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Supplement 7-A
Rotational Invariance
In this supplement we show that the assumption of a central potential implies the conser-
vation of angular momentum. We make use of invariance under rotations. The kinetic en-
ergy, which involves p
2
, is independent of the direction in which p points. The central
potential V(r) is also invariant under rotations. We show that this invariance implies the
conservation of angular momentum.
INVARIANCE UNDER ROTATIONS ABOUT THE z-AXIS
Consider the special case of a rotation through an angle about the z-axis: With
(7A-1)
it is easy to see that
(7A-2)
and
(7A-3)
Since the Hamiltonian has an invariance property, we expect a conservation law,
as we saw in the case of parity. To identify the operators that commute with H, let us
consider an infinitesimal rotation about the z-axis. Keeping terms of order only so
that
(7A-4)
we require that
(7A-5)
If we expand this to rst order in and subtract from it
(7A-6)
we obtain from the term linear in
(7A-7) H
y
y
u
E
(x, y, z) E
y
y
u
E
(x, y, z)
Hu
E
(x, y, z) Eu
E
(x, y, z)
Hu
E
(x y, y x, z) Eu
E
(x y, y x, z)
y y x
x x y

cos
x
sin
sin
x
cos
2
r (x
2
y
2
z
2
)
1/2
(x
2
y
2
z
2
)
1/2
r
y x sin y cos
x x cos y sin
W-28
c07s.qxd 2/14/03 7:49 PM Page W-28
The right side of this equation may be written as
(7A-8)
If we dene
(7A-9)
then (7A-7) and (7A-8) together read
Since the u
E
(r) form a complete set, this implies the operator relation
(7A-10)
holds. L
z
is the z-component of the operator
(7A-11)
which is the angular momentum. Had we taken rotations about the x- and y-axis, we
would have found, in addition, that
(7A-12)
Thus the three components of the angular momentum operators commute with the Hamil-
tonian; that is, the angular momentum is a constant of the motion. This parallels the clas-
sical result that central forces imply conservation of the angular momentum.
[H, L
y
] 0
[H, L
x
] 0
L r p
[H, L
z
] 0
(HL
z
L
z
H)u
E
(x, y, z) 0
L
z

y
y
xp
y
yp
x
y
y
E u
E
(x, y, z)
y
y
H u
E
(x, y, z)
Invariance Under Rotations About the z-Axis W-29
c07s.qxd 2/14/03 7:49 PM Page W-29
Supplement 7-B
Angular Momentum
in Spherical Coordinates
We start with spherical coordinates, as dened in Fig. 7-2. We have
(7B-1)
From this it follows that
(7B-2)
These may be solved to give
(7B-3)
With the help of these we obtain
(7B-4)
We may use these to calculate the angular momentum operators in terms of the spherical
angles. We have
(7B-5)
L
z

y
y
L r p
op

i
(r )

z
cos
r

1
r
sin
y
sin sin
r

1
r
cos sin

cos
r sin

sin cos
r

1
r
cos cos

sin
r sin

x

r
x

d
1
r sin
(sin dx cos dy)
d
1
r
(cos cos dx cos sin dy sin dz)
dr sin cos dx sin sin dy cos dz
dz cos dr r sin d
dy sin sin dr r cos sin d r sin cos d
dx sin cos dr r cos cos d r sin sin d
z r cos
y r sin sin
x r sin cos
W-30
c07s.qxd 2/14/03 7:49 PM Page W-30
(7B-6)
Similarly, we construct
(7B-7)
and
(7B-8)
It is fairly straightforward to calculate
We leave it to the reader to do the algebra. The nal result is
(7B-9)
Which is just the expression in eq. (7-13).
The equation
L
2
Y(, )
2
Y(, )
L
2

2
2
cot

1
sin
2

cos
cot sin
cos
cot sin
2

2
sin
cot cos
sin
cot cos
L
2
L
2
x
L
2
y
L
2
z

cos
cot sin
r sin cos
cos
r

sin
r

r cos
sin cos
r

1
r
cos cos

sin
r sin

L
y

x
x
sin
cot cos
r cos
sin sin
r

1
r
cos sin

cos
r sin

r sin sin
cos
r

sin
r

L
x

z
z
r sin sin
sin cos
r

1
r
cos cos

sin
r sin

r sin cos
sin sin
r

1
r
cos sin

cos
r sin

Angular Momentum in Spherical Coordinates W-31

c07s.qxd 2/14/03 7:49 PM Page W-31
when written out in spherical coordinates, is
(7B-10)
Let us separate variables again. If we write the solution in the form
(7B-11)
We multiply everything by sin
2
, and divide by P()(). This leads to
The two sides of the equation depend on different variables. They must therefore each be
constant. We call the constant m
2
, without specifying whether this quantity is real or com-
plex. The solution of
(7B-12)
is
(7B-13)
The requirement that the solution is single valuedthat is, it does not change when
l 2requires that m be an integer. When this is substituted into our differential
equation, we end up with
(7B-14)
We now dene
(7B-15)
Using
and using the fact that sin
2
1 z
2
, can rewrite the equation as follows:
(7B-16)
Consider rst the m 0 case. Let us write the solution as
(7B-17)
Some simple manipulations show that the coefcients a
n
obey the recurrence relation
(7B-18) a
n2

n
2
n
(n 1)(n 2)
a
n
P(z)
n0
a
n
z
n
(1 z
2
)
d
2
dz
2
2z
d
dz

m
2
1 z
2

P(z) 0

d
2
d
2

d
d

sin
d
dz
cos
d
dz
sin
2

d
2
dz
2

d
d

dz
d

d
dz
sin
d
dz
z cos
d
2
d
2
cot
d
d

P()
m
2
sin
2

P()
() Ce
im
2
() m
2
()
1
P()

sin
2

d
2
d
2
sin cos
d
d
sin
2

P()
1
()

d
2
()
d
2
Y(, ) P()()
2
cot

1
sin
2

Y(, ) 0
W-32 Supplement 7B Angular Momentum in Spherical Coordinates
c07s.qxd 2/14/03 7:49 PM Page W-32
The series will not terminate if is not an integer. In that case, for large n,
(7B-19)
This means that for some large value of n N the series approaches a polynomial in z
plus
(7B-20)
This, however, is singular at z 1. The only way to evade this singularity is to choose the
numerator in (7B-18) to become zero when n reaches some integral valuesay, n l.
This means that the eigenvalue is
(7B-21)
and that P(z) is a polynomial of order l in the variable z. We will label the polynomial as
P
l
(z). These polynomials are known as Legendre polynomials. A short list follows:
(7B-22)
We next observe that the m 0 solutions are related to the m 0 solutions. Let us rst
write the solution of (7B-16) as The equation for the may be written in the
form
(7B-23)
If one writes
(7B-24)
then
and then
This is to be set equal to
After this is done, some rearrangements are made, and the resulting equation is multiplied
by (1 z
2
)
m/2
, one nally obtains the equation
(7B-25) (1 z
2
)
d
2
F
dz
2
2z(m 1)
dF
dz
(l m)(l m 1)F 0
m
2
1 z
2
l(l 1)
(1 z
2
)
m/2
F
[m(m 1)z
2
1](1 z
2
)
m/21
F
(1 z
2
)
m/21

d
2
F
dz
2
2z(m 1)(1 z
2
)
m/2

dF
dz
d
dz

(1 z
2
)
dP
m
l
(z)
dz

dP
m
l
(z)
dz
mz(1 z
2
)
m/21
F (1 z
2
)
dF
dz
P
m
l
(z) (1 z
2
)
m/2
F(z)
d
dz

(1 z
2
)
dP
m
l
(z)
dz

l(l 1)
m
2
1 z
2
P
m
l
(z) 0
P
m
l
(z) P
m
l
(z).
P
4
(z)
1
8
(35z
4
30z
2
3)
P
3
(z)
1
2
(5z
3
3z)
P
2
(z)
1
2
(3z
2
1)
P
1
(z) z
P
0
(z) 1
l(l 1)
1 z z
2
z
3

1
1 z
a
n2
a
n
l 1
Angular Momentum in Spherical Coordinates W-33
c07s.qxd 2/14/03 7:49 PM Page W-33
One can now show that this equation is satised by
(7B-26)
We have therefore shown that
(7B-27)
These functions are known as associated Legendre functions.
Note that only m
2
appears in the equation, so that for m in the last equation we can
equally well write m. It is also clear from the form that m l, since the highest power
in P
l
(z) is z
l
. For m negative we take (1)
m
P
m
l
(z).
P
m
l
(z) (1 z
2
)
m/2

d
dz
m
P
l
(z)
F(z)
d
dz
m
P
l
(z)
W-34 Supplement 7B Angular Momentum in Spherical Coordinates
c07s.qxd 2/14/03 7:49 PM Page W-34

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Supplement 7-A

Angular Momentum in Spherical Coordinates W-31

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