Humidity
Humidity
Humidity
Humidity refers to the amount of moisture in the air. You might be surprised
to know that the air in our atmosphere has water in it. Lots of water!
Water in the atmosphere exists in 3 main states.
1. WATER VAPOR
2. CLOUD DROPLETS (SOMETIMES FROZEN ICE CRYSTALS)
3. LIQUID RAIN DROPS (SOMETIMES FROZEN!)
IMPORTANT!!: warm air can hold more water vapor than colder air!
Air near the ground or ocean usually has more water in it than the colder air
up high.
MEASURING THE AMOUNT OF WATER VAPOR IN THE AIR:
There are several different ways to measure and to express the amount of
water in the air.
Lets imagine we have a blob of air with moisture in it. The temperature of
our blob of air is 80 degrees. So, how do we tell how much moisture is in it
????
RELATIVE HUMIDITY:
The relative humidity tells how much water the air is holding compared to
how much it could hold at a certain temperature. If our blob of air has a
relative humidity of 50% then that means it is holding half of the amount of
water a blob of air 80 degrees could hold. The relative humidity can change
if the moisture changes or if the temperature changes.
DEW POINT:
The dew point is a much better indicator of moisture in the air and is
preferred by most meteorologists.
WHAT IS THE DEW POINT?
The dew point is the temperature at which the air will be holding all the
moisture it can if cooled. Or...another way of putting it. The dew point is the
temperature at which the relative humidity reaches 100%.
CONFUSED?
Lets talk about our blob of 80 degree air. It has water vapor in it, and
remember that warm air can hold more water than cold air. If we start
cooling our blob of 80-degree air...it will eventually reach a temperature at
which it can no longer hold the water vapor in it. Lets say that in this case
our blob of air forms a cloud when we cool it to 50 degrees. Then 50
degrees in the dew point of our blob of air! Note that the dew point does
not depend on the temperature like Relative Humidity!
USE OF CALCULATOR
Calculator (see image) serves for quick and simple calculating of mole
mass of compounds. The chemical equations, by adding the signs of
addition or multiplication, are transformed into mathematical expression
where the symbols of element represent the atomic masses of the element
concerned. The mathematical expression can be seen if the mouse is held
up on the entry field for a few seconds. E.g.
H2SO4 becomes H*2+S+O*4 or 1.00794*2+32.066+15.9994*4
For indicating hydration you must use a + sign, for example CuSO4+5H2O
There is an intelligent routine which translates the symbols of elements
written in small letters into chemical formula. The result of the translation
will be entered into the entry field and calculated, or the programme will
report error. One has to be careful when writing formulae in small letters
because of possibly manifold solutions (e.g. CO an Co or PO and Po).
If a mathematical operation is carried out, all chemical formulae will be put
in brackets. E.g.
cuso4+5h2o will become (CuSO4)+5*(H2O) while h3po4 will become
H3PO4.
By clicking the symbol of the element in Periodic Table it is automatically
entered in the entry field. On the right button of the mouse there are some
more frequently used anions and molecules.
STATUS
EniG. Periodic table of the elements is a FREEWARE programme product.
You can safely use this programme for private or business purposes. You
can distribute it to others under the condition that you don't use it for
material gain and that you don't change the contents of files. It cannot be
distributed for commercial purposes without the author's authorization.
AUTHOR
Eni
University
Faculty
of
Chemical
Teslina 10/V, 21000 Split, Croatia
in
Technology
in
Generalic
Split
Split
e-mail:
URL:
URL: http://www.ktf-split.hr/periodni/en/
[email protected]
http://www.ktf-split.hr/~eni/
EDITORS
Michel Ditria
Marc Hens
Ricardo
Gruda
INSTALL PROGRAM
System requirements: Every 32-bit PC with Windows 9x, NT, 2000 or
Windows
XP
operating
system.
You can download a self-install copy of Periodic table of the elements with
all the files needed (1.68 MB) or short form without VB library (1.01 MB).
Unzip the files into a temporary directory, run setup program (setup.exe)
and
follow
the
instructions
on
your
screen.
After installations the Periodic table folder contains the following files:
Dubrovnik.jpg - background picture
file_id.diz - short description of programme
help_en.txt - description of programme (English language)
help_en.txt - description of programme (French language)
help_es.txt - description of programme (Spanish language)
help_pt.txt - description of programme (Portuguese language)
help_hr.txt - description of programme (Croatian language)
pse.exe - the programme itself
pse.cfg - configuration file
uninstall.exe - uninstall program
uninstall.ini - uninstall informations
If you download a short form, probably you'll also need the file
MSVBVM60.DLL. This is the basic library for the programs written in Visual
Basic 6.0 and is not include in the short install package. You can download
it in a ZIP format
http://www.ktf-split.hr/~eni/toys/msvbvm60.zip (689 kB; v. 6.0.84.95;
1999/10/5)
and
unzip
in
the
../Windows/System/
directory.
REMOVE PROGRAM
Activate the Control Panel, double click Add/Remove Programs, and
double
click
on
the
Periodic
table
list
box
entry.
You
Setup
can
also
program
remove
is
create
the
program
by
Setup
using
an
Generator
Uninstall
(Gentee,
icon.
Inc.)
The author shall not be responsible for any damages, direct or indirect,
which
may
result
from
the
use
of
this
software.
the formulas are:
Centigrade = (Fahrenheit - 32) * 5/9
Fahrenheit = centigrade * 9/5 + 32
the brains behind:
Anders Celsius, swedish physicist and astronomer, 1701 - 1744
Gabriel Fahrenheit, german physicist, 1686 - 1736, inventor of the
thermometer
how did they choose the ranges?
CELSIUS:
range
of
100
steps,
0
degree
Centigrade
=
freezingpoint
of
water,
100 degree Centigrade = boilingpoint of water
FAHRENHEIT:
range
of
180
steps,
32
degree
Fahrenheit
=
freezingpoint
of
water,
100 degree Fahrenheit = body temperature of a person (not very
accurate...),
212
degree
Fahrenheit
=
boilingpoint
of
water
especially when working with a Skew T, Log P diagram. Although the frostpoint temperature is not usually computed for a surface aviation weather
observation, we have introduced it at this point because it is so closely
related to the dew- point temperature. Relative humidity, and other humidity
computations derived from temperature and dew-point temperature
readings are covered later in this chapter. SEA SURFACE TEMPERATURE
Another temperature reading in shipboard weather observations is the sea
surface temperature. It is supposed to reflect the temperature of the upper
few inches of the sea surface. On some ships with OA divisions, installed
sensors automatically measure this value. There are three other acceptable
methods for obtaining a sea-surface temperature reading: the bucket
temperature method; by expendable bathythermograph; and by use of the
seawater injection temperature. The sea-surface temperature reading must
be accurate since it is a major input into many undersea warfare (USW)
acoustic products. Bucket Temperature The bucket temperature method is
by far the most accurate, yet is also the most work intensive. In this
method, a sample of seawater is obtained by casting a lightweight bucket
or coffee can with a strong line attached over the side of the ship and
retrieving a water sample. This should be done as near to the bow of the
. Wet-Bulb Temperature The lowest temperature that water theoretically
can reach by evaporation. Wet-Bulb temperature is an extremely important
parameter in tower selection and design and should be measured by a
psychrometer
Principles of Cooling Towers All cooling towers operate on the principle
of removing heat from water by evaporating a small portion of the water
that is recirculated through the unit. The heat that is removed is called the
latent heat of vaporization. Each one pound of water that is evaporated
removes approximately 1,000 BTU's in the form of latent heat.
COOLING
TOWER
TERMS
AND
DEFINITIONS
BTU (British Thermal Unit) A BTU is the heat energy required to raise the
temperature of one pound of water one degree Fahrenheit in the range
from 32 F to 212 F Cooling Range The difference in temperature
between the hot water entering the tower and the cold water leaving the
tower is the cooling range. Approach The difference between the
temperature of the cold water leaving the tower and the wet- bulb
temperature of the air is known as the approach. Establishment of the
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
crossing the downward water flow. Counterflow towers are inherently more efficient than
crossflow towers.
How does cooling actually take place inside a cooling tower?
There are two primary mechanisms by which water is cooled inside a cooling tower. Sensible
heat transfer takes place when the incoming air temperature is lower than the temperature of the
incoming water, thus heat from the water is absorbed by the colder air. If that were the only
cooling that took place inside a cooling tower, the cold-water temperature would be limited by the
ambient temperature. However, the bulk of the cooling that takes place inside the cooling tower
(>80%) is driven by evaporation of the water TCTCelf. Evaporation requires energy (heat), so
when water is evaporated within the fill media in a cooling tower, heat is removed with the water
vapor and leaves in the exiting air stream from the top of the tower. The result is that the
remaining water is cooled significantly, even to temperatures below the actual ambient
temperature.
What is the entering wet-bulb temperature?
Simply stated the entering wet-bulb temperature (EWBT or WBT) is a measure of the level of
humidity in the ambient air entering the cooling tower. In general, the higher the wet-bulb
temperature, the more moisture that exists in the air. The wet-bulb temperature is a key
parameter in the designing/sizing of a cooling tower, since it determines the degree to which more
water can be evaporated. Cooling towers operating in high wet-bulb temperatures require a larger
tower than those found in lower wet-bulb regions of the country.
Why is blowdown important?
Blowdown is the term given to water discharged from the cooling tower system to control the
buildup of dissolved solids, such as salts or other impurities that occur in water as well as
suspended solids that are "washed-out" of the entering air. As a pot of tea gets concentrated if it
continues to boil, so the water in a cooling tower becomes concentrated with salts and other
impurities as water evaporates. In addition to blowdown, the predominant loss of water from a
cooling tower system is through the planned and desirable evaporation that takes place. When
water is evaporated to pure water vapor, it leaves behind many impurities which redissolve in
circulating water or even deposit on cooling tower internals. Make-up water is introduced to the
system to compensate for water losses, but the circulating flow continues to become increasingly
concentrated with these impurities as more water evaporates. If the dissolved solids level
becomes too high, accelerated scaling can occur inside the cooling tower and reduce the
efficiency and or capacity of cooling in the tower. Blowdown of the circulating flow is implemented
to keep this dissolved solids level below that saturation level.
What is cooling tower drift?
In every cooling tower, there is a loss of water to the environment in the form of pure water, which
results from the evaporative cooling process. This evaporated water leaves the tower in a pure
vapor state, and thus presents no threat to the environment. Drift, however, is the undesirable
loss of liquid water to the environment, via small unevaporated droplets that become entrained in
the exhaust air stream of a cooling tower. These water droplets carry with them minerals, debris
and microorganisms and water treatment chemicals from the circulating water, thus potentially
impacting the environment. High drift losses are typically caused by fouled, inefficient or damaged
drift eliminators, excessive exit velocities or imbalances in water chemistry.
Why is minimizing drift important?
Minimizing drift losses in a cooling tower reduces the risk of impacting the environment with
potentially corrosive water treatment chemicals. Drift is usually responsible for damage to
property near the cooling tower yard, i.e. buildings, cars, etc. Water use and chemical
consumption are also reduced since more remains in the circulating flow, thus generating savings
in operating costs. Last but not least, excessive drift losses pose serious health risks, not only
because of the chemicals released, but because of microorganisms that can be transmitted
through drift, most notably L. pneumophila, the bacterium that causes Legionnaires' disease.
How can drift be minimized?
Certainly, the most effective means of reducing drift is to install high-efficiency drift eliminators in
your tower. The drift eliminators are your last, but most critical line of defense for mitigating drift.
Maintaining a balanced water chemistry is also very important. Certain chemicals used
specifically for cooling water treatment can reduce the waters surface tension, thus interfering
with the normal agglomeration of water droplets that occurs in the drift eliminators. The result is
that water droplets are smaller and more easily entrained in the exiting air stream. There is no
substitute for a well-maintained water treatment program.
Finally, periodic inspection of spray distribution systems and drift eliminators is recommended. A
clogged spray nozzle, fouled drift eliminator or even an improperly installed drift eliminator can
cause excessive drift in a cooling tower.
9. What is Legionnaires' Disease?
Legionnaires' Disease is a potentially serious illness that affects the human respiratory system. It
is contracted through the inhalation of air-born water droplets or mist containing viable Legionella
pneumophila bacterium that occur naturally in most US water sources. Cooling towers provide a
hot, humid environment that is an ideal breeding ground for the bacterium. Once a tower is
infected, the bacteria are easily transmitted in the drift leaving the cooling tower. About 1,000
cases are reported each year in the US, though the CDC estimates that 10 15 times that
number of cases may actually occur each year.inn
10. How can the transmission of Legionnaires' Disease be eliminated?
While there is no doubt that Legionnaires' Disease is a real and potentially serious health issue
for cooling tower operation, the implementation of sensible equipment designs and the execution
of appropriate operations, maintenance and housekeeping procedures can virtually eliminate the
risk to human health. Tower designs that feature low drift losses, readily accessible/cleanable
internals, and basins that promote the accumulation and removal of sedimentation are key to
lowering the associated health risk. Periodic cleaning of the cooling tower internals is strongly
recommended.
1. What is the difference between a "forced draft" and "induceddraft" cooling tower?