary or closes on itself (vortex ring).
r r
ω ω
n̂1 C3 n̂2
C1 C2
Γ1 = v · dx = ω
· n̂1 dS = ω
· n̂2 dS = Γ2
C1 S1 S2
Therefore, circulation is the same in all circuits embracing the same vortex tube. For
the special case of a vortex tube with ‘small’ area:
Γ = ω1 A1 = ω2 A2
ω1 ω2
A1 A2
ω2
ω1
A2 = 2A1
A1
ω2 = ω1/2
Am
∂Am
By definition,
ω · n̂ = 0 on An
Then,
Γ∂Am = v · dx = ω
· nds
ˆ =0
∂Am Am
At time t + Δt, Am moves, and for an ideal fluid under the influence of conservative
body forces, Kelvin’s theorem states that
Γ∂Am = 0
So, ω · n̂ = 0 on Am still, i.e., Am still on the vortex tube. Therefore, the vortex tube
is a material tube for an ideal fluid under the influence of conservative forces. In the
same manner it can be shown that a vortex line is a material line, i.e., it moves with
the fluid.
R A
Γ ωA ω
∴ = = = constant
Volume LA L
As a vortex stretches, L increases, and since the volume is constant (from continuity),
A and R decrease, and due to the conservation of the angular momentum, ω increases.
In other words,
R
r
r
ω A
Vorticity ω = ∇ × v [T−1 ]
⎧
⎪
⎪ ∀
⎪
⎪ A ∝ ∴ as L ↑ A↓
⎪
⎪ L
⎪
⎨
∀ = LA = const
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ ∀
⎪
⎩ r ∝ ∴ as L ↑ r↓
L
Γ r∝ ∀/L L
U r ∝ Γ = const → U∝ → U ∝Γ ∴ as L ↑ U↑
r ∀
Γ A∝∀/L L
ωA ∝ Γ = const → ω∝ → ω∝Γ ∴ as L ↑ ω↑
A ∀
Example 1: Example 2:
A2 ω2
r A2
A1
Γ Γ2
r
L2 r
ω1 ω2
L1
A1 r Γ1
ω1
8
∂
3.4 Bernoulli Equation for Steady ( ∂t = 0), Ideal(ν = 0),
Rotational flow
p=f v Viscous flow: Navier-Stokes’ Equations (Vector Equations)
p = f (|v |) Ideal flow: Bernoulli Equation (Scalar equation)
Therefore,
v2 p D v2 p
v · ∇ 2
+ ρ
+ gy = 0 = Dt 2
+ ρ
+ gy
streamline pathline
v2 p
i.e., 2
+ ρ + gy = constant on a streamline
v2 p
In general, 2
+ ρ
+ gy = F (Ψ) where Ψ is a tag for a particular streamline.
Contraction Ratio: γ = R1 /R2 >> 1 ( γ = O(10) for wind tunnel ; γ = O(5) for water
tunnel)
Let U¯1 and U¯2 denote the average velocities at sections 1 and 2 respectively.
2
2
2 U¯2 R1
1. From continuity: Ū1 πR1 = Ū2 πR2 → ¯ = = γ 2 >> 1
U1 R2
2.
∂u
Since
0,ω
=
= 0 → vortex ring.
∂r
10
⎧
⎪
⎪ ω1 ω2 ω2 R2 1
⎪
⎪ = → = ∼ << 1
⎨
2πR1 2πR2 ω1 R1 γ
ω/L = constant ⇒
⎪
⎪ ∂u ∂u ∂u
⎪
⎪ since ω ∼ → <<
⎩
∂r ∂r 2 ∂r 1
i.e.,
Section 2
Section 1
3. Near the center, let U1 = U¯1 (1 + ε1 ) and U2 = U¯2 (1 + ε2 ) where ε1 and ε2 measure
the relative velocity fluctuations. Apply the Bernoulli equation along a reference
average streamline
ε2 Ū 2 1
ε1 Ū12 = ε2 Ū22 + O(ε2 ) → ∼ 12 ∼ 4 << 1
ε1 Ū2 γ
11
∂v p
∇ × (Navier-Stokes) → ∇ × + ∇ × (v · ∇v ) = −∇ × ∇ + gy + ∇ × ν∇2v
∂t ρ
The first term on the left side, for fixed reference frames, becomes
∂v ∂ ∂ω
∇× = (∇ × v ) =
∂t ∂t ∂t
In the same manner the last term on the right side becomes
∇ × ν∇2v = ν∇2 ω
Applying the identity ∇ × ∇ · scalar = 0 the pressure term vanishes, provided that the
density is uniform
p
∇ × ∇( + gy) = 0
ρ
1
The inertia term v · ∇v , as shown in Lecture 8, §3.4, can be rewritten as
2
1 v
v · ∇v = ∇ (v · v ) − v × (∇ × v ) = ∇ where v 2 ≡ |v |2 = v · v
− v × ω
2 2
and then the second term on the left side can be rewritten as
2
v
∇ × (v · ∇) v = ∇ × ∇ − ∇ × (v × ω ) = ∇ × (ω × v )
2
= (v · ∇) ω − (ω · ∇) v + ω (∇ · v ) + v (∇ · ω )
=0 =0 since
incompressible ∇·(∇×v )=0
fluid
Dω
· ∇) v + ν∇2 ω
= (ω
Dt
D
ω
If ν ≡ 0, then Dt
= (ω · ∇) v , so if ω
≡ 0 everywhere at one time, ω
≡ 0 always.
v
v ω
ω
v v
Dv v Dω
D ω v
= υ∇ 2v + ... = υ∇ 2ω + ...
Dt Dt
∂T
• Diffusion of vorticity is analogous to the heat equation: = K∇2 T , where K is the
∂t
heat diffusivity.
2
Numerical example ν ∼ 1 mm /s. For diffusion time t = 1 second, diffusion
√ for
distance L ∼ O νt ∼ O (mm). For diffusion distance L = 1cm, the necessary
diffusion time is t ∼ O (L2 /ν) ∼ O(10)sec.
∂
v = (u, v, 0) and ≡0
∂z
So, ω
= ∇ × v is ⊥ to v (ω
is parallel to the z-axis). Then,
⎛ ⎞
⎜ ∂ ∂ ∂ ⎟
(ω · ∇) v = ⎝ ωx + ωy + ωz ⎠ v ≡ 0,
∂x ∂y ∂z
0 0
0
so in 2D we have
Dω
= ν∇2 ω
Dt
If ν = 0, D
ω
Dt
= 0, i.e., in 2D following a particle the angular velocity is conserved.
Reason: In 2D space the length of a vortex tube cannot change due to continuity.
• In 3D space,
Dωi ∂vi ∂ 2 ωi
= ωj + ν
Dt ∂x ∂xj ∂xj
j
vortex turning and stretching diffusion
for example,
z ≡ x3 z ≡ x3
∂u2
dz > 0
dz ∂x3
dy
u2 = 0 y ≡ x2 u2 = 0 y ≡ x2
∂u2
dy > 0
∂x2
x ≡ x1 x ≡ x1
Scouring
Why?
Ideal flow assumption implies that the inertia forces are much larger than the viscous
effects. The Reynolds number, with respect to the vortex tube diameter D is given by
UD
Re ∼
ν
As the vortex tube length increases ⇒ the diameter D becomes really small ⇒ Re is not
that big after all.
Therefore IFCF is no longer valid.
⎧ ⎫
⎪
⎪ Inviscid Fluid ν=0 ⎬
⎪
⎪
⎨ + Ideal Flow
⎭
P-Flow ≡ Incompressible Flow ∇ · v = 0
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ +
⎩
Irrotational Flow ω = 0 or Γ = 0
For ideal flow under conservative body forces by Kelvin’s theorem if ω ≡ 0 at some
time t, then ω ≡ 0 ≡ irrotational flow always. In this case the flow is P-Flow.
v = ∇φ
Note that
ω
= ∇ × v = ∇ × ∇φ ≡ 0
for any φ, so irrotational flow guaranteed automatically. At a point x and time t,
the velocity vector v (x, t) in cartesian coordinates in terms of the potential function
φ(x, t) is given by
∂φ ∂φ ∂φ
v (x, t) = ∇φ (x, t) = , ,
∂x ∂y ∂z
φ (x)
u u
∂φ u=0 ∂φ
>0 <0
∂x ∂x
u >0 u <0
from low φ ⎯
⎯→ to high φ
The velocity vector v is the gradient of the potential function φ, so it always points
towards higher values of the potential function.
(a) Continuity
∇ · v = 0 = ∇ · ∇φ ⇒ ∇2 φ = 0
Number of unknowns → φ
Number of equations → ∇2 φ = 0
Therefore we have closure. In addition, the velocity potential φ and the pressure p
are decoupled. The velocity potential φ can be solved independently first, and after
φ is obtained we can evaluate the pressure p.
7
(b) Bernoulli equation for P-Flow
This is a scalar equation for the pressure under the assumption of P-Flow for
steady or unsteady flow.
Euler equation:
∂v v2 p
+∇ − v × ω = −∇ + gy
∂t 2 ρ
Substituting v = ∇φ and ω
= 0 into Euler’s equation above, we obtain
∂φ 1 p
∇ +∇ |∇φ|2 = −∇ + gy
∂t 2 ρ
or
∂φ 1 p
∇ + |∇φ|2 + + gy = 0,
∂t 2 ρ
which implies that
∂φ 1 p
+ |∇φ|2 + + gy = f (t)
∂t 2 ρ
everywhere in the fluid for unsteady, potential flow. The equation above can be
written as
∂φ 1 2
p = −ρ + |∇φ| + gy + F (t)
∂t 2
which is the Bernoulli equation for unsteady or steady potential flow.
ρv 2 ρ
p=− + c = − |∇φ|2 + c ← Venturi pressure (created by velocity)
2 2
(e) Inertial, acceleration effect:
Eulerian inertia
∂φ
p ∼ − ρ +···
∂t
∂
∇p ∼ − ρ v + ···
∂t
∂p
p p+ δx
∂x
δx
9
(c) Boundary Conditions
∂φ
v·nˆ=
u·nˆ no flux across boundary ⇒ = Un given
∂n
n̂·∇φ Un given
10
• Continuity: ∇ · v = 0; Irrotationality: ∇ × v = ω = 0
• Velocity potential: v = ∇φ, then ∇ × v = ∇ × (∇φ) ≡ 0 for any φ, i.e.,
irrotationality is satisfied automatically. Required for continuity:
∇ · v = ∇2 φ = 0
defined by
• Stream function ψ
v = ∇ × ψ
≡ 0 for any ψ
Then ∇ · v = ∇ · ∇ × ψ , i.e., satisfies continuity automatically.
Required for irrotationality:
=∇ ∇·ψ
∇ × v = 0 ⇒ ∇ × ∇ × ψ − ∇2 ψ=0 (1)
still 3 unknown
=(ψx ,ψy ,ψz )
ψ
• For 2D and axisymmetric flows, ψ is a scalar ψ (stream functions are more ‘use
ful’ for 2D and axisymmetric flows).
∂
For 2D flow: v = (u, v, 0) and ∂z
≡ 0.
î
∂ ĵ∂ k̂∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
v = ∇ × ψ =
∂x ∂y ∂z =
ψz î +
−
ψz ĵ +
ψy −
ψx k̂
ψ ψ ψ
∂y
∂x
∂x
∂y
x y z
∂ψ
Set ψx = ψy ≡ 0 and ψz = ψ, then u = ∂y
; v = − ∂ψ
∂x
= ∂ ψx + ∂ ψy + ∂ ψz ≡ 0
∇·ψ
∂x ∂y ∂z
Then, from the irrotationality (see (1)) ⇒ ∇2 ψ = 0 and ψ satisfies Laplace’s
equation.
11
∂
• 2D polar coordinates: v = (vr , vθ ) and ∂z
≡ 0.
y
ê êr
r
vr vθ
v
z
êr rêθ êz
1
∂ ∂ 1 ∂ψ ∂ψ 1 ∂ ∂
=
v = ∇ × ψ ∂
=
z
êr −
z
êθ + rψθ − ψr êz
r
∂r ∂θ ∂z
r ∂θ
∂r
r ∂r
∂θ
ψr ψθ ψz
Again let
ψr = ψθ ≡ 0 and ψz = ψ , then
1 ∂ψ ∂ψ
vr = and vθ = −
r ∂θ ∂r
12
• Physical Meaning of ψ.
In 2D
∂ψ ∂ψ
u= and v = −
∂y ∂x
We define
x
x
ψ(x, t) = ψ(x0 , t) + v · nd
v
x
C’
v
t
v
xo C n̂
13
streamline
x2
ψ (x2 ) = ψ (x1 ) +
v · n̂ d
ψ2 ψ1
x1 =0
along a
streamline
∂φ
ψ = constant ≡ =0
u=0 ∂n
ψ = given
ψo
14
∂ψ ∂ψ
Therefore, u = and v = −
∂y ∂x
(x, y + Δy)
u
streamline
-v
streamline (x +Δx, y)
(x,y)
ψ + Δψ
ψ
15
Summary of velocity potential formulation vs. stream-function formulation for ideal flows
⎧ ⎫
⎨
For irrotational flow use φ ⎬
∂
2D: w = 0, ∂z =0
continuity ∇2 φ = 0 automatically satisfied
irrotationality automatically satisfied ψ ≡ ψz : ∇2 ψ = 0
∂φ ∂ψ
u= ∂x
u= ∂y
Cartesian (x, y)
∂φ
v= ∂y v = − ∂ψ
∂x
∂φ 1 ∂ψ
vr = ∂r
vr = r ∂θ
Polar (r,θ)
1 ∂φ
vθ = r ∂θ
vθ = − ∂ψ
∂r
∂y ∂x 2
16
13.021 – Marine Hydrodynamics, Fall 2004
Lecture 10
(a) Continuity �2 φ = 0
� �
1 2
(b) Bernoulli for P-Flow (steady or unsteady) p = −ρ φt + |�φ| + gy + C(t)
2
∂φ
(c) Kinematic Boundary Conditions - specify the flow velocity �v at boundaries. = Un
∂n
(d) Dynamic Boundary Conditions - specify force F� or pressure p at flow boundary.
� �
1 2
p = −ρ φt + (�φ) + gy + C (t) (prescribed)
2
�
�v ·n̂ = ����
U ·n̂ = Un = Given
���� ����
fluid velocity boundary velocity nornal boundary velocity
�v =�φ
�φ · n̂ = Un ⇒
∂ ∂ ∂
(n1 + n2 + n3 )φ = Un ⇒
∂x1 ∂x2 ∂x3
∂φ
= Un
∂n
v
U
n = (n1 , n 2 , n 3 )
v
v
( )
� �
1 2
p = −ρ φt + (�φ) + gy + C (t) = Given
2
The aforementioned governing equations with the boundary conditions formulate the
∇ 2φ = 0
p = − ρ (φt + (∇φ ) + gy ) + C (t )
1 2
∂φ
Solid boundary KBC : = U n = GIVEN
∂n
• Potential function φ.
∇ 2 φ = 0 in V
∂φ
= U n =f on B
∂n
• Stream function ψ.
∇2 ψ = 0 in V
ψ=g on B
Linear
� Superposition: if φ1 , φ2 , . . . are harmonic functions, i.e., �2 φi = 0, then φ =
αi φi , where αi are constants, are also harmonic, and is the solution for the boundary
value problem provided the kinematic boundary conditions are satisfied, i.e.,
∂φ ∂
= (α1 φ1 + α2 φ2 + . . .) = Un on B.
∂n ∂n
The key is to combine known solution of the Laplace equation in such a way as to satisfy
The same is true for the stream function ψ. The K.B.C specify the value of ψ on the
boundaries.
3.8.1 Example
��� �
Let φi x denote a unit-source flow with source at xi , i.e.,
��� �� � � 1
�� � �
φi x ≡ φsource x,
xi
=
ln �x −
xi
� (in 2D)
2π
� �� � ��−1
= − 4π �x − xi � (in 3D),
v
•x 2
v
•x 1
∇ 2 φ = 0 in V
v
•x 3 •x 4
v
∂Φ
=f
∂n
∂ 2φ ∂ 2φ ∂ 2φ
�2 φ = + + 2
∂x2 ∂y 2 ∂z
êz
z
P ( x, y , z )
O y ê y
x
êx
r 2 = x2 + y 2 ,
θ = tan−1 (y/x)
� ê ê ê � � ∂φ 1 ∂φ ∂φ �
� r θ z
v = vr , vθ , vz = , ,
∂r r ∂θ ∂z
∂ 2 φ 1 ∂φ 1 ∂ 2 φ ∂ 2 φ
�2 φ = 2
+ + 2 2 + 2 ⇔
�∂r �� r ∂r� r ∂θ ∂z
r ∂r ( ∂r )
1 ∂φ
r ∂φ
� �
2 1 ∂φ ∂φ 1 ∂2φ ∂ 2φ
�φ = r + 2 2 + 2
r ∂r ∂r r ∂θ ∂z
êz
z
P (r , θ , z )
O y ê y
θ r
x
êx
r 2 = x2 + y 2 + z 2 ,
θ = cos−1 (z/r) ⇔ z = r (cos θ)
ϕ = tan−1 (y/x)
� � � �
� êr êθ êϕ ∂φ 1 ∂φ 1 ∂φ
v = �φ = vr , vθ , vϕ = , ,
∂r r ∂θ r(sin θ) ∂ϕ
� �
2 ∂ 2 φ 2 ∂φ 1 ∂ ∂φ 1 ∂ 2φ
�φ = + + sin θ + ⇔
2 2
�∂r �� r ∂r� r sin θ ∂θ ∂θ r2 sin2 θ ∂ϕ2
1 ∂
r 2 ∂r
(r2 ∂φ
∂r )
� � � �
2 1 ∂ 2 ∂φ 1 ∂ ∂φ 1 ∂ 2φ
�φ = 2 r + 2 sin θ + 2 2
r ∂r ∂r r sin θ ∂θ ∂θ r sin θ ∂ϕ2
êz
z
P (r , θ , φ )
θ
r
O y ê y
φ
x
êx
�
1D: φ = U x + constant ψ = U y +
constant;
v = (U, 0, 0)
�
2D: φ = U x + V y + constant ψ = U y − V x +
constant;
v = (U, V, 0)
�
3D: φ = U x + V y + W z +
constant
v = (U, V, W )
m
φ= ln r
2π
∂φ m m
�φ = êr = êr ⇐⇒ vr = , vθ = 0
∂r 2πr 2πr
source
y
(strength m)
� �
�� �
�� �
v · n̂ds = � · vds = � · vds
C S Sε
� �
�2π
v · n̂ds = vr rε dθ = m
����
Cε 0
����
m
2πrε source
strength
y
n̂ C
Sε
x
ε
�
m
φ = ln (x − x0 )2 + (y − y0 )2
2π
m m
φ = ln r (Potential function) ←→ ψ = θ (Stream function)
2π 2π
m
Ψ= θ
y 2π
θ
m
Vr =
2π
x
1
ψ=0
10
m ∂φ m
φ=− ⇐⇒ vr = = , vθ = 0, vϕ = 0
4πr ∂r 4πr2
Net outward volume flux is
��
m
� vr dS = 4πrε2 · = m (m < 0 for a sink )
4πrε2
11
3. 2D point vortex
� �
2 1 ∂ ∂ 1 ∂2
� = r + 2 2
r ∂r ∂r r ∂θ
Another particular solution: φ = aθ + b. Verify that �2 φ = 0 except at r = 0.
Γ ∂φ 1 ∂φ Γ
φ= θ ⇐⇒ vr = = 0, vθ = = and,
2π ∂r r ∂θ 2πr
1 ∂
ωz = (rvθ ) = 0 except at r = 0
r ∂r
Stream function:
Γ
ψ=− ln r
2π
Circulation:
� � � �2π
� � � � � � Γ
v · dx = v · dx + v · dx = rdθ = Γ
����
2πr
C1 C2 C1 −C2
� R R �� �
0 vortex
ωz dS=0 strength
S
12
2D dipole:
� � � �
m 2 2 2 2
φ= ln (x − a) + y − ln (x + a) + y
2π
� �
µ ∂ �
lim φ = ln (x − ξ) + y ��
2 2
a→0 2π
���� ∂ξ ξ=0
µ = 2ma
constant
µ x µ x
=− = −
2π x2 + y 2 2π r2
∂
NOTE: dipole = µ ∂ξ (unit source)
13
unit
source α
x
⎛ ⎞
m
⎝
1 1
⎠
where µ = 2ma fixed
φ = lim
−
� −
�
a→0 4π
2 2 2 2 2 2
(x − a)
+ y + z (x + a)
+ y + z
�
�
µ ∂ 1
� µ x µ x
= −
� � = − = −
4π ∂ξ
� 4π (x2 + y 2 + z 2 )3/2 4π r3
(x
− ξ)2 + y 2 + z 2 �
ξ=0
14
U
m
m � 2
2D: φ = U x + ln x + y 2
2π
U
m
x D
v
stagnation point v = 0
Dividing
Streamline
∂φ m x
u= =U+
∂x 2π x + y 2
2
m
u|y=0 = U + , v |y=0 = 0 ⇒
2πx
m
V� = (u, v) = 0 at x = xs = − , y=0
2πU
m
For large x, u → U , and U D = m by continuity ⇒ D = .
U
15
m
3D: φ = U x − �
4π x
2 + y 2 + z 2
stagnation point
div. streamlines
∂φ m x
u= =U+
∂x 4π (x + y + z 2 )3/2
2 2
m x
u|y=z=0 = U + , v |y=z=0 = 0, w|y=z=0 = 0 ⇒
4π |x|3
�
� m
V = (u, v, w) = 0 at x = xs = − , y=z=0
4πU
m
For large x, u → U and U A = m by continuity ⇒ A = .
U
16
U S +m -m S x
a
dividing streamline
(see this with PFLOW)
�
To have a closed body, a necessary condition is to have min body = 0
2D Rankine ovoid:
� � � � � �
m 2 2 2 2
m (x + a)2 + y 2
φ = U x+ ln (x + a) + y − ln (x − a) + y = U x+ ln
2π 4π (x − a)2 + y 2
3D Rankine ovoid:
⎡ ⎤
m⎣ 1 1
⎦
φ = Ux − � −�
4π 2 2
(x + a) + y2 + z2 (x − a) + y2 + z2
17
� �
∂φ m x+a x−a
u= =U+ −
∂x 4π �(x + a)2 + y 2 + z 2 �3/2 �(x − a)2 + y 2 + z 2 �3/2
� �
m 1 1
u|y=z=0 =U + −
4π (x + a)2 (x − a)
2
m (−4ax)
=U +
4π (x2 − a2 )2
� �2 � m
�
u|y=z=0 =0 at x2 − a2 = 4ax
4πU
At x = 0,
m 2a
u=U+ where R = y 2 + z 2
4π (a2 + R2 )3/2
�R0
2π uRdR = m
0
18
r
U µ θ
µx � µ �
2D: φ = U x + = cos θ U r +
2πr2 ↑ 2πr
x=r cos θ
The radial velocity is then
∂φ � µ �
ur = = cos θ U − .
∂r 2πr2
� µ
Setting the radial velocity vr = 0 on r = a we obtain a = 2πU
. This is the K.B.C.
for a stationary circle of radius a. Therefore, for
µ = 2πU a2
the potential � µ �
φ = cos θ U r +
2πr
is the solution to ideal flow past a circle of radius a.
• Flow past a circle (U, a).
19
� �
a2
φ = U cos θ r + r
� 2
�
1 ∂φ
Vθ = r ∂θ
= −U sin θ 1 + ar2
�
= 0 at θ = 0, π − stagnation points
Vθ |r=a = −2U sin θ π 3π
= �2U at θ = 2 , 2 − maximum tangential velocity
2U
2U
Illustration of the points where the flow reaches maximum speed around the circle.
µ cos θ � µ �
3D: φ = U x + = U r cos θ 1 +
4π r2 4πr3
y
µ
r
U θ
x
z
20
� µ
Setting the radial velocity vr = 0 on r = a we obtain a = 3
2πU
. This is the K.B.C.
for a stationary sphere of radius a. Therefore, choosing
µ = 2πU a3
the potential � µ �
φ = cos θ U r +
2πr
is the solution to ideal flow past a sphere of radius a.
• Flow past a sphere (U, a).
� �
a3
φ = Ur cos θ 1 + 3
2r
� �
1 ∂φ a3
vθ = = −U sin θ 1 + 3
r ∂θ 2r
�
3U = 0 at θ = 0, π
vθ |r=a = − sin θ
2 = − 3U
2
at θ = π2
3/ U
2
θ
x
3/ U
2
21
∂φ
ur = = αrα−1 cos αθ
∂r
1 ∂φ
uθ = = −αrα−1 sin αθ
r ∂θ
∴ uθ = 0 { or ψ = 0} on αθ = nπ, n = 0, ±1, ±2, . . .
i.e., on θ = θ0 = 0, απ , 2π
α
, . . . (θ0 ≤ 2π)
α = 1, θ0 = 0, π, 2π, u = 1, v = 0
ψ=0
22
π 3π
α = 2, θ0 = 0, , π, ,2π u = 2x, v = −2 y
o 2 2
(90 corner)
ψ=0
ψ=0
θ=2π/3, ψ = 0
2π 4π θ=0, ψ = 0
α = 3 2 , θ0 = 0, , ,2π 120o 120o
3 3 θ=2π, ψ = 0
o
120
(120o corner)
θ=4π/3, ψ = 0
23
α<1
π
θ0 = 0, only
α
π
Since we need θ0 ≤ 2π, we therefore require α
≤ 2π, i.e., α ≥ 1/2 only.
1/2 ≤ α < 1
π
θ0 = 0,
α
For example,
θ=0, ψ = 0
θ=2π, ψ = 0
α = 2/3, θ0 = 0, 3π
2
(90o exterior corner)
θ=0, ψ = 0
θ=3π/2, ψ = 0
24
Uniform flow U∞ x + V∞ y + W∞ z U∞ y − V∞ x
y−yo
2D Source/Sink (m) at (xo , yo ) m
2π
ln((x − xo )2 + (y − yo )2 ) m
2π
arctan( x−x )
o
Γ y−yo Γ ln((x − x )2 + (y − y )2 )
Vortex (Γ) at (xo , yo ) 2π
arctan( x−x ) − 2π o o
o
µ (x−xo )
3D Dipole (+x) (µ) at (xo , y0 , zo ) − 4π NA
((x−xo )2 +(y−yo )2 +(z−zo )2 )3/2
25
µ cos θ
3D Dipole (+x) (µ) at (xo , yo , zo ) − 4π 2 NA
r
26
m m m
Stream + Source (2D) φ = U∞ x + 2π ln r xs = − 2πU ∞
D= U∞
=
�
m √ 1 m m
Rankine Half Body (3D) φ = U∞ x − 4π xs = − 4πU∞ A= U∞
x2 +y 2 +z 2
m
� �
Stream + Source + Sink (2D) φ = U∞ x + 2π ln((x + a)2 + y 2 ) − ln((x − a)2 + y 2 )
=
m √ 1 1
Rankine Closed Body (3D) φ = U∞ x + 4π ( (x+a)2 +y 2 +z 2 −√ )
(x−a)2 +y 2 +z 2
µx a2
Stream + Dipole (2D) φ = U∞ x + 2πr 2 if µ = 2πa2 U∞ φ = U∞ cos θ(r + r )
=
µ cos θ a3
Circle (Sphere) R = a (3D) φ = U∞ x + 4πr 2 if µ = 2πa3 U∞ φ = U∞ cos θ(r + 2r 2 )
27
1
(2D) ∼ ln r ∼
r
Source
1 1
(3D) ∼ ∼
r r2
1 1
(2D) ∼ ∼
r r2
Dipole
1 1
(3D) ∼ ∼
r2 r3
1
Vortex (2D) ∼1 ∼
r
28
Lecture 11
m
m
m 2 2
• Potential for source near a wall: φ = ln x2 + (y − b) + ln x2 + (y + b)
2π
m
m
y
dφ b
=0 x
dy
b
m
Note: Be sure to verify that the boundary conditions are satisfied by symmetry or
by calculus for φ (y) = φ (−y).
Γ −1 y − b −1 y + b
• Vortex near a wall (ground effect): φ = Ux + tan ( ) − tan ( )
2π x x
U b y
x
b
-Γ
dφ
Verify that = 0 on the wall y = 0.
dy
a2 a2
• Circle of radius a near a wall: φ ∼
= Ux 1 + +
x2 + (y − b)2 x2 + (y + b)2
y
U b
y
x
∂φ
This solution satisfies the boundary condition on the wall ( ∂n = 0), and the degree it
satisfies the boundary condition of no flux through the circle boundary increases as
the ratio b/a >> 1, i.e., the velocity due to the image dipole small on the real circle
for b >> a. For a 2D dipole, φ ∼ d1 , ∇φ ∼ d12 .
2
• More than one wall:
Example 1:
b
b
U
U
b'
b'
b'
Example 2: Example 3:
b b
b b
-Γ Γ
b' b'
b' b'
b' b'
b' b'
Γ -Γ
b b b b
x’ U
x o’
o z’
z
x = x` + Ut
X S X’ S U
O O’
∇2 φ = 0 ∇2 φ = 0
v · n̂ = ∂φ · n̂ = (U, 0, 0) · (nx , ny , nz )
=U
∂n ∂φ
v · n̂ = =0
= U nx on Body ∂n
v → 0 as |x| → ∞ v → (−U, 0, 0) as |x | → ∞
φ → 0 as |x| → ∞ φ → −U x as |x | → ∞
Galilean transform:
v(x, y, z, t) = v (x = x − U t, y, z, t) + (U, 0, 0)
φ(x, y, z, t) = φ (x = x − U t, y, z, t) + U x ⇒
−U x + φ(x = x + U t, y, z, t) = φ (x , y, z, t)
Pressure (no gravity)
p∞ = − 12 ρv 2 + Co = Co = − 12 ρv 2 + Co = Co − 12 ρU 2
∴ Co = Co − 12 ρU 2
In O: unsteady flow In O’: steady flow
∂φ 1
ps = −ρ ∂φ
∂t
v 2 +Co
− 12 ρ ps = −ρ v 2 +Co = Co
− 2 ρ
∂t
U2 0
0
∂φ ∂ ∂x ∂
∂t
=( + ∂x
) (φ + U x ) = −U 2
∂t ∂t
0 −U
∴ ps = ρU 2
− 12 ρU 2 + Co = 12 ρU 2 + Co
3.12.2 Forces
n̂
Total fluid force for ideal flow (i.e., no shear stresses): F = pˆ
ndS
B
For potential flow, substitute for p from Bernoulli:
⎛ ⎞
⎜ ∂φ 1 ⎟
⎜ ⎟
F = −ρ ⎜ + |∇φ|2 + gy +c(t)⎟ ndS
ˆ
⎝∂t
2 ⎠
B
hydrodynamic hydrostatic
force force
For the hydrostatic case v ≡ φ ≡ 0 :
F s = (−ρgyn̂) dS = (−) ∇ (−ρgy) dυ = ρg∀ĵ where ∀ = dυ
↑ ↑
Gauss outward
B theorem normal
υB Archimedes υB
principle
∂φ 1 2
F d = −ρ + |∇φ| n̂dS
∂t 2
B
∂φ
For steady motion ∂t
≡0 :
1
Fd = − ρ v 2 ndS
ˆ
2
B
5
3.12.3 Example Hydrodynamic force on 2D cylinder in a steady uniform stream.
n̂
U S x
a
−ρ 2π
−ρ
F d =
2
|∇φ|2 nd
ˆ = 2
2
|∇φ|
r=a n̂adθ
B 0
2π
Fx =
F ·
î = −ρa
2
dθ |∇φ|
2r=a
n̂
·
î
0
− cos θ
2π 2
=
ρa
2
|∇φ|
r=a cos θdθ
a2
φ = U r cos θ 1 + 2
r
Velocity vector on the 2D cylinder surface:
∂φ
1 ∂φ
∇φ|r=a = ( vr |r=a , vθ |r=a ) = ,
∂r
r ∂θ
r=a
6
Finally, the hydrodynamic force on the 2D cylinder is given by
2π
2π
ρa 1
Fx = dθ 4U 2 sin2 θ cos θ = ρU 2 (2a) 2 dθ sin 2
θ cos
θ = 0
2
0
2 0 even odd
π 3π
diameter w.r.t ,
ps −p∞ or
projection
2 2
≡0
2π
1
Fy = ρU 2 (2a)2 dθ sin2 θ sin θ = 0
2
0
D’Alembert’s “paradox”:
No hydrodynamic force∗ acts on a body moving with steady translational (no circulation)
velocity in an infinite, inviscid, irrotational fluid.
∗
The moment as measured in a local frame is not necessarily zero.
U Γ
Consider a control surface in the form of a circle of radius r centered at the point vortex.
Then according to Newton’s law:
d steady flow
ΣF = LCV −→
dt
(FV + FCS ) + M
N ET = 0 ⇔ F ≡ −FV = FCS + M
N ET
Where,
F = Hydrodynamic force exerted on the vortex from the fluid.
FV = −F = Hydrodynamic force exerted on the fluid in the control volume from the vortex.
FCS = Surface force (i.e., pressure) on the fluid control surface.
M N ET = Net linear momentum flux in the control volume through the control surface.
d
L
dt CV
= Rate of change of the total linear momentum in the control volume.
Γ Fy θ
U
Fx
x
Control
volume
8
a. Net linear momentum flux in the control volume through the control surfaces, M N ET .
Recall that the control surface has the form of a circle of radius r centered at the point
vortex.
u = U− sin θ
2πr
Γ
v = cos θ
2πr
∂x
ur = U = U cos θ = V · n̂
∂r
Γ
vθ =
2πr
U
θ
a.2 The net horizontal and vertical momentum fluxes through the control surface are
given by
2π
2π
Γ
(MN ET )x = − ρ dθruvr = − ρ dθr U − sin θ U cos θ = 0
2πr
0 0
2π
2π
Γ
(M N ET )y = − ρ dθrvvr = − ρ dθr cos θ U cos θ
2πr
0 0
2π
ρU Γ ρU Γ
=− cos2 θdθ = −
2π 2
0
9
b. Pressure force on the control surface, FCS .
b.3 Integrate the pressure along the control surface to obtain FCS
2π
2D : F = −ρU Γ
3D : F = ρU
× Γ
Generalized Kutta-Joukowski Law:
n
F = ρU
× Γi
i=1
where F is the total force on a system of n vortices in a free stream with speed U
.
10
13.021 – Marine Hydrodynamics
Lecture 12
stream line
chord line
U α
(c) or both
amount of camber
chord line
mean camber line
U α
angle of attack
and Drag to U
Lift ⊥ to U
Consider a control volume as illustrated below. At t = 0, the foil is at rest (top control
volume). It starts moving impulsively with speed U (middle control volume). At t = 0+ ,
a starting vortex is created due to flow separation at the trailing edge. As the foil moves,
viscous effects streamline the flow at the trailing edge (no separation for later t), and the
starting vortex is left in the wake (bottom control volume).
t=0 Γ=0
ΓS
+ ΓS
t=0 U starting vortex
due to separation
(a real fluid effect,
no infinite vel of
potetial flow)
ΓS
for later
ΓS
U
t
no Γ
Kelvin’s theorem:
dΓ
= 0 → Γ = 0 for t ≥ 0 if Γ(t = 0) = 0
dt
After a while the ΓS in the wake is far behind and we recover Figure 1.
4
3.15.2 How much ΓS ?
Just enough so that the Kutta condition is satisfied, so that no separation occurs. For
example, consider a flat plate of chord and angle of attack α, as shown in the figure
below.
chord length
Γ = πlU sin α
L = ρU Γ = ρU 2 πl sin α
|
|L
CL = 1 2 = 2π sin α ≈ 2πα for small α
ρU l � �� �
2 only for
small α
However, notice that as α increases, separation occurs close to the leading edge.
When the angle of attack exceeds a certain value (depends on the wing geometry) stall
occurs. The effects of stalling on the lift coefficient (CL = 1 ρU 2 Lspan ) are shown in the
2
following figure.
C
L
condition
stall
2π
α
O(5 o )
• In experiments, CL < 2πα for 3D foil - finite aspect ratio (finite span).
y=yU(x)
yU yL
, << 1
dyU dyL
, << 1
dx dx
The problem is then linear and superposition applies.
Let η(x) denote the camber line
1 t(x)
η(x) = (yU (x) + yL (x)),
2
and t(x) denote the half-thickness
t(x)
Camber line η(x)
1
t(x) = (yU (x) − yL (x)).
2
For linearized theory, i.e. thin wing at small AoA, the lift on the wing depends
only on the camber line but not on the wing thickness. Therefore, for the
following analysis we approximate the wing by the camber line only and ignore
the wing thickness.
7
• Definitions
In general, the lift on the wing is due to the total circulation Γ around the wing.
This total circulation can be given in terms due to a distribution of circulation γ(x)
(Units: [LT −1 ]) inside the wing, i.e.,
� /2
Γ= γ(x)dx
−/2
γ (x) Γ
U
Noting that superposition applies, let the total potential Φ for this flow be expressed
as the sum of two potentials
Φ = −U
� �� x� + φ
����
Free stream Disturbunce
potential potential
v = ∇Φ = (−U + u, v)
where (u, v) are given by ∇φ = (u, v) and denote the velocity disturbance, due to the
presence of the wing. For linearized wing we can assume
u v
u, v << U ⇒ , << 1
U U
Consider a flow property q, such as velocity, pressure etc. Then let qU = q(x, 0+ ) and
qL = q(x, 0− ) denote the values of q at the upper and lower wing surfaces, respectively.
Applying Bernoulli equation for steady, inviscid, rotational flow, along a streamline
from ∞ to a point on the wing, we obtain
1 � �
p − p∞ = − ρ |v |2 − U 2 ⇒
2
1 �� � � 1
p − p∞ = − ρ (u − U )2 + v 2 − U 2 = − ρ(u2 + v 2 − 2uU ) ⇒
2 2
1 u v v
p − p∞ = − ρuU ( + −2)
2 U
���� U ����
���� u
<<1 <<1 ∼1
Integrating the pressure along the wing surface, we obtain an expression for the total
lift L on the wing
� �l/2
�� � � ��
L = (p − p∞ )ny dS = p(x, 0− ) − p∞ − p(x, 0+ ) − p∞ dx
−l/2
�l/2 �l/2
� � � �
L = p(x, 0− ) − p(x, 0+ ) dx = ρU u(x, 0− ) − u(x, 0+ ) dx (1)
−l/2 −l/2
To obtain the total lift on the wing we will seek an expression for u(x, 0± ).
Consider a closed contour on the wing, of negligible thickness, as shown in the figure
below. γ (x)
u ( x,0 + )
x
t→0
u ( x,0 − )
δx
The same result can be obtained from the Kutta-Joukowski law (for nonlinear foil)
� /2
δL = ρU δΓ = ρU γ(x)δx ⇒ L = ρU γ(x)δx = ρU Γ
−/2
δ L = ρU δ Γ = ρUγ (x)δ x
x U
t→0
δ Γ = γ (x)δ x
δx
10
y
L
l xcp l x
2 2
M
δL(x) = ρU γ(x)δx
δM = xδL(x) = ρU xγ(x)δx ⇒
� /2
M = ρU xγ(x)dx ⇒
−/2
M
CM = 1
2
ρU 2 2
M = Lxcp ⇒
� /2
M −/2
xγ(x)dx
xcp = = � /2
L γ(x)dx
−/2
11
� /2
3.17 Simple Closed-Form Solutions for −/2 γ(x)dx from Linear
Theory
1. Flat plate at angle of attack α, i.e., η = αx.
Linear lifting theory gives γ(x), which can be integrated to give the lift coefficient
CL ,
� /2
L/span = ρU γ(x)dx = · · · = ρU 2 πα ⇒
−/2
L/span
CL = 1 ⇒
2
ρU 2
CL = 2πα ( exact nonlinear hydrofoil CL = 2π sin α)
12
Linear lifting theory gives γ(x), which can be integrated to give the lift coefficient
CL ,
� /2
L/span = ρU γ(x)dx = · · · = 2ρU 2 πη0 ⇒
−/2
η0 η0
CL = 4π , where ≡ ‘camber ratio’
13
� � �2 �
2x
3. Linear superposition: Both AoA and camber η = αx + η0 1 − .
η0
CL = CLα + CLη = 2πα + 4π
We can also write the previous relation in a more general form
CL (α) = 2πα + CL (α = 0)
� �� �
≡ 4π ηl0
η0
Lift coefficient CL as a function of the angle of attack α and l
.
In practice even if the camber is not parabolic, we still make use of the
previous relations, i.e., CL (α = 0) ∼= 4πη0 /.
Also note that the angle of attack for any camber is defined as
η(/2) − η(−/2) yU − yL
α≡ =
and η0 is determined from η ∗ , where
η ∗ = η − αx.
14
13.021 – Marine Hydrodynamics, Fall 2004
Lecture 13
ϕ θ
r U(t)
x
3D Dipole
a
n̂
U(t)
∂φ
K.B.C on sphere:
= U (t) cos θ
∂r
r=a
Solution: Simply a 3D dipole (no stream)
a3
φ = −U (t) cos θ
2r2
∂φ
Check: = U (t) cos θ
∂r
r=a
Hydrodynamic force:
∂φ 1 2
Fx = −ρ + |∇φ| nx dS
∂t 2
B
On r = a,
∂φ 3
˙ a cos θ| 1˙
= − U r=a = − U a cos θ
∂t r=a 2r 2 2
∂φ 1 ∂φ 1 ∂φ 1
∇φ|r=a = , , = U cos θ, U sin θ, 0
∂r r ∂θ r sin θ ∂ϕ 2
1
|∇φ|2 r=a = U 2 cos2 θ + U 2 sin2 θ; n̂ = −êr , nx = − cos θ
4
π
dS = (adθ) (2πa sin θ)
B 0
adθ
a sin θ
a
θ
x
Finally, ⎡ ⎞⎤ ⎛
⎛ ⎞
π ⎢ 1 ⎜ 1 2 2 ⎟ ⎥
2 ⎝ ⎠ ⎢ ˙ 1 ⎜ 2 2 ⎟ ⎥
Fx = (−ρ) 2πa dθ (sin θ) − cos
θ ⎢− U a cos θ + 2 ⎝U cos θ + U sin θ⎠⎥
0 ⎣ 2 4 ⎦
nx
∂φ
∂t
|∇φ|2
π π
3 2 2 2 2 1 2
Fx = −U̇ (ρa )π dθ sin θ cos θ + (ρU )πa dθ sin θ cos θ cos θ + sin θ
4
0 0
⎡
2/3 ⎤ = 0, D’alembert revisited
⎢ 2 3 ⎥
Fx ⎢
= − U̇ (t) ⎣ ρ πa ⎥
3
Volume =1/2∀sphere
Thus the Hydrodynamic Force on a sphere of diameter a moving with velocity U (t) in
an unbounded fluid of density ρ is given by
2 3
Fx = −U̇ (t) ρ πa
3
Comments:
• Fx ∝ U̇ with a (−) sign, i.e., the fluid tends to ‘resist’ the acceleration.
(M + ma ) U̇ = FB
i.e., the presence of fluid around the body acts as an added or virtual mass to the
body.
3
3.19 General 6 Degrees of Freedom Motions
3.19.1 Notation Review
(3D) U1 , U2 , U3 : Translational velocities
U4 ≡ Ω1 , U5 ≡ Ω2 , U6 ≡ Ω3 : Rotational velocities
2
5
1
6 4
2
6
1
mij ; i, j = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6
• Circle
2
a
1
• Ellipse
a
1
b
• Plate
1
2a
• Square
2a
1
2a
2a
√ 2
(b) circumscribed circle: mA = ρπ 2a = 6.28ρa2 .
(√2)a
x2
v
U( t )
o x1
x3
v
Ω( t )
U
= (Ω1 , Ω2 , Ω3 ) ≡ (U4 , U5 , U6 ) , rotational velocity with respect to O
Ω(t)
, Ω),
Consider a body with a 6 DoF motion (U and a fixed reference frame OX1 X2 X3 .
Then the hydrodynamic forces and moments with respect to O are given by the
following relations (JNN §4.13)
• Forces
• Moments
7
Einstein’s Σ notation applies.
⎧
⎪
⎪ 0 if any j, k, l are equal
⎪
⎪
⎨ 1 ifj, k, l are in cyclic order, i.e.,
Ejkl = ‘alternating tensor’ = (1, 2, 3), (2, 3, 1), or (3, 1, 2)
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ −1 ifj, k, l are not in cyclic order i.e.,
⎩
Note:
A certain body has non-zero added mass coefficients only on the diagonal, i.e. mij =
δij . For a body motion given by U1 = t, U2 = −t, and all other Ui , Ωi = 0, the
forces and moments on the body in terms of mi are:
F1 = , F2 = , F3 = , M1 = , M2 = , M3 =
Solution:
mij = δij
U1 = t U2 = −t Ui = 0 i = 3, 4, 5, 6 Ωk = 0 k = 1, 2, 3
k Ω =0
Mj = −U̇i mi(j+3) − Ejkl Ui Ωk mi(l+3) − Ejkl Uk Ui mli −→
Mj = −U̇i mi(j+3) − Ejkl Uk Ui mli
where i = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and j, k, l = 1, 2, 3
F1 = − U̇1 m11 − U̇2 m21 −U̇3 m31 −U̇4 m41 −U̇5 m51 −U̇6 m61 → F1 = −m11
=1 =0 =0 =0 =0 =0
Check
F2 = − U̇2 m22 → F2 = m22
=−1
Check
F3 = − U˙ 3 m33 → F3 = 0
=0
9
For M 1, M2 , M3 use the previous relationship for Mj with j = 1, 2, 3 respectively:
= −U̇1 m14 −U̇2 m24 −U̇3 m34 − U̇4 m44 − U̇5 m54 −U̇6 m64
10
2
1
θ U
3 (out of page)
U1 =U cos θ
U2 = − U sin θ
M3 = −E3kl Uk Ui mli
Therefore, M3 > 0 for 0 < θ < π/2 (‘Bow up’). Therefore, a submarine under
forward motion is unstable in pitch (yaw). For example, a small bow-up tends to
grow with time, and control surfaces are needed as shown in the following figure.
11
B
H
2
(ρg∀) H sin θ ≥ Ucr sin θ cos θ (m22 − m11 )
θ
Ucr
H
2
Usually m22 >> m11 , m22 ≈ ρ∀. For small θ, cos θ ≈ 1. So, Ucr ≤ gH or Fcr ≡
U
√ cr
gH
≤ 1. Otherwise, control fins are required.
12
Lecture 14
F(t)
where we define Φ to denote the velocity potential that corresponds to unit velocity
U = 1. In this case the velocity potential φ for an arbitrary velocity U is φ = U Φ.
The linear momentum L in the fluid is given by
=
L ρvdV = ρ∇φdV = + ρφˆ
ndS
↑
V V Green’s
theorem
B ∞
φ→0 at ∞
Lx (t = T ) = ρU Φnx dS = U ρΦnx dS
B B
The force exerted on the fluid from the body is −F (t) = −(−mA U̇ ) = mA U̇ .
1
T T Newton’s Law
↓
dt [−F (t)] = mA U˙ dt = mA U ]T0 = Lx (t = T )−Lx (t = 0) = U ρΦnx dS
0 0 mA U B
∂φ ∂φ ∂U Φ ∂Φ
K.B.C. ∂n
= ∇φ · n̂ = (U, 0, 0) · n̂ = U nx , ∂n
= U nx ⇒ ∂n
= U nx ⇒ = nx
∂n
∂Φ
∴ mA = ρ Φ dS
∂n
B
∂Φj
mji =ρ Φi nj dS = ρ Φi dS = j fluid momentum due to
∂n
j−force/moment B potential due to body B i body motion
i−direction of motion moving with Ui =1
∂Φj
mji = ρ Φi dS = ρ Φi (∇Φj · n̂)dS = ρ ∇ · (Φi ∇Φj ) dV
∂n ↑
Divergence
B B V
⎛ ⎞ Theorem
=ρ ⎝∇Φi · ∇Φj + Φi ∇2 Φj ⎠dV
V =0
Therefore,
mji = ρ ∇Φi · ∇Φj dV = mij
V
2
4. Relationship to the kinetic energy of the fluid. For a general 6 DoF body motion
Ui = (U1 , U2 , . . . , U6 ),
φ = Ui Φi ; Φi = potential for Ui = 1
notation
1
K.E. = ρ ∇φ · ∇φdV = 12 ρ Ui ∇Φi · Uj ∇Φj dV
2 V
V
1
= ρUi Uj ∇Φi · ∇Φj dV = 12 mij Ui Uj
2
V
⎡ ⎤
m11 m12 0 0 0 m16 Fx
⎢ m22 0 0 0
m26 ⎥ Fy
⎢ ⎥
⎢ m33 m34 m35 0 ⎥ Fz
mij = ⎢
⎢
⎥
⎥
⎢
m44 m45 0
⎥
Mx 12 independent coefficients
⎣
m55 0
⎦
My
m66 Mz
U1 U2 U3 Ω1 Ω2 Ω3
3
Example 2 Rotational or axi-symmetry with respect to x1 axis.
⎡ ⎤
m11 0 0 0 0 0
⎢ m22 0 0 0 m35 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢ m22 0 m35 0 ⎥ where m22 = m33 , m55 = m66
mij = ⎢
⎢
⎥
⎥ and m26 = m35 , so 4 different coefficients
⎢
0 0 0
⎥
⎣
m55 0 ⎦
m55
Exercise How about 3 planes of symmetry (e.g. a cuboid); a cube; a sphere?? Work
out the details.
x2
x5
x2
L
x4
x1
O
x 4 x3
x
x6
x3
Goal To estimate the added mass coefficients mij for a 3D slender body.
Idea Estimate mij of a slender 3D body using the 2D sectional added mass coefficients
(strip-wise Mkl ). In particular, for simple shapes like long cylinders, we will use known 2D
coefficients to find unknown 3D coefficients.
mij = [Mkl (x) contributions]
3D 2D
Discussion If the 1-axis is the longitudinal axis of the slender body, then the 3D added
mass coefficients mij are calculated by summing the added mass coefficients of all the thin
slices which are perpendicular to the 1-axis, Mkl . This means that forces in 1-direction
cannot be obtained by slender body theory.
5
Procedure In order to calculate the 3D added mass coefficients mij we need to:
1. Determine the 2D acceleration of each crossection for a unit acceleration in the ith
direction,
2. Multiply the 2D acceleration by the appropriate 2D added mass coefficient to get the
force on that section in the j th direction, and
3. Integrate these forces over the length of the body.
Examples
For each 2D ‘slice’, a distance x from the origin, a unit 5 acceleration in 3D, results
to a unit acceleration in the -3 direction times the moment arm x (U̇3 = −xu̇5 = −x).
The hydrodynamic force on each slice is then given by
F3 (x) = −M33 (x)U̇3 = xM33 (x)
6
Putting everything together, we obtain
m35 = − xM33 (x)dx
L
For each 2D ‘slice’, a distance x from the origin, a unit 5 acceleration in 3D, results
to a unit acceleration in the -3 direction times the moment arm x (U̇3 = −xu̇5 = −x).
The hydrodynamic force on each slice is then given by
However, each force F3 (x) produces a negative moment at the origin about the 5 axis
In the same manner we can estimate the remaining added mass coefficients mij - noting
that added mass coefficients related to the 1-axis cannot be obtained by slender
body theory.
In summary, the 3D added mass coefficients are shown in the following table. The empty
boxes may be filled in by symmetry.
⎡ ⎤
⎢ m22 = M22 dx m23 = M23 dx m24 = M24 dx m25 = −xM23 dx m26 = xM22 dx ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢ L L L L L ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢
⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢ m33 = M33 dx m34 = M34 dx m35 = −xM33 dx m36 = xM32 dx ⎥
⎢ L L L L ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢
⎥
⎢ m44 = M44 dx m45 = −xM34 dx m46 = xM24 dx ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢ L L L ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢
⎥
⎢ m55 = x2 M33 dx m56 = −x2 M32 dx ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢ L L ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢
⎥
⎢ m66 = x2 M22 dx ⎥
⎣ L
⎦
⎛ ⎞
⎜ a3 ⎟
φ (r, θ, t) = U (t) ⎜
⎝r +
⎟
⎠ cos θ
2r2
dipole for sphere
∂φ 3a
= U˙ cos θ
∂t r=a 2
3
∇φ|r=a = 0, − U sin θ, 0
2
1 9
|∇φ|2 r=a = U 2 sin2 θ
2 8
Then,
π
3a 9
Fx = (−ρ) 2πr2 dθ sin θ (− cos θ) U̇ cos θ + U 2 sin2 θ
2 8
0
π π
3 2 2 9π 2
= U̇ 3πρa dθ sin θ cos θ +ρU a dθ cos θ sin3 θ
4
0 0
=2/3 =0
Fx = U˙ ρ 2πa3
4
3
πa3 ρ + 23 πa3 ρ
⇓
=ρ∀
9
Part of Fx is due to the pressure gradient which must be present to cause the fluid to
accelerate:
∂U ∂U ∂U ∂U 1 ∂p
x-momentum, noting U = U (t) : +U +v +w =− (ignore gravity)
∂t ∂x
∂y ∂z ρ ∂x
0 0 0
dp
= −ρU̇ for uniform (1D) accelerated flow
dx
Force on the body due to the pressure field
∂p
F = pndS
ˆ =− ∇pdV ; Fx = − dV = ρ∀U̇
∂x
B VB VB
10
ps = −ρgy
∇ps = −ρg ĵ → F s = −ρg∀ĵ Archimedes principle
Summary: Total force on a fixed sphere in an accelerated flow
Fx = U̇ ρ∀ + m(1) = U˙ 32 ρ∀ = 3U˙ m(1)
Buoyancy added mass
1
2
ρ∀
Fx = Fbuoyany + U˙ m(1) ,
where m(1) is the added mass in still water (from now on, m)
11
•Symmetry with respect to X and Y (= “Y-Z” and “X-Z” plane symmetry) 7 non-zero, independent coefficients
12
•Axisymmetric with respect to X-axis 4 non-zero, independent coefficients
•Axisymmetric with respect to X axis and X (=“Y-Z” plane symmetry) 3 non-zero, independent coefficients
13
13.021 – Marine Hydrodynamics, Fall 2004
Lecture 15
0)
Chapter 4 - Real Fluid Effects (ν =
Potential Flow Theory → Drag = 0.
In particular the total drag measured on a body is regarded as the sum of two components:
the pressure or form drag, and the skin friction or viscous drag.
where n̂ and t̂ are the normal and tangential unit vectors on the body surface respectively.
The pressure and the viscous stresses on the body surface are p and τ respectively.
The form drag is evaluated by integrating the pressure along the surface of the body. For
bluff bodies that create large wakes the form drag is ∼ total drag.
The skin friction drag is evaluated by integrating the viscous stresses on and along the
body boundary. For streamlined bodies that do not create appreciable wakes, friction drag
is dominant.
If no DBC apply then we have seen from Dimensional Analysis that the drag coefficient
is a function of the Reynolds number only:
CD = CD (Re )
The drag coefficient CD is defined with respect to the body’s projected area S:
D D
CD = 1 =
ρU 2 S 1
ρU 2 πd2 /4
2 2 � �� �
Projected area
CD
0.5
0.25
Re
3x105
Flow separation
• Wide wake
No Stagnation pt Wake • Early separation
Drag
Stagnation pt
Width ~ Diameter • ‘Large’ CD =O(1)
Separation pt
Laminar boundary layer
D/L
iii) Cylinder The drag coefficient for a cylinder is defined as:
CD = 1
2
ρU 2 d
D
U
L d
CD
1.2
0.6
Re
3x105
Separation pt
Separation pt
For most flows of interest to us ReL >> 1, i.e., viscosity can be ignored if U, L govern
the problem, thus potential flow can be assumed. In the context of potential flow theory,
drag = 0! Potential flow (no τij ) allows slip at boundary, but in reality, the no-slip condi
tion applies on the boundaries. Otherwise, if ν = 0 and a free-slip KBC is imposed then
∂u
τ ∼ ν ∂y → ∞ at the boundary.
Prandtl: There is a length scale δ (boundary layer thickness δ << L) over which
velocity goes from zero on the wall to the potential flow velocity U outside the boundary
layer.
U
u=U
U δ<<L
y
L x
u=0
Estimate δ: Inside the boundary layer, viscous effects are of the same order as the
inertial effects.
�
∂ 2U ∂U U U2 ν δ2 δ ν 1
ν 2 ∼U →ν 2 ∼ → ∼ 2 → ∼ =� << 1 As ReL ↑, δ ↓
∂y ∂x δ L UL L L UL ReL
Generally: ReL >> 1, Lδ << 1, thus potential flow is good outside a very thin bound
ary layer (i.e., provided no separation - a real fluid effect). For Reynolds number not
>> 1(Re ∼ O(1)), then thick boundary layer ( δ ∼ O(L)) and Prandtl’s boundary layer
idea not useful. If separation occurs, then boundary layer idea is not valid.
6
4.1.3 Boundary Layers and Flow Separation
Outside the boundary layer P-Flow is valid. Let capital U denote the potential flow
tangential velocity on the circle and let x denote the distance along the circle surface (i.e.,
x = body coordinate).
From the steady inviscid x-momentum equation (steady Euler) along the body boundary
(y = 0, V = 0), we obtain :
dU 1 dp
U =− (1)
dx ρ dx
dp
Note 2: From Equation (1) → for flow past a flat plate dx = 0 along the plate.
dU 1 dp
P − Flow solution on body y=0 :U =−
dx dx
x δ
U0
ν
U =0 U =0
dU dU
>0 <0
dx dx
dp dp
<0 >0
dx dx
dU dU
dx
>0 Acceleration dx
<0 Deceleration
dp dp
dx
<0 ‘Favorable’ pressure gradient dx
>0 ‘Adverse’ pressure gradient
X2 X3
X4
X1
X5
X2 > X1
X=X1 y
y
P
P
p
p
u
u v
v U1 ω U2 > U1
ω
P>p Flow is being
pushed to attach
X3 > X2 X4 > X3
y y
P
P
p
u u
U3 U2 ∂u v U4 U3
= 0, ω = 0
τ3 > 0 ∂y τ4 = 0
X4 is defined as the point of
separation
X5 > X4
y
u
U5 U4
Flow reversal
P P
ω2 ω(y) ω4 = 0 ω(y)
ω1 ω3
ω removed from fluid
ω added to fluid
by diffusion
Dt Dt
Fy (lift)
U0
D Fx (drag)
We would expect the average forces to be: However, the measured oscillatory forces are:
F
F
Fx
Average
Fx
Average
Fy t
Fy
t
• The measured drag Fx is found to oscillate about a non-zero mean value with
frequency 2f .
• The measured lift Fy is found to oscillate about a zero mean value with frequency
f.
1
Reason: Flow separation leads to vortex shedding. The vortices are shed in a staggered
array, within an unsteady non-symmetric wake called von Karman Street. The frequency
of vortex shedding is the Strouhal frequency and is a function of Uo , D, and ν.
Fy Von
Karman
Street
Uo Fx
D
Strouhal frequency
����
f D
i) Strouhal Number We define the (dimensionless) Strouhal number S ≡ .
U0
For a cylinder:
•
Laminar flow S ∼ 0.22
S(Re)
•
Turbulent flow S ∼ 0.3
0.3
0.22
ii) Drag and Lift The drag and lift coefficients CD and CL are functions of the correlation
length.
For ‘∞’ correlation length:
2
4.2 Drag on a Very Streamlined Body
UL
R eL ≡
ν Uo D
D b
Cf ≡ 1
ρU 2 (Lb)
2 ���� L
S=wetted area
one side of plate
Cf = Cf (ReL , L/b)
� �
Unlike a bluff body, Cf is a strong function of ReL since D is proportional to ν τ = ν ∂u
∂y
.
See an example of Cf versus ReL for a flat plate in the figure below.
Cf
Laminar
0.01
Turbulent
0.001
Re
105 106
• In general, Cf ’s are much smaller than CD ’s (Cf /CD ∼ O(0.1) to O(0.01)). Therefore,
designing streamlined bodies allows minimal separation and smaller form drag at the
expense of friction drag.
• In general, for streamlined bodies CTotal Drag is a combination of CD (Re ) and Cf (ReL ),
� �
1 2
and the total drag is D = 2 ρU CD S + C f Aw , where CD has a regime
frontal area wetted area
dependence on Re and Cf is a continuous function ReL .
3
4.3 Known Solutions of the Navier-Stokes Equations
4.3.1 Boundary Value Problem
• Navier-Stokes’:
∂�v 1 1
+ (�v · �) �v = − �p + ν�2�v + f�
∂t ρ ρ
•
Conservation of mass:
� · �v = 0
�
�v = U
Equations very difficult to solve, analytic solution only for a few very special cases (usually
when �v · ��v = 0. . . )
4.3.2 Steady Laminar Flow Between 2 Long Parallel Plates: Plane Couette Flow
Steady, viscous, incompressible flow between two infinite plates. The flow is driven by a
pressure gradient in x and/or motion of the upper plate with velocity U parallel to the
x-axis. Neglect gravity.
∂ ∂u ∂v ∂w
i. Steady Flow: ∂t =0 Continuity: ∂x + ∂y + ∂z =0 �v = (0, 0, 0) on y = 0
∂�v ∂�v ∂�v
ii. (x, z) >> h: ∂x = ∂z =0 NS: ∂t + �v · ��v = − ρ1 �p + ν�2�v �v = (0, 0, 0) on y = h
Continuity
∂u ∂v ∂w ∂v
+ + =0⇒ = 0 ⇒ v = v(x, z) ⇒ v = 0 (1)
∂x ∂y ����
���� ∂z ∂y ↑
BC: v(x,0,z)=0
=0, from assumption ii
Momentum x
� 2 �
∂u ∂u ∂u ∂u 1 ∂p ∂ u ∂ 2u ∂ 2u
+u + ����
v +w =− +ν + + 2 ⇒
∂t
���� ∂x
���� ∂y ∂z
���� ρ ∂x ∂x2 ∂y 2 ����
���� ∂z
=0, (1)
=0, i =0, ii =0, ii =0, ii =0, ii
2
∂ u 1 ∂p
ν 2
= (2)
∂y ρ ∂x
Momentum y
∂v 1 ∂p
+�v · � ����
v =− + ν�2 ����
v
⇒
∂t
���� ρ ∂y
=0, (1) =0, (1)
=0, i
∂p ∂p dp
=0 ⇒ p = p(x) and = (3)
∂y ↑ ∂x dx
assumption iii
Momentum z
� 2 �
∂w ∂w ∂u ∂w 1 ∂p ∂ w ∂ 2w ∂ 2w
+u + ����
v +w =− +ν + + ⇒
∂t
���� ∂x
���� ∂y ∂z
���� ρ ����
∂z ∂x2 ∂y 2 �∂z
���� ��
2
�
=0, (1)
=0, i =0, ii =0, ii =0, iii =0, ii =0, ii
2
∂ w
= 0 ⇒ w = ay + b ⇒ w=0 (4)
∂y 2 ↑
w(x,0,z)=0
w(x,h,z)=0
w(x,h,z)=U
� dp
� � dp
�
I. U = 0, − dx
>0 II. U �= 0, − dx
=0
y y
dp dp
(− )>0 (− )=0
dx u ( h) = U = 0 dx u ( h) = U U
h p p
h
u ( y) u ( y)
u ( 0) = 0 u ( 0) = 0
•Velocity
dp
u(y) = 1
2µ
(h − y)y(− dx ) u(y) = U hy
•Max velocity
h2 dp
umax = u(h/2) = 8µ
(− dx ) umax = U
•Volume flow rate
�h h3 dp
Q = 0 u(y)dy = 8µ (− dx ) Q = h2 U
•Average velocity
Q h2 dp U
ū = h
= 6µ
(− dx ) ū = 2
� dp
�
III. U �= 0, − dx
�= 0
u ( h) = U U u ( h) = U U
back flow
h
τw τw
dp dp
U > 0, (− ) > 0, G > 0 U > 0, (− ) < 0, G < 0
dx dx
� dp
� � dp
�
− dx
>0 − dx
<0
•Viscous stress on bottom plate (skin friction)
� dp �
τw = h2 − dx + µ Uh
�
< dp < 2µU attached
τw =0 when (− )= − 2 , in which case the flow is insipient
> dx > h separated
� dp
�
For the general case of U �= 0 and − dx
�= 0,
h � dp � U
− +µ τw =
2 dx h
We define a Dimensionless Pressure Gradient G
h2 � dp �
G≡ −
2µU dx
such that
u ( h) = U U u ( h) = U U u ( h) = U U
h
back flow
dp dp dp
U > 0, (− ) > 0, G > 0 U > 0, (− ) < 0, G < 0 U > 0, (− ) < 0, G = −1 ⇒ τ w = 0
dx dx dx
In the next paragraph we are going to study one more solution to the Navier-Stokes equa
tion, in polar coordinates.
9
4.3.3 Steady Laminar Flow in a Pipe: Poiseuille Flow
∂x
y
a
x
z
r=a
L
Vx(r)
Steady, laminar pipe flow. KBC: vx (a) = 0 (no slip) and
dvx
(r2 = y 2 + z 2 , �v = (vx , vr , vθ )) dr (0) = 0 (symmetry).
⇒ �v = �v (r)
Following a procedure similar to that for plane Couette flow (left as an exercise) we can
show that
� � ��
1 dp 1 d dvx
vr = vθ = 0, vx = vx (r), p = p(x), and =ν r
ρ dx r dr dr
� �� �
r component of �2
in cylindrical coordinates
� 2π � a
π 4 � dp �
Q= dθ rdrvx (r) = a −
0 0 8µ dx
and the skin friction evaluates to
� �
∂vr ∂vx �� ∂vx �� a � dp �
τw = τx (−r) = −τxy = −µ ( + )� = −µ � ⇒ τw = −
∂x ∂r r=a ∂r r=a 2 dx
10
For a flow over an infinite flat plate, the boundary layer thickness increases unless it is
constrained in the y direction and/or by time (unsteady flow).
y
h
U0
x
boundary layer Couette flow for x >> h
thickness increases with x
� � � �
Couette h
Steady flow, we assumed that viscous effects diffused through entire .
Poiseuille a
11
U(t)
x
∂�v ∂�v
Assumptions �p = 0, ∂x
= ∂z
= 0 ⇒ �v = �v (y, t)
⎛ ⎞
2 2 2
∂u ∂u ∂u ∂u 1 ∂p ⎜∂ u ∂ u ∂ u⎟
+u + ����
v +w =− +ν ⎝ 2 + 2 + 2 ⎠ ⇒
∂t ∂x
���� ∂y � ��
∂z� ρ ����
∂x ∂x
���� ∂y ∂z
����
=0
=0 =0 =0 =0 =0
∂u ∂ 2u
=ν 2 ‘ �momentum
�� � ’ diffusion equation (6)
∂t ∂y velocity
(heat)
From Equation (6), we observe that the flow over a moving flat plate is due to viscous
dissipation only.
12
4.5.1 Sinusoidally Oscillating Plate
The flow over an oscillating flat plate is referred to as ‘Stokes Boundary Layer’.
Assume that the plate is oscillating with U (t) = Uo cos ωt = Real {Uo eiωt }. From linear
theory, it is known that the fluid velocity must have the form
� �
u (y, t) = Real f (y) eiωt , (7)
where f(y) is the unknown complex (magnitude & phase) amplitude of oscillation.
To obtain an expression for f (y), simply substitute (7) in (6). This leads to:
d2 f
iωf = ν 2 (8)
dy
Equation (8) is a 2nd order ODE for f (y). The general solution is
√ √
(1+i) ω/2ν y −(1+i) ω/2ν y
f (y) = C1 e + C2 e (9)
The velocity profile is obtained from Equations (7), (9) after we apply the Boundary
Conditions.
� √ω �
u(y, t) must be bounded as y → ∞ ⇔ C1 = 0 � ω �
u (y, t) = Uo (e−y 2ν ) cos − y + ωt
u(y = 0, t) = U (t) ⇔ f (y = 0) = Uo ⇔ C2 = Uo 2ν
Stokes Boundary Layer
13
Once the velocity profile is evaluated, we know everything about the flow.
ω
−y
2ν
e
λ = 2πδ
δ1/ e ≡ δ
u( y)
−1 1/ e 1 Uo
u(y )
Stokes Boundary Layer. Velocity ratio Uo as a function of the distance from the plate y .
Observe: �
u(y, t) √ω �
ω �
−y
= (e 2ν )
cos − y + ωt (10)
Uo � �� � 2ν
Exponentially decaying � �� �
envelope Oscillating component
SBL thickness
The ratio Uuo is composed of an exponentially decaying part → thickness of SBL decays
exponentially with y. We define various parameters that can be used as measures of
the SBL thickness:
u(δ )
• We define δ1/e as the distance y from the plate where U1o/e = 1e . Substituting
�
into (10), we find that δ ≡ δ1/e = 2νω
�
• The oscillating component has wave length λ = 2π 2ν = 2πδ. At λ, u(λ) ∼ 0.002.
ω Uo =
u(δ1% )
• We define δ1% as the distance y from the plate, where = 1%. Substituting
� Uo
u(δ1% )
into (10), we find that δ1% = − ln( Uo ) 2ν ∼ 4.6δ.
ω =
14
Numerical examples:
For oscillating plate in water (ν = 10−6 m2 /s= 1mm2 /s) we have
4.6 √ ∼ �
δ1% = √ T = 2.6 ����
T
���� π
in mm in sec
2π
T = ω
δ1%
1s 3mm
10s ≤1cm
Skin friction
The skin friction on the plate is given by
� �
∂u �� ω � �
τw = µ � = . . . = µUo sin ωt − cos ωt
∂y y=0 2ν
3π 7π
and occurs at ωt = 4
, 4 ,···
15
4.5.2 Impulsively Started Plate
U(t)
Uo
Recall Equation (6) that describes the the flow u(y, t) over an infinite flat plate undergoing
unsteady motion.
∂u ∂ 2u
=ν 2
∂t ∂y
For an impulsively started plate, the Boundary Conditions are:
�
u(o, t) = Uo
for t > 0, i.e. u(y, 0) = 0
u(∞, t) = 0
Notice that the problem stated by Equation (6) with the above Boundary Conditions has no
explicit time scale. In this case it is standard procedure to (a) use Dimensional Analysis
to find the similarity parameters of the problem, and (b) look for solution in terms of the
similarity parameters:
u � y � u
u = f (Uo , y, t, ν) ⇒ =f √ ⇒ = f (η) Self similar solution
↑ Uo 2 νt Uo
DA � �� �
≡η
similarity parameter
16
�
Hints on obtaining the solution:
⎫
η = 2√yνt ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎬ ∂u 2
=ν ∂ u d(u/Uo ) d2 (u/Uo )
∂ ∂η ∂ y ∂ ∂t ∂y 2
∂t
= ∂t ∂η
= − √
4t νt ∂η −→ −η = −→ . . .
⎪
⎪ dη dη 2
⎪
⎪ � �� �
∂2
� ∂η �2 ∂ 2 ⎪
1 ∂ 2 ⎭ 2nd order ODE
∂y 2
= ∂y ∂η2 = 4νt ∂η2
= 0.16.
• δ1% ∼
= 1.82δ.
δ νt νL/Uo ν 1
∼
=
=
∼
�
L L L Uo L ReL
Skin friction
The skin friction on the plate is given by
�
∂u �
� Uo
τw = µ � = . . . = −µ √
∂y y=0 πνt
17
Lecture 17
y
U potential flow
u, v viscous flow
δ
x
Uo
4.6.1 Assumptions
∂
• 2D flow: w, ≡ 0 and u (x, y) , v (x, y) , p (x, y) , U (x, y).
∂z
• Steady flow: ≡ 0.
∂t
• For δ << L, use local (body) coordinates x, y, with x tangential to the body
and y normal to the body.
• u ≡ tangential and v ≡ normal to the body, viscous flow velocities (used inside
the boundary layer).
1
4.6.2 Governing Equations
• Continuity
∂u ∂v
+ = 0 (1)
∂x ∂y
• Navier-Stokes:
2
∂u ∂u 1 ∂p ∂ u ∂2u
u +v =− +ν + (2)
∂x ∂y ρ ∂x ∂x2 ∂y 2
2
∂v ∂v 1 ∂p ∂ v ∂ 2v
u +v =− +ν + (3)
∂x ∂y ρ ∂y ∂x2 ∂y 2
4.6.3 Boundary Conditions
• KBC
Inside the boundary layer:
No-slip u(x, y = 0) = 0
No-flux v(x, y = 0) = 0
Outside the boundary layer the velocity has to match the P-Flow solution.
In short:
u(x, y → ∞) = U (x, 0)
v(x, y → ∞) = 0
• DBC
As y → ∞, the pressure has to match the P-Flow solution. The x-momentum
equation at y ∗ = 0 gives
∂U ∂U 1 dp ∂ 2U dp ∂U
U +V =− + ν ⇒ = −ρU
∂x ↓ ∂y ρ dx ↓ ∂y 2 dx ∂x
0
0
2
4.6.4 Boundary Layer Approximation
Assume that ReL >> 1, then (u, v) is confined to a thin layer of thickness δ (x) << L.
For flows within this boundary layer, the appropriate order-of-magnitude scaling /
normalization is:
u U u = Uu∗
x L x = Lx∗
y δ y = δy ∗
v V =? v = Vv ∗
The inertial effects are of comparable magnitude to the viscous effects when:
U2 νU δ ν 1
∼ 2 =⇒ ∼ = << 1
L δ L UL R eL
∂p
The pressure gradient ∂x
must be of comparable magnitude to the inertial effects
2
∂p U
=O ρ
∂x L
3
∂p ∂p
• Non-dimensionalize the y-momentum, Equation (3), to compare ∂y
to ∂x
∗ ∗ 2 ∗ 2 ∗
UV ∂v V2 ∂v 1 ∂p νV ∂ v νV ∂ v
u + v =− + +
L
∂x δ
∂y ρ ∂y L 2
∂x 2 δ 2
∂y 2
2 δ 2 δ 2 δ3 2 δ
O( UL ) O( UL ) O( UL ) O( UL )
L L L3 L
∂p
The pressure gradient ∂y
must be of comparable magnitude to the inertial effects
2
∂p U δ
=O ρ
∂y L L
∂p ∂p
Comparing the magnitude of ∂x
to ∂y
we observe
2 2
∂p U δ ∂p U
= O ρ while =O ρ =⇒
∂y L L ∂x L
∂p ∂p ∂p
<< =⇒ ≈0 =⇒
∂y ∂x ∂y
p = p(x)
• Note:
- From continuity it was shown that V/U ∼ O(δ/L) ⇒ v << u, inside the
boundary layer.
∂p
- It was shown that ∂y = 0, p = p(x) inside the boundary layer. This means that
the pressure across the boundary layer is constant and equal to the pressure
outside the boundary layer imposed by the external P-Flow.
Boundary Conditions
KBC
At y=0 : u(x, 0) = 0
v(x, 0) = 0
At y/δ → ∞ : u(x, y/δ → ∞) = U (x, 0)
v(x, y/δ → ∞) = 0
DBC
dp ∂U IN the b.l.
1
= −ρU or p(x) = C − ρU 2 (x, 0)
dx ∂x
2
Bernoulli for the P-Flow at y =0
4.6.6 Definitions
∞
∗ u
Displacement thickness δ ≡ 1− dy
U
0
∞
u u
Momentum thickness θ≡ 1− dy
U U
0
dp
Recall for steady flow over flat plate dx
= 0 and pressure p = const.
Choose a control volume ([0, x] × [0, y/δ → ∞]) as shown in the figure below.
y /δ → ∞ CV
Q
Uo 4
Uo
3
Uo P - Flow
u(y)
Boundary Layer
1
2
0 x
CV for steady flow over a flat plate.
1 −î Uo î −Uo −Uo2 î pî
2 −ĵ 0 0 0 pĵ
3 î u(x, y)î + v(x, y)ĵ u(x, y) u2 (x, y)î + u(x, y)v(x, y)ĵ −pî
4 ĵ Uo î + v(x, y)ĵ v(x, y) v(x, y)Uo î + v 2 (x, y)ĵ −pĵ
v · ndS
ˆ =0⇒− Uo dy + v(x
, y)dx = 0 ⇒ u(x, y )dy +
1234 0 0
0
Q
∞ ∞ ∞ ∞
u
Q= Uo dy − udy = (Uo − u)dy = Uo 1− dy ⇒ Q = U0 δ ∗
U
0 0 0
0
o
∗
δ
−Uo2 dy + 2
u (x, y )dy + Uo v(x , y)dx = Fx,f riction ⇒
0 0
0
Q
∞ ∞ ∞
−Uo2 dy + u2 (x, y )dy + Uo (Uo − u)dy = Fx,f riction ⇒
0 0 0
∞
− Uo2 +u +2
Uo2 − Uo u dy = Fx,f riction ⇒
0
∞
u2 u
Uo2 − dy
= Fx,f riction ⇒
0 Uo2 Uo
∞
2 u u
Fx,f riction = −Uo 1− dy ⇒ Fx,f riction = −Uo2 θ
Uo Uo
0
θ
Uo
L x
u (x, y)
= F (η)
U
o
self similar solution
8
We can obtain a PDE for F by substituting into the governing equations. The
PDE has no-known analytical solution. However, Blasius provided a numerical
solution. Once again, once the velocity profile is evaluated we know everything
about the flow.
Uo νx
Uo x Rx
evaluated
numerically
local R#
⎫
νx ⎪
δ≡ ⎪
⎪
Uo ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
νx ⎪
⎪
δ
.99 ∼
= 4.9 , i.e., η.99 = 4.9 ⎪ ⎪
⎪
√
Uo ⎪
⎪
δ ∝ x, δ ∝ 1 Uo
⎬
∗ ∼ νx
⎪ δ ν
δ = 1.72 , i.e.,
η ∗ = 1.72
⎪
⎪
⎪ ∝
1
= √
Uo ⎪
⎪ x Uo x Rx
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
∼ νx ⎪
⎪
θ = 0.664 ⎪
⎪
Uo ⎪
⎪
−1/2 ⎫
U x ⎪
⎪
τ o ≡ τw ∼ ⎪
2 o
= 0.332ρUo ⎪
⎪
1
ν
⎬
τo ∝ √
x
−1/2 ⎪
⎪
= 0.332 ρUo2 Rx ⎪
⎪ 3/2
⎭
τo ∝ Uo
⎪
local R#
L −1/2
Uo L √
D =
B τo dx ∼
= 0.664 ρUo2 (BL) ⇒ D ∝ L, D ∝ U 3/2
ν
width 0
−1/2
ReL
D ∼ 1.328 1 1
Cf = 1 2 = ⇒ Cf ∝ √ , Cf ∝ √
2
(ρUo ) (BL) R eL L U
Cf
Blasius Laminar Boundary Layer
1.328
Cf ≅
Re L
Turbulent Boundary Layer
0.008
Re L
103 3× 105
Turbulent Boundary Layer
C f for flat plate (JNN 2.3)
⎧⎪ Re x ~ 3×105
Transition at ⎨
⎩⎪Reδ ~ 600
Observe form the previous figure that the function Cf, laminar (Re ) for a laminar
boundary layer is different from the function Cf, turbulent (Re ) for a turbulent boundary
layer for flow over a flat plate.
10
change
B0
τ0 d 2 dU
= U (x)θ(x) + δ ∗ (x)U (x) (4)
ρ dx dx
The basic idea is the following: we assume an approximate velocity profile (e.g. linear,
4th order polynomial, . . .) in terms of an unknown parameter δ(x). From the velocity
profile we can immediately calculate δ ∗ , θ and τo as functions of δ(x) and the P-Flow
velocity U (x).
Independently from the boundary layer approximation, we obtain the P-Flow solution
outside the boundary layer U (x), dU
dx
.
Upon substitution of δ ∗ , θ, τo , U (x), dU
dx
in von Karman’s moment integral equation(s)
we form an ODE for δ in terms of x.
11
u (x, y) y y 2 y 3 y 4
= a (x) + b (x) + c (x) + d (x) (5)
U (x, 0) δ δ δ δ
There can be no constant term in (5) for the no-slip BC to be satisfied y = 0,
i.e, u(x, 0) = 0.
We use three BC’s at y = δ
u ∂u ∂ 2u
= 1, = 0, = 0, at y = δ (6)
U ∂y ∂y 2
From (6) in (5), we re-write the coefficients a(x), b(x), c(x) and d(x) in terms
of Λ(x)
a = 2 + Λ/6, b = −Λ/2, c = −2 + Λ/2, d = 1 − Λ/6
dU Λ > 0 : favorable pressure gradient
Observe: Λ ∝ ⇒
dx Λ < 0 : adverse pressure gradient
Putting everything together:
u (x, y) y y 3 y 4
= 2 −2 + +
U (x, 0) δ δ δ
dU δ 2 1 y 1 y 2 1 y 3 1 y 4
+ − + −
dx ν 6 δ 2 δ 2 δ 6 δ
12
� Once the approximate velocity profile Uu(x,y)
(x,0)
is given in terms of a single unknown
∗
parameter δ(x), then δ , θ and τo are evaluated
∞
∗ u 3 1 dU δ 2
δ = 1− dy = δ −
U 10 120 dx ν
0
δ
u u 37 1 dU δ 2 1 dU δ 2 2
θ = 1− dy = δ − −
U U 315 945 dx ν 9072 dx ν
0
∂u μU 1 dU δ 2
τo = μ = 2+
∂y y=0 δ 6 dx ν
Notes:
- Incipient flow (τo = 0) for Λ = −12. However, recall that once the flow is
separated the boundary layer theory is no longer valid.
- For dU
dx
= 0 → Λ = 0 Pohlhausen profile differs from Blasius LBL only by a
few percent.
dδ 1 dU d2 U/dx2
= g(δ) + h(δ)
dx U dx dU/dx
where g, h are known rational polynomial functions of δ.
2
This is an ODE for δ = δ(x) where U, dU , d U are specified from the P-Flow
dx dx2
solution.
General procedure:
13
13.021 – Marine Hydrodynamics, Fall 2004
Lecture 18
where by definition
τ
1
ūi = ui dt
τ 0
It immediately follows that
∂ ∂ui
u¯i = ui − ūi = ūi − ūi = 0, also ūi =
etc.
∂x
∂x
Substitute Eq. (1) into continuity and average over τ , i.e., take ( )
⎧ 2
∂ui ∂ūi ∂ui ⎨
ν∇2 ui = ν∇ ui
=
+
; similarly
∂t ∂t ∂t
⎩ ∂p ∂ ∂p̄
∂xi
= ∂xi
(p̄ + p ) = ∂xi
etc.
∂ui
∂
∂ ūi ∂ūi ∂u ∂
uj ¯j + uj
= u
ui + ui ) = ūj
(¯ + uj + ūj i +uj u
∂xj ∂xj ∂xj ∂xj ∂xj ∂xj i
0 0
∂
∂
∂uj
uj u
i = u
u − ui
∂xj ∂xj j i ∂xj
0→by continuity
∂ūi ∂ūi 1 ∂p ∂
+ ūj =− + ν∇2 ūi − uu
∂t
∂xj ρ ∂xi ∂xj i j
1 ∂
τ
ρ ∂xj ij
∂ūi ∂ūi 1 ∂
Reynolds averaged N-S equation:
+ ūj = τij − ρui uj
∂t ∂xj ρ ∂xj
Reynolds stress:
τRij ≡ −ρui uj
u
y log
Uo
δ 1/7
U y
Uo u log
o δ
3
From P-Flow for flow past a flat plate we have U (x) = U0 = const, and dp/dx = 0
Substituting δ ∗ , θ, τo , Uo into von Karman’s moment equation
−1/4
τo d Uo δ 7 dδ
= (θ) =⇒ 0.0227 =
ρUo 2 dx ν 72 dx
This is a 1s t order ODE for δ. One BC is required. We assume that the the flow is
tripped at x = 0, i.e., at x = 0 the flow is already turbulent. Further on, we assume
that the turbulent boundary layer starts at x = 0, i.e., δ(0) = 0. It follows that
−1/5
Uo x δ ∼
δ (x) ∼
= 0.373x =⇒ = 0.373Re−1/5
ν x x
Compare:
Once the profile has been determined we can evaluate the friction drag
D = 0.036 ρUo2 BL Re−1/5
L
Thus, the friction coefficient for turbulent (tripped and/or ReL > 5 × 105 ) flow over
a flat plate is
D
Cf = = 0.073Re−1/5
1 ρU 2 BL L
2 o
0.242
= log10 (ReL Cf )
Cf
δ δ
∝ Re−1/2 ∝ Re−1/5
x x
x x
√
δ ∗ = 1.72xRe−1/2
x
∝ x δ ∗ = 0.047xRe−1/5
x
∝ x4/5
τo = 0.0227ρUo2 Re−1/4
δ
τo = 0.332ρUo2 Re−1/2
x
τo = 0.02297ρUo2 Re−1/5
x
D = 0.664ρU02 (BL)Re−1/2
L
D = 0.03625ρU02 (BL)Re−1/5
L
D D
Cf ≡ = 1.328Re−1/2 Cf ≡ = 0.0725Re−1/5
ρUo2 (BL) L
ρUo2 (BL) L
C fT ~ RL−
1
5
~ 0.01
Therefore, for most prototype scales:
ln (RL)
(Cf )turbulent > (Cf )laminar
(τo )turbulent > (τo )laminar RL ~ 1.6 x 104
Lecture 19
Viscous sublayer
Uo
δv
k = characteristic
roughness height
To account for roughness we first define an ‘equivalent sand roughness’ coefficient k (units:
[L]), a measure of the characteristic roughness height.
The parameter that determines the significance of the roughness k is the ratio
k
δ
k
We thus distinguish the following two cases, depending of the value of the ratio δ
on the
actual surface - e.g., ship hull.
1. Hydraulically smooth surface For k < δv << δ, where δv is the viscous sub-layer
thickness, k does not affect the turbulent boundary layer significantly.
k
<< 1 ⇒ Cf Cf , smooth ⇒ Cf = Cf (ReL )
δ
1
2. Hydraulically rough surface For k >> δ >> δv , the flow will resemble what is
sketched in the following figure.
separation
k
δv
In terms of sand grains: each sand grain can be thought of as a bluff body. The flow,
thus separates downstream of each sand grain. Recalling that drag due to ‘separation’
= form drag >> viscous drag we can approximate the friction drag as the resultant
drag due to the separation behind each sand grain.
k k
>> 1 ⇒ Cf ≡ Cf , rough ⇒ Cf = Cf ( , ReL )
δ L ����
weak dependence
k/l ↑
Cf C D ≠ F (Re L )
k/l = constant
C f rough
RL
C f smooth
Cf , rough has only a weak dependence on ReL , since for bluff bodies CD =
F (ReL )
k
>> 1 : rough
δ (x)
Therefore, for the same k, the smaller the δ, the more important the roughness k.
4.11.1 Corollaries
k
Same relative roughness: ∼ const for model and prototype
L
� �
k kL k
= ∼ ReL 1/5
δ Lδ L
k
↑ for ReL ↑
δ
� � � �
k k
<
δ m δ p
2. Roughness Allowance. Often, the model is hydraulically smooth while the proto
type is rough. In practice, the roughness of the prototype surface is accounted for
‘indirectly’.
Cf
Uk
= Rk = constant
ν
ΔCf remains
constant with Rl
RL
C f smooth
Uk
• For the same ship (Re same), different k gives different Rek = .
ν
• For a given Rek , the friction coefficient Cf is increased by almost a constant for
Uk
= Rek = const over a wide range of ReL .
ν
• If the model is hydraulically smooth, can we account for the roughness of the
prototype?
Notice that ΔCf = ΔCf (Rek ) has only a weak dependence on ReL . We can
therefore, run an experiment using hydraulically smooth model, and add ΔCf
to the final friction coefficient for the prototype
k Rek ∼ R ek
Reality: =� � = =⇒
δ δ/L ReL ReL 4/5
����
∼ReL −1/5
k
↓ as ReL ↑, i.e., ΔCf smaller for larger ReL .
δ
4
Chapter 5 - Model Testing.
5.1 Steady Flow Past General Bodies
- In general, CD = CD (Re ).
Recall that the form drag (CP ) has only regime dependence on Reynold’s number,
i.e, its NOT a function of Reynold’s number within a regime.
(a) Perform an experiment with a smooth model at ReM (ReM << ReS ) and obtain
the model drag CDM .
(b) Calculate CP M = CDM − Cf M (ReM ) = CP S = CP ; CDM measured, Cf M (ReM )
calculated.
(c) Calculate CDS = CP + Cf S (ReS )
(d) Add ΔCf for roughness if needed.
CP measured
CD predicted
Cf (Rship)
Cf (Rm)
calculated
Cf (Rship) calculated
R
Rm Rship
Caution: In an experiment, the boundary layer must be in the same regime (i.e.,
turbulent) as the prototype. Therefore turbulence stimulator(s) must be added.
�
TBL �
TBL
LBL
CP turbulent regime
U MODEL
Laminar Cf Turbulent Cf
5.1.2 Drag on a ship hull For bodies near the free surface, the Froude number Fr is
due to wave effects. Therefore CD = CD (Re , Fr ). In general the ra-
important, �
Re gL3
tio = . It is impossible to easily scale both Re and Fr . For example
Fr ν
Re Lm 1 νm gm
Fr Lp 10 νp gp
This makes ship model testing seem unfeasible. Froude’s Hypothesis proves to be
invaluable for model testing
calculate measure indirectly
� �� � � �� �
CD (Re , Fr ) ≈ Cf (Re ) + CR (Fr )
� �� � � �� �
Cf for flat plate residual drag
of equivalent wetted area
In words, Froude’s Hypothesis assumes that the drag coefficient consists of two parts,
Cf that is a known function of Re , and CR , a residual drag that depends on Fr num
ber only and not on Re . Since Cf (Re ) ∼ Cf (Re )flat plate , we need to run experiments
to (indirectly) get CR (Fr ).
Thus, for ship model testing we require Froude similitude to measure CR (Fr ), while
Cf (Re ) is estimated theoretically.
6
5.1.3 OUTLINE OF PROCEDURE FOR FROUDE MODEL TESTING
�
2. For Froude similitude, tow model at: UM = FrS gLM
DM
4. Calculate total drag coefficient for model: CDM = 2
0.5ρM UM SM
����
wetted area
0.075
5. Use ITTC line to calculate Cf (ReM ): Cf (ReM ) =
(log10 ReM − 2)2
0.075
8. Use ITTC line to calculate Cf (ReS ): Cf (ReS ) =
(log10 ReS − 2)2
� �
10. Calculate the total drag of ship: DS = CDS · 0.5ρS US2 SS
����
wetted area
7
13.021 – Marine Hydrodynamics, Fall 2004
Lecture 20
x
z
B(x, y, z,t) = 0
Unknown variables
Velocity field:
v (x, y, z, t) = ∇φ (x, y, z, t)
Position of free surface:
y = η (x, z, t) or F (x, y, z, t) = 0
Pressure field:
p (x, y, z, t)
Governing equations
Continuity:
∇2 φ = 0 y < η or F < 0
Bernoulli for P-Flow:
∂φ
∂t
+ 12 |∇φ|2 + p−pa
ρ
+ gy = 0; y < η or F < 0
Far way, no disturbance:
∂φ/∂t, ∇φ → 0 and p = pa − ρgy
atmospheric hydrostatic
1
Boundary Conditions
KBC: free surface is a material surface, no normal velocity relative to the free surface.
A particle on the free surface remains on the free surface for all times.
DF D ∂φ ∂η ∂φ ∂η ∂φ ∂η
=0= (y − η) = − − − on y = η
Dt Dt ∂y ∂t ∂x
∂x ∂z
∂z
still
vertical slope slope
unknown
velocity of f.s. of f.s.
∂φ 1
+ |∇φ|2 + g η = pa on y = η
∂t 2
still unknown
non-linear term
2
6.2 Linearized (Airy) Wave Theory
Assume small wave amplitude compared to wavelength, i.e., small free surface slope
A
<< 1
λ
SWL
Water depth h
trough wavelength Wave period T
λ
Consequently
φ η
, << 1
λ2 /T λ
We keep only linear terms in φ, η.
∂
For example: ()|y=η = ()y=0 + η ()| + . . . Taylor series
∂y y=0
keep
discard
6.2.1 BVP In this paragraph we state the Boundary Value Problem for linear (Airy) waves.
∂ 2φ ∂φ
+g =0
∂t 2 ∂y
y=0
∇ 2φ = 0
y = -h
∂φ
=0
∂y
Introducing the notation {} for infinite depth we can rewrite the BVP:
Given φ calculate:
1 ∂φ
1 ∂φ
η (x, t) = − η (x, t) = − (4)
g ∂t y=0 g ∂t y=0
∂φ ∂φ
p − pa = −ρ − ρgy p − pa = −ρ − ρgy (5)
∂t ∂t
hydrostatic hydrostatic
dynamic dynamic
4
6.2.2 Solution Solution of 2D periodic plane progressive waves, applying separation of
variables.
We seek solutions to Equation (1) of the form eiωt with respect to time. Using the
KBC (2), after some algebra we find φ. Upon substitution in Equation (4) we can
also obtain η.
gA cosh k (y + h) gA ky
φ= sin (kx − ωt) φ= sin (kx − ωt) e
ω cosh kh ω
⎧ ⎫
⎨ ⎬
η
= A cos (kx − ωt) = A cos (kx − ωt)
η
⎩ ⎭
using (4) using(4)
5
6.2.4 Dispersion Relation
So far, any ω, k combination is allowed. However, recall that we still have not made
use of the FSBC Equation (3). Upon substitution of φ in Equation (3) we find that
the following relation between h, k, and ω must hold:
∂ 2φ ∂φ
+ g =0 −→ −ω 2 cosh kh + gk sinh kh = 0 ⇒ ω 2 = gk tanh kh
∂t2 ∂y ↑
φ= gA
ω
sin(kx−ωt)f (z)
Given h, the Dispersion Relation (6) provides a unique relation between ω and k,
i.e., ω = ω(k; h) or k = k(ω; h).
• Proof
C
ω2h
C ≡ = (kh) tanh (kh)
g
kh
from (6)
1 tanh kh
C
= tanh kh
kh
kh → obtain unique solution for k
kh =f(c)
• Comments
- General As ω ↑ then k ↑, or equivalently as T ↑ then λ ↑.
λ ω g g
- Phase speed Vp ≡ = = tanh kh Vp =
T k k k
Therefore as T ↑ or as λ ↑, then Vp ↑, i.e., longer waves are ‘faster’ in terms of
phase speed.
- Water depth effect For waves the same k (or λ), at different water depths, as h ↑
then Vp ↑, i.e., for fixed k Vp is fastest in deep water.
- Frequency dispersion Observe that Vp = Vp (k) or Vp (ω). This means that waves of
different frequencies, have different phase speeds, i.e., frequency dispersion.
6
6.2.5 Solutions to the Dispersion Relation : ω 2 = gk tanh kh
Property of tanh kh:
long waves
shallow water
sinh kh 1 − e−2kh ∼ kh for kh << 1. In practice h < λ/20
tanh kh = = =
cosh kh 1 + e−2kh 1 for kh >∼ 3. In practice h > λ2
short waves
deep water
i. Calculate C = ω 2 h/g
ii. If C > 2: ”deeper” ⇒
kh ≈ C(1 + 2e−2C − 12e−4C + . . .)
If C < 2: ”shallower” ⇒
√
kh ≈ C(1 + 0.169C + 0.031C 2 + . . .)
No frequency dispersion Frequency dispersion Frequency dispersion
g g
Vp = gh Vp = tanh kh Vp = λ
k 2π
λ η(x,t) = y
2π Vp
k= A
λ MWL x
2π
ω=
T
H = 2A
h
Define U ≡ ωA
Linear Solution:
Ag cosh k (y + h)
η = A cos (kx − ωt) ; φ= sin (kx − ωt) , where ω 2 = gk tanh kh
ω cosh kh
6.3.1 Velocity field
⎧ ⎧
⎪
⎨ ⎪
∼ eky sinh k (y + h) ⎨ ∼ e
ky
u cosh k (y + h) deep water v deep water
= =
Uo cosh kh ⎪
⎩ ∼1 Vo sinh kh ⎪
⎩ ∼1+ y
shallow water h
shallow water
Pressure field
cosh k (y + h)
pd = ρgη pd = ρgA cos (kx − ωt) pd = ρgeky η
cosh kh
cosh k (y + h)
= ρg η
cosh kh
pd
same picture as Uuo
p do
pd (−h) pd (−h) 1 pd (−h)
= 1 (no decay) = = e−ky
p do pdo cosh kh p do
p= ρg(η − y) p = ρg ηeky − y
“hydrostatic” approximation
V p = gh V p = gλ
2π
y y y y y
y
x x
∇ ∇
kh << 1 kh >> 1
pd p ( − h) pd o pd o p (− h) pd o
p (− h) p (− h)
10
P (x , y ) vp = v (x̄ + x , ȳ + y , t) =⇒
P P
(x' , y ' ) TSE
∂v ∂v
vp = v (¯
x, y,
¯ t) + ¯ t) x +
x, y,
(¯ ¯ t) y + . . . ⇒
(x̄, y,
(x, y) ∂x ∂y
ignore - linear theory
vp ∼
= v
Check: On ȳ = 0, y = A cos (kx̄ − ωt) = η, i.e., the vertical motion of a free surface
particle (in linear theory) coincides with the vertical free surface motion.
It can be shown that the particle motion satisfies
11
crest
Vp
ky
A
(a) deep water kh >> 1: a = b = Ae A
ky
circular orbits with radii Ae decreasing
exponentially with depth
trough
ky
Ae
A
Vp = gh
(b) shallow water kh << 1:
A y
a= = const. ; b = A(1+ )
kh h
decreases linearly
Vp
P Vp
A
Q S Q S
R R R
λ
6.3.4 Summary of Plane Progressive Wave Characteristics
cosh k(y+h)
cosh kh
= f1 (y) ∼ eky 1
e.g.pd
1
cosh k(y+h)
sinh kh
= f2 (y) ∼ eky kh
e.g.u, a
y
sinh k(y+h)
sinh kh
= f3 (y) ∼ eky 1+ h
e.g. v, b
13
η
A
= C (x)
u v
Aω
= C (x) f2 (y) Aω
= S (x) f3 (y)
pd
ρgA
= C (x) f1 (y)
y� x�
A
= C (x) f3 (y) A
= −S (x) f2 (y)
a
A
= f2 (y) b
A
= f3 (y)
b
a
14
Lecture 21
v
k
kz
z
kx
v
Vp k = (k x , k z )
θ
x
k·x
η =A cos(kx cos θ + kz sin θ −ωt) = A cos (kx x + kz z − ωt)
gA cosh k (y + h)
φ= sin (kx cos θ + kz sin θ − ωt)
ω cosh kh
ω 2 =gk tanh kh; kx = k cos θ, kz = k sin θ, k = kx2 + kz2
2. Standing Waves
amplitude
2A
node
T 3T
t= , ,L T 3T 5T
2 2
antinode
t= , , L
4 4 4
∂η ∂φ nπ nλ
∼ = · · · sin kx = 0 at x = 0, =
∂x ∂x k 2
∂φ
Therefore,
= 0. To obtain a standing wave, it is necessary to have perfect
∂x
x=0
reflection at the wall at x = 0.
AR
Define the reflection coefficient as R ≡ (≤ 1).
AI
A I = AR
x AR
R= =1
AI
z
ηR
θR
θ θθI
x θ R = π − θI
θ
ηI
Note: same A, R = 1.
x k x z k z−ωt
ηT = ηI + ηR = 2A cos (kx cos θ) cos (kz sin θ − ωt)
standing wave in x propagating wave in z
and
2π 2π ω
λx = ; VPx = 0; λz = ; VPz =
k cos θ k sin θ k sin θ
Check:
∂φ ∂η
∼ ∼ · · · sin (kx cos θ) = 0 on x = 0
∂x ∂x
4. Partial Reflection
ηI ηR
ηI =AI cos (kx − ωt) = AI Re ei(kx−ωt)
ηR =AR cos (kx + ωt + δ) = AI Re R e−i(kx+ωt)
free surface
| ηT | wave envelope
AI λ
2
1+ | R |2
∇ x
node
antinode
At node,
|ηT | = |ηT |min = AI (1 − |R|) at cos (2kx + δ) = −1 or 2kx + δ = (2n + 1) π
At antinode,
|ηT | = |ηT |max = AI (1 + |R|) at cos (2kx + δ) = 1 or 2kx + δ = 2nπ
λ
2kL = 2π so L =
2
4
5. Wave Group
2 waves, same amplitude A and direction, but ω and k very close to each other.
VP1
η1 = Aei(k1 x−ω1 t)
η2 = Aei(k2 x−ω2 t)
VP2
ω1,2 =ω1,2 (k1,2 ) and VP1 ≈ VP2
ηT = η1 + η2 = Aei(k1 x−ω1 t) 1 + ei(δkx−δωt) with δk = k2 − k1 and δω = ω2 − ω1
Vg
2π
λg =
δk
2A
VP1 ≈ VP2
2π 2π
T= Tg =
ω δω
2π
= λ1 ≈ λ 2
k1
⎫
|ηT |max = 2 |A| when δkx − δωt = 2nπ ⎬ δω
xg = Vg t, δkVg t−(δω) t = 0 then Vg =
⎭ δk
|ηT |min = 0 when δkx − δωt = (2n + 1) π
In the limit,
dω
δk, δω → 0, Vg = ,
dk
k1 ≈k2 ≈k
and since
ω 2 = gk tanh kh ⇒
ω 1 2kh
Vg = 1+
k2
sinh 2kh
Vp n
⎫
(a) deep water kh >> 1 ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ Vg
n= Vg
= 1 ⎪
⎪
Vp 2 ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
(b) shallow water kh << 1 ⎬
VP
Vg ≤ Vp
n= Vg
= 1 (no dispersion) ⎪
⎪
⎪
Vp ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
(c) intermediate depth ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
Appear Disappear
1 ⎪
⎭
2
<n<1
Es ≡ Specific Energy: total average wave energy per unit surface area.
• Linear waves: PE = KE = 12 Es Vp
(equipartition).
x
• Nonlinear waves: KE > PE.
Vp
E
Es PE = Es cos2 (kx − ωt)
1 PE
PE = 12 E
½ KE
KE = 1
2
E =
x
1
Recall: cos2 x = 2
+ 12 cos 2x
S
Vp
E = E s per area V
dW dE
= = J
dt
dt
rate of work done on S rate of change of energy in V energy flux left to right
where
η
dφ ∂φ
J- = pu dy with p = −ρ + gy and u =
dt ∂x
−h
1 ω 1
2 2kh
J- = 2 ρgA 1 + = E (nVp ) = EVg
k 2
sinh 2kh
E n
Vp
Vg
Δx
1 2
x
F1 1 F2 2 E = E (x ), F = F ( x )
h = h(x)
∂x
1
∂E ∂J
+ = 0, but J- = Vg E
∂t ∂x
∂E ∂
+ Vg E = 0
∂t ∂x
∂E
D
U
Vp = U
2A
E = 21 ρgA2
E = 0 ahead of ship
(
F = Vg E = ( 12 U ) 12 ρgA2 )
L
x=0
C.V.
1
Dw = (EU − EU 2 ) = 12 E = 14 ρgA2 ⇒ Dw ∝ A2
force / length U energy / area
• Wavelength of generated waves To obtain the wave length, observe that the phase
speed of the waves must equal U . For deep water, we therefore have
ω deep g U2
Vp = U ⇒ = U water −→ = U , or λ = 2π
k k g
10
• Summary Steady ship waves in deep water.
U = ship speed
g g U2
Vp = = U ; so k = 2 and λ = 2π
k U g
L =ship length, ∼ L
2 1 g ∼ 1 1
2 2
Dw =ρga sin 2 U 2 = ρga sin 2 ∼ 2
= ρga sin 2
2Fr2L 2Fr2L
1
Fl = ≈ 0.56 ⇒
π
max at:
Dw
ρga 2 U hull ≈ 0.56 gl ≅ 0.56 gL ⇒ U hull ∝ L
U
Fl = , where l ≤ L
0 gl
1 Increasing U
π
Small speed U
• Short waves
• Significant wave cancellation
• Dw ~ small
11
Lecture 22
UP
U = ωA
U ωA
Re = =
ν ν
UT AωT A
Kc = = = 2π
F A h
CF = =f , , Re , , roughness, . . .
ρgA2 λ
λ
λ
Wave Diffraction
steepness parameter
�����
��������������
τω b.l.
For linear theory, the velocity potential φ and the pressure p can be decomposed to
φ= φI + φD + φR
Incident wave Diffracted wave Radiated wave
potential (a) potential (b.1) potential (b.2)
p ∂φI ∂φD ∂φR
− = + + + gy
ρ ∂t ∂t ∂t
• Froude-Krylov Force approximation When << λ, the incident wave field is not
significantly modified by the presence of the body, therefore ignore φD and φR .
Froude-Krylov approximation:
φ ≈ φI ∂φ
⇒ F F K =
I
∂φI −ρ + gy ndS
ˆ ← wave
can calculate knowing (incident)
kinematics (and body geometry)
p ≈ −ρ + gy ∂t
∂t body
surface
≡ pI
If the body dimensions are very small comparable to the wave length, we can
assume that ∇pI is approximately constant through the body volume ∀ and
‘pull’ the ∇pI out of the integral. Thus, the F F K can be approximated as
F F K ∼
= − ∇pI
d∀ =
∀ − ∇pI
at body body
at body
center body center
volume volume
The last relation is particularly useful for small bodies of non-trivial geometry
for 13.021, that is all bodies that do not have a rectangular cross section.
3
(b) Diffraction and Radiation Forces
(b.1) Diffraction or scattering force When ≮ < λ, the wave field near the body
will be affected even if the body is stationary, so that no-flux B.C. is satisfied.
�
� φ��
φ�� ���������������
�
� φ�� φ��
� φ��
∂φ ∂
� φ�� =�= (φ � + φ � )
∂� ∂�
�
∂φ � ∂φ
� �� = − � ← �����
∂� ∂�
�
∂φD
F D = −ρ ndS
ˆ
∂t
body
surface
(b.2) Radiation Force - added mass and damping coefficient Even in the
absence of an incident wave, a body in motion creates waves and hence inertial wave
forces.
�
��
�
φ��
� φ�� �
� � ∂φ � �
= �⋅�
� ∂�
�
�
∂φR
F R = −ρ ndS
ˆ = − mij U̇j − dij Uj
∂t
body added wave
surface mass radiation
damping
⎫
(1)Kc = UT
= 2π A ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎬
Interrelated through maximum wave steepness
A
≤ 0.07
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎭
A
(2)diffraction parameter
λ λ
≤ 0.07
• Intermediate Kc - both viscous and inertial effects important, use Morrison’s formula.
1
F = ρ2 U (t)|U (t)|CD (Re ) + ρ3 U˙ Cm (Re , Kc )
2
• Summary
I
Limiting case:
wave breaking occurs
II III