Wave model of light____________________________________

Diffraction The bending of a wave around a barrier,

obstacle or through a single slit
Path difference (PD) Difference in length from a point in
an interference pattern to the source
In phase sources produce waves at the same freq where a
crest meets a crest and a trough meets and trough
Constructive Interference addition of amplitudes arriving in
phase. Coherent has constant phase difference,
Destructive Interference Crest meets a trough, amplitudes
cancel
Antinode constructive interference location
Node Destructive interference location

Antinodes: pd = nNodes:pd= (n 0.5)
Centre antinode is the brightest because I

Intensity is proportional to amplitude of wave

Fringe spacing (w), Distance from screen (D), slit width (s)

Increasing D = decreasing intensity, increasing fringe spacing
Diffraction

- Increasing wavelength of light used

increases diffraction and hence w (fringe spacing)

1 means significant diffraction

Photoelectric effect____________________________________
Photocurrent current induced by action of light
Photoelectron electron emitted from substance illuminated
by EMR


Ek=

mv
2
= Stopping voltage (J)
Stopping voltage (max speed)
2
of fastest electrons (v
2
)
Varying Intensity of incident light
More intensity (Wm
-2
) = greater photocurrent because more
photons means more electrons can be ejected every second

Power output of light:

Plancks Constant h = 6.63 x 10
-34
Js/= 4.14 x 10
-15
eV__
1eV (1.6 x 10
-19
J )Eng gained by electron after it is moved by 1V
pd
[1] eVto J( by 1.6 x 10
-19
J) [2] J to eV ( by 1.6 x 10
-19
J)

E(J)= h(Js) f(Hz) =

Plancks experiments suggests light sources

do not emit continuous waves of light by instead, discrete bundled
particles of eng called photons. Planck suggested:
One photon can interact with one electron at any moment
Photons deliver all their eng to electron upon interaction
Total eng of light beam = number of photons (n) x hf
Work function (W) minimum eng (J) required for an electron to
escape from an atom (W = h fo)
Threshold Freq (fo) Minimum freq at which photoelectric effect
starts to occur (specific to different atoms)
When a light of freq f is shone on an atom: h f = W + Ek
Therefore:

m(vmax)
2
= h f W
Einsteins relationship postulated that light travelled in discrete
packets of energy (quanta: hf) and defined intensity as the
number of photons, rather than the amplitude/energy of a wave
If hf> W, left over eng. given off as Kinetic eng (Ek)
Eng freq graphs_______________________________


Matter waves_________________________________________
Comptons relationship:

Only applies to objects with no mass, p = momentum of photon
De Broglie replaced p with mv and postulated that matter had
wavelengths as well
Derived relationships:

, Since: EK =

mv
2

De Broglie found that the diffraction pattern of x-rays was similar
to those of electrons. Hence the wavelengths of electrons
(particles) was similar to those of X-Rays (waves)
Spectroscopes: Emission/Absorption Spectra________________
Gas atoms absorb eng to promote their electrons to a higher eng
state. As they fall back to ground level they release eng
corresponding to different wavelengths of light.
Electrons can emit their eng in various combinations










Atoms emit the same amount of eng they absorb
Atoms emit specific amounts of eng to promote their
electrons to excited states
If an atom does not absorb enough eng to promote its
electrons to the next excitation state, it retains the eng as
kinetic eng for its electrons
Electrons are unlikely to absorb eng in an excited state,
hence eng required to promote an electron to a certain
excited state is always relative to the ground level
For example:
1
st
excitation state = 2eV, 2
nd
excitation state = 5ev
Difference in eng levels = 3eV
If an atoms 3ev, electrons will only be promoted to the 1
st

excitation state and retain 1ev as Ek
It will NOT be promoted from the 1
st
excitation state to the
2
nd
because it is unlikely excited atoms absorb eng; even if the
eng absorbed is sufficient
Difference in successive eng levels becomes smaller as you
move to highereng. level (n=0 and n=1 has the greatest
difference)
Summary of experiments______________________________
Flaws in wave model
Did not explain why freq of light did not increase
photocurrent.
Despite hypothesising that amplitude (intensity) of a wave
was related to a waves eng which should result in increase
max Ek of electrons, did not explain why Max Ek changed
with freq of incident light used.
Could not explain work function/ threshold freq
Support for the particle model = Flaws in wave model from
photoelectric effect experiment
Particle diffraction Matter scattering
Davisson and Germer bombarded nickel crystals with
electrons
Speed of electrons known due to set accelerating voltage
Maximum and minimum intensities were located at
different angles recorded by a detector (Similar to youngs
double slit)
Electrons had undergone interference (once thought to be an
exclusive wave property)
Electrons fringe spacing and path difference used to calculate
wavelength of electron (0.14nm) this value verified De
Broglies wavelength formula:

using known velocity controlled by the accelerating v

& mass of an electron (9.11 x 10
-31
kg)
Main relationships for the experiment:
[1] EkVoltage [2] Ek =

mv
2
[3]

[4] W (work on electron) = q (charge: 1.6x10
-19
C) x V (volts) =
Ek
Double accelerating voltage:
2 xEk = Increases v by factor of = Decreases wavelength
by factor of
Absorption/emission spectra
Incandescent lights electricity sent through gas vapour to
excite electrons Electrons absorb eng releasing thermal eng
as photons (Evidence for quantised discrete eng levels)
Support for the dual nature of matter____________________
Discrete eng levels for particles (electrons) Electrons
moved in waves inside their eng levels (quantised)
Standing waves are the eng levels electrons exist within;
only certain of light will promote electrons (resonance)
Circumference of electron orbit = = n (standing wave)
forming a stable orbit

(n=1,2,3 ...)
n = 1 (ground level), n=2 (1
st
excitation state), etc.
If an integral number of wavelengths cannot fit into the
circumference of electron orbit, destructive interference
occurs and the orbit (wavelength) is not an eng level
Left to right: n =3,4,5,6
Light and Matter
Wave Model Particle Model
Light beams cross paths
undisturbed
Refraction (Snells Law)
Inverse Sq. law (I

)
Linear Propagation
Reflection

Linear Propagation
Reflection
Inverse Sq. law (I

)

Could not explain:
Photoelectric
Could not explain:
Refraction

Waves transfer of eng without the net transfer of matter
Mechanical waves Requires a medium to propagate
through
Wave Amplitude maximum displacement a particle in a
mechanical wave has from its origin
Periodic Wave Source of disturbance undergoes
continual oscillation producing a constant wave
Light Properties Eng, no mass, no charge


n = 0
n = 1
n = 1
n = 1
n = 1
n = 2
n = 2
n = 2
Second minima
Location of node

Swap terminals of battery (+ve terminal faces cathode) for -ve
voltage at cathode (location of light) This gives the max Ek
Monochromatic light used for this experiment
-ve terminal towards
cathode:Accelerating
voltage (voltage not
impeding photocurrent)
-ve terminal towards cathode: Accelerating voltage (voltage not
impeding photocurrent)
Stopping voltage How much work done by load to stop
photoelectrons from being emitted
ONLY affected by freq of incident light (greater freq. = higher
stopping voltage


Because absorption is a
singular process and
emission occurs in
multiple steps there are
more possible emission
lines than absorption
lines

Ionisation level eng level where an electron has sufficient
eng to overcome the electrostatic force binding it to the atom
Spectroscope qualitatively measures light emitted by
electrons ROYGBIV. R
greater wave than V, V higher freq than R


Emission spectra bright bands on a backdrop of black
corresponding to the eng released by electrons falling back to
ground level(electron configuration which gives the atom the
most stability and least eng)
Absorption spectra dark bands in the visible spectrum due
to the absorption of specific wavelength of light by an atom



[1] Ek = hf W
[2] W = Y-Intercept
[3] f independent
variable
[4] h = gradient

EMF (source of potential difference) PD is like a waterfall,
high potential eng at the top, low potential at the bottom.
INSIDE a load (EMF) charges are separated via chemical
reactions which give charges PD which allows them to flow to
create a current when the circuit is complete
Voltage (PD) joules per coulomb
V = IR, in an open circuit R , therefore V = 0
Power (P) = VI =

()

Series:
Voltage: Vtotal = V1 + V2 + V3 +
Current: Itotal = I1 = I2 = I3 =
Resistance: Rtotal = R1 + R2 + R3 +
Parallel:
Voltage: Vtotal = V1 = V2 = V3 =
Current: Itotal = I1 + I2 + I3 +
Resistance: 1/Rtotal = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3 +

Using multimeters ___________________________________
Voltmeter high resistance, hence no current flow across
them, connected in parallel with component being measured
Ammeter low resistance, connected in series with
component current is being measured across

Voltage dividers_____________________________________
Voltage divider splits a voltage into smaller voltages to
supply other components in the circuit

Upper resistor Resistor with higher resistance (lower
resistor: vice versa)

Circuit components__________________________________

Thermistors -

LED light emitting diode
Advantages over globes:
1. Higher operation time/durability
2. Consumes less power
3. Faster response time
4. Emits light at low voltages
Photodiodes Used for detection of light; when sufficient
light strikes eng. is dissipated into crystal lattice to allow
electrons to flow. I=power/area (current from
photodiode Light intensity) Placed in reverse bias: when
light shines in diode, leakage current dramatically increased














Analog signal A continually changing signal, uses
continuous range of values to represent information
Digital signal Discrete time signals generated by digital
modulation, uses discrete/discontinuous values to
represent information
Modulation superimposing an information signal onto a
carrier wave to transmit information. Change amplitude.

Carrier wave High freq electromagnetic wave modulated
in amplitude or frequency to convey a signal
High freq carries more information (data density) and has a
greater bandwidth with less interference
Demodulation separating a modulated waveform into its
carrier wave and information signal

Amplification and Gain
There is a linear range, in which the amplifier circuit can amplify
the voltage proportionately. Outside of this range, clipping or
distortion occurs, where the output voltage is not proportional
to the input voltage.

Biasing a transistor circuit means setting it up so that when
there is no AC input, the output voltage is the value in the
middle of its possible output range. This allows for the greatest
possible variation in Vin, without distortion occurring. This mid-
point is called the quiescent point or the bias voltage.

Voltage gain is the factor by which the input voltage is amplified
to obtain the output voltage, multiply Vin/Vout by gain to find
Vout/Vin:

Av = Vout/ Vin = gradient of the Vout vs. Vin graph.

If the voltage gain is negative, then the amplifier is
described as inverting.
If the voltage gain is positive, then the amplifier is
described as non-inverting.
*In parallel current splits to ratios.

Sound and sound systems
Sound is a longitudinal wave with compressions and rarefactions
(high/low pressure areas)
Wave equation

Speed is independent of frequency only dependent on density of
medium.
Diffraction is the bending of waves as the pass the edge of an
obstacle or through an aperture. Significant Diffraction occurs
when

Higher frequency diffracts less than lower.

Loudness of a sound depends on amplitude of the sound waves.
Measured in phonsby comparing the sound with loudness of 1 kHz
sound.


















In string or open ended pipe(2
nd
harmonic=1
st

overtone)

In a pipe with 1 closed end (3
rd
harmonic, 1
st
overtone)

A rise in tone of one octave is equivalent to a doubling of the
frequency.
Sound systems
Dynamic microphone: Sound moves the cone and the attached
coil of wire in a magnetic field to and fro. Electromagnetic
induction produces an emf (signal) at the terminals of the coil.
Ribbon (or velocity) microphone: Air movement due to sound
waves moves the metallic ribbon in a magnetic field.
Electromagnetic induction generates emf between the ends of
the ribbon.
Condenser microphone: The back plate and the front metallic
membrane form a capacitor (charged with a battery). Sound
waves cause the membrane to vibrate and change the spacing
between the plate and the membrane. This causes the output
voltage (signal) to change.
In electret-condenser microphone a permanently charged
electret material is used for the membrane, thus eliminating the
need of a charging battery.
Crystal microphone: uses a thin strip of piezoelectric crystal
attached to a diaphragm that is sent into vibration by sound
waves, causing the crystal to deform and produce a voltage
(signal).
Dynamic loudspeaker has the same basic construction as a
dynamic microphone. The input signal changes the current in
the coil and results in a varying magnetic force on the coil that is
attached to the cone.

Enclosure formed by baffles: to prevent the sound from the back
of the speaker cone cancelling the sound from the front because of
destructive interference due to phase difference.
A loudspeaker is omni-directional, (i.e. it radiates sound energy
spherically in all directions) when

Pressure node: Region where 0 pressure variation, open end of
pipe due to inverted reflection.
1violin, 80db, add 4 +10db, -3 db, 87db. 1 violin 65db, 10 violins
75db, 20 violins 78db.
Same diffraction pattern, momentum (and wavelength) of the X-
rays must have been the same as that of the electrons, P=mv
Modulation_________________________________________
Attenuation loss of power of a signal along a
communication channel. Low freq signals propagate
through copper wiring with less attenuation than high freq
signals
Bandwidth amount of data transferred per second


Signal wave is reflected
in the x axis and
increased in frequency
Troughs in modulating
wave (signal/information
wave) represent nodes
(zero values) in the
modulated result
Light dependent resistors (LDR) resistance decreases as
light falls on it. Used to control light intensity from light
emitting components



Phototransistors -

Negative Anode
Phototransistor- Base current comes from photons, more
sensitive than photodiode but slower (~1s). Time response is
inversely related to gain which is usually 10 to 100.
LED+LD (laser diode) -Forward biased emits light. Brightness due
to current not voltage.

Faradays Law_______________________________________
EMF = -N

, where N = number of loops in coil

Lenz Law___________________________________________
Any magnetic flux created by an induced current opposes
the change in flux which originally created it
Diagram:
Electronics and Photonics
Electric charge Inherent property of electrons and
protons resulting in electric force between them
(Force b/t charged particles)
Current ANY movement of electric charge

)
1 Electron contains 1.6 x 10
-19
C

First harmonic= Fundamental.
Intensity is the rate at which the wave is carrying energy away
from source through a given area.
Decibel Scale logarithmic scale to compare loudness the way
humans experience it.
Doubling in Intensity is approximately 3dB.
When two or more waves meet the resulting displacement at each
point is the addition of the two displacements Superposition.
Resonance occurs when the forcing frequency equals the natural
frequency of the object. Vibrate together in phase. Constructively
add thus increase amplitude.
Standing waves occur when the superposition of a wave creates
stationary nodes and antinodes.






Effect of magnetic field on current______________________
RIGHT HAND GRIP RULE:
1. Thumb: direction of conventional current
2. Fingers: direction of magnetic field

Solenoid coil of wire in a cylindrical shape

In general:
Anticlockwise circle (direction of current) - NORTH pole
Clockwise circle - SOUTH pole
Notation: Current into page / Current out of page

Magnetic Force and electric current_____________________
RIGHT HAND SLAP RULE
1. Fingers: direction of magnetic field
2. Palm: direction of magnetic force
3. Thumb: direction of conventional current
A magnetic force is exerted on positive charges when a
current carrying wire is placed in an EXTERNAL magnetic
field
The magnetic force is the force exerted on charges (work
done to separate charges): i.e. if palm is facing upwards
therefore POSITIVE CHARGES are pushed upwards
Magnetic force on wire = sum of individual forces on
charges = nBIL sin(x)
n number of wires
B magnetic field strength (T, Tesla)
L length of wire (m)
Parallel current carrying wires
If the two currents are flowing in the same direction, they
will attract each other.
If the two currents are flowing in different directions, they
will repel each other.

Electric motors______________________________________
Converts electrical energy to kinetic energy
Maximal torque force when plane of the loop is parallel
with magnetic field
Commutators
Devices which reverse the direction of current when the
plane of the loop becomes perpendicular to the magnetic
field to ensure that the loop continues it rotation in one
direction
Split ring for DC motors
To increase torque force of motor: increase size of loop,
number of loops, strength of magnetic field OR current

Electromagnetic induction_____________________________
Creation of current via changes in the magnetic field
Flux () measure of total amount of magnetic field = BA
cos(x) in Tm
2

where B = strength of magnetic field, A = area (m sq)
Induced EMF proportional to

() ()

A Causes of change in flux:
1. Change in B strength















Eddy currents Currents produced in the conducting
material by a change in flux (not necessarily a loop, i.e. iron
core of a transformer which causes power loss)
This problem can be produced by putting plastic
laminations/layers in between the conducting material
Electric generators___________________________________
Converts kinetic energy into electrical energy
Uses FARADAYs LAW
Maximal flux when plane of the loop is perpendicular to
the magnetic field
Minimal flux when plane of the loop is parallel to the
magnetic field
Changing generators
1. Doubling rate of rotation/halving period/doubling
frequency of rotation (revolutions per second)
= doubling

= doubling emf
2. Doubling B = increase in flux
3. Doubling A = increase in flux
Summary of commutator uses:
DC motors split ring
AC generators SLIP ring, produces an AC voltage signal
DC generations split ring (produces pulsating DC voltage
signal) i.e. |sin(x)| graph with a period that is half that of an
AC generators voltage-time graph for particular frequency of
rotation as well as same B and A values

Transformers Peak, RMS, Peak to Peak_______________
The transformer equation is: Np/Ns = Vp/Vs = Is/Ip, where p is
primary and s is secondary.

The root mean square voltage (VRMS) is the value of an equivalent
steady voltage (DC) supply which would provide the same power.
V
RMS
= V
p
/2.
I
RMS
= I
p
/2.
P = V
RMS
I
RMS
= V
p
I
p
= P
p
.
Why do we use tranformers, you ask VCAA?

Well, because the power loss is proportional to the square of
the current, it is important to reduce the current in long-
distance transmission lines by using very high voltages. Hence a
step up transformer is used at the start of the transmission
wires and a step down transformer is used at the end of the
transmission wires to reduce the current running along the
wires.

More diagrams Use your right hand!































































Step up after generator before power lines, Step down at end
of transmission lines. Step up increase RMS voltage to lower
current and power loss. Because power transmitted as AC
signals, we assume that values used to calculate power are
RMS unless told otherwise.
Thicker wires decrease resistance.
FOR THE SAME POWER IN EQUATIONS WITH TRANSFORMERS,
increasing transmission voltage, decrease current.
Half Hz, double period, thus half emf. Max on flux graph goes
to x intercept of emf.
Cconstant current, constant magnetic flux.No change in
flux, no voltage would be induced.

Electric power
Magnetic fields Property of space around magnets causing an
object in space to experience a force due only to the presence of
the magnet (Vector quantity)
Magnets Dipolar (two opposing poles), field lines never
intersect (field lines run from N to S)
Direction of field tangent to any point of the field line
Field line density indicates relative field strength
2. Change of loop size
3. Change of velocity of magnet entering loop
Magnetic field increase in strength as magnetic get closer to point
of reference (i.e. a magnet at the centre of the loop will provide
the biggest flux)

Summation of photoelectric effect (1905):
The kinetic energy of photoelectrons is independent of
the light intensity.
If light was a wave, we would expect the energy of the incident
light to be related to its amplitude or intensity, but ejected
electrons seem to have the same amount of energy no matter
what the intensity of the light is.
Energy is related to frequency
The photoelectric effect experiment suggests the existence of a
threshold frequency. The particle model explains this though
correlating the frequency of photons with its energy. E=hf,
meaning that frequency is directly proportional to the energy of
the photons. This explains why only certain photons of certain
frequencies can dislodge electrons from the metal surface. The
wave model does not explain this, as it suggests that photons of
any frequency can free photoelectrons, given enough time.
No time delay
If light was a wave, we would expect a time delay before any
photoelectrons have absorbed enough energy to be ejected,
especially at low intensities, but this is not observed.
Photoelectrons are emitted instantaneously.
Intensity
Wtf does intensity have to do with anything then? The intensity
just gives an indication of the number of photons per unit area.
Therefore, more photons means more photoelectrons are
emitted, AT THE SAME ENERGY as if the intensity was any
different. This can be observed by the fact that increasing the
intensity increases the photoelectron current.

Young Double SlitExp:
1801 - This experiment demonstrates that light is influenced by
principles of interference and diffraction, both characteristics
which can only be explained by a wave model of light. Bright
bands are areas of constructive interference and dark bands are
areas of destructive interference.Youngs experiment
demonstrated an interference pattern of bright and dark bands
formed by constructive and destructive interference. Since this
is a wave phenomenon, Young concluded that light had a wave
nature.
Photoelectric effect: Electrons ejected range of energies. As
the retarding voltage was increased, fewer electrons had
sufficient energy to reach the collector so the current
decreased. When the voltage reached stopping potential even
the most energetic electrons were stopped. So the current
became zero.



Last resort formula: Uses these to check your
answers ONLY
These are for electrons ONLY n00bs
E
k
= 2.413x10
-37
/
2

velocity = 1.48x10
15
(E
k
)
1/2
= 7.28x10
-4
/ =
5.927x10
5
(V)
1/2

P = 1.35x10
-15
(E
k
)
1/2
= 5.40x10
-25
(V)
1/2

= 7.28x10
-4
/v = 4.91x10
-19
(E
k
)
-1/2
=
1.228x10
-9
(V)
-1/2

V
0
= v
2
/(3.52x10
11
) = 3.43x10
48
p
2
Faradays Law of Induction is a mathematical
relationship between the rate of change of flux and the
generated EMF (electromotive force). It is: = -n/t.
Lenzs Law is a qualitative statement. It states that
induced current in a loop will be in the direction so that
the flux it creates will oppose the change in the flux that
produced it. It is simply an alteration of the law of
conservation of energy. OPPOSE CHANGES!

When graphing EMF from flux change, just graph the
negative derivative. Pls dont forget your
methods/specialist maths.
More important formulae:
= -n/t
E= Blv
= BA (no n here people, dont f%^& this up)
F=qvBsinx
A Causes of change in flux:
1. Change in B strength


Energy and Force Total mechanical Energy = kinetic +
potential energy.
()

(Elastic: Ekfinal=Ekinitial, if not equal, inelastic as

energy is to sound or heat etc. Momentum conserved for both)
() ( )

()

( )

P = Fv

MOTION


()

F=Fg sin
(Note: Driving force= weight force normal
force)


NEWTONS LAWS
1. Every object continues to be at rest, or continues with
constant velocity, unless it experiences an unbalanced
force (law of inertia)
2. F=ma The rate of change of momentum is directly
proportional to the magnitude of the net force and is in the
direction of the net force
3. For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.
Action-reaction pairs act on different objects; forces of
action-reaction pairs cant be added together
























Graph Interpretation
X-axis Y-axis Area Under Gradient
Extension Force U(spring) SprConst
Time Velocity Displa Accel
Time Accele Velocity -
Time Net F Impulse -
Displac Force Work -
Distan F(gravity) E change
g gravitational field
strength (N Kg
1
)







ACTION/REACTION
Action/reaction forces:
Always exist inpairs
Are equal inmagnitude
Actin oppositedirections
If a ball is on the ground, it is NOT an action reaction as
all forces are acting on the ball. But if the ball is thrown
to the ground, the ball acts on the ground and the
ground acts on the earth so it IS an action reaction pair.


GRAVITY
CONVERT KM TO M
Increase Ek as object closer to mass.

Acceleration is independent of mass

Force acts equally on both bodies

Velocity is directed at a tangent to the path

This value is constant for bodies orbiting the
same central mass.
Proof: Force centripetal = Gravitational force,
simply cancel out the masses in the F equation.


BANKED ROADS

Design speed
Relate angle to velocity and gravity
Total Centripetal acceleration =
()
Ignore ()
Increase the force towards the centre with
a banked road so you can go at greater
speeds as they give a greater centripetal
acceleration. This is because
, Normal is
larger now.
Force Normal > Force Weight (FN is
hypotenuse when resolving forces). ONLY
gravitational weight force and normal
forces on diagram.
Since force centripetal is , larger the
angle, larger the centripetal force.
Eliminates need for sideways frictional
force, thus no skidding because normal is
component directed towards centre.


PROJECTILE MOTION
Only force on projectile is gravity. Air resistance is
opposite direction of motion.

() (

()

()

Weightlessness
An object will experience apparent weightlessness when
falling with acceleration equal to gravitational field strength
(Free fall towards earth). They feel weightless when
Fnormal = 0.
Gravitational weight force is force by earth on you. Reaction
force is force by surface on you.

True weightlessness when g=0 N/kg usually in deep space.
Fn>Fg, heavier. Fn<Fg, lighter.



Note: When an applied force opposing friction or gravity is
doing work with no increase in speed of object then

TENSION
Connected bodies.

ISOLATE AND DRAW a force diagram when finding tension.
Tension in cars on ramp, ()

Net force = total mass acceleration
Force of a middle trailer=Tension + F(Friction)

Sample answer: What is the role of crumple zones in
cars or tanbark in playground in reducing the effect of
a collision?
If an object with a certain velocity is brought to rest, it
will have a certain change in momentum that is constant
for that particular collision. The average force exerted on
the object, therefore, is dependent on the time of
collision (F = I/t, since I is constant F 1/t). If the time is
prolonged then the average force exerted would be less
and consequently, less injuries would result from these
collisions.

Sample answer: Apparent weightlessness
Apparent weightlessness is achieved when an object falls
with an acceleration equal to the gravitational field
strength, as no normal reaction force is experienced. For
example, astronauts in a satellite in stable orbit will feel
weightless as the satellite is in constant free-fall.
HKHs Last Resort Formulae (use these to check
your work ONLY, might be wrong in rare cases)
R = 1.191x10
-4
(MT
2
)
1/3

M = 5.919x10
11
(R
3
/T
2
)
T = 7.693x10
5
(R
3
/M)
1/2

USE AT OWN PERIL!
CENTRIPETAL MOTION

Net Force= Tension = Centripetal for pendulum.

Dont worryIkram, still have these just for you!
g gravitational field: use 10, not 9.8
a acceleration (ms
-2
)
F Force (Newtons)
v velocity (ms
-1
)
M- central mass (kg)
m orbiting mass (kg)
r radius of orbit (m)
T periodof orbit (s)
G - 6.67x10
-11
Nm
2
kg
-2

o Momentum
()

Impulse = () (Impulse
doesnt depend on acceleration, i.e same impulse
regardless of padding.)