The Amazing Human Body
The Amazing Human Body
The Amazing Human Body
THE SENSES
R U T H B J ORK LUND
CONTENTS
CH A P T E R 1
1
What Are the
Human Senses?
T
TH E S E NS ES
SIGH T
Sight, or vision, is one of the most important and frequently used senses.
The human brain is constantly being bombarded with visual input from
its surroundings. The portion of the brain that interprets the sense of
sight is larger than all of the other portions of the brain devoted to the
other senses. Several different types of vision receptors in the eyes contribute to the brains ability to process visual information. Eyes contain
receptor cells that receive information about light, shape, and color.
The receptor cells deliver that information to the visual cortex area of the
brain. Visual nerve impulses travel quickly from the eyes to the visual
cortex directly through the optic nerve, located behind each eyeball.
The iris, which is a ring of colored muscle, is one of the most noticeable parts of
the eye.
The eye is a complex organ with many specialized parts and layers.
The eye is delicate and is protected from injury by the skull and eyebrows,
and is kept clean by eyelids and eyelashes. The eyeball is a sphere about
an inch in diameter. It is held in place inside the eye sockets of the skull by
small muscles. These muscles are called extra ocular muscles and allow
the eye to move up and down and side to side. On the outside of the eyeball
is white protective layer of fibrous tissue known as the sclera, or the white
of the eye. The sclera keeps the eyeballs round shape. At the front of the
eye is a curved, clear, rounded membrane called the cornea. Behind the
cornea is a chamber filled with fluid that is called the aqueous humor.
The eye has a round circle of tiny muscles called the iris. The iris
has pigment and can be green, hazel, brown, or blue, giving the eye its
color. The iris surrounds a tiny hole called the pupil. Most of the time, the
pupil does not look like a hole because it glints in the light. But what is
seen as the sparkle in the eye is actually a clear, finely layered flexible
lens. It can be seen by looking through the hole that is called the pupil.
Tiny fibers hold the lens in place and connect it to eye muscles called
ciliary muscles. Behind the lens, most of the rest of the eye is filled with a
thick jelly-like fluid called the vitreous humor.
Covering 65 percent of the lining of the back of the eye is a thin,
light sensitive layer called the retina. The retina itself has many layers
photosensitive cells called rods and cones that pick up light and color,
bipolar cells which convert light into electrical impulses, and ganglion
cells that form nerve fibers to transmit signals to the brain. Closest to the
back of the eyeball is a single cell layer that contains pigment. Its purpose
is to absorb light and prevent it from bouncing back through the eye once
it has reached the retina. Vision is clearest at the center of the retina in an
oval, yellowish area called the macula, or macula luteus. And at the center
of the macula is an area known as the fovea.
TH E S E NS ES
Nerve fibers form bundles at the back of the eye. The bundles come
together at the optic disk, or blind spot and pass out of the back of the
eye to a large nerve called the optic nerve. The left and the right side
optic nerves cross behind the eye and meet at an area called the optic
chiasma. Nerve signals travel back to the areas in the brain where vision
is processedthe thalamus, brainstem and visual cortex.
HE ARING
After the sense of sight, the sense of hearing is the most developed sense in
the human anatomy. The ear is a precise and efficient organ that performs
its sensory duties in a compact area. The ear is comprised of three main
partsthe outer ear, the middle ear, and the inner ear. The visible part of
the ear is called the pinna (sometimes also called the auricle) and is made
up of folds of cartilage covered in skin. At the base of the pinna is the
lobule, or ear lobe. The pinna surrounds an opening called the external
auditory canal. This is a one-inch tube that tunnels through a bone in
the skull known as the temporal bone. This tube is lined with tiny hairs,
oil-producing sebaceous glands, and sweat glands called ceruminous
glands, which produce earwax, or cerumen. As sound waves move down
the external auditory canal, they come upon the final portion of the outer
ear, the temporal membrane.
Beyond the temporal membrane is the middle ear. The middle ear
is made up of three tiny bones, which are the smallest bones in the body.
Collectively they are called the ossicles and individually they are known
as the malleus, incus, and stapes. Their more common names come from
their shapethe hammer, anvil, and stirrups. Both the outer ear and the
middle ear are filled with air, while the inner ear is filled with fluid.
Between the middle ear and the inner ear are two membranes, called the
oval window and the round window.
The human ear is made up of external parts located outside of the head, and a collection of tiny
internal parts inside the skull.
TH E S E NS ES
Special hairs, called cilia, and other cells found in the inner ear help with hearing and
balance.
canals. Nerve signals leave the ear and travel to the brain through the
vestibulocochlear nerve. This nerve is actually two nerves, the cochlear
nerve, which transports information about sound, and the vestibular nerve
that delivers information about balance.
P R OP R IO C E PT ION
The fifth sense, proprioception, or equilibrium and balance, is managed
by sensors in the ear. Often called the vestibular system, the semicircular
10
Structures in the inner ear and brain allow a person to balance, stand upright, move, and perform
athletic activities.
canals and the vestibule region sense movement, speed, and stasis (the
state of being still). The semicircular canals exist at right angles to
each other. At the base of each of the canals lies a widened duct called
the ampulla. Inside each ampulla is a jelly-like mass called the cupula.
This mass contains hair cells that are attached to nerves. As fluid called
endolymph circulates in the canals and vestibule it stimulates receptor
cells. In the vestibule, the utricle and saccule sense movement and action
of the head.
11
TH E S E NS ES
TA S T E
The
sense
of
taste,
or
only
are
recently.
salty,
The
sweet,
12
There are four types of papillae, three of which contain taste buds.
On the sides of the tongue are the foliate papillae, which appear as a series
of ridges. Fungiform papillae are small, rounded projections found all
over the tongue, especially at the tip and along the top of the sides. Each
of this type of papilla contains up to five taste buds. There are only five
to twelve of the largest papillae, called the circumvallate papillae, but
they contain more than 250 taste buds each. They form a V shape near
the back of the tongue. The fourth type of papillae, filiform papillae, are
found all over the tongue and though they are the most numerous, they do
not carry any taste sensors.
A nerve called the facial nerve carries sensory information from
the taste receptors in the front of the tongue. The glassopharyngeal nerve
carries information from the rear of the tongue. A third nerve, the vagus
nerve, carries information from the back of the mouth. These nerves deliver
taste sensations to part of the brainstem, then travel on to the thalamus,
and finally arrive in the cerebral cortex of the brain.
SME LL
The olfactory sense, or sense of smell, is a powerful sense. The human
nose can detect thousands of distinctly different odors. The sense of smell
identifies odors in the air around us and assists the sense of taste by
enhancing or discouraging appetite and contributing to the appreciation
or the rejection of flavors. It also protects us from breathing unsafe air or
fumes and stops us from eating anything spoiled or poisonous. The sense
of smell also helps with human memory recall.
There is a large cavity located between the roof of the mouth and the
bottom of the skull called the nasal cavity. It is divided into left and right
sections by a piece of cartilage called the nasal septum. Inside each side of
the nasal cavity are three bony shelves folded with ridges called conchae.
13
TH E S E NS ES
TOU CH
The sense of touch involves a wide network of nerve endings and sensory
receptor cells. There are three overall types of receptor cellsvisceral
cells, which are cells found in internal organs, somatic, which are found in
joints and bones, and cutaneous, which are found in the skin. The skin, the
largest organ of the body, contains most of the sensory receptors for touch.
14
It is itself composed of several layers. The visible top layer of skin is called
the epidermis and it provides protection for the layers of skin below and
also protects the rest of the body. Of the many types of cells found in the
epidermis, very sensitive touch sensors provide information to the brain.
The second layer is a thick layer containing sweat glands, hair follicles,
oil glands, blood vessels, nerve endings and touch receptors. There are
four basic types of touch receptors: mechanoreceptors, thermoreceptors,
pain receptors, and proprioceptors. Each is responsible for recognizing
different types of sensation, such as pressure, pain, or temperature.
Nerves beneath our skin allow us to feel things and use our sense of touch to react to and interact
with the environment.
15
2
How the Senses Work
any different organs and body parts work together to form the
VIS ION
Everything the eye sees comes from reflected light. In other words,
the eye cannot view an object unless some form of light shines on the
object. As light hits the object and bounces off, it travels in the form
of light waves. These waves of light enter the eye through the cornea.
The brain and the rest of the nervous system process all of
the sensory information that is delivered by the sensory
organs.
17
TH E S E NS ES
18
The cornea slows down the speed of light. It is curved, causing the cornea
to bend the rays of light toward each other. The process of bending light
rays is known as refracting light.
The refracted light waves move through the aqueous humor and
pass through the pupil toward the lens. If the light is very bright, the
muscles of the iris relax, decreasing the size of the opening of the pupil,
and letting in less light. The iris also reduces the size of the opening of the
pupil when the eye is trying to concentrate its focus on an object that is
close by. Conversely, if the light is dim, or if the eye is viewing an object in
the distance, the iris muscles contract. This dilates, or opens up, the pupil,
to let in more light.
The lens of the eye is extremely flexible. It is able to focus on an
object that is just inches away, but is equally able to quickly adjust to
viewing a distant planet in the sky. Bright light travels to the cornea in
ever-widening waves. However, the cornea can bend the rays only so far.
The lens must further refract the light in order to focus properly. The lens
is composed of more than 2,000 fine layers called lamellae. As the light
passes through each layer, the rays of light are bent in tiny degrees of
refraction. When the eye focuses on closer objects or is receiving bright
light, the muscles holding the lens relax causing the lens to become more
rounded. The rounder the lens, the greater its ability becomes to refract
light. On the other hand, light coming from a more distant source travels
toward the eye in an almost parallel pattern. The eye does not need to
refract light to the same degree. As a result, most of the refraction in this
instance can be done by the cornea. The muscles holding the lens contract
and flatten the lens. Light passes through nearly unchanged.
After light has been focused by the lens, it passes through the
vitreous humor. The thick liquid retains the sharp focus of the refracted
light and ushers the light toward the retina at the back of the eye. The
19
TH E S E NS ES
retina receives the refracted light rays and turns them into electrical
impulses that are fed to the brain. The retina is covered in arteries and
veins and is an uneven surface. Some areas of the retina are more light
sensitive than others and are better able to perceive images with greater
sharpness, or acuity. Arteries and veins bypass the most light-sensitive
area of the retina, which is called the fovea. To achieve the most acute
vision, light must fall on the fovea. However, light enters the eye from
many directions, so the eye must compensate in order for light to be
directed to the fovea. Eyes do so by constantly moving up and down and
The retina has many blood vessels traveling across its width.
20
Rods and cones (right) are located along the retina at the back of the eye.
side to side. There is also a blind spot in the retina, called the optic disk.
It is the point where the optic nerve fibers meet and travel out of the eye.
The retina, or sensory tunic, has two layers. Closest to the back of
the eyeball is a single cell layer that contains pigment. Its purpose is to
absorb light and prevent it from bouncing back through the eye once it
has reached the retina. The neural layer of the retina contains sensory
receptors and other nerve cells that help process light signals. Closest to
the vitreous humor are the bipolar cells and ganglion cells. Light passes
through these cells, bending the light ever so slightly toward the sensory
receptor cells of the retina, known as rods and cones.
21
TH E S E NS ES
Rods and cones can only be seen using a microscope. The rods have been colored blue in this
micrograph.
Most rods are found beyond the macula, around the periphery of
the retina. Rods are shaped like tiny cylinders. They are filled with disks
of purple pigment, which contain molecules of chemical receptors and
proteins that respond to dim light. When bright light falls on a rod, the
pigment becomes bleached and cannot respond to the stimuli. In bright
light or daylight conditions, the rods do not function. But when in darkness,
the rods recover from the bleaching effect after 10 or 15 minutes and
are able to provide vision in dim light or near darkness. Consider walking
from bright light into a dark room. It takes a few minutes for eyes to
adjust to seeing in the reduced light.
Cones are shaped like upside-down triangles. They need bright light
to react to stimuli. Cones contain pigmentsred, yellow, and blue. Each
color responds to different wavelengths of light. More cones are found in
the macula, and only cones, and not rods, are found in the fovea.
22
Rods and cones react to the light and send a signal through a
synapse to bipolar cells. A synapse is a point of connection between two
neurons, or nerve cells. Neurotransmitters, or chemical messengers, travel
across the synapses between neurons. Bipolar cells then excite ganglion
cells. Ganglion cells have long tails called axons. When these axons are
bundled together they form nerves that penetrate the back of the eye at the
optic disk and extend through the optic nerve and into the brain. Impulses
from the ganglion cells are called action potentials.
There are approximately 1.5 million ganglion cells in the human
retina and more than 100 million photoreceptors (rods and cones). There
are more rods than cones. There is a concentration of cones in the macula
and the fovea. In the fovea for example, there may be just a single cone
sending signals to five ganglion cells. However, on the periphery of the
Nerve receptor cells are responsible for receiving and sending sensory messages.
23
TH E S E NS ES
Images first entering the eyes and heading toward the brain appear upside down(left).
The brain turns the images right side up when it processes them for you to understand.
24
where one area determines how much the pupils must dilate or narrow.
Another area, called the superior colliculi, controls eye movement.
Most visual impulses, however, pass through the thalamus deep in
the brain to the visual cortex. The thalamus separates visual information
into color input and motion input before the information is processed by
the visual cortex. The brain receives information from the two eyes and
turns it into three-dimensional images. The images are transmitted to the
brain upside down. The brain turns them right side up. The brain must
also associate the image with previous experience to assess the incoming
information. In other words, the brain must know green before it can
label an object green, it must know that a face contains eyes, nose, and
mouth in order to see a face. It will also fill in missing or confusing
information to create a whole image.
HE AR ING
Sound is made up of molecules in air, water, and solid objects that vibrate
and create waves of pressure. To make a sound, molecules vibrate and then
bump into other molecules, which also begin vibrating. This continues so
that sound vibrations travel outward. Sound travels in waves of different
lengths and frequency.
The human ear responds to a greater amount of stimuli than any
of the other senses. The ear has the ability to discern a range of sounds
from near silence to blasts of explosive noise. The ear understands sound
in two measurements, pitch and loudness. Pitch, or tone, is the sense of
whether the sound is high or low. It is measured by the frequency of sound
waves, that is to say, how often wavelengths travel past a given point.
As each wavelength passes the point, it is called a cycle. The frequency
is measured as cycles per second, or hertz (abbreviated Hz). The audible
range of human hearing is from 20Hz to 20kHz (kilohertz, which is equal
25
TH E S E NS ES
to 1,000 Hz). The human ear is more sensitive to frequencies similar to the
range of speech, 500 Hz to 4kHz.
Loudness is measured in terms of decibels, abbreviated dB or db
and named after the inventor of the telephone, Alexander Graham Bell.
A single decibel, or 0 dB, is considered to be the faintest sound audible
to the human ear. Each rise in decibel is ten times louder than the last. A
whisper is usually 15 to 20 dB, normal conversation is 60dB, and 130dB
is often called the threshold of pain. Standing next to a jet airliner as it
starts up would be a painful and intolerable 140 dB.
Sound waves travel all around us. Some flow directly into the ear,
and others are gathered by the pinna and directed into the auditory canal.
26
The vibrations pass across the cilia in the canal and reach the concave
surface of the tympanic membrane, or eardrum. The eardrum vibrates
and passes the vibrations through to the ossicles in the middle ear. The
ossicles, the tiniest bones in the body, knock into each other in a chain
reaction. The first ossiclethe malleus, or hammeris attached to the
tympanic membrane. Attached to the malleus is the incus, or anvil, which
is also connected to the stapes, or stirrups. The stapes is attached to the
oval window, which is the entrance of the inner ear. Because one side of
27
TH E S E NS ES
The three bones of the middle ear: the incus (top), stapes (bottom left), and malleus (bottom right).
the oval window is filled with fluid, more force is needed to pass the sound
vibrations into the inner ear. The movement of the ossicles amplifies the
vibrations coming from the outer ear and transfers the sound to the inner
ear. If the sound is too deafening, however, tiny muscles attached to the
eardrum and ossicles contract and reduce the vibrations.
Deep in the temporal bone of the inner ear are the receptors for the
senses of hearing and equilibrium. Inside the bony labyrinth of the inner
ear are three passageways. One, the cochlea, is responsible for the sense
of hearing. It is shaped like a snail shell and contains three fluid-filled
chambers. The center chamber holds the organ of Corti, which contains
three outer rows with tens of thousands of hair cells and one inner row
28
containing more than 3,000 hair cells. Each hair cell varies in length and
has nerve fibers at its base. Depending on the pitch and loudness of the
sound, certain hair cells in the inner row respond and become excited
by the vibrations. The vibrations are converted into nerve signals. The
nerve signals pass along nerve fibers to the cochlea nerve, which runs
through the organ of Corti. The signals are then relayed to the brain stem,
the thalamus, and then to the hearing sector of the temporal lobe of the
brain.
29
TH E S E NS ES
P R OP R IO C E PT ION
Proprioception is the ability to sense position, location, orientation,
balance, and movement of the body and all its parts. Proprioceptors are
special nerve endings found in muscles, tendons, joints, organs, and the
inner ear. These sensory receptors respond to stimuli inside the body that
react to the bodys position, movement, or speed. For example, even if your
eyes are closed, you can still be aware of the location of your hands or
feet. The sense of balance is based on gravity, rotation, and acceleration.
The inner ear is actually made up of two organs. The cochlea is
responsible for hearing and the vestibular organ is responsible for balance.
Sensory receptors in the vestibular organ are located in three areasthree
30
semicircular canals, the utricle, and the saccule. Lying next to the cochlea
are the three semicircular canals, which are filled with fluid. They receive
information about the movement and position of the head. The ends of the
canals touch the utricle. The utricle detects the head moving side to side
and it touches the saccule, which detects when the head is moving up and
down. Signals created in each are sent to the vestibulocochlear nerve, also
called the auditory nerve, through the skull and into the brain.
TA S T E
Taste is part of the sensory mechanism that guards the body and helps it
experience its surroundings. The sense of taste is actually a mixture of
sensations, taste (gustation), smell (olfaction), and touch (tactile). Taste
receptors are located on taste cells that are clustered together in groups
called taste buds. They are found on the front, sides, and back of the tongue,
31
TH E S E NS ES
the mouth, and the larynx. Taste buds sit on pillar-like projections called
papillae. There are four types of papillae, and three of them contain taste
buds.
Each taste bud holds 50 to 150 taste cells. Small hairs called
microvili are attached to the taste cells. Microvili contain the sensory
taste receptors. Most taste receptors are chemoreceptors, which means
they respond to chemicals that enter the mouth. When a substance enters
the mouth it brings chemicals that will bond to the taste receptors. As
the receptors are stimulated by the chemicals, they convert the chemicals
into nerve signals, or action potentials. Inside each taste bud is a network
32
of taste nerves. There are three pathways that the taste signals travel to
reach the brain. One leads from the front and sides of the tongue, another
from the back of the tongue, and the other from the mouth and larynx.
There are receptors for each flavor inside of each taste bud, so the
taste nerves deliver a complex variety of taste signals to the brain. For
example, tasting an apple can deliver a message that it is both sweet and
sour. When tasting something, the first taste signals are more intense than
the signals that follow. So the first bite of a peach is distinctly sweet, but
the nerve signals adjust to the sensations. The brain becomes accustomed
to the sensation and subsequent bites seem less flavorful than the first.
Each general flavor has importance. Sweet sensations usually mean
that the substance is high in energy nutrients, umami delivers the taste
Sweet tastes, like ripe strawberries, are made possible by taste receptors on the tongue.
33
TH E S E NS ES
of amino acids which are proteins, salt helps regulate body fluids, sour
is usually the flavor of foods high in acids, and bitter tends to represent
toxins of various strength. There are also upper limits of taste that the
body can tolerate. Some tastes are so related to touch sensors that they are
not classified under one of the five tastes. Some of these include spicy (such
as hot pepper), dryness (such as an unripe banana or grape), or coolness
(such as spearmint).
Other receptors that serve the sense of taste respond to temperature
and touch. Some foods gain or lose their desirability based on these
stimuli. Receptors that respond quickly to a very hot drink, for instance,
help protect the body. They sense that the drink is too hot and decrease the
drinks desirability. Touch receptors, called mechanoreceptors, respond to
texture in foodfor example, creamy, crunchy, watery, or chewy. Some
foods are pleasing more for their texture than taste, such as buttered
noodles. In China, foods that have virtually no flavor are nonetheless
highly prized for texture, such as birds nest soup, which tastes bland but
feels jelly-like. This phenomenon is called mouthfeel.
SME LL
Like the sense of taste, the sense of smell, or olfaction, is a chemical
sense. Olfactory chemoreceptors respond to odor-bearing chemicals
in the surrounding environment. Olfaction is an ancient sense, in that
early humans relied heavily on this sense for survival. For these people,
their sense of smell could immediately alert them when a situation was
dangerous. Olfaction is also the first sense to fully mature and develop in
human infantswell before vision and hearing. Scientists have discovered
that as an infant grows, the first way it recognizes its mother is by scent.
In the upper part of the nasal cavity lies the olfactory epithelium,
where a mucus-coated membrane captures odor-bearing chemicals. Hair
34
cells called cilia have olfactory receptors on one end and nerve fibers or
axons on the other. Humans have about five million olfactory nerve cells
and about 40 million olfactory receptors. The axons send the electrical
impulses to the olfactory bulb. The bulb transmits the signals directly to
the olfactory cortex. From the olfactory cortex, signals are distributed to
the hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus, which are parts of the
limbic system. The limbic system of the brain contributes to memory and
emotional behavior. Scientists continue to study how smell and memory
are related. Because the olfactory areas of the brain are next to the areas
of the brain that store memory and experience emotion, the two areas
influence one another.
35
TH E S E NS ES
36
TO U CH
Besides sweat glands and blood vessels, the dermis, or bottom layer of the
skin, holds hair follicles and nerve endings that help provide the sense
of touch. Tissues and organs deep beneath the skin also contain sensory
receptors. Sensory receptors can be mechanical, thermal, or chemical. The
receptors on nerve endings can detect pressure, pain, and temperature.
Some parts of the body are more sensitive than others. Sensory receptors
called Meissners corpuscles respond to light touch. They are usually
found in hairless areas such as the fingertips, tongue, eyelids, lips, and
palms. Paccinian corpuscles are receptors deep in the bottom layers of the
skin. They respond to the sensation of pressure and vibration, itchiness,
warmth, and cold.
Pain
The most numerous receptors in the skin respond to pain. Receptors
that reside on nerve fibers that respond exclusively to pain are called
nociceptors. One type of nociceptor responds to sharp, fast pain. These
nerve fibers are wrapped in a membrane called a myelin sheath. The
sheath allows the nerves to transmit signals at a rapid pace. Nociceptors
found on nerves that do not have a myelin sheathcalled unencapsulated
nervesrespond to dull, aching pain. The signals from these nerves travel
much slower.
There are two main types of painsomatic and visceral. Somatic
pain is a result of nociceptors being stimulated in the skin, muscles, joints,
bones, tendons, and ligaments. Visceral pain is produced by nociceptors
that are found in internal organs and body cavities. Examples of these
cavities and organs include the thorax, which contains the heart and lungs;
the abdomen, which contains the liver, kidneys, spleen, stomach, and
intestines; and the pelvic cavity, which holds the bladder and reproductive
37
TH E S E NS ES
Skin protects the body, but also provides us with sensory information we need to function.
organs. There are fewer nociceptors in these areas than in the skin and
soft tissues.
Temperature
Sensors on the skin and within the body also respond to the sensations
of heat, cold, texture, and pressure. Temperature is important because
the body must regulate its heat in order to stay healthy. Many of these
sensors are on the tongue. This prevents a person from swallowing foods
or drinks that are too hot. Sensors in the face and chest respond to cold
in order to protect vital organs within. The ability to sense textures and
pressure allows the body to accurately hold, grab, and lift, as well as to
pull away or push against objects.
38
requires attention. But modern controls are electronic, and there are no
mechanical levers or springs that would provide the sensation of pressure
or vibration. Instead, these sensations are simulated by the technology
called haptics. Anyone who has felt a cell phone vibrate or used a game
controller has experienced haptic technology. Researchers in the field
study how the human sense of touch works and apply those principals to
their inventions.
An important advance in human health comes from the study
of haptics for robotic prostheses, or artificial body parts. Successful
treatments have been performed on people who have lost an arm. A
prosthetic device is attached at the shoulder or elbow where the arm had
been removed. Nerves in the shoulder or elbow that once controlled the
missing arm still are able to communicate with the brain. To make use
of this connection, the arm nerves are re-routed to a patch of skin on the
chest. Nerves already in the skin of the chest are cut to create numbness
and lack of feeling. Then the arm nerves from the severed limb are placed in
the area to grow. Sensory receptors in the new nerves deliver information
about the missing arm to the brain. With therapy, the person learns to
stimulate the sensory receptors in the chest and the tactile center of the
brain to deliver and transmit messages to and from the prosthetic arm.
People using these devices say that when someone touches the special area
on their chest, it feels as if their original hand was being touched.
Haptic scientists have also developed training programs for medical
students learning surgical techniques with a computer simulation program.
They have added applications so that students not only see the virtual
surgery they are performing, they can also feel it. In another example of
a haptic application, researchers are developing means for online shoppers
to inspect merchandise by haptic interfaces, such as feeling the texture
of fabrics, experiencing the fit of a baseball glove or the feel of a musical
instrument, or the swing of a golf club.
39
3
When the Senses Fail
to the body.
41
eyeball does not keep up with the growth of the skull, the eyeball becomes
too long and the lens and retina cannot work together well. This condition
is called nearsightedness, or myopia, and objects are blurry when viewed
from a distance. If the eyeball becomes too short, focusing is also blurred,
causing farsightedness, or hyperopia. A person who is farsighted can see
distant things better than objects that are close. More people are farsighted
than nearsighted.
Under most conditions, eyeglasses, contacts, or Lasik surgery
corrects these problems. During Lasik surgery lasers are used to change
the shape of the cornea so that the eye is able to focus better. After Lasik
surgery, many people find that they no longer need glasses or contact
lenses to improve their vision. However, this surgery does not correct all
vision problems for all people.
Another condition, called presbyopia, develops in some people forty
years old and older. Protein changes in the lens of the eye cause the eye
to become stiff, making it hard to focus on nearby objects. Presbyopia is
usually corrected by glasses with bifocal or trifocal lenses. Bifocal lenses
improve vision for distance and close-up. Trifocals also corrects for seeing
middle distance.
Other conditions that affect the tissues of the eyeball are astigmatism
and cataracts. People with astigmatism have corneas that are misshapen
and prevent accurate focus. Often, this can be corrected with eyeglasses,
and sometimes with soft contact lenses. A cloudiness that forms on the
lens is called a cataract and usually occurs as the eye ages. To restore
vision, surgery is often performed to remove the lens and replace it with
an artificial lens.
Injury or trauma to eye muscles can diminish vision. The most
common trauma, strabismus, known also as lazy eye, tends to occur
mostly in young children. The muscle that pulls the eye from side to side
becomes damaged and the eye drifts toward the nose. The signals that are
42
Cataracts often form as a person ages. If caught early enough, some forms of treatment can be
used to help people with cataracts.
sent to the brain by the lazy eye are unclear. Without treatment, the brain
may ignore the incoming signals and simply process the signals from the
other eye. This condition is called amblyopia. Amblyopia is serious and
can lead to a total loss of vision in the affected eye. Glasses and sometimes
surgery are used to repair this condition. However, more oftenespecially
in children under the age of sevenan eye patch placed temporarily over
the healthy eye will cause the weaker one to strengthen.
Vision impairment or loss can also occur in the neurons and
nerves of the eye. The neurons found in the back of the eye are quite
43
TH E S E NS ES
Rod
cells
Cells
the
area
are
lost
maculathe
surrounding
foveawhere
vision
the
is
fail,
blurry
focusing
and
becomes
eventually
44
visual signals it receives. Strokes and tumors can also affect the brains
ability to process vision, recognize color, or follow objects in motion.
Colorblindness
Cones are the color sensitive receptors on the retina. Each cone has a
pigment that responds to one of three colors, red, blue, or green. Cones
combine their visual sensitivity to create all the variety of color we see.
Sometimes there can be missing cones or there can be cones with less
pigment affecting the way the retina perceives color. The inability for a
person to see certain colors is called colorblindness. Males are more likely
to be colorblind than females.
All people with colorblindness have defects that affect green and
red sensitive cones. Rarely are blue cones affected. Contrary to what many
may believe, a person with color blindness does not simply see everything
in black, white and grey. Rather, greens and reds are distorted and thus
when mixed together and with blue, colors take on muted and less varied
hues. Though some people may not distinguish at all between red and
This is part of a test eye doctors use to determine whether or not a person is colorblind.
45
TH E S E NS ES
green, that condition is very rare. People with colorblindness often adapt
very well and find ways to compensate for their condition. Sometimes
people with colorblindness can even see details that normal-sighted
people miss.
A form of colorblindness called protanomaly refers to a weakness
in seeing red. A person with this form of colorblindness will see a shade
of purple as being no more than another shade of blue because the red
involved in seeing the color purple is lacking. Deuteranomaly, a weakness
in perceiving green, affects some men. Other forms of colorblindness cause
individuals to be unable to distinguish between red, orange, yellow, and
green shades.
46
Hearing aids can help to amplify and direct sounds. Today, hearing aids come in many shapes and
sizessome are so small that you can barely notice them.
47
hairs in the cochlea. Damage to the hairs interferes with the nerves ability
to transmit signals. Sound becomes muffled, sometimes to the point of
producing no sound at all. A person who has this condition may not hear
speech well enough to imitate sounds and may as a result have difficulty
in speaking.
Neural hearing loss describes the connection between the cochlea
and the brain. Signals from the cochlea do not reach the brain correctly,
or at all. Loud noises, such as loud machinery or listening to loud music
through headphones, infections such as meningitis, and excess fluid in the
ear all can damage the cochlea. People with neural hearing impairments
may be able to hear very loud noises but the signals reaching the brain are
distorted. Sometimes a hearing aid can help. Cochlear implants can be put
in during a complicated surgery. A cochlear implant is a small electronic
This illustration shows how a cochlear implant is positioned inside and out of the ear.
48
medical device that is placed in the ear and enables a person with hearing
loss to experience a reasonable semblance of sounds. The device has a
microphone, a processor and the ability to send electric signals along the
pathway to the brain.
A person with mixed hearing loss will have a combination of
sensorineural and conductive impairments. This disorder generally creates
substantial hearing loss. Nerves leaving the ear, the brainstem or the
hearing processor in the brain can also suffer damage leading to hearing
loss.
Four categories describe types of hearing loss. Mild hearing loss
means that a person cannot hear soft sounds. With moderate hearing loss, a
person does not hear speech at normal levels. A person with severe hearing
loss will not hear speech and few loud sounds. Profound hearing loss
means that a person will not hear speech and few, if any, very loud sounds.
There are approximately 20 million deaf or hearing-impaired persons in
the United States. Many develop hearing loss as older adults. Only about 4
percent of hearing impaired persons have a hearing loss at birth.
49
TH E S E NS ES
50
People with hearing or speech impairments may use different forms of sign language to
communicate.
51
TH E S E NS ES
question and raise their eyebrows to note that their words are a question.
Parts of words are dropped for ease of use, such as endings ed, ing, or
ment. Many words are formed by visual displays rather than by letters,
for example, the word school in ASL is expressed by clapping the hands
together two or three times.
Finger spelling uses the hands to represent each letter of the alphabet.
Although this is slower, it can give a more exact meaning. Cued speech is
a method for hearing impaired people who are listening or speech reading
to better understand a verbal speaker. As the speaker talks, he or she also
uses finger spelling to express the first letter or two of the words they are
saying.
Conceptually Accurate Signed English (CASE) is a mixture of
methods and is considered to be the most precise form of communication.
CASE includes visual signs from ASL, finger spelling for words not found
in ASL, gestures, listening with assistive devices, speech and Manually
Coded English (MCE). MCE is a form of communication that includes
signs from ASL and finger spelling but uses the same grammar, word
order and sentence structure as spoken English.
P R OP R IO C E PT ION P ROBLE MS
Proprioception, sometimes called the sixth sense is the sensory information
that helps the brain recognize the bodys movement, gravity, balance
and position. Many of the proprioception receptors are located on nerves
throughout the body. Gravity and balance receptors, part of the vestibular
system, are located in the inner ear. Proprioception can be damaged by
viral or bacterial infections of the inner ear, the vestibular nerve, or the
lining of the brain (meningitis). Head or brain injuries can also damage
52
If the cilia or other parts of the vestibular system are injured or damaged, a person could have trouble
moving and balancing.
53
TH E S E NS ES
LOS S OF T H E S E N SE OF SME LL
Many people have temporarily experienced the loss of the sense of smell
while suffering from a cold or having an allergic reaction affecting the
nose. As excess mucus fills the nose and blocks the passage of air, air does
not filter through the cilia in the olfactory epithelium. The receptors on the
cilia cannot respond to stimuli and cannot transmit sensory information
to the brain. Other causes of nasal blockages can also interfere with the
receptors in the nose such as nasal polyps, which are soft growths formed
on the lining of the nose, tumors, and deformities of the nasal septum.
If the cells in the nasal cavity are blocked or damaged by mucus or debris, the sense of smell can be
affected.
54
LO S S OF T HE SE N SE OF TA STE
Losing the sense of taste is usually combined with losing the sense of
smell. While the sense of taste provides information about whether foods
are sweet, salty, sour, or bitter, it is the sense of smell that provides the
complexity of flavors. Problems with the sense of taste come from various
disorders affecting the sense of smell. Problems with taste can also be
from certain medications, viral or bacterial infections that affect taste
buds and the nerves leading from the mouth to the brain, head and
brain injuries, diseases of the nerves such as Parkinsons or Alzheimers,
disorders affecting the production of saliva, exposure to toxic chemicals,
and complications from dental or middle ear surgery.
To some who are asked the question if they had to lose one of the
senses, which would it be, the answer is taste. Many people think that losing
the sense of taste would not be too bad. However, the sense of taste is more
than sensing flavors. It also protects people from ingesting dangerous foods
and beverages, or those that may cause an allergic response. Also, loss of a
sense of taste can contribute to malnutrition, obesity, and depression.
Some people experience a condition called phantageusia, or phantom
tastes. This condition is caused by a disruption in brain chemistry and in
55
TH E S E NS ES
The body can sometimes repair and replace damaged taste buds, but problems with taste may be
permanent.
LOS S OF T H E S E N SE OF TOUC H
The skin is the largest organ. It has thousands of touch receptors that
convert stimuli into electrical signals to be sent to the brain. The brain
then processes the information and tells the muscles and other body
parts to react. Its most important duty is to inform the brain when there
is danger, such as extreme temperature or pain. Somesthesia is the
medical term that describes a sensory disorder that affects the sense of
touch, pain, and temperature. This disorder can be a symptom of other
diseases, such as the nerve disease Guillian-Barre, or the kidney disease,
PKD. Some children born with developmental delays also experience a
56
reduction or loss of the sense of touch. People who have been affected by
this condition can be unsteady, can have difficulty holding onto objects
and can inaccurately assess temperature, leading to burns or if too cold,
hypothermia. Hypothermia is a condition in which the body temperature
drops below the ability for the body to supply adequate nutrients. In
extreme situations, this can result in tissue death or organ failure.
Another condition is called dysfunction of sensory integration (DSI)
or sensory integration disorder (SID). People with DSI have a sense of
touch that misinforms the brain of its surroundings. They can be over
sensitive to sensations of touch, or under sensitive. Some examples of being
over sensitive may mean that they are more ticklish than others, or feel
that their clothing is unbearably itchy, or they may refuse foods because
of their unpleasant-seeming textures. Objects to them may seem hotter
or colder than they actually are, leading to inappropriate and sometimes
dangerous responses.
Those with DSI may also be under sensitive to touch. For example,
they may have a very high threshold for experiencing pain, or they may
need to seek firmness or extra pressure in order to be aware of their
surroundings, such as sitting in a hard chair or a rocking chair, or needing a
firm grip on a pencil. Special health care providers can provide treatment,
known as sensory integration therapy, for this condition. Many families
also learn adaptive behaviors, such as providing soft clothing, removing
the tags from inside collars, therapy balls for bouncing activities, or hard
chairs to sit on.
57
4
Keeping the
Senses Sharp
T
HEALTHY VISION
Healthy vision is dependent on two major activities: prevention and
regular eye care. To prevent damage to the eye, people should take
Regular checkups with your doctor can help you stay healthy and keep your
senses sharp.
59
TH E S E NS ES
Sunglasses and other protective eyewear are important whenever you go outside because the suns
rays can damage your eyes.
60
Overusing or improperly using the computer can lead to eye strain and other discomfort.
61
TH E S E NS ES
If you have glasses or contact lenses, you should wear them as prescribed by your doctor.
sure that the lights in the room should be three times brighter than the
computer background. When using the computer for a long period of time,
people should also take short, frequent breaks
In general, a healthy body contributes to healthy eyes. People should
definitely avoid smoking. They should eat healthy, exercise, and watch
their blood pressure. Vitamins A, C, E, B2, the minerals zinc and selenium,
and the carotenoids lutein and zeaxanthin are particularly important to
eye health. Many of these can be found in a balanced diet with plenty of
fruits and green leafy vegetables, as well as foods with omega-3 fats, such
as fish, nuts, squash, cooked spinach, broccoli, and beans. Omega-3 fats
62
are not made in the body, so it is wise to include foods that contain them.
Carotenoids are pigments found in many fruits and vegetables that help
the body manufacture Vitamin A.
Regular eye examinations are also critical to eye health. Starting
from infancy, eye examinations can help detect any problems or changes
in vision. There are three types of eye specialists. Ophthalmologists are
medical doctors who provide complete eye care, such as examinations,
prescription lenses, surgery, and treatment for eye diseases. Optometrists
are special health care providers who can perform many eye care services
such as examinations and prescription lenses. He or she can diagnose some
eye problems and prescribe some medications. Opticians fill prescriptions
for eyeglasses and sometimes contact lenses.
An eye exam includes many procedures. Among them are a vision
distance test, a peripheral vision test, a pressure test for glaucoma, an
eye muscle test, and a retinal test. For this, a doctor will give eye drops
to dilate the eyes (open the pupils). Once opened, he or she will shine a
bright light into the interior of the eye and, by using a special scope, will
inspect the retina and the optical nerve. If corrective lenses are needed,
the exam will also include a series of tests to assess the best lens refraction
to correct vision.
HE AR ING
Ears are a sensitive instrument and should be cared for with respect.
Harmful noise can easily damage the inner ear. Hearing health depends
on being aware of the dangers of loud noises and protecting the ears by
avoiding them. Hearing loss can arise from prolonged exposure to loud
noise, or from a brief, sudden explosion.
Harmful noise environments can be found nearly everywhere.
Extremely loud sounds from traffic, television, rock concerts, machinery,
63
TH E S E NS ES
Listening to music at high volumes can permanently damage your ears. This is especially true when
using headphones or earbuds.
64
Speak quietly or whisper when you are near someone elses ears. Shouting or other loud noises can
cause temporary or even permanent hearing loss.
65
TH E S E NS ES
Exercise can help keep you fit and also helps with your balance and movements.
66
A H E ALT HY SE N SE OF TOUC H
The sense of touch comes from millions of sensory receptors imbedded
in the skin. Skin is made up of many layers, and new skin cells are being
made all the time and push dead cells to the top layer where they are worn
away. Keeping the body well nourished and supplied with plenty of water
helps the skin stay healthy. It is also important to protect the skin from
67
TH E S E NS ES
Drinking the right amount of fluids provides your body with the nutrients it needs to function
properly.
too much exposure to the sun. People who do a lot of rough work with
their hands, or go barefoot outdoors develop harder, thicker skin, called
calluses, on their hands and feet. Calluses interfere with the sense of
touch, making sensation more difficult and preventing the receptors from
detecting texture, temperature, and pain. Oils and creams can help soften
the skin and restore the ability of the skin to respond to touch stimuli.
The sense of touch can also be improved upon by simply recognizing
the feedback from touch receptors. For example, enjoying the feel of diving
into cool, clean water on a hot afternoon or appreciating a soft pillow
after a long, tiring day. Giving a friend a hug or holding someones hand
when crossing a busy street also produces positive responses from touch
68
Keeping your skin clean and moisturized is one easy way to help protect your sense of touch.
sensations. Such experiences can boost levels of wellbeing and prime the
body to react more often and more thoroughly to new touch stimuli.
The senses respond to the bodys environment and present the brain
with vital information. Billions of nerve cells react to sensory stimuli
and transmit impulses that help defend the body from danger, pain, and
harm. Sensory receptors almost instantaneously give the brain the ability
to identify people and objects, to listen to music and sounds, to maintain
balance and equilibrium, to distinguish textures and temperature, and to
smell aromas and feast on favorite foods. The human senses are the means
to experience the world and their many complexities are extraordinary.
69
TH E S E NS ES
Glossary
cochleaA spiral-shaped cavity in the inner ear that contains the receptors for hearing in the organ of Corti.
70
Glossar y
glaucomaA vision disorder that involves the build-up of pressure behind the eye..
71
TH E S E NS ES
optic diskA blind spot, or area in the back of the eye where the optic
nerve passes through.
organ of cortiA mass of tiny hairs that are the hearing receptors.
ossiclesThe tiniest bones in the body found in the middle ear that
help amplify sound.
thalamusA part of the brain that processes and relays sensory information to the cerebral cortex of the brain.
vestibulocochlear nerve The nerve that leads from the inner ear to the
brain that provides sensory information from the ear.
vitreous humorThe jelly-like fluid found behind the lens of the eye.
72
Websites
American Speech-Language-Hearing Association (ASHA)
http://www.asha.org
73
TH E S E NS ES
Index
74
37
eye, 6-8, 6, 18
lazy, 42-43
parts of, 6-8, 18
eyeball, 7, 41
ganglion cells, 7
glasses, 42
gustation See taste
hammer See malleus
haptics, 38-39
hearing, 8-10, 9, 2529
aid, 46-48, 47
problems with, 4652
hyperopia, 42
incus, 8, 27-28, 27, 28
iris, 6, 7, 18
lasers, 40-41, 40
Lasik surgery, 40, 42
lens, 7, 18, 19
macula, 7, 22, 44
macular
degeneration, 44
malleus, 8, 27-28, 27,
I ndex
28
myopia, 42
nerves, 8, 12, 14-15,
23, 23, 28-29, 37-39
olfactory
bulb, 14,
epithelium, 14
nerve, 14
optic
disk, 8, 20, 21
nerve, 18,
organ of Corti, 9, 27,
28
ossicles, 8, 27-28, 27,
28
oval window, 8, 27, 28
papillae, 12-13, 31-33,
31, 32
pinna, 8, 27
presbyopia, 42
proprioception, 10-11,
11, 30-31
problems with, 5253
pupil, 7, 18, 19
retina, 7, 18, 19-21,
20, 21, 23-24
rods, 20-23, 21, 22
saccule, 9
sclera, 7
semicircular canals,
9-10, 11
sight See vision
sign language, 49-52,
52
skin, 14-15, 37-39
skull, 7
smell, 13-14, 14, 3435, 35
problems with, 5455
stapes, 8, 27-28, 27, 28
stirrup See stapes
taste, 12-13, 12, 3134, 31, 32, 33
buds, 12-13, 32-33,
32
problems with, 5556
temporal
bone, 28
membrane, 8
tongue, 12-13, 12
touch, 14-15, 15, 3739
problems with 56-57
utricle, 9, 11
75
TH E S E NS ES
vestibular
system, 10-11
vestibule, 9
vision, 6-8, 6, 17-25
problems with, 41-46
visual cortex, 6-7, 8, 24-25
vitreous humor, 7, 19
76