70.

A Nearly Uniform
Traffic Flow Example
In this section another type of traffic problem involving a nearly uniform
traffic density will be solved. Suppose that the initial traffic density is constant
for the semi-infinite expressway illustrated in Fig. 70-1. How many cars per
hour would have to continually enter in order for the traffic flow to remainuniform ? The
traffic flow at the entrance must be p0u(po), the flow corresponding
to the uniform density p0. To prove this statement (though to many
of you a mathematical proof of this should not be necessary), consider the
interval of roadway between the entrance and the point x = a. Using the
integral conservation of cars,
Since the traffic density is prescribed to be constant, the left hand side is zero.
Thus the flow at x a must be the same as the flow at the entrance q(a, t) =
g(0, t). But the flow at x = a is p0u(po). Thus q(Q, t) = />0w(/>0)-In other words,
the flow "in" must equal the flow "out," as the number of cars in between
stays the same assuming constant density.
However, suppose that the flow in of cars is slightly different (and varies
in time) from that flow necessary for a uniform density,
with #,(/) known. What is the resulting traffic density ? The partial differential
equation is the same as before:
being derived from
The traffic is assumed initially to be uniform, so that the initial condition is
(This could be generalized to also include initial densities that vary slightly
from the uniform case.) Note that the initial condition is only valid for
x > 0 (rather than in the previous sections in which oo < x < oo). The
initial condition must be supplemented by the flow condition, equation 70.1,
called a boundary condition since it occurs at the boundary of the roadway,
the entrance to the expressway at x = 0.
The general solution to the partial differential equation has already been
Obtained or equivalently
Let us use the concepts of characteristics assuming light traffic, i.e., c > 0
(heavy traffic is discussed in the exercises). The characteristics are the lines
x ct = constant, sketched in Fig. 70-2. The density p{ is constant along
Figure 70-2 Characteristics along which the
density is constant.
these lines. Hence, in the shaded region in Fig. 70-2, the density pl = 0 or the
total density p = p0, since p = p0 at t = 0. The unshaded region is where on
the highway it is noticed that cars are entering at a nonuniform rate. In this
region the traffic density only differs slightly from a uniform density, equation
70.3. What is the density of cars if the density remains the same moving at
speed cl From the diagram in Fig. 70-2, the traffic density at (x, t) is the same
as the traffic density at the entrance at a time x/c earlier,
xfc is the time it takes a wave to move a distance x at speed c. Thus the
density at the entrance at time t (x/c) yields the density x miles along the
roadway at time t. The traffic density at the entrance can be determined since
the traffic flow is prescribed there (use equation 70.1 assuming p is near />)
The traffic flow, q(p) = q(p0 + g), may be expressed using Taylor series
methods,
The traffic flow is approximated by
since c = q'(po). Thus the perturbed traffic flow is simply c times the perturbed
density. Since the perturbed traffic flow is known at the entrance, qv(t), then and thus by
letting z = ct
Consequently the total car density is given by equation 70.3 as
In summary
This solution clearly indicates that information (that the traffic is entering at
x = 0) is propagated at a velocity c, and hence at position x the information
has taken time x/c to travel.

71. Nonuniform Traffic
The Method of Characteristics
The nonlinear first-order partial differential equation derived from conservation
of cars and the Fundamental Diagram of Road Traffic is
In the previous sections we considered approximate solutions to this equation
in cases in which the density is nearly uniform. The traffic was shown to vary
via density waves.
We will find the techniques of nearly uniform traffic density to be of great
assistance. Again consider an observer moving in some prescribed fashion
x(f). The density of traffic at the observer changes in time as the observer
moves about,
By comparing equation 71.1 to equation 71.2, it is seen that the density will
remain constant from the observer's viewpoint,
or p is a constant, if
For this to occur the observer must move at the velocity q'(p), the velocity at
which nearly uniform traffic density waves propagate. Since this velocity
depends on the density (which may dramatically vary from one section of
roadway to another), this velocity is called the local wave velocity. If the
observer moves at the local wave velocity, then the traffic density will appear
constant to that observer. Thus there exist certain motions for which an
observer will measure a constant traffic density, as shown in Fig. 71-1. Since equations 71.3
and 71.4 are ordinary differential equations, these curves are
again called characteristics. Along a characteristic, p is constant; the density
is the same density as it is at the position at which the characteristic intersects
the initial data.
In the case of nearly uniform flow,
and thus all the curves (characteristics) were parallel straight lines. In
nonuniform traffic flow, the observer moves at the local wave velocity. For
each observer, the traffic density remains the same, and therefore the local
wave velocity for this observer remains the same! The velocity at which each
observer moves is constant! Each observer moves at a constant velocity, but
different observers may move at different constant velocities, since they may
start with different initial traffic densities. Each moves at its own local wave
velocity. Each characteristic is thus a straight line as in the case of nearly
uniform flow. However, the slopes (related to the velocities) of different
characteristics may be different. The characteristics may not be parallel
straight lines.
Consider the characteristic which is initially at the position x = a on the
highway, as shown in Fig. 71-2. Along the curve dx/dt = q'(p), dp\dt = 0 or
p is constant. Initially p equals the value at x = a (i.e., at t = 0). Thus along
this one characteristic,
which is a known constant. The local wave velocity which determines the
characteristic is a constant, dx/dt = q '(/>). Consequently, this characteristic
is a straight line,
where k, the x-intercept of this characteristic, equals a since at / = 0, x = a.
Thus the equation for this one characteristic is
Along this straight line, the traffic density p is a constant,
Similarly, for the characteristic initially emanating from x = ft,
also a straight line characteristic, but with a different slope (and corresponding
different velocity) if #'(/>) = q'(pp)- Thus, for example, we have
Fig. 71-3.
Figure 71 -3 Possibly nonparallel straight line characteristics.
In this manner the density of cars at a future time can be predicted. To
determine the density at some later time t = t* at a particular place x = x#,
the characteristic that goes through that space-time point must be obtained
(see Fig. 71-4). If we are able to determine such a characteristic, then since
the density is constant along the characteristic, the density of the desired
point is given by the density at the appropriate jc-intercept,
This technique is called the method of characteristics.
Figure 71-4 Using characteristics to determine
the future traffic density.
The density wave velocity, dqjdp, is extremely important. At this velocity
the traffic density stays the same. Let us describe some properties of this
density wave velocity. We have assumed dqfdp decreases as p increases (see
Fig. 63-3); the density wave velocity decreases as the traffic becomes denser.
Furthermore, we will now show a relationship between the two velocities,
density wave velocity and car velocity. To do so the characteristic velocity is
conveniently expressed in terms of the traffic velocity and density. Since we
know q = pu(p),
du/dp < 0 by the original hypothesis that cars slow down as the traffic
density increases, see Fig. 71-5. (Equality above is valid only in very light
traffic when speed limits, rather than the interaction with other cars, control
an auto's velocity.) Consequently, dqfdp < u, that is the density of automobiles
(or density wave) always moves at a slower velocity than the cars
themselves!

72. After a Traffic Light Turns Green
In the past sections the intent has been to develop in each reader a sufficient
understanding of the assumptions under which we have formulated a
mathematical model of traffic. The time has come to solve some problems and
explain what kinds of qualitative and quantitative information the model
yields. In this section we will formulate and solve one such interesting
problem.
Suppose that traffic is lined up behind a red traffic light (or behind a
railroad crossing, with a train stopping traffic). We call the position of the
traffic light x = 0. Since the cars are bumper to bumper behind the traffic
light, p = /?max for x < 0. Assume that the cars are lined up indefinitely and,
of course, are not moving. (In reality the line is finite, but could be very long.
Our analysis is limited then to times and places at which the effects of a
thinning of the waiting line can be ignored.) If the light stops traffic long
enough, then we may also assume that there is no traffic ahead of the light,
p = 0 for x > 0. Thus the initial traffic density distribution is as sketched in
Fig. 72-1
Suppose that at / = 0, the traffic light turns from red to green. What is the
density of cars for all later times? The partial differential equation describing
conservation of cars,
must be solved with the initial condition
Note the initial condition is a discontinuous function. Before solving this
problem, can we guess what happens from our own observations of this type
of traffic situation ? We know that as soon as the light turns green, the traffic
starts to thin out, but sufficiently far behind the light, traffic hasn't started to
move even after the light changes. Thus we expect the density to be as
illustrated in Fig. 72-2. Traffic is less dense further ahead on the road; the
density is becoming thinner or rarefied and the corresponding solution will be
called a rarefactive wave.
Figure 72-2 Traffic density: expected qualitative behavior after red light
turns green.
We will show the solution of our mathematical model yields this type of
result. Partial differential equation 72.1 may be solved by the method of
characteristics as discussed in Sec. 71. As a brief review, note that ifdx/dt =
p(x, t) is constant along the characteristics, which are given by
dq/dp, then dpjdt = (dp/dt) + (dx/df)(dp/dx) = 0. Thus the traffic density p(x, t) is constant
along the characteristics, which are given by
The density propagates at the velocity dqjdp. Since p remains constant, the
density moves at a constant velocity. The characteristics are straight lines. In
the x-t plane
where each characteristic may have a different integration constant k. Let us
analyze all characteristics that intersect the initial data at x > 0. There
p(x, 0) = 0. Thus p = 0 along all lines such that
where this velocity has been evaluated using equation 72.2. The characteristic
velocity for zero density is always wmax, the car velocity for zero density. The
characteristic curves which intersect the *-axis for x > 0 are all straight lines
with velocity t/max. Hence the characteristic which emanates from x = x0
(x0 > 0) at t = 0 is given by
Various of these characteristics are sketched in Fig. 72-3. The first characteristic
in this region starts at x = 0 and hence x = maxf. Thus below in the
lined region (x > wmaxO, the density is zero; that is no cars have reached that
region. At a fixed time if one is sufficiently far from the traffic light, then no
cars have yet arrived and hence the density is zero. In fact imagine you are in
the first car. As soon as the light changes you observe zero density ahead of
you, and therefore in this model you accelerate instantaneously to the speed
Wmax- You would not reach the point x until t Jt/wmax, and thus there would
be no cars at x for t < #/wmax.
Figure 72-3 Characteristics corresponding to no traffic.
Now we analyze the characteristics that intersect the initial data for
x < 0, where the cars are standing still being at maximum density, p = />m.
P = />ma* along these characteristics determined from equation 72.2
where we have used the fact that u(pmtK) = 0. This velocity is negative since
'(/>maJ < 0; the maximum density is certainly in the region of "heavy"
traffic. Thus these characteristics are all parallel straight lines with the appropriate
negative velocity that intersect the negative x-axis,
as sketched in Fig. 72-4. The boundary of the region in which p = />max is the
characteristic emanating from x = 0 (at t = 0). The cars are still bumper to
bumper in the region indicated in Fig. 72-4 on the left,
After the light changes to green the cars start moving such that it takes a
finite amount of time before each car moves. (A familiar experience, wouldn't
you say ?)
Figure 72-4 Method of characteristics: regions of no traffic and bumperto-
bumper traffic.
Consider the th car in line at the light. This theory predicts that after the
light changes to green, the nth car waits an amount of time equal to
where L is front-to-front distance between cars. (Note u'(pm^ < 0.) We have
ignored driver reaction and acceleration time. Hence we expect this time to
be a little too short. It might be interesting to measure the waiting times at
traffic lights as a function of the car's position (i.e., how far back). You can
perform this experiment. Is the waiting time roughly linearly dependent on
the car's position as predicted above? Use your data to compute '(/>max).
Does w'(/>max) significantly vary for different road situations ?
Data roughly extrapolated from the Lincoln Tunnel experiments (see
sec. 62, assuming />max = 225 cars/mile) suggest that
For each car behind the light, the predicted waiting time is
In seconds, the waiting time is
or approximately % second per car.
So far only the easiest part of the problem has been calculated, namely the
regions of roadway in which the density is either 0 or /?max. We seemed to have
utilized the method of characteristics to its total extent since the initial
density consisted of only the two values shown in Fig. 72-1. We have predicted
the density is
and
as shown in Fig. 72-5. This is insufficient, as the density has not been determined
in the region
the region in which cars actually pass through the green traffic light!
To investigate this problem we first assume that the initial traffic density
was not discontinuous, but smoothly varied between p = 0 and p pmtx in a
very small distance, Ax, near the traffic light, see Fig. 72-6. If Ax is sufficiently
small, then we expect the solution to this problem to be essentially
equivalent to the solution in the case in which Ax = 0. If Ax ^ 0, the
characteristics along which p = 0 and p = />mtx may be sketched in a spacetime
diagram as are demonstrated in Fig. 72-7. There must be characteristics
which emanate close to the origin, p is constant along the line
Figure 72-7 Space-time diagram for rapid transition from no traffic to
bumper-to-bumper traffic.
Since p ranges continuously between p = 0 and p = />max, the velocity
dqjdp is always between its values corresponding to p = 0 and p = /?max,
namely between wmax and />mx'(/>max)> respectively. Where the density is
smaller, the velocity dqjdp is greater (see Fig. 72-10). As density increases,
the wave velocity diminishes. There is a value at which the wave velocity is
zero (recall it is a stationary wave corresponding to the road's capacity), and
then for denser traffic the wave velocity is negative. A few of these characteristics
are sketched in Fig. 72-8. The straight line characteristics have
different slopes. Notice that the characteristics "fan out." The distance over
which traffic changes from no cars to bumper to bumper increases as time
increases. The traffic "spreads out" or "expands" after the light changes from
red to green.
If the initial traffic density is in fact discontinuous (see Fig. 72-4), then we
will obtain the density in the "unknown" region by considering the limit of
the continuous initial condition problem as Ax > 0. p is constant along the
characteristics
sketched in dotted lines in Fig. 72-7, where x0 is the position of the characteristic
at t = 0 and is very small (we might later expect that it can be ignored).
Since p ranges continuously between p = 0 and p = />max, the velocity
dqjdp is always between its values corresponding to p = 0 and p = /?max,
namely between wmax and />mx'(/>max)> respectively. Where the density is
smaller, the velocity dqjdp is greater (see Fig. 72-10). As density increases,
the wave velocity diminishes. There is a value at which the wave velocity is
zero (recall it is a stationary wave corresponding to the road's capacity), and
then for denser traffic the wave velocity is negative. A few of these characteristics
are sketched in Fig. 72-8. The straight line characteristics have
different slopes. Notice that the characteristics "fan out." The distance over
which traffic changes from no cars to bumper to bumper increases as time
increases. The traffic "spreads out" or "expands" after the light changes from
red to green.
If the initial traffic density is in fact discontinuous (see Fig. 72-4), then we
will obtain the density in the "unknown" region by considering the limit of
the continuous initial condition problem as Ax > 0. p is constant along the
characteristics
sketched in dotted lines in Fig. 72-7, where x0 is the position of the characteristic
at t = 0 and is very small (we might later expect that it can be ignored).
which are again straight lines (you should repeat the reasons as to why)
x = (dqjdp)t + *o- The characteristics not corresponding to p = 0 or
P = An.* go through x = 0 at / = 0 (this is the result of letting Ax > 0).
Thus x0 = 0 and
Figure 72-9 Fan-shaped characteristics due to discontinuous initial data.
characteristic, the density is constant. To obtain the density at a given x and
/, we must determine which characteristic goes through that position at that
time. At the point (x, i) the density wave velocity is known:
Equation 72.4 must be solved for p. Since dqjdp only depends on p, often it is
possible to algebraically solve for p as a function of x and t (actually, in this
case, a function of xfi) in the region of fanlike characteristics. An explicit
example of this calculation is discussed in the next section. However, sometimes
only a sketch of dq\dp may be known, as shown in Fig. 72-10. As
always, we have assumed that dqjdp decreases as p increases. At a given
position within the region of fanlike characteristics, the density may be
determined graphically as follows. Given jc and t, dq/dp is calculated via
equation 72.4. dqjdp is then located on the dqfdp versus p figure and the
corresponding value of p determined as illustrated in Fig. 72-10.
Figure 72-10 Determination of traffic density from density wave velocity.
Alternatively, the Fundamental Diagram of Road Traffic can be used to
determine graphically the density at a given position on the roadway in the
region of fanlike characteristics. Given t and x, the slope of the straight line
from the origin to the point (t, ;c) in Fig. 72-11 equals dq/dp. Thus this
straight line must have the same slope as the tangent to the flow-density (q-p)
curve. The traffic density can thus be estimated by finding the density on the
q-p curve whose slope is the same as xjt, as demonstrated in Fig. 72-11.
The maximum flow occurs where dq/dp = 0. Thus the density wave that is
stationary (density wave velocity equals zero) indicates positions at which the
flow of cars is a maximum. In the problem just discussed, as soon as the light
changes from red to green, the maximum flow occurs at the light, x = 0, and
stays there for all future time. This suggests a simple experiment to measure
the maximum flow. Position an observer at a traffic light. Wait until the light
turns red and many cars line up. Then, when the light turns green, simply
measure the traffic flow at the light. If this theory is correct (that is, if u =
(/>)), then this measured traffic flow of cars will be constant and equal to the
maximum possible for the road (the capacity of the road).

73. A Linear Velocity-
Density Relationship
In order to illustrate the method of characteristics as it applies to traffic
problems, for educational reasons we will frequently find it convenient to
choose a simple velocity-density relationship having the general desired
features. Hopefully enough qualitative insight will be gained from a simple
curve to justify the quantitative errors in not using an experimentally observed
velocity-density curve.
If the velocity-density relationship is assumed to be linear,* then
which is sketched in Fig. 73-1. This has the four desired properties:
(1) "(An.*) = 0
(2) (0) = M
(3) -- < 0 (in a simple way)
Uf/
(4) */?/*//> decreases as p increases (since d2qjdpz < 0, as will be shown).
Figure 73-1 Linear velocity-density curve.
In this case the traffic flow can be easily computed,
yielding a parabolic Fundamental Diagram of Road Traffic, which is sketched
in Fig. 73-2. The density wave velocity,
yields both positive and negative wave velocities. The wave velocity decreases
as the density increases (i.e., dtqldp* < 0). The maximum flow occurs when
the density wave is stationary (density wave velocity equals zero). For this
linear velocity-density curve, the density at which the traffic flow is maximized
is exactly one-half the maximum density, p = pmtJ2, and the speed is
similarly one-half the maximum speed, (/>m.x/2) = wmax/2. (These values
should not be taken too literally for realistic situations, as they are based on
the possibly inaccurate linear density-velocity curve.) Thus the maximum
traffic flow is
a quarter of the traffic flow that would occur if bumper-to-bumper traffic
moved at the maximum speed.
Let us suppose that the velocity is given by equation 73.1. We will solve
for the traffic density after the traffic is started from a red light. That is, we
will consider the initial density as before,
The density wave velocities corresponding to p = 0 and p = /?max are easy to
calculate. From equation 73.3, (dq/dp)(ty = max as before, and (dqldp)(pm^
"max- Thus the characteristics along which p = 0 and p = />max may be
sketched on a space-time diagram, as Fig. 73-3 shows. We will explicitly
Figure 73-3 Space-time diagram for traffic light problem.
calculate the density in the fanlike region, maxf < x < wmaxf. There, the
characteristics are given by
since they start from x = 0 at t = 0. For the linear velocity-density relationship,
the density wave velocity is given by equation 73.3 and hence
Solving for p yields
For fixed time, the density is linearly dependent on x (in the region of fanlike
characteristics). Note at x = 0, p = />max/2, the density corresponding to
maximum flow (as shown in general in Sec. 72). Let us sketch in Fig. 73-4 the
density at t = 0 and at a later time using the known positions of the boundaries
of maximum and minimum traffic densities. It is seen that the density of
cars spreads out.
Figure 73-4 Traffic density: before and after light turns green.
The result can be seen in a different manner. We have shown the density p
stays the same moving at the density wave velocity dqjdp given by equation
73.3. Let us follow observers staying with the constant densities />m,
3/>max/4> />mx/2, /W/4, and 0, marked by on the diagram in Fig. 73-5
representing the initial density. Each observer is moving at a different
constant velocity. After some time (introducing an arrow showing how each
observer must move), Fig. 73-6 shows that the linear dependence of the wave
velocity on the density (equation 73.3) yields a linear density profile (as
previously sketched from equation 73.4).
Figure 73-5.
Figure 73-6 Different traffic density wave velocities.
Let us compute the motion of an individual car starting at a distance JCD in
back of this light, that is x = x0 (at t = 0). The velocity of the car is given
by the field velocity
The car stays still until the wave, propagating the information of the change
of the light, reaches the car, as illustrated in Fig. 73-7. After that time,
/ = x0/tfmtx, the car moves at the velocity given in the fanlike region,
Figure 73-7 Car path (while car isn't moving).
When a car behind the light starts moving its velocity is first zero and then
slowly increases. Since the density is determined from equation 73.4, it
follows that the car's velocity depends on both its position and on time:
To determine the trajectory of each car (i.e., the position x as a function
of time f) the solution of equation 73.5, a linear first-order nonhomogeneous
ordinary differential equation, must be obtained which satisfies the initial
condition that at
It can be solved in many ways. One method (there are others) is to note that
this equation, rewritten as
is a nonhomogeneous equidimensional equation. The method to solve this
equation is analogous to the method used for the second-order equidimensional
equation.* The homogeneous solution is where B is an arbitrary constant (this solution is
obtained either by equidimensional
techniques, x = tr
t or by separation of variables). A particular
solution is proportional to tr if the right-hand side is proportional to f
(r ^ 1/2). Thus x = At is a particular solution if (by substitution)
Therefore the "undetermined" coefficient is A = Mmtx. Hence the general
solution is
The initial condition, equation 73.6, determines B
and thus
Consequently, the position of this car is determined,
The car's velocity is
From equation 73.6 the car starts moving with zero initial velocity; it slowly
accelerates. Its velocity is always less than wmtx. For very large t, the car
approaches maximum velocity; dx/dt wmtx as t * oo, as shown in Fig.
73-8.
How long does it take the car to actually pass the light ? That is, at what
time is x = 0? From equation 73.7,
Thus,
Therefore the "undetermined" coefficient is A = Mmtx. Hence the general
solution is
The initial condition, equation 73.6, determines B
and thus
Consequently, the position of this car is determined,
The car's velocity is
that is 4 times longer than if the car were able to move at the maximum
speed immediately.
At what speed is the car going when it passes the light? We do not need to
do any calculations as at the light the traffic flow is maximum, which we have
shown occurs when the velocity is the maximum velocity, u = umtJ2.
Equation 73.8 agrees with this result.
If the light stays green until time T, how many cars will pass the traffic
light? We have already determined that a car starting at x0 passes the
traffic light at t = 4x0/m.x. Thus at time T, a car starting from um^T/4 will
be at the light. The number of cars contained in that distance is pmtx(umt]tTI4).
(This result can be obtained in a simpler manner. We know the flow at the
traffic light, the number of cars passing per hour, is wmix/>m.x/4. Thus in time
T, (wmx/>mi*/4)r cars have passed!) For a one-minute light, using />mix = 225
and max = 40 m.p.h., the number of cars is
The graphical technique based on the flow-density curve may also be used
to determine the traffic density after the light turns green, as well as to
approximate each car's path. Along characteristics, the density is constant.
Since the car velocity only depends on the density, it too is constant along
characteristics. Thus characteristics are isoclines for the differential equation,
If the light stays green until time T, how many cars will pass the traffic
light? We have already determined that a car starting at x0 passes the
traffic light at t = 4x0/m.x. Thus at time T, a car starting from um^T/4 will
be at the light. The number of cars contained in that distance is pmtx(umt]tTI4).
(This result can be obtained in a simpler manner. We know the flow at the
traffic light, the number of cars passing per hour, is wmix/>m.x/4. Thus in time
T, (wmx/>mi*/4)r cars have passed!) For a one-minute light, using />mix = 225
and max = 40 m.p.h., the number of cars is
determining the motion of individual cars. Using an x-t diagram such that
the slopes are measured in units of velocity yields Fig. 73-9. Figure 73-9
follows from the Fundamental Diagram of Road Traffic shown in Fig. 73-10.
To determine car paths, small horizontal lines (indicating no motion) are
sketched wherever p = />max. In addition, for example, we note that at x = 0,
the density is that corresponding to the road's capacity, and a car's velocity
there is marked by the dotted straight line on the Fundamental Diagram of
Road Traffic. This slope is also then marked wherever the density has that
value, as shown in Fig. 73-11. By connecting straight dashes (the method of
isoclines, see Sec. 26), the path of a car can be estimated for this problem, as
well as for those for which analytic solutions are impossible!

74. An Example
We have shown explicitly how to use the method of characteristics to solve
traffic problems which initially consist of regions of constant density. The
same ideas can be utilized when the initial density varies in a prescribed way,
For convenience, we again assume u(p) = wmax(l />//>max)5 *n which case the
density wave velocity determines the characteristics as follows:
The characteristic starting from
along which the density is constant, equaling its value at / 0,
The characteristics are sketched in Fig. 74-1. We assume that the characteristics
do not intersect. The more difficult case (and perhaps more interesting
one) in which characteristics intersect is not discussed until Sec. 76.
Figure 74-1 Nonparallel nonintersecting characteristics.
We use the method of characteristics in two equivalent ways to determine
the traffic density as a function of x and t:
from which an equation like equation 74.3 cannot be explicitly obtained.
Since the density at a point only depends on JCQ (i.e., on which characteristic
goes through it),
(1) PARAMETERIZING THE INITIAL POSITION
AS A FUNCTION OF X AND t
Each characteristic is labelled by its position, jc0, at / = 0. Given x and /,
we try to find XQ (i.e., which characteristic goes through the point (x, t)). p
is eliminated using equation 74.2 and thus equation 74.1 yields JCQ as a
function of x and /,
This step can not always be done explicitly as it may be impossible to
solve for JCQ. For example, if
then the characteristics are determined from equation 74.1,
when equation 74.3 exists. Thus substituting equation 74.3 into equation
74.2 yields the spatial and time dependence of the traffic density, equation
74.4.
(2) PARAMETERIZING THE INITIAL POSITION
AS A FUNCTION OF THE INITIAL DENSITY
An equivalent method is to first use equation 74.2 to determine * as a
function of p,
Again, it is not always possible to obtain from equation 74.2 an explicit
expression for x0. However, when equation 74.5 is substituted into
equation 74.1, an equation results involving only jc, /, and p, showing
p's dependence on x and t.
As a specific example, assume that u(p) = max(l />/Anx) and
as sketched in Fig. 74-2. If x0 > L or x0 < 0, the characteristics given by
equation 74.1 start from a region of constant density. Since the corresponding
density wave velocities are easily calculated,
we obtain the two regions of constant density,
following from the space-time sketches of the characteristics shown in Fig.
74-3. In the region where the traffic density has not been determined as yet, let
us use the method of characteristics as described by both equivalent procedures
(1) and (2).
(2) (7) *0(x,0
The characteristics which start from 0 < x0 < L satisfy equation 74.1,where
and thus the equation for these characteristics is
where we should remember this is valid for all XQ as long as 0 < jc0 < L.
Equation 74.7 determines x0 as a function of x and t, since equation 74.7 is a
quadratic equation for x0 (more easily expressed in terms of x0 L by
noting #0 = x0 L + L):
The solution of this quadratic equation is
The negative sign must be chosen above in order for 0 < x0 < L (this is seen
by recalling that maxf < x < wmaxf + L). The traffic density as a function
of x and t in the region corresponding to 0 < x0 < L follows by substituting
equation 74.8 into equation 74.6:
and thus the equation for these characteristics is
The solution of this quadratic equation is
admittedly a rather cumbersome expression. We note that as x approaches the
edges of the region of varying density, the density approaches the known
constants. In particular, from equation 74.9
Furthermore, we should verify that equation 74.9 satisfies the initial conditions.
This is not obvious since as / 0, both the denominator and numerator
tend to zero. To determine the limit as t * 0 of equation 74.9, the simplest
technique is to approximate the numerator as t > 0. Since ^\ t ^ 1 fy
as t 0, we see that as t > 0
Furthermore, we should verify that equation 74.9 satisfies the initial conditions.
This is not obvious since as / 0, both the denominator and numerator
tend to zero. To determine the limit as t * 0 of equation 74.9, the simplest
technique is to approximate the numerator as t > 0. Since ^\ t ^ 1 fy
as t 0, we see that as t > 0
Alternatively, we begin by using equation 74.6 to determine JCQ as a function
of p, (x0 L)2 = L2p/pmtx or A:O = L L+/p/pmtli. However, since
0 < xa < L, the minus sign must be used above:
Note that as p varies between 0 and /?max, x0 varies between 0 and L. By
substituting equation 74.10 into equation 74.1, an equation for the density is
obtained :
This equation may be expressed as a quadratic equation for */plpmtx:
Thus
where the positive sign of the square root has been chosen since ^/p/pmtx > 0.
Squaring this last equation yields an expression for p(x, f), which is identical
to that derived by procedure (1), equation 74.9.