Study of Death in Five Eastern Religions

Chris Hart

World Religious Traditions, Summer 2, XP74

Professor Richard Trussell
August 19, 2007

Chris Hart
World Religious Traditions I
Richard Trussell
August 19, 2007

Study of Death in Five Eastern Religions

Death defines one of the most basic aspects of human existence: that our own mortality
limits our longevity and existence. Despite our comprehension of our own mortality, the concept
of death raises more questions than it answers. While these questions are many and varied, Paul
Gauguins paining Where Do We Come From? What Are We? Where Are We Going? highlights
the foundations of these questions (Molloy 2). In this paper, I will summarize how Hinduism,
Buddhism, Confucianism, Taoism and Shinto address the topic of death with a particular focus
on the concept of death, how death is perceived within the belief system, beliefs of afterlife if
applicable and how death relates to family life.
In Hinduism, several concepts are central to understanding how death is viewed within
the belief system. A collection of works known as the Upanishads outline these concepts and
make them available to a lay person without interpretation from priests (Molloy 82). The
Upanishads describe Brahman as the cosmic force that can be known; it is not just something
that one believes. Brahman is many things, but it is best summarized as the experience that all
things are in some way ultimately one (Molloy 83). Molloy goes on to say that although
Brahman is experienced in the present time and place, it is also ultimately beyond time and
beyond space.
If Brahman is the universal cosmic force connecting everything in existence, Atman is the
personal experience of spirtuality - literally translated deepest self (Molly 84). In one sense,

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Atman is the reflection of Brahman in ones self. However, when one truly comprehends the
richness of Brahman there is no distinction between ones self and everything else. Molloy
continues to say that for the person who understands reality ..., everything is God. In this way,
there really is no distinction between Brahman and Atman; they are merely two different points
of view of the same idea.
It is through the lens of Brahman and Atman that the Hindu concept of samsara comes
into play. Samsara is the mechanism by which Hindu reincarnation operates. Hindus believe that
life and death are two points in a cycle - when something dies, it is reborn (Molloy 86). Samsara
rests on the interconnected and timeless foundation of Brahman, making it easy to see how
reincarnation relies on Brahman to pull the threads of life (and death) into a single web.
While samsara is cyclical, Hinduism also provides a method for it to cease through the
concept of moksha (translated as freedom or liberation). Moksha is attained through selfless
living and abandonment of the distinction between the individual and the external. By doing so,
one truly understands Brahman at the deepest level, reaching inner peace and mental freedom
(Molloy 86). As a result, moksha represents the ultimate goal of Hindu living.
Given this foundation, Hindus generally have little fear of death because in this view,
death is not an end. As the Chandogya Upanishad states, This body indeed withers and dies
when the living Self has left it; the living Self dies not. (qtd. in Van Voorst 36). Atman, through
its connection to Brahman, is eternal although its form may change. Molloy describes the
peacefulness this brings to Hindus in death through his personal experience viewing a public
Hindu cremation (the standard way of dealing with a Hindus remains): What had struck me
was the absence of sadness. ... The cremation had helped transform a body back to basic

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elements, [allowing] the spirit to move onward... (Molloy 107). Not only does this ease the fear
of death for the dying, it also eases the passing of a loved one for survivors.
This peaceful approach to death is not unique to Hinduism. In Buddhism, the Buddha
himself served as a role model of how one should deal with death. When the Buddha knew he
was dying, he reminded his saddened followers that everything that lives must die. The best that
one can do is to reach inner peace. This inner peace was shown by the Buddha as he died,
immortalized in the image of the Reclining Buddha, showing him resting peacefully on his
right side at the time of his death (Molloy 129).
Buddhism deals with the unpleasantness of death in a very direct and general way. The
discomfort of dying is just one example of the suffering inherent in life. The
Dhammacakkappaparattana Sutta addresses this topic by enumerating the Four Noble Truths:
life is painful (through events like disease, decay and death), desire causes this suffering,
suffering can be ended by eliminating our desire, and desire is destroyed by following the Noble
Eightfold Path (Van Voorst 82-83). The Noble Eightfold Path describes the way of right living
to eliminate desires and find inner peace.
It is with this understanding of life and suffering that Buddhism provides the concepts of
karma and reincarnation. Karma accompan[ies] and affect[s] the elements of personality that
reappear in later lifetimes as aspects of ones identity pass from one life to the next (Molloy
137-139). While similar concepts exist in Hinduism, one important distinction is that Buddhism
has no concept of a singular soul. Nonetheless, the Buddhist view of reincarnation plays an
important role in how Buddhists view death.
Similar to the Hindu concept of moksha, Buddhism provides the notion of nirvana, a
state of existence free of the suffering associated with mortal life. While achieving nirvana is

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rare, it is nonetheless the ideal state attained through enlightenment by perfecting the practice of
right living (Molloy 139-140). The combination of a tangible path to eliminating suffering, a
mechanism for rewarding right living through karma and reincarnation, and the hope of nirvana
forms the foundation for inner peace, both in living and in death.
Early Chinese religious beliefs heavily influenced the development of Confucianism and
Taoism and, as a result, are important as a foundation for both religions views on death. These
principles included a belief in spirits, veneration of ancestors (much more so than in western
traditions), and two complementary but opposing forces known as yin and yang (Molloy 217219).
These early Chinese beliefs combined with Buddhism heavily influenced the
development of Taoism. At the root of Taoism is Tao, representing the way that nature expresses
itself. One of the main objectives of Taoism is to guide human beings on how to live in a way
that brings them into unison with the Tao (Molloy 227). Closely related to Tao is the individuals
life force (known as qi), which plays an important role in health and well-being.
While other virtues are promoted by Taoism, one of particular interest is the idea of
effortlessness (known as wu wei). The practice of wu wei involves doing only what is necessary
and avoiding unnecessary work (Molloy 228). Wu wei plays an important role when considering
the two dimensions of Taoist thought of death.
One of the primary values of living in accordance with the Tao is improving longevity. A
variety of practices were developed to promote longevity, including exercises, breathing
practices, diet and massage. While these practices have observable physical effects, Taoism also
had forms of alchemy aimed at transforming ones life force. Internal alchemy deals with the
life force that exists within the practitioner's body. It was believed that mastering this practice

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could create a type of soul that could persist after physical death. Likewise, physical alchemy
used minerals and materials that could be ingested to lengthen life or even make one immortal
(Molloy 228-229).
While Taoism promotes methods to increase longevity, it also teaches acceptance of
death. Chuang-tzu, a collection of books, deals with the topic of death in book 12 where the
Master states, [the superior man] rejoices not in long life, and grieves not for early death. ... His
distinction is in understanding that all things belong to the one treasury, and that death and life
should be viewed in the same way. (qtd. in Van Voorst 169). Likewise, the Tao Te Ching,
another central writing to Taoism, deals with the issue thusly:
The world has a source: the worlds mother.
Once you know the mother,
You know the children.
Once you know the children,
Return to the mother.
Your body dies.
There is no danger.
(qtd. in Van Voorst 167)
A Chinese story illustrates this approach to death. In the story, the wife of a character
named Zhuangzi dies. When Zhuangzis friend, Hui Tzu, goes to visit him, he finds Zhuangzi
rejoicing. Hui Tzu is confused by this, but Zhuangzi explains that his wife has returned to the
form she had prior to her life as a human being - a formless substance of the universe. He
concludes by saying, If I were to follow after her bawling and sobbing, it would show that I
dont know anything about fate (Molloy 226). Zhuangzis acceptance of death reinforces the
circular, interconnected attributes of the Tao alluded to in the Chuang-tzu and Tao Te Ching
writings and shows how these beliefs may be applied by Taoists. At the same time, it reminds us
of the subtle influences from ancient beliefs such as yin and yang.

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The Taoist views on death form a dichotomy: on the one hand, death is to be avoided
through judicious use of exercises, meditations and alchemy, seemingly counter to the virtue of
wu wei. On the other hand, death is to be accepted without grieving or sadness because the Taoist
should recognize that death is not an end of life but merely a change in form. While these
concepts seem mutually exclusive, they illustrate the expansiveness of Taoist belief and how
belief systems evolve to deal with the most difficult issues of human nature.
In contrast to the directness with which Taoism deals with death, Confucianism seems to
avoid the subject to deal with more pragmatic concerns. Confucian beliefs focus on proper
living, maintaining a strong social and filial fabric and the nature of relationships (Molloy 239243). With this practical approach, Confucius did not discuss death or the afterlife in detail
(Kastenbaum). Since the focus of so much of Confucian beliefs is relationships amongst family
members and general society, it is through this lens that most discussion of death occurs.
Similar to Buddhism and Taoism, Confucian beliefs are described in several separate
books (Molloy 247). While all of the books are critical to understanding Confucian thought, two
books in particular provide guidance on relationships and death. In Analects, the Master
describes the virtues of the superior man, the moral and intellectual ideal of personal character
in Confucianism. In this description, the Master says, The superior man dislikes the thought of
his name not being mentioned after death. (qtd. in Van Voorst 144). This concept continues in
the Classic of Rites where the Master says, If the son for three years [after his fathers death]
does not alter from the way of his father, he may be called filial. (qtd. in Van Voorst 146).
The importance of filial piety and, to a lesser extent, reverence for more distant ancestors
is echoed throughout Confucian practices. This respect is expected to continue even after death
to a much greater degree than is common in western culture. This importance can be illustrated

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by the existence of a specific ritual, Sacrificial Odes of Kau, Ode 7 in the Classic of Poetry
(Van Voorst 154). Van Voorst quotes this ode, intended to honor ones parents, in one part
reading, You comfort me with the eyebrows of long life / You make me great with many
blessings.
The Confucian focus on pragmatic issues of life rather than death is perhaps best
summarized by Confucius proclamation, "While you do not know life, how can you [hope to]
know about death?" (Giles). This approach to living and dying is seen throughout the belief
system. Despite the limited amount of material related to death, it is nonetheless interesting
given the contrast with Taoism when considering the shared roots of the two religions.
While Confucianism was developing in China, Shinto was forming in Japan. Combined
with the historic influence of Buddhism, Shinto beliefs reveal artifacts of Confucian and
Buddhist beliefs. While this influence is important, a schism occurred when Japan used Shinto as
a mechanism to strengthen national identity (Molloy 269-271). This history is important as one
considers the view of death in Shinto.
Shintos beliefs are based on the powers of nature with spirits known as kami. Kami
represent a hybrid between animism (imbuing objects with a spiritual quality) and veneration of
ancestors (in spirit form). Shinto belief holds that two kami, Izanami and Izanagi, created Japan.
Izanami was eventually killed and a grieving Izanagi went to the underworld to find her. When
he found her, he was horrified: decay had disfigured her. He returned from the underworld and
cleansed himself of the impurity from being close to her death (Molloy 267-268).
The story of Izanami and Izanagi highlights two important aspects of Shinto belief.
Shintos focus on life and quality of living leads to death being viewed very negatively - it is the
very antithesis of life. At the same time, the story shows the importance placed on cleanliness in

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Shinto and demonstrates the connotation of anything opposing life as being unclean (Molloy
274). This negative connotation can also be seen by the belief that the deceased may become
kami if there is anger associated with their death. This apparent discomfort with the topic of
death in Shinto is supported by a familar adage in Shinto, "Shinto for weddings, Buddhism for
funerals" (Kastenbaum).
With so many shared roots and influence in these religions, it is interesting to investigate
common themes across their beliefs. In particular, Hinduism and Buddhism seem to share a
general approach to the concept of death: an absence of fear based on a trust on the belief system
that death is not an end to life in some sense. This belief goes further than just an afterlife, partly
because of the belief in reincarnation, but also at a deeper level because of the
interconnectedness of life, nature and reality. While the mechanism by which reincarnation
operates differs, the effect is the same; the afterlife can exist in the everyday world and not in
some unseen, unfamiliar place. At the same time, an afterlife in some other realm is possible if
one wants to achieve it by reaching moksha or nirvana.
Similarly, Confucianism, Taoism and Shinto all seem to shy away from the topic. While
Confucianism seems to do so for pragmatic reasons, Taoism and Shinto seem to be more
deliberate in their avoidance of the subject. At the same time, they share a common reverence
for ancestors and a respect for spirits. The practical admission of the absence of the subject in
the Shinto adage about Buddhism for funerals highlights the very real effect this avoidance has
on followers.
All five religions provide some support or hope for the survivors left behind by the death
of a loved one. In particular, Confucianism (through the actions of a superior man and through
rituals) and Hinduism (in the use of Vedic rituals to honor the dead) deal most directly with this

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subject. In contrast, Shinto offers limited support through the reverence of ancestors while at the
same time teaching that closeness to death makes one impure.
The questions raised by human mortality make death an important topic in most belief
systems. Despite differences in philosophy between religions, the significance of the topic is
nearly universal. Such ubiquity highlights our basic human need to not only understand where
came from and where we are, but also where we are going. Ultimately, death - however
unpleasant - is a defining characteristic of the meaning of our lives. If religion can provide
meaning to death, it fulfills one of the most basic human needs.

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Works Cited
Giles, Lionel, ed. The Sayings of Confucius: A Translation of the Confucian Analects.
Twickenham: Tiger Books, 1998.
Kastenbaum, Robert, ed. Confucius. Macmillan Encyclopedia of Death and Dying. 2002.
Kastenbaum, Robert, ed. Shinto. Macmillan Encyclopedia of Death and Dying. 2002.
Molloy, Michael. Experiencing the Worlds Religions. 4th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill. 2005.
Van Voorst, Robert E., ed. Anthology of World Scriptures. Belmont, CA: Thomson Wadsworth.
2006.