1077-2618/01/$10.

002001 IEEE IEEE Industry Applications Magazine I March/April 2001

I
n a world of change, newtechnologies replace
old ones ever-more quickly. In the early
years, change was slow as the evolutionary
process transitioned from electromechanical
voltage regulators with motor-driven rheostats to
high-gain rotating exciters. These exciters in-
cluded such systems as the Amplidyne, Regulex,
and Rototrol, which improved performance to con-
trol the generator output. In the past 30 years,
however, change has progressed from magnetic
technology to analog control. Analog excitation
represented the multiple component module as-
sembly with interlooping wire interconnections
(see Fig. 1).
Today, we see another major technology change,
a movement away from analog control to digital
control. An excitation system is now reduced to a
single integrated assembly that includes the auto-
matic voltage regulator (AVR), field current regula-
tor (manual control), excitation limiters, and even
protection [3]-[6]. Reliability is enhanced as multi-
ple devices are implemented into the single compo-
nent with multitasking microprocessors. Fig. 2
highlights a classic digital excitation system inter-
connected in a generator system.
Asingle component forms the primary element
of the excitation system. Inputs include the instru-
ment transformer for voltage sensing, current
transformer signal from a line CT, and bus voltage
transformer used for voltage matching. The output
of the controller is an analog signal designed to
work directly into a separate firing circuit that
generates pulses for a three-phase, fullwave recti-
fier bridge to control the field (see Fig. 2).
In digital systems, the guidelines for selecting
the power potential transformer and rectifier
bridge are similar to methods utilized for analog
systems. Input signals for raise/lower or start/stop
can be controlled by a variety of methods. These in-
clude contact inputs, an RS485 serial communica-
tion port, or a PC using ASCII language connected
into an RS232 serial communication port. Flexi-
bility in digital systems offers more efficient meth-
ods to accomplish automation, which lowers
installation cost.
Analog versus Digital Controller
In the past, shaping the generator response using
an analog excitation systemwas a matter of adjust-
ing potentiometers or adding or deleting capaci-
tors and resistors in the control loops of the voltage
regulator stability circuit. Adjustments could be
very time consuming because changes would often
involve turning the excitation system on and off
Richard C. Schaefer and Kiyong Kim
Richard C. Schaefer and Kiyong Kim are with Basler
Electric of Highland, Illinois. Both Schaefer and Kim
are Members of IEEE. This article appeared in its origi-
nal form at the 2000 IEEE/IAS Pulp and Paper Con-
ference.

T
e
x
t
u
r
e
:
1
9
9
8
C
o
r
b
i
s
Fig. 1. A comparison of an analog-controlled
excitation system (left) and an integrated, digitally
controlled excitation system (right).
37
many times to make modifications. Fig. 3(a) is a
block diagramof a typical analog lead-lag control-
ler utilized in the automatic voltage regulator con-
trol loop. The feedback gain (K
F
) was adjusted by a
potentiometer to achieve stable performance.
Anoptimally tunedexcitationsystemoffers ben-
efits in overall operating performance during tran-
sient conditions caused by system faults,
disturbances, or motor starting [5]. During motor
starting, a fast excitation system will minimize the
generator voltage dip and reduce the I
2
R heating
losses of the motor. After a fault, a fast excitation
systemwill improve the transient stability by hold-
ing up the system and providing positive damping
to system oscillations. Additionally, a well-tuned
excitation system will minimize the voltage over-
shoot after a disturbance and avoid the nuisance
tripping of generator protection relays.
Today, the digital excitation system provides the
means to easily access the challenging parameters of
the analog system. The heart of most digital control-
lers is the embedded microprocessors that perform
various control functions for the excitation system.
These control functions include the automatic volt-
age regulator, field current regulator (manual con-
trol) Var/power factor control, anda host of excitation
limiters to regulate and maintain the generator
within safe operating limits of the machine.
Fig. 3(b) is a block diagram of a PID block uti-
lized in the AVR control loop. The P term repre-
sents the proportional gain, which affects the rate of
voltage rise after a step change. The I term repre-
sents the integral gain, which affects the generator
voltage settling time after the initial voltage over-
shoot. Lastly, the D term represents the derivative
gain, which affects the percent of overshoot allowed
after the systemdisturbances. The derivative termis
used with those excitation systems that have a rotat-
ing exciter. For main field-excited systems, the D
term is not required. Since the derivative term af-
fects the amount of generator overvoltage, the lower
the voltage overshoot, the faster the voltage recovers
to nominal. The combined effect of the PID terms
will shape the response of the generator excitation
system to reach the desired performance. In addi-
tion to PID, K
G
(loop gain) also provides an adjust-
able term to compensate for variations in system
input voltage to drive the power converting bridge.
Variations in K
G
modify the PIDterms by the same
proportions to vary the overall performance.
Today, a wide range of the PIDgains can be eas-
ily selected using PCmenu screens as shown in Fig.
6 or a front-panel display.
The evaluation of system performance begins
by performing voltage step responses to examine
the behavior of the excitation systemwith the gen-
IEEE Industry Applications Magazine I March/April 2001 38
M M
t
t t t
t t t
Isolation
Transducer
Power Input
3-Phase
Power PT
from Alterrex
Alterrex
Generator
Generator
Field
PT
Paralleling CT
Voltage
Sensing
Bridges in Parallel
Watchdog
Timer
Contact
to Cause Trip
to Redundant
Controller
On/Off
Status
Analog
Output
10 V dc
(4) Field Configurable
Output Contacts
Interface
Firing Circuit
Chassis
Analog
Output
10 V dc
SCR
Gate
Drive
Serial Link
Communication
to SCADA System
(Modbus
protocol)

Start/Stop
Remote Console
Raise/Lower
Auto/Manual
}
}
}
Field Flashing Resistor and Contactor
Station Battery
Control Power
LCD Screen Keypad Switches
Digital Excitation Controller
Redundant Digital Excitation Controller
Aux. Input
125 V dc 120 V ac
Local Indicators:
AVR Mode
Manual Mode
Droop
Autotracking
R/L Limit Indicator
Under/Overexcitation
Limit
AC overvoltage
AC undervoltage
Underfrequency
Null
Control:
Protection:
Contactor Control
Setpoint-R/L Serial Link
Mode Transfer-Serial Link
Preposition-52b Contact
Field Overvoltage
Field Overcurrent
Gen. Undervoltage
Gen. Overvoltage
Loss of Voltage Sensing
Functions:
Communications - RS485
Voltage Regulation
Generator Softstart
Volts/Hertz
Reactive Droop
Voltage Matching
Var/P.F. Control
Field Current Regulator
Control
Calibration
Monitoring
Exciter Input/Output Status
Set Up
t
t t t
t t t
Fig. 2. A typical digital excitation control system.
erator. It is performed with the breakers open
because the generator is in the least stable condi-
tion, i.e., the least saturation and the highest gain
(see Fig. 4). Similar tests can be performed with the
generator breaker closed, but with caution. Here,
the voltage step change needs to be very small to
avoid large changes in generator vars.
Comparing Analog to Digital
Control System Performance
Performance comparison and tuning techniques
are demonstrated by replacing the analog excita-
tion system controlling the field of a rotating ex-
citer with a digital system.
Analog system: The analog voltage regulator was
installed on a hydroturbine generator in the late
1980s for a machine rated for 40 MVA, 13,800 V
ac, at 0.85 pf. It has a 14-s main field time constant
and a 2-s exciter field time constant.
One of the factors affecting machine perfor-
mance is the generator field time constant. As the
machine time constant increases, the speed of sys-
tem response slows due to the inherent lag caused
by the field inductance that will resist change. Ad-
ditionally, since many systems have rotating excit-
ers, the speed of response is further attenuated
because of the additional phase lag introduced by
the second field (see Fig. 2).
Fig. 5 and Table I represent step responses per-
formed with the systemdescribed above. The origi-
nal analog excitation systemused a lead/lag stability
network and a three-phase, single-quadrant,
halfwave-controlled semiconductor- controlled rec-
tifier (SCR) bridge for field control [7]. The excita-
tion system was designed to provide 5 p.u. field
forcing to speed the response of the generator.
IEEE 421.2 [8] provides the guidelines for per-
formance analysis after a voltage step change. Here,
a criterion is established for expected ranges of
voltage overshoot, voltage rise times, and settling
time. Depending upon the type of excitation pro-
vided and the type of control used, performance ex-
pectations will vary from acceptable to excellent.
For these tests, a voltage step change was intro-
duced into the voltage regulator setpoint causing
the generator voltage to move from 12.2 to 13.5
kVac. During the test, generator voltage overshoot
reached 303 Vac before recovering to nominal. The
generator voltage reached the peak value in 3.5 s,
IEEE Industry Applications Magazine I March/April 2001 39
Generator
No Load
Air Gap Line
Generator No Load
Saturation Curve
Generator
Full Load
Saturation
Curve
VT = Generator Rated Voltage
VF = Generator Field Voltage
0
100%
100%
Field Voltage
G
e
n
e
r
a
t
o
r
T
e
r
m
i
n
a
l
V
o
l
t
a
g
e
= Gain
VT
VF
Fig. 4. Generator saturation curve illustrating
generator gain.
Exciter Field Voltage
Generator Voltage 325 V ac min/div
1 s/div
1 s min/div
25 V/div
V ac
Exciter
Field
V dc
Fig. 5. Voltage step responses performed on a hydro
turbine generator with analog voltage regulation.
Table I. Initial Performance
Starting Generator V ac Final Generator Voltage Generator Voltage
Overshoot from Final
Settling Value
Rise Time to Reach Peak Voltage Recovery Time
12.2 kV 13.5 kV 303 3.5 s 7.5 s
Exciter field forcing Field response
160 V dc Optimum
V
C
V
C
V
REF
V
REF
V
S
V
S
+
+
+
V
RMAX
V
RMAX
V
RMIN
V
RMIN
V
R
V
R
K (1+sT )
A C
s(1+sT )
B
sK
F
(1+sT )(1+sT )
F1 F2
K
1
s
K
P
sK
D
1+sT
D
K K
G A
1+sT
A
+
+
+
+
+

Fig. 3. Simplified block diagrams of automatic

voltage regulators. (a) Analog AVR with lead-lag
controller. (b) Digital AVR with PID controller.
with total recovery in 7.5 s. Note the generator
voltage swing prior to the generator voltage set-
tling to the steady state value. During the initial
tuning of the analog excitation system, different
phase lead and lag compensation was implemented
to determine best settings for performance. This
was accomplished by adding external capacitors to
optimize unit performance.
Digital system: After testing was completed us-
ing the analog system, the digital controller was
installed. The new excitation system included a
two-quadrant power SCR bridge that could pro-
vide both positive and negative field forcing, com-
bined with a digital controller to hasten flux
changes in the field winding and quicken system
voltage recovery.
With the use of digital control, the ingredients
for fast, but stable performance can be readily ac-
commodated by adjusting the controller gains. To
set the control gains, a graphical user interface,
such as the one shown in Fig. 6, provides the user
with an accessible method to modify the PIDgains
as well as loop gain (K
G
) settings. The loop gain
compensates for variations in systemconfiguration
that are associated with the power input voltage
used to drive the SCRs in the field circuit. Varia-
tions in the magnitude of K
G
loop gain affect the
overall response.
To analyze the effect of the PIDgains on genera-
tor performance, a number of tests were executed.
The voltage step changes were performed open cir-
cuited in 5%voltage steps to increase and decrease
generator voltage. Fig. 7 illustrates initial perfor-
mance settings for the PID controllers prior to op-
timization. Initial readings indicate performance
with voltage overshoot reaching 168 V ac from a
13.2-kVac base value. The generator voltage takes
4.5 s to reach the peak voltage and more than 10 s
to recover back to nominal after the step change.
Notice that the field voltage offers very little
field forcing during the disturbance and the field
voltage is very slow to decay back to the
steady-state value (see Table II).
In the next test, the PIDgains were modified to
improve transient performance (see Fig. 8).
Here, the derivative gain (K
D
) was increased
from 100 to 120, the proportional gain (K
P
) from
80 to 200, and the integral gain from20 to 30. The
voltage overshoot now reduces to 100 V ac as the
increased derivative gain anticipates voltage recov-
ery and improves damping. Note that the time it
takes to reach the voltage maximumis down to 2 s,
and the total recovery time is nowonly 4.5 s. As the
gains were increased, the voltage regulator now
reaches 110 V dc, and the field voltage becomes
under damp momentarily and forces the field a
negative 15 V dc (see Table III).
Fig. 9 further demonstrates the performance
variation, as PIDgain settings are further modified
to improved system performance. An increase of
the proportional gain from 200 to 300 reduces the
time to reach the maximum voltage peak to 1.5 s.
At the same time, increasing the derivative gain
from120 to 150 decreases the voltage overshoot to
a level of 48 V ac. Notice how field behavior pro-
duces the cause and effect that improves perfor-
mance, i.e., higher field forcing, faster response.
IEEE Industry Applications Magazine I March/April 2001 40
V ac
1.5 s/div
189 V/div
1.5 s/div
100 V/div
1.5 s/div
30 V/div
V dc
Main
Field
V dc
Exciter
Field
AVR Mode
Exciter Field Voltage
Generator Terminal Voltage
Generator Field Voltage
Fig. 7. Initial performance settings for PID controllers.
V ac
1.5 s/div
189 V/div
1.5 s/div
100 V/div
1.5 s/div
30 V/div
V dc
Main
Field
V dc
Exciter
Field
AVR Mode
Exciter Field Voltage
Generator Terminal Voltage
Generator Field Voltage
Fig. 8. Increased PID gains.
Fig. 6. Typical graphical user interface allows
digital excitation controller setup.
Table IV shows that the field forcing now
reaches 140 V dc positive and becomes tempo-
rarily underdamp, forcing the field a -25 Vdc be-
fore recovering to nominal. The total response
improves to 3.2 s.
Fig. 10 highlights further improvements as
gains settings determine the final performance of
the generator. Increasing the derivative gain from
150 to 200 causes the generator voltage overshoot
to be nearly zero, and the voltage recovery, since
the voltage overshoot is nearly eliminated. Re-
sponse time becomes 1.5 s (see Table V).
Step response tests can be performed using the
graphical interface tools to enhance system perfor-
mance and minimize commissioning time. The
above study clearly demonstrates the performance
tuning benefits of the digital system over the ana-
log system.
Frequency Response Boosts Performance Analysis
A more complex method of determining generator
voltage stability and unit performance is by per-
forming a frequency response of the excitation sys-
tem with the generator over a range of frequencies.
This is known as a closed-loop analysis. The
closed-loop frequency response provides informa-
tion on the behavior of the excitation/generator sys-
tem over a frequency range that represents the
potential oscillatingregionof the generator system.
The test is performed by injecting a small sine
wave at various frequencies (0.1 to 3.0 Hz) into the
summing point of the excitation controller and mea-
suring the response of the generator terminal voltage.
Various methods are used to analyze system perfor-
mance suchas Root Locus, Nyquist, andBode. Inthis
study, Bode plots are utilizedto compare phase versus
frequency and gain versus frequency to evaluate sys-
tem performance. The Bode plots show phase shift
and relative gain of the overall generator system. For
goodperformance, the gainshouldremainessentially
flat at the low frequencies, then fall off as the signal
frequency increases. It is important for the gain to re-
main high over a wide bandwidth for greater contri-
bution to positive damping. The peak value of gain
just before it rolls off is an indicator of the voltage
overshoot during voltage step changes. Typically a
2-4dBrise as referencedinIEEE421.2Performance
Guidelines to TestingandEvaluatingGenerator Per-
formance is favored for good system response. Peak
values higher than 4 dBwould imply potentially un-
stable systems [9].
Figs. 12 and 13 represent the closed-loop fre-
quency response of the two excitation systems under
study. They are used to demonstrate the difference
in performance based upon the optimum settings
established during the voltage step changes. Notice
in Fig. 12, the maximum gain is zero at 0.1 Hz and
quickly falls as the frequency is increased to 1.0 Hz.
The phase shift follows similarly as it falls from-40
at 0.1 Hz to -160 at 1.0 Hz. The gain and phase
shift exhibited illustrates a very sluggish respond-
ing system as noted in Fig. 4.
The range of 0.1 to 0.3 Hz represents the criti-
cal frequency of the generator. The critical fre-
quency of the generator is derived from the 90
phase shift produced from the main field and the
90 phase lag caused by the exciter field. The two
90 phase shifts add directly to provide 180 phase
IEEE Industry Applications Magazine I March/April 2001 41
V ac
1.5 s/div
189 V/div
1.5 s/div
100 V/div
1.5 s/div
30 V/div
V dc
Main
Field
V dc
Exciter
Field
AVR Mode
Generator Terminal Voltage
Exciter Field Voltage
Generator Field Voltage
Fig. 9. Performance variation with modified P+D settings.
V ac
1.5 s/div
189 V/div
1.5 s/div
100 V/div
1.5 s/div
30 V/div
V dc
Main
Field
V dc
Exciter
Field
AVR Mode
Generator Terminal Voltage
Exciter Field Voltage
Generator Field Voltage
Fig. 10. Further improvements with gain settings increasing
derivative (KD).
lag. The actual critical frequency depends upon the
machine time constant; the larger the machine
time constant, the lower the critical frequency. For
this system, the range of 150 to 180 phase lag in
the range of 0.1 to 0.3 Hz represents the potential
oscillating area of the generator, which when com-
bined with the overall loop gain of the generator,
exciter, and voltage regulator can result in instabil-
ity if the gain is equal to one. The excitation stabil-
ity network minimizes the lagging phase shift to
provide a stable and quickly responding system.
Fig. 13 illustrates the Bode plot of the digital
excitation system utilizing optimized PID gains
noted in Fig. 10 and Table V. Notice howthe gain
remains relatively flat from .05 to 0.2 Hz, then
peaks (3 dB above nominal) and rolls off as the sig-
nal frequency increases. The slight gain rise at 0.2
Hz provides desirable positive damping and com-
IEEE Industry Applications Magazine I March/April 2001 42
Table III. Results of Increased PID Gains
Starting Generator V ac Final Generator Voltage Generator Voltage
Overshoot from Final
Settling Value
Rise tTme to Reach Peak Voltage Recovery Time
12,483 13,107 120 2.0 s 4.5 s
KG loop gain KD derivative gain KP proportional gain KI integral gain
10 120 200 30
Exciter field forcing 110 V dc Exciter field response under
damp -15 V dc
110 V dc Under damp -15 V dc
Table IV. Results of Further Modification to PID Gains
Starting Generator V ac Final Generator Voltage Generator Voltage
Overshoot from Final
Settling Value
Rise Time to Reach Peak Voltage Recovery Time
12,552 13,180 48 1.5 s 3.2 s
KG loop gain KD derivative gain KP proportional gain KI integral gain
10 150 300 30
Exciter field forcing Exciter field response
140 V dc Under damp -25 V dc
Table V. Results of Further Improvements to Gain Settings
Starting Venerator V ac Final Generator Voltage Generator Voltage
Overshoot from Final
Settling Value
Rise Time to Reach Peak Voltage Recovery Time
12,544.8 13,171 5 V ac 1.5 s 1.5 s
KG loop gain KD derivative gain KP proportional gain KI integral gain
10 200 300 30
Exciter field forcing Exciter field response
150 V dc -10 V dc
Table II. Initial Performance Settings for PID Controllers
Starting Generator V ac Final Generator Voltage Generator Voltage
Overshoot from Final
Settling Value
Rise Time to Reach Peak Voltage Recovery Time
12,552 13,180 168 4.5 s 14 s
KG loop gain KD derivative gain KP proportional gain KI integral gain
10 100 80 20
Excitation field forcing Field response
90 V dc Very sluggish
pliments the performance observed during the
voltage stepresponses inFig. 10as beingoptimal.
Tools for Easier Programming
To simply the process of customtuning the excita-
tion, tools are available in the excitation system to
provide starting gains for the PID settings needed
for commissioning. The often-provided graphical
user interface screens are used to help select the
PID numbers for the excitation controller stabil-
ity. Here, the time constant of the generator fields
is typed into a user screen and the PIDnumbers are
automatically calculated. Step responses are then
performed to verify system performance.
Although this article focuses primarily on PID
settings of the voltage regulator controller, other
control loops such as excitation limiters, var/PF
controllers [10], and field-current regulators uti-
lize similar gain-setting techniques for control sys-
tem optimization. As before, step responses are
again used to verify that the settings in the control-
lers will deliver stable operation when limits are
reached or other modes enabled.
Conclusion
It has become increasingly important to have an
optimally tuned excitation system to provide the
highest degree of reliability possible for the sys-
tem. The use of digital controllers helps dramati-
cally improve the transient stability of the system
with tools to easily achieve ideal performance [11].
Tuning of the overall system can be accomplished
in a short period of time, even if the data supplied is
incorrect. The changing of parameters can be
quickly accomplished. This is not the case with the
analog-type regulator used here. Certain startup
functions can be easily accomplished, such as step
changes and monitoring of operating levels, with
the internal functions of the digital program. New
technology provides a medium to achieve a higher
standard of quality control in generation.
References
[1] K.A. Riddle, Renovation of a paper mill steam driven tur-
bine-generator, presented at IEEE Pulp and Paper Techni-
cal Conference, Rome, GA, 1995.
[2] A. Godhwani, M.J. Basler, and T.W. Eberly, Commis-
sioning and operational experience with a modern digital
excitation system, IEEE Trans. Energy Conversion, vol. 13,
pp. 183-187, June 1998.
[3] A. Godhwani and M.J. Basler, Design, test, and simulation
results of a var/power factor controller implemented in a
modern digital excitation system, presented at the IEEE
Power Engineering Society Summer Meeting 1998, San
Diego, CA.
[4] A. Godhwani and M.J. Basler, An under and over excita-
tion limiter implementation in a digital excitation system
for synchronous generator, presented at IEEE/PES Winter
Meeting, New York, NY, 1999.
[5] R.C. Schaefer, Application of static excitation systems for
rotating exciter replacement, presented at IEEE Pulp and
Paper Technical Conference, Cincinatti, OH, 1997.
[6] A. Godhwani and M.J. Basler, Supplemental control in a
moderndigital excitationsystem, submittedfor publication.
[7] R.C. Schaefer, Steam turbine generator excitation system
modernization, presented at the IEEE Pulp and Paper
Technical Conference, Rome, GA, 1995.
[8] IEEE Guide for Identification, Testing, and Evaluation of the
Dynamic Performance of Excitation Control Systems, IEEE Std
421.2, 1990.
[9] R.C. Schaefer, Voltage regulator influence on generator
stability, presented at Waterpower, 1991.
[10] R.C. Schaefer, Voltage versus var/power factor regulation
on hydro generators, presented at the IEEE Power System
Relaying Conference, 1993.
[11] IEEE Guide for Specification for Excitation Systems, IEEE Std
421.4, 1990.
IEEE Industry Applications Magazine I March/April 2001 43
0 0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
.1 1.0 10. .01
(Hz)
Machine/Regulator Oscillating Frequency
P
h
a
s
e

S
h
i
f
t

I
n

D
e
g
r
e
e
s
.004
Exciter Field
Generator Field
Exciter +
Generator Field
Fig. 11. Phase shift of the exciter field, the generator field, and
the sum of the two.
Gain (dB) Phase (deg)
2
0
2
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
26
28
30
6
4
8
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
10 1 0.1 0.01
Gain (dB) Phase (deg)
Frequency (Hz)
Fig. 12. Bode plot of off-line frequency response with analog
voltage regulator.
Gain (dB) Phase (deg)
100
50
0
50
100
150
15
10
5
0
5
10
Gain (dB) Phase (deg)
0.01 0.1 1 10
Frequency (Hz)
Fig. 13. Bode plot of off-line frequency response with digital
voltage regulator.