(Structured Query Language) : Sundies

SQL
[Structured Query Language]

SundieS
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BASIC
Syntax
SELECT Statement
SELECT DISTINCT Statement
WHERE Clause
AND & OR Operators
ORDER BY Keyword
INSERT INTO Statement
UPDATE Statement
DELETE Statement
TOP Clause
LIKE Operator
Wildcards
IN Operator
BETWEEN Operator
Alias
Joins
INNER JOIN Keyword
LEFT JOIN Keyword
RIGHT JOIN Keyword
FULL JOIN Keyword
UNION Operator
SELECT INTO Statement
CREATE DATABASE Statement
CREATE TABLE Statement
Constraints
NOT NULL Constraint
UNIQUE Constraint
PRIMARY KEY Constraint
FOREIGN KEY Constraint
CHECK Constraint
DEFAULT Constraint
CREATE INDEX Statement
DROP INDEX, DROP TABLE, and DROP DATABASE
ALTER TABLE Statement
AUTO INCREMENT Field
Views
Date Functions
NULL Values
NULL Functions
Data Types
Functions
AVG() Function
COUNT() Function
FIRST() Function
LAST() Function
MAX() Function
MIN() Function
SUM() Function
GROUP BY Statement
HAVING Clause
UCASE() Function
LCASE() Function
MID() Function
LEN() Function
ROUND() Function
NOW() Function
FORMAT() Function
Quick Reference
Hosting
1. What is SQL?
SQL stands for Structured Query Language
SQL lets you access and manipulate databases
SQL is an ANSI (American National Standards Institute) standard

What Can SQL do?
SQL can execute queries against a database
SQL can retrieve data from a database
SQL can insert records in a database
SQL can update records in a database
SQL can delete records from a database
SQL can create new databases
SQL can create new tables in a database
SQL can create stored procedures in a database
SQL can create views in a database
SQL can set permissions on tables, procedures, and views
SQL is a Standard - BUT....
Although SQL is an ANSI (American National Standards Institute) standard, there are many different
versions of the SQL language.
However, to be compliant with the ANSI standard, they all support at least the major commands (such
as SELECT, UPDATE, DELETE, INSERT, WHERE) in a similar manner.
Note: Most of the SQL database programs also have their own proprietary extensions in addition to the
SQL standard!
Using SQL in Your Web Site
To build a web site that shows some data from a database, you will need the following:
An RDBMS database program (i.e. MS Access, SQL Server, MySQL)
A server-side scripting language, like PHP or ASP
SQL
HTML / CSS
RDBMS
RDBMS stands for Relational Database Management System.
RDBMS is the basis for SQL, and for all modern database systems like MS SQL Server, IBM DB2, Oracle,
MySQL, and Microsoft Access.
The data in RDBMS is stored in database objects called tables.
A table is a collection of related data entries and it consists of columns and rows.
2. SQL Syntax
Database Tables
A database most often contains one or more tables. Each table is identified by a name (e.g.
"Customers" or "Orders"). Tables contain records (rows) with data.
Below is an example of a table called "Persons":
P_Id
LastName
FirstName
Address
City
Hansen
Ola
Timoteivn 10
Sandnes
Svendson
Tove
Borgvn 23
Sandnes
Pettersen
Kari
Storgt 20
Stavanger
The table above contains three records (one for each person) and five columns (P_Id, LastName,
FirstName, Address, and City).
SQL Statements
Most of the actions you need to perform on a database are done with SQL statements.
The following SQL statement will select all the records in the "Persons" table:
SELECT * FROM Persons
In this tutorial we will teach you all about the different SQL statements.
Keep in Mind That...
SQL is not case sensitive
Semicolon after SQL Statements?
Some database systems require a semicolon at the end of each SQL statement.
Semicolon is the standard way to separate each SQL statement in database systems that allow more
than one SQL statement to be executed in the same call to the server.
We are using MS Access and SQL Server 2000 and we do not have to put a semicolon after each SQL
statement, but some database programs force you to use it.
SQL DML and DDL

SQL can be divided into two parts: The Data Manipulation Language (DML) and the Data Definition
Language (DDL).
The query and update commands form the DML part of SQL:
SELECT - extracts data from a database
UPDATE - updates data in a database
DELETE - deletes data from a database
INSERT INTO - inserts new data into a database
The DDL part of SQL permits database tables to be created or deleted. It also defines indexes (keys),
specify links between tables, and impose constraints between tables. The most important DDL
statements in SQL are:
CREATE DATABASE - creates a new database
ALTER DATABASE - modifies a database
CREATE TABLE - creates a new table
ALTER TABLE - modifies a table
DROP TABLE - deletes a table
CREATE INDEX - creates an index (search key)
DROP INDEX - deletes an index
3. SQL SELECT Statement
This chapter will explain the SELECT and the SELECT * statements.
The SQL SELECT Statement
The SELECT statement is used to select data from a database.
The result is stored in a result table, called the result-set.
SQL SELECT Syntax
SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
And
SELECT * FROM table_name
Note: SQL is not case sensitive. SELECT is the same as select.
An SQL SELECT Example
The "Persons" table:
P_Id
LastName
FirstName
Address
City
Hansen
Ola
Timoteivn 10
Sandnes
Svendson
Tove
Borgvn 23
Sandnes
Pettersen
Kari
Storgt 20
Stavanger
Now we want to select the content of the columns named "LastName" and "FirstName" from the table
above.
We use the following SELECT statement:
SELECT LastName,FirstName FROM Persons
The result-set will look like this:
LastName
FirstName
Hansen
Ola
Svendson
Tove
Pettersen
Kari
SELECT * Example
Now we want to select all the columns from the "Persons" table.
Tip: The asterisk (*) is a quick way of selecting all columns!
P_Id
LastName
FirstName
Address
City
Hansen
Ola
Timoteivn 10
Sandnes
Svendson
Tove
Borgvn 23
Sandnes
Pettersen
Kari
Storgt 20
Stavanger
Navigation in a Result-set
Most database software systems allow navigation in the result-set with programming functions, like:
Move-To-First-Record, Get-Record-Content, Move-To-Next-Record, etc.
Programming functions like these are not a part of this tutorial.
4. SQL SELECT DISTINCT Statement
In a table, some of the columns may contain duplicate values. This is not a problem, however,
sometimes you will want to list only the different (distinct) values in a table.
The DISTINCT keyword can be used to return only distinct (different) values.
SQL SELECT DISTINCT Syntax
SELECT DISTINCT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
SELECT DISTINCT Example
P_Id
LastName
FirstName
Address
City
Hansen
Ola
Timoteivn 10
Sandnes
Svendson
Tove
Borgvn 23
Sandnes
Pettersen
Kari
Storgt 20
Stavanger
Now we want to select only the distinct values from the column named "City" from the table above.
SELECT DISTINCT City FROM Persons
City
Sandnes
Stavanger
5. SQL WHERE Clause
The WHERE clause is used to filter records.
The WHERE Clause
The WHERE clause is used to extract only those records that fulfill a specified criterion.
SQL WHERE Syntax
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name operator value
WHERE Clause Example
P_Id
LastName
FirstName
Address
City
Hansen
Ola
Timoteivn 10
Sandnes
Svendson
Tove
Borgvn 23
Sandnes
Pettersen
Kari
Storgt 20
Stavanger
Now we want to select only the persons living in the city "Sandnes" from the table above.
WHERE City='Sandnes'
P_Id
LastName
FirstName
Address
City
Hansen
Ola
Timoteivn 10
Sandnes
Svendson
Tove
Borgvn 23
Sandnes
Quotes around Text Fields

SQL uses single quotes around text values (most database systems will also accept double quotes).
Although, numeric values should not be enclosed in quotes.
For text values:
This is correct:
SELECT * FROM Persons WHERE FirstName='Tove'
This is wrong:
SELECT * FROM Persons WHERE FirstName=Tove
For numeric values:
This is correct:
SELECT * FROM Persons WHERE Year=1965
This is wrong:
SELECT * FROM Persons WHERE Year='1965'
Operators Allowed in the WHERE Clause
With the WHERE clause, the following operators can be used:
Operato
Description
r
=
Equal
<>
Not equal
>
Greater than
<
Less than
>=
Greater than or equal
<=
Less than or equal
BETWEE
Between an inclusive range
N
LIKE
Search for a pattern
IN
If you know the exact value you want to return for at

least one of the columns
Note: In some versions of SQL the <> operator may be written as !=

6. SQL AND & OR Operators
The AND & OR operators are used to filter records based on more than one condition.
The AND operator displays a record if both the first condition and the second condition is true.
The OR operator displays a record if either the first condition or the second condition is true.
AND Operator Example
P_Id
LastName
FirstName
Address
City
Hansen
Ola
Timoteivn 10
Sandnes
Svendson
Tove
Borgvn 23
Sandnes
Pettersen
Kari
Storgt 20
Stavanger
Now we want to select only the persons with the first name equal to "Tove" AND the last name equal to
"Svendson":
WHERE FirstName='Tove'
AND LastName='Svendson'
P_Id
LastName
FirstName
Address
City
Svendson
Tove
Borgvn 23
Sandnes
OR Operator Example
Now we want to select only the persons with the first name equal to "Tove" OR the first name equal to
"Ola":
WHERE FirstName='Tove'
OR FirstName='Ola'
P_Id
LastName
FirstName
Address
City
Hansen
Ola
Timoteivn 10
Sandnes
Svendson
Tove
Borgvn 23
Sandnes
Combining AND & OR

You can also combine AND and OR (use parenthesis to form complex expressions).
Now we want to select only the persons with the last name equal to "Svendson" AND the first name
equal to "Tove" OR to "Ola":
SELECT * FROM Persons WHERE
LastName='Svendson'
AND (FirstName='Tove' OR FirstName='Ola')
P_Id
LastName
FirstName
Address
City
Svendson
Tove
Borgvn 23
Sandnes
7. SQL ORDER BY Keyword

The ORDER BY keyword is used to sort the result-set.
The ORDER BY Keyword
The ORDER BY keyword is used to sort the result-set by a specified column.
The ORDER BY keyword sorts the records in ascending order by default.
If you want to sort the records in a descending order, you can use the DESC keyword.
SQL ORDER BY Syntax
FROM table_name
ORDER BY column_name(s) ASC|DESC
ORDER BY Example
P_Id
LastName
FirstName
Address
City
Hansen
Ola
Timoteivn 10
Sandnes
Svendson
Tove
Borgvn 23
Sandnes
Pettersen
Kari
Storgt 20
Stavanger
Nilsen
Tom
Vingvn 23
Stavanger
Now we want to select all the persons from the table above, however, we want to sort the persons by
their last name.
ORDER BY LastName
P_Id
LastName
FirstName
Address
City
Hansen
Ola
Timoteivn 10
Sandnes
Nilsen
Tom
Vingvn 23
Stavanger
Pettersen
Kari
Storgt 20
Stavanger
Svendson
Tove
Borgvn 23
Sandnes
ORDER BY DESC Example

Now we want to select all the persons from the table above, however, we want to sort the persons
descending by their last name.
ORDER BY LastName DESC
P_Id
LastName
FirstName
Address
City
Svendson
Tove
Borgvn 23
Sandnes
Pettersen
Kari
Storgt 20
Stavanger
Nilsen
Tom
Vingvn 23
Stavanger
Hansen
Ola
Timoteivn 10
Sandnes
8. SQL INSERT INTO Statement

The INSERT INTO statement is used to insert new records in a table.
The INSERT INTO Statement
The INSERT INTO statement is used to insert a new row in a table.
SQL INSERT INTO Syntax
It is possible to write the INSERT INTO statement in two forms.
The first form doesn't specify the column names where the data will be inserted, only their values:
INSERT INTO table_name
VALUES (value1, value2, value3,...)
The second form specifies both the column names and the values to be inserted:
INSERT INTO table_name (column1, column2, column3,...)
VALUES (value1, value2, value3,...)
SQL INSERT INTO Example
We have the following "Persons" table:
P_Id
LastName
FirstName
Address
City
Hansen
Ola
Timoteivn 10
Sandnes
Svendson
Tove
Borgvn 23
Sandnes
Pettersen
Kari
Storgt 20
Stavanger
Now we want to insert a new row in the "Persons" table.

We use the following SQL statement:
INSERT INTO Persons
VALUES (4,'Nilsen', 'Johan', 'Bakken 2', 'Stavanger')
The "Persons" table will now look like this:
P_Id
LastName
FirstName
Address
City
Hansen
Ola
Timoteivn 10
Sandnes
Svendson
Tove
Borgvn 23
Sandnes
Pettersen
Kari
Storgt 20
Stavanger
Nilsen
Johan
Bakken 2
Stavanger
Insert Data Only in Specified Columns

It is also possible to only add data in specific columns.
The following SQL statement will add a new row, but only add data in the "P_Id", "LastName" and the
"FirstName" columns:
INSERT INTO Persons (P_Id, LastName, FirstName)
VALUES (5, 'Tjessem', 'Jakob')
P_Id
LastName
FirstName
Address
City
Hansen
Ola
Timoteivn 10
Sandnes
Svendson
Tove
Borgvn 23
Sandnes
Pettersen
Kari
Storgt 20
Stavanger
Nilsen
Johan
Bakken 2
Stavanger
Tjessem
Jakob
9. SQL UPDATE Statement

The UPDATE statement is used to update records in a table.
The UPDATE Statement
The UPDATE statement is used to update existing records in a table.
SQL UPDATE Syntax
UPDATE table_name
SET column1=value, column2=value2,...
WHERE some_column=some_value
Note: Notice the WHERE clause in the UPDATE syntax. The WHERE clause specifies which record or
records that should be updated. If you omit the WHERE clause, all records will be updated!
SQL UPDATE Example
P_Id
LastName
FirstName
Address
City
Hansen
Ola
Timoteivn 10
Sandnes
Svendson
Tove
Borgvn 23
Sandnes
Pettersen
Kari
Storgt 20
Stavanger
Nilsen
Johan
Bakken 2
Stavanger
Tjessem
Jakob
Now we want to update the person "Tjessem, Jakob" in the "Persons" table.
UPDATE Persons
SET Address='Nissestien 67', City='Sandnes'
WHERE LastName='Tjessem' AND FirstName='Jakob'
P_Id
LastName
FirstName
Address
City
Hansen
Ola
Timoteivn 10
Sandnes
Svendson
Tove
Borgvn 23
Sandnes
Pettersen
Kari
Storgt 20
Stavanger
Nilsen
Johan
Bakken 2
Stavanger
Tjessem
Jakob
Nissestien 67
Sandnes
SQL UPDATE Warning

Be careful when updating records. If we had omitted the WHERE clause in the example above, like this:
UPDATE Persons
SET Address='Nissestien 67', City='Sandnes'
The "Persons" table would have looked like this:
P_Id
LastName
FirstName
Address
City
Hansen
Ola
Nissestien 67
Sandnes
Svendson
Tove
Nissestien 67
Sandnes
Pettersen
Kari
Nissestien 67
Sandnes
Nilsen
Johan
Nissestien 67
Sandnes
Tjessem
Jakob
Nissestien 67
Sandnes
10. SQL DELETE Statement

The DELETE statement is used to delete records in a table.
The DELETE Statement
The DELETE statement is used to delete rows in a table.
SQL DELETE Syntax
DELETE FROM table_name
Note: Notice the WHERE clause in the DELETE syntax. The WHERE clause specifies which record or
records that should be deleted. If you omit the WHERE clause, all records will be deleted!
SQL DELETE Example
P_Id
LastName
FirstName
Address
City
Hansen
Ola
Timoteivn 10
Sandnes
Svendson
Tove
Borgvn 23
Sandnes
Pettersen
Kari
Storgt 20
Stavanger
Nilsen
Johan
Bakken 2
Stavanger
Tjessem
Jakob
Nissestien 67
Sandnes
Now we want to delete the person "Tjessem, Jakob" in the "Persons" table.
DELETE FROM Persons
WHERE LastName='Tjessem' AND FirstName='Jakob'
P_Id
LastName
FirstName
Address
City
Hansen
Ola
Timoteivn 10
Sandnes
Svendson
Tove
Borgvn 23
Sandnes
Pettersen
Kari
Storgt 20
Stavanger
Nilsen
Johan
Bakken 2
Stavanger
Delete All Rows

It is possible to delete all rows in a table without deleting the table. This means that the table structure,
attributes, and indexes will be intact:
or
DELETE * FROM table_name
Note: Be very careful when deleting records. You cannot undo this statement!
11. SQL TOP Clause
The TOP Clause
The TOP clause is used to specify the number of records to return.
The TOP clause can be very useful on large tables with thousands of records. Returning a large number
of records can impact on performance.
Note: Not all database systems support the TOP clause.
SQL Server Syntax
SELECT TOP number|percent column_name(s)
FROM table_name
SQL SELECT TOP Equivalent in MySQL and Oracle
MySQL Syntax
FROM table_name
LIMIT number
Example
SELECT *
FROM Persons
LIMIT 5
Oracle Syntax
FROM table_name
WHERE ROWNUM <= number
Example
SELECT *
FROM Persons
WHERE ROWNUM <= 5
SQL TOP Example
P_Id
LastName
FirstName
Address
City
Hansen
Ola
Timoteivn 10
Sandnes
Svendson
Tove
Borgvn 23
Sandnes
Pettersen
Kari
Storgt 20
Stavanger
Nilsen
Tom
Vingvn 23
Stavanger
Now we want to select only the two first records in the table above.
SELECT TOP 2 * FROM Persons

P_Id
LastName
FirstName
Address
City
Hansen
Ola
Timoteivn 10
Sandnes
Svendson
Tove
Borgvn 23
Sandnes
SQL TOP PERCENT Example

P_Id
LastName
FirstName
Address
City
Hansen
Ola
Timoteivn 10
Sandnes
Svendson
Tove
Borgvn 23
Sandnes
Pettersen
Kari
Storgt 20
Stavanger
Nilsen
Tom
Vingvn 23
Stavanger
Now we want to select only 50% of the records in the table above.
SELECT TOP 50 PERCENT * FROM Persons
P_Id
LastName
FirstName
Address
City
Hansen
Ola
Timoteivn 10
Sandnes
Svendson
Tove
Borgvn 23
Sandnes
12. SQL LIKE Operator

The LIKE operator is used in a WHERE clause to search for a specified pattern in a column. The LIKE
Operator
The LIKE operator is used to search for a specified pattern in a column.
SQL LIKE Syntax
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name LIKE pattern
LIKE Operator Example
P_Id
LastName
FirstName
Address
City
Hansen
Ola
Timoteivn 10
Sandnes
Svendson
Tove
Borgvn 23
Sandnes
Pettersen
Kari
Storgt 20
Stavanger
Now we want to select the persons living in a city that starts with "s" from the table above.
WHERE City LIKE 's%'
The "%" sign can be used to define wildcards (missing letters in the pattern) both before and after the
pattern.
P_Id
LastName
FirstName
Address
City
Hansen
Ola
Timoteivn 10
Sandnes
Svendson
Tove
Borgvn 23
Sandnes
Pettersen
Kari
Storgt 20
Stavanger
Next, we want to select the persons living in a city that ends with an "s" from the "Persons" table.
WHERE City LIKE '%s'
P_Id
LastName
FirstName
Address
City
Hansen
Ola
Timoteivn 10
Sandnes
Svendson
Tove
Borgvn 23
Sandnes
Next, we want to select the persons living in a city that contains the pattern "tav" from the "Persons"
table.
WHERE City LIKE '%tav%'
P_Id
LastName
FirstName
Address
City
Pettersen
Kari
Storgt 20
Stavanger
It is also possible to select the persons living in a city that NOT contains the pattern "tav" from the
"Persons" table, by using the NOT keyword.
WHERE City NOT LIKE '%tav%'
P_Id
LastName
FirstName
Address
City
Hansen
Ola
Timoteivn 10
Sandnes
Svendson
Tove
Borgvn 23
Sandnes
13.SQL Wildcards
SQL wildcards can be used when searching for data in a database.
SQL Wildcards
SQL wildcards can substitute for one or more characters when searching for data in a database.
SQL wildcards must be used with the SQL LIKE operator.
With SQL, the following wildcards can be used:
Wildcard
Description
A substitute for zero or more characters
A substitute for exactly one character
[charlist]
Any single character in charlist
[^charlist]
or
[!charlist]
Any single character not in charlist
SQL Wildcard Examples

P_Id
LastName
FirstName
Address
City
Hansen
Ola
Timoteivn 10
Sandnes
Svendson
Tove
Borgvn 23
Sandnes
Pettersen
Kari
Storgt 20
Stavanger
Using the % Wildcard

Now we want to select the persons living in a city that starts with "sa" from the "Persons" table.
WHERE City LIKE 'sa%'
P_Id
LastName
FirstName
Address
City
Hansen
Ola
Timoteivn 10
Sandnes
Svendson
Tove
Borgvn 23
Sandnes
Next, we want to select the persons living in a city that contains the pattern "nes" from the "Persons"
table.
WHERE City LIKE '%nes%'

P_Id
LastName
FirstName
Address
City
Hansen
Ola
Timoteivn 10
Sandnes
Svendson
Tove
Borgvn 23
Sandnes
Using the _ Wildcard

Now we want to select the persons with a first name that starts with any character, followed by "la"
from the "Persons" table.
WHERE FirstName LIKE '_la'
P_Id
LastName
FirstName
Address
City
Hansen
Ola
Timoteivn 10
Sandnes
Next, we want to select the persons with a last name that starts with "S", followed by any character,
followed by "end", followed by any character, followed by "on" from the "Persons" table.
WHERE LastName LIKE 'S_end_on'
P_Id
LastName
FirstName
Address
City
Svendson
Tove
Borgvn 23
Sandnes
Using the [charlist] Wildcard

Now we want to select the persons with a last name that starts with "b" or "s" or "p" from the "Persons"
table.
WHERE LastName LIKE '[bsp]%'
P_Id
LastName
FirstName
Address
City
Svendson
Tove
Borgvn 23
Sandnes
Pettersen
Kari
Storgt 20
Stavanger
Next, we want to select the persons with a last name that do not start with "b" or "s" or "p" from the
"Persons" table.
WHERE LastName LIKE '[!bsp]%'
P_Id
LastName
FirstName
Address
City
Hansen
Ola
Timoteivn 10
Sandnes
14. SQL IN Operator

The IN Operator
The IN operator allows you to specify multiple values in a WHERE clause.
SQL IN Syntax
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name IN (value1,value2,...)
IN Operator Example
P_Id
LastName
FirstName
Address
City
Hansen
Ola
Timoteivn 10
Sandnes
Svendson
Tove
Borgvn 23
Sandnes
Pettersen
Kari
Storgt 20
Stavanger
Now we want to select the persons with a last name equal to "Hansen" or "Pettersen" from the table
above.
WHERE LastName IN ('Hansen','Pettersen')
P_Id
LastName
FirstName
Address
City
Hansen
Ola
Timoteivn 10
Sandnes
Pettersen
Kari
Storgt 20
Stavanger
15.SQL BETWEEN Operator

The BETWEEN operator is used in a WHERE clause to select a range of data between two values.
The BETWEEN Operator
The BETWEEN operator selects a range of data between two values. The values can be numbers, text,
or dates.
SQL BETWEEN Syntax
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name
BETWEEN value1 AND value2
BETWEEN Operator Example

P_Id
LastName
FirstName
Address
City
Hansen
Ola
Timoteivn 10
Sandnes
Svendson
Tove
Borgvn 23
Sandnes
Pettersen
Kari
Storgt 20
Stavanger
Now we want to select the persons with a last name alphabetically between "Hansen" and "Pettersen"
from the table above.
WHERE LastName
BETWEEN 'Hansen' AND 'Pettersen'
P_Id
LastName
FirstName
Address
City
Hansen
Ola
Timoteivn 10
Sandnes
Note: The BETWEEN operator is treated differently in different databases.

In some databases, persons with the LastName of "Hansen" or "Pettersen" will not be listed, because
the BETWEEN operator only selects fields that are between and excluding the test values).
In other databases, persons with the LastName of "Hansen" or "Pettersen" will be listed, because the
BETWEEN operator selects fields that are between and including the test values).
And in other databases, persons with the LastName of "Hansen" will be listed, but "Pettersen" will not
be listed (like the example above), because the BETWEEN operator selects fields between the test
values, including the first test value and excluding the last test value.
Therefore: Check how your database treats the BETWEEN operator.
Example 2
To display the persons outside the range in the previous example, use NOT BETWEEN:
WHERE LastName
NOT BETWEEN 'Hansen' AND 'Pettersen'

P_Id
LastName
FirstName
Address
City
Svendson
Tove
Borgvn 23
Sandnes
Pettersen
Kari
Storgt 20
Stavanger
16. SQL Alias

With SQL, an alias name can be given to a table or to a column.
SQL Alias
You can give a table or a column another name by using an alias. This can be a good thing to do if you
have very long or complex table names or column names.
An alias name could be anything, but usually it is short.
SQL Alias Syntax for Tables
FROM table_name
AS alias_name
SQL Alias Syntax for Columns
SELECT column_name AS alias_name
FROM table_name
Alias Example
Assume we have a table called "Persons" and another table called "Product_Orders". We will give the
table aliases of "p" an "po" respectively.
Now we want to list all the orders that "Ola Hansen" is responsible for.
SELECT po.OrderID, p.LastName, p.FirstName
FROM Persons AS p,
Product_Orders AS po
WHERE p.LastName='Hansen'
WHERE p.FirstName='Ola'
The same SELECT statement without aliases:
SELECT Product_Orders.OrderID, Persons.LastName, Persons.FirstName
FROM Persons,
Product_Orders
WHERE Persons.LastName='Hansen'
WHERE Persons.FirstName='Ola'
As you'll see from the two SELECT statements above; aliases can make queries easier to both write and
to read.
17.SQL Joins
SQL joins are used to query data from two or more tables, based on a relationship between certain
columns in these tables.
SQL JOIN
The JOIN keyword is used in an SQL statement to query data from two or more tables, based on a
relationship between certain columns in these tables.
Tables in a database are often related to each other with keys.
A primary key is a column (or a combination of columns) with a unique value for each row. Each primary
key value must be unique within the table. The purpose is to bind data together, across tables, without
repeating all of the data in every table.
Look at the "Persons" table:
P_Id
LastName
FirstName
Address
City
Hansen
Ola
Timoteivn 10
Sandnes
Svendson
Tove
Borgvn 23
Sandnes
Pettersen
Kari
Storgt 20
Stavanger
Note that the "P_Id" column is the primary key in the "Persons" table. This means that no two rows can
have the same P_Id. The P_Id distinguishes two persons even if they have the same name.
Next, we have the "Orders" table:
O_Id
OrderNo
P_Id
77895
44678
22456
24562
34764
15
Note that the "O_Id" column is the primary key in the "Orders" table and that the "P_Id" column refers
to the persons in the "Persons" table without using their names.
Notice that the relationship between the two tables above is the "P_Id" column.
Different SQL JOINs
Before we continue with examples, we will list the types of JOIN you can use, and the differences
between them.
JOIN: Return rows when there is at least one match in both tables
LEFT JOIN: Return all rows from the left table, even if there are no matches in the right table
RIGHT JOIN: Return all rows from the right table, even if there are no matches in the left table
FULL JOIN: Return rows when there is a match in one of the tables
18. SQL INNER JOIN Keyword
SQL INNER JOIN Keyword
The INNER JOIN keyword return rows when there is at least one match in both tables.
SQL INNER JOIN Syntax
FROM table_name1
INNER JOIN table_name2
ON table_name1.column_name=table_name2.column_name
PS: INNER JOIN is the same as JOIN.
SQL INNER JOIN Example
P_Id
LastName
FirstName
Address
City
Hansen
Ola
Timoteivn 10
Sandnes
Svendson
Tove
Borgvn 23
Sandnes
Pettersen
Kari
Storgt 20
Stavanger
The "Orders" table:

O_Id
OrderNo
P_Id
77895
44678
22456
24562
34764
15
Now we want to list all the persons with any orders.

SELECT Persons.LastName, Persons.FirstName, Orders.OrderNo
FROM Persons
INNER JOIN Orders
ON Persons.P_Id=Orders.P_Id
ORDER BY Persons.LastName
LastName
FirstName
OrderNo
Hansen
Ola
22456
Hansen
Ola
24562
Pettersen
Kari
77895
Pettersen
Kari
44678
The INNER JOIN keyword return rows when there is at least one match in both tables. If there are rows
in "Persons" that do not have matches in "Orders", those rows will NOT be listed.
19. SQL LEFT JOIN Keyword

SQL LEFT JOIN Keyword
The LEFT JOIN keyword returns all rows from the left table (table_name1), even if there are no matches
in the right table (table_name2).
SQL LEFT JOIN Syntax
FROM table_name1
LEFT JOIN table_name2
PS: In some databases LEFT JOIN is called LEFT OUTER JOIN.
SQL LEFT JOIN Example
P_Id
LastName
FirstName
Address
City
Hansen
Ola
Timoteivn 10
Sandnes
Svendson
Tove
Borgvn 23
Sandnes
Pettersen
Kari
Storgt 20
Stavanger
The "Orders" table:

O_Id
OrderNo
P_Id
77895
44678
22456
24562
34764
15
Now we want to list all the persons and their orders - if any, from the tables above.
FROM Persons
LEFT JOIN Orders
LastName
FirstName
OrderNo
Hansen
Ola
22456
Hansen
Ola
24562
Pettersen
Kari
77895
Pettersen
Kari
44678
Svendson
Tove
The LEFT JOIN keyword returns all the rows from the left table (Persons), even if there are no matches in
the right table (Orders).
20. SQL RIGHT JOIN Keyword
SQL RIGHT JOIN Keyword
The RIGHT JOIN keyword Return all rows from the right table (table_name2), even if there are no
matches in the left table (table_name1).
SQL RIGHT JOIN Syntax
FROM table_name1
RIGHT JOIN table_name2
PS: In some databases RIGHT JOIN is called RIGHT OUTER JOIN.
SQL RIGHT JOIN Example
P_Id
LastName
FirstName
Address
City
Hansen
Ola
Timoteivn 10
Sandnes
Svendson
Tove
Borgvn 23
Sandnes
Pettersen
Kari
Storgt 20
Stavanger
The "Orders" table:

O_Id
OrderNo
P_Id
77895
44678
22456
24562
34764
15
Now we want to list all the orders with containing persons - if any, from the tables above.
FROM Persons
RIGHT JOIN Orders
LastName
FirstName
OrderNo
Hansen
Ola
22456
Hansen
Ola
24562
Pettersen
Kari
77895
Pettersen
Kari
44678
34764
The RIGHT JOIN keyword returns all the rows from the right table (Orders), even if there are no matches
in the left table (Persons).
21.SQL FULL JOIN Keyword
SQL FULL JOIN Keyword
The FULL JOIN keyword return rows when there is a match in one of the tables.
SQL FULL JOIN Syntax
FROM table_name1
FULL JOIN table_name2
SQL FULL JOIN Example
P_Id
LastName
FirstName
Address
City
Hansen
Ola
Timoteivn 10
Sandnes
Svendson
Tove
Borgvn 23
Sandnes
Pettersen
Kari
Storgt 20
Stavanger
The "Orders" table:

O_Id
OrderNo
P_Id
77895
44678
22456
24562
34764
15
Now we want to list all the persons and their orders, and all the orders with their persons.

FROM Persons
FULL JOIN Orders
LastName
FirstName
OrderNo
Hansen
Ola
22456
Hansen
Ola
24562
Pettersen
Kari
77895
Pettersen
Kari
44678
Svendson
Tove
34764
The FULL JOIN keyword returns all the rows from the left table (Persons), and all the rows from the right
table (Orders). If there are rows in "Persons" that do not have matches in "Orders", or if there are rows
in "Orders" that do not have matches in "Persons", those rows will be listed as well.
22. SQL UNION Operator
The SQL UNION operator combines two or more SELECT statements.
The SQL UNION Operator
The UNION operator is used to combine the result-set of two or more SELECT statements.
Notice that each SELECT statement within the UNION must have the same number of columns. The
columns must also have similar data types. Also, the columns in each SELECT statement must be in the
same order.
SQL UNION Syntax
SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name1
UNION
Note: The UNION operator selects only distinct values by default. To allow duplicate values, use UNION
ALL.
SQL UNION ALL Syntax
UNION ALL
PS: The column names in the result-set of a UNION are always equal to the column names in the first
SELECT statement in the UNION.
SQL UNION Example
Look at the following tables:
"Employees_Norway":
E_ID
E_Name
01
Hansen, Ola
02
Svendson, Tove
03
Svendson, Stephen
04
Pettersen, Kari
"Employees_USA":
E_ID
E_Name
01
Turner, Sally
02
Kent, Clark
03
Svendson, Stephen
04
Scott, Stephen
Now we want to list all the different employees in Norway and USA.
SELECT E_Name FROM Employees_Norway
UNION
SELECT E_Name FROM Employees_USA
E_Name
Hansen, Ola
Svendson, Tove
Svendson, Stephen
Pettersen, Kari
Turner, Sally
Kent, Clark
Scott, Stephen
Note: This command cannot be used to list all employees in Norway and USA. In the example above
we have two employees with equal names, and only one of them will be listed. The UNION command
selects only distinct values.
SQL UNION ALL Example
Now we want to list all employees in Norway and USA:
SELECT E_Name FROM Employees_Norway
UNION ALL
SELECT E_Name FROM Employees_USA
Result
E_Name
Hansen, Ola
Svendson, Tove
Svendson, Stephen
Pettersen, Kari
Turner, Sally
Kent, Clark
Svendson, Stephen
Scott, Stephen
23. SQL SELECT INTO Statement

The SQL SELECT INTO statement can be used to create backup copies of tables.
The SQL SELECT INTO Statement
The SELECT INTO statement selects data from one table and inserts it into a different table.
The SELECT INTO statement is most often used to create backup copies of tables.
SQL SELECT INTO Syntax
We can select all columns into the new table:
SELECT *
INTO new_table_name [IN externaldatabase]
FROM old_tablename
Or we can select only the columns we want into the new table:
FROM old_tablename
SQL SELECT INTO Example
Make a Backup Copy - Now we want to make an exact copy of the data in our "Persons" table.
SELECT *
INTO Persons_Backup
FROM Persons
We can also use the IN clause to copy the table into another database:
SELECT *
INTO Persons_Backup IN 'Backup.mdb'
FROM Persons
We can also copy only a few fields into the new table:
SELECT LastName,FirstName
INTO Persons_Backup
FROM Persons
SQL SELECT INTO - With a WHERE Clause
We can also add a WHERE clause.
The following SQL statement creates a "Persons_Backup" table with only the persons who live in the
city "Sandnes":
SELECT LastName,Firstname
INTO Persons_Backup
FROM Persons
WHERE City='Sandnes'
SQL SELECT INTO - Joined Tables
Selecting data from more than one table is also possible.
The following example creates a "Persons_Order_Backup" table contains data from the two tables
"Persons" and "Orders":
SELECT Persons.LastName,Orders.OrderNo
INTO Persons_Order_Backup
FROM Persons
INNER JOIN Orders
24. SQL CREATE DATABASE Statement

The CREATE DATABASE Statement
The CREATE DATABASE statement is used to create a database.
SQL CREATE DATABASE Syntax
CREATE DATABASE database_name
CREATE DATABASE Example
Now we want to create a database called "my_db".
We use the following CREATE DATABASE statement:
CREATE DATABASE my_db
Database tables can be added with the CREATE TABLE statement
25. SQL CREATE TABLE Statement
The CREATE TABLE Statement
The CREATE TABLE statement is used to create a table in a database.
SQL CREATE TABLE Syntax

CREATE TABLE table_name
(
column_name1 data_type,
....
)
The data type specifies what type of data the column can hold.
CREATE TABLE Example
Now we want to create a table called "Persons" that contains five columns: P_Id, LastName, FirstName,
Address, and City.
We use the following CREATE TABLE statement:
CREATE TABLE Persons

(
P_Id int,
LastName varchar(255),
FirstName varchar(255),
Address varchar(255),
City varchar(255)
)
The P_Id column is of type int and will hold a number. The LastName, FirstName, Address, and City
columns are of type varchar with a maximum length of 255 characters.
The empty "Persons" table will now look like this:
P_Id
LastName
FirstName
Address
City
The empty table can be filled with data with the INSERT INTO statement.
26. SQL Constraints
SQL Constraints
Constraints are used to limit the type of data that can go into a table.
Constraints can be specified when a table is created (with the CREATE TABLE statement) or after the
table is created (with the ALTER TABLE statement).
We will focus on the following constraints:
NOT NULL
UNIQUE
PRIMARY KEY
FOREIGN KEY
CHECK
DEFAULT
27. SQL NOT NULL Constraint
By default, a table column can hold NULL values.
SQL NOT NULL Constraint
The NOT NULL constraint enforces a column to NOT accept NULL values.
The NOT NULL constraint enforces a field to always contain a value. This means that you cannot insert
a new record, or update a record without adding a value to this field.
The following SQL enforces the "P_Id" column and the "LastName" column to not accept NULL values:
(
P_Id int NOT NULL,
LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL,
City varchar(255)
)
28. SQL UNIQUE Constraint
SQL UNIQUE Constraint
The UNIQUE constraint uniquely identifies each record in a database table.
The UNIQUE and PRIMARY KEY constraints both provide a guarantee for uniqueness for a column or set
of columns.
A PRIMARY KEY constraint automatically has a UNIQUE constraint defined on it.
Note that you can have have many UNIQUE constraints per table, but only one PRIMARY KEY constraint
per table.
SQL UNIQUE Constraint on CREATE TABLE
The following SQL creates a UNIQUE constraint on the "P_Id" column when the "Persons" table is
created:
MySQL:
(
P_Id int NOT NULL,

City varchar(255),
UNIQUE (P_Id)
)
SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access:
(
P_Id int NOT NULL UNIQUE,
City varchar(255)
)
To allow naming of a UNIQUE constraint, and for defining a UNIQUE constraint on multiple columns, use
the following SQL syntax:
MySQL / SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access:
(
P_Id int NOT NULL,
City varchar(255),
CONSTRAINT uc_PersonID UNIQUE (P_Id,LastName)
)
SQL UNIQUE Constraint on ALTER TABLE
To create a UNIQUE constraint on the "P_Id" column when the table is already created, use the following
SQL:
ALTER TABLE Persons
ADD UNIQUE (P_Id)
To allow naming of a UNIQUE constraint, and for defining a UNIQUE constraint on multiple columns, use
ALTER TABLE Persons
ADD CONSTRAINT uc_PersonID UNIQUE (P_Id,LastName)
To DROP a UNIQUE Constraint
To drop a UNIQUE constraint, use the following SQL:
MySQL:
ALTER TABLE Persons
DROP INDEX uc_PersonID
ALTER TABLE Persons
DROP CONSTRAINT uc_PersonID
29. SQL PRIMARY KEY Constraint
SQL PRIMARY KEY Constraint
The PRIMARY KEY constraint uniquely identifies each record in a database table.
Primary keys must contain unique values.
A primary key column cannot contain NULL values.
Each table should have a primary key, and each table can have only one primary key.
SQL PRIMARY KEY Constraint on CREATE TABLE
The following SQL creates a PRIMARY KEY on the "P_Id" column when the "Persons" table is created:
MySQL:
(
P_Id int NOT NULL,
City varchar(255),
PRIMARY KEY (P_Id)
)
(
P_Id int NOT NULL PRIMARY KEY,
City varchar(255)
)
To allow naming of a PRIMARY KEY constraint, and for defining a PRIMARY KEY constraint on multiple
columns, use the following SQL syntax:
(
P_Id int NOT NULL,
City varchar(255),
CONSTRAINT pk_PersonID PRIMARY KEY (P_Id,LastName)
)
SQL PRIMARY KEY Constraint on ALTER TABLE

To create a PRIMARY KEY constraint on the "P_Id" column when the table is already created, use the
following SQL:
ALTER TABLE Persons
ADD PRIMARY KEY (P_Id)
To allow naming of a PRIMARY KEY constraint, and for defining a PRIMARY KEY constraint on multiple
ALTER TABLE Persons
ADD CONSTRAINT pk_PersonID PRIMARY KEY (P_Id,LastName)
Note: If you use the ALTER TABLE statement to add a primary key, the primary key column(s) must
already have been declared to not contain NULL values (when the table was first created).
To DROP a PRIMARY KEY Constraint
To drop a PRIMARY KEY constraint, use the following SQL:
MySQL:
ALTER TABLE Persons
DROP PRIMARY KEY
ALTER TABLE Persons
DROP CONSTRAINT pk_PersonID
30. SQL FOREIGN KEY Constraint
A FOREIGN KEY in one table points to a PRIMARY KEY in another table.
Let's illustrate the foreign key with an example. Look at the following two tables:
P_Id
LastName
FirstName
Address
City
Hansen
Ola
Timoteivn 10
Sandnes
Svendson
Tove
Borgvn 23
Sandnes
Pettersen
Kari
Storgt 20
Stavanger
The "Orders" table:

O_Id
OrderNo
P_Id
77895
44678
22456
24562
Note that the "P_Id" column in the "Orders" table points to the "P_Id" column in the "Persons" table.
The "P_Id" column in the "Persons" table is the PRIMARY KEY in the "Persons" table.
The "P_Id" column in the "Orders" table is a FOREIGN KEY in the "Orders" table.
The FOREIGN KEY constraint is used to prevent actions that would destroy link between tables.
The FOREIGN KEY constraint also prevents that invalid data is inserted into the foreign key column,
because it has to be one of the values contained in the table it points to.
SQL FOREIGN KEY Constraint on CREATE TABLE
The following SQL creates a FOREIGN KEY on the "P_Id" column when the "Orders" table is created:
MySQL:
CREATE TABLE Orders
(
O_Id int NOT NULL,
OrderNo int NOT NULL,
P_Id int,
PRIMARY KEY (O_Id),
FOREIGN KEY (P_Id) REFERENCES Persons(P_Id)
)
CREATE TABLE Orders
(
O_Id int NOT NULL PRIMARY KEY,
P_Id int FOREIGN KEY REFERENCES Persons(P_Id)
)
To allow naming of a FOREIGN KEY constraint, and for defining a FOREIGN KEY constraint on multiple
CREATE TABLE Orders
(
O_Id int NOT NULL,
P_Id int,
PRIMARY KEY (O_Id),
CONSTRAINT fk_PerOrders FOREIGN KEY (P_Id)
REFERENCES Persons(P_Id)
)
SQL FOREIGN KEY Constraint on ALTER TABLE
To create a FOREIGN KEY constraint on the "P_Id" column when the "Orders" table is already created,
use the following SQL:
ALTER TABLE Orders
ADD FOREIGN KEY (P_Id)
To allow naming of a FOREIGN KEY constraint, and for defining a FOREIGN KEY constraint on multiple
ALTER TABLE Orders
ADD CONSTRAINT fk_PerOrders
FOREIGN KEY (P_Id)
To DROP a FOREIGN KEY Constraint
To drop a FOREIGN KEY constraint, use the following SQL:
MySQL:
ALTER TABLE Orders
DROP FOREIGN KEY fk_PerOrders
ALTER TABLE Orders
DROP CONSTRAINT fk_PerOrders
31. SQL CHECK Constraint
The CHECK constraint is used to limit the value range that can be placed in a column.
If you define a CHECK constraint on a single column it allows only certain values for this column.
If you define a CHECK constraint on a table it can limit the values in certain columns based on values in
other columns in the row.
SQL CHECK Constraint on CREATE TABLE
The following SQL creates a CHECK constraint on the "P_Id" column when the "Persons" table is created.
The CHECK constraint specifies that the column "P_Id" must only include integers greater than 0.
My SQL:
(
P_Id int NOT NULL,
City varchar(255),
CHECK (P_Id>0)
)
(
P_Id int NOT NULL CHECK (P_Id>0),
City varchar(255)
)
To allow naming of a CHECK constraint, and for defining a CHECK constraint on multiple columns, use
(
P_Id int NOT NULL,
City varchar(255),
CONSTRAINT chk_Person CHECK (P_Id>0 AND City='Sandnes')
)
SQL CHECK Constraint on ALTER TABLE
To create a CHECK constraint on the "P_Id" column when the table is already created, use the following
SQL:
ALTER TABLE Persons
ADD CHECK (P_Id>0)
To allow naming of a CHECK constraint, and for defining a CHECK constraint on multiple columns, use
ALTER TABLE Persons

ADD CONSTRAINT chk_Person CHECK (P_Id>0 AND City='Sandnes')
To DROP a CHECK Constraint
To drop a CHECK constraint, use the following SQL:
ALTER TABLE Persons
DROP CONSTRAINT chk_Person
32. SQL DEFAULT Constraint
SQL DEFAULT Constraint
The DEFAULT constraint is used to insert a default value into a column.
The default value will be added to all new records, if no other value is specified.
SQL DEFAULT Constraint on CREATE TABLE
The following SQL creates a DEFAULT constraint on the "City" column when the "Persons" table is
created:
My SQL / SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access:
(
P_Id int NOT NULL,
City varchar(255) DEFAULT 'Sandnes'
)
The DEFAULT constraint can also be used to insert system values, by using functions like GETDATE():
CREATE TABLE Orders
(
O_Id int NOT NULL,
P_Id int,
OrderDate date DEFAULT GETDATE()
)
SQL DEFAULT Constraint on ALTER TABLE
To create a DEFAULT constraint on the "City" column when the table is already created, use the
following SQL:
MySQL:
ALTER TABLE Persons
ALTER City SET DEFAULT 'SANDNES'
ALTER TABLE Persons
ALTER COLUMN City SET DEFAULT 'SANDNES'
To drop a DEFAULT constraint, use the following SQL:
MySQL:
ALTER TABLE Persons
ALTER City DROP DEFAULT
ALTER TABLE Persons
ALTER COLUMN City DROP DEFAULT
33. SQL CREATE INDEX Statement

The CREATE INDEX statement is used to create indexes in tables.
Indexes allow the database application to find data fast; without reading the whole table.
Indexes
An index can be created in a table to find data more quickly and efficiently.
The users cannot see the indexes, they are just used to speed up searches/queries.
Note: Updating a table with indexes takes more time than updating a table without (because the
indexes also need an update). So you should only create indexes on columns (and tables) that will be
frequently searched against.
SQL CREATE INDEX Syntax
Creates an index on a table. Duplicate values are allowed:
CREATE INDEX index_name
ON table_name (column_name)
SQL CREATE UNIQUE INDEX Syntax
Creates a unique index on a table. Duplicate values are not allowed:
CREATE UNIQUE INDEX index_name
Note: The syntax for creating indexes varies amongst different databases. Therefore: Check the syntax
for creating indexes in your database.
CREATE INDEX Example
The SQL statement below creates an index named "PIndex" on the "LastName" column in the "Persons"
table:
CREATE INDEX PIndex
ON Persons (LastName)
If you want to create an index on a combination of columns, you can list the column names within the
parentheses, separated by commas:
CREATE INDEX PIndex
ON Persons (LastName, FirstName)
34. SQL DROP INDEX, DROP TABLE, and DROP DATABASE
Indexes, tables, and databases can easily be deleted/removed with the DROP statement.
The DROP INDEX Statement
The DROP INDEX statement is used to delete an index in a table.
DROP INDEX Syntax for MS Access:
DROP INDEX index_name ON table_name
DROP INDEX Syntax for MS SQL Server:
DROP INDEX table_name.index_name
DROP INDEX Syntax for DB2/Oracle:
DROP INDEX index_name
DROP INDEX Syntax for MySQL:
ALTER TABLE table_name DROP INDEX index_name
The DROP TABLE Statement
The DROP TABLE statement is used to delete a table.
DROP TABLE table_name
The DROP DATABASE Statement
The DROP DATABASE statement is used to delete a database.
DROP DATABASE database_name
The TRUNCATE TABLE Statement
What if we only want to delete the data inside the table, and not the table itself?
Then, use the TRUNCATE TABLE statement:
TRUNCATE TABLE table_name
35. SQL ALTER TABLE Statement
The ALTER TABLE Statement
The ALTER TABLE statement is used to add, delete, or modify columns in an existing table.
SQL ALTER TABLE Syntax
To add a column in a table, use the following syntax:
ALTER TABLE table_name
ADD column_name datatype
To delete a column in a table, use the following syntax (notice that some database systems don't allow
deleting a column):
DROP COLUMN column_name
To change the data type of a column in a table, use the following syntax:
ALTER COLUMN column_name datatype
SQL ALTER TABLE Example
Look at the "Persons" table:
P_Id
LastName
FirstName
Address
City
Hansen
Ola
Timoteivn 10
Sandnes
Svendson
Tove
Borgvn 23
Sandnes
Pettersen
Kari
Storgt 20
Stavanger
Now we want to add a column named "DateOfBirth" in the "Persons" table.

ALTER TABLE Persons
ADD DateOfBirth date
Notice that the new column, "DateOfBirth", is of type date and is going to hold a date. The data type
specifies what type of data the column can hold.
The "Persons" table will now like this:
P_Id
LastName
FirstName
Address
City
Hansen
Ola
Timoteivn 10
Sandnes
Svendson
Tove
Borgvn 23
Sandnes
Pettersen
Kari
Storgt 20
Stavanger
DateOfBirth
Change Data Type Example

Now we want to change the data type of the column named "DateOfBirth" in the "Persons" table.
ALTER TABLE Persons
ALTER COLUMN DateOfBirth year
Notice that the "DateOfBirth" column is now of type year and is going to hold a year in a two-digit or
four-digit format.
DROP COLUMN Example
Next, we want to delete the column named "DateOfBirth" in the "Persons" table.
ALTER TABLE Persons
DROP COLUMN DateOfBirth
The "Persons" table will now like this:
P_Id
LastName
FirstName
Address
City
Hansen
Ola
Timoteivn 10
Sandnes
Svendson
Tove
Borgvn 23
Sandnes
Pettersen
Kari
Storgt 20
Stavanger
36. SQL AUTO INCREMENT Field

Auto-increment allows a unique number to be generated when a new record is inserted into a table.
AUTO INCREMENT a Field
Very often we would like the value of the primary key field to be created automatically every time a
new record is inserted.
We would like to create an auto-increment field in a table.
Syntax for MySQL
The following SQL statement defines the "P_Id" column to be an auto-increment primary key field in the
"Persons" table:

(
P_Id int NOT NULL AUTO_INCREMENT,
City varchar(255),
PRIMARY KEY (P_Id)
)
MySQL uses the AUTO_INCREMENT keyword to perform an auto-increment feature.
By default, the starting value for AUTO_INCREMENT is 1, and it will increment by 1 for each new record.
To let the AUTO_INCREMENT sequence start with another value, use the following SQL statement:
ALTER TABLE Persons AUTO_INCREMENT=100
To insert a new record into the "Persons" table, we will not have to specify a value for the "P_Id" column
(a unique value will be added automatically):
INSERT INTO Persons (FirstName,LastName)
VALUES ('Lars','Monsen')
The SQL statement above would insert a new record into the "Persons" table. The "P_Id" column would
be assigned a unique value. The "FirstName" column would be set to "Lars" and the "LastName" column
would be set to "Monsen".
Syntax for SQL Server
"Persons" table:
(
P_Id int PRIMARY KEY IDENTITY,
City varchar(255)
)
The MS SQL Server uses the IDENTITY keyword to perform an auto-increment feature.
By default, the starting value for IDENTITY is 1, and it will increment by 1 for each new record.
To specify that the "P_Id" column should start at value 10 and increment by 5, change the identity to
IDENTITY(10,5).
Syntax for Access
"Persons" table:
(
P_Id int PRIMARY KEY AUTOINCREMENT,
City varchar(255)
)
The MS Access uses the AUTOINCREMENT keyword to perform an auto-increment feature.
By default, the starting value for AUTOINCREMENT is 1, and it will increment by 1 for each new record.
To specify that the "P_Id" column should start at value 10 and increment by 5, change the
autoincrement to AUTOINCREMENT(10,5).

Syntax for Oracle
In Oracle the code is a little bit more tricky.
You will have to create an auto-increment field with the sequence object (this object generates a
number sequence).
Use the following CREATE SEQUENCE syntax:
CREATE SEQUENCE seq_person
MINVALUE 1
START WITH 1
INCREMENT BY 1
CACHE 10
The code above creates a sequence object called seq_person, that starts with 1 and will increment by
1. It will also cache up to 10 values for performance. The cache option specifies how many sequence
values will be stored in memory for faster access.
To insert a new record into the "Persons" table, we will have to use the nextval function (this function
retrieves the next value from seq_person sequence):
INSERT INTO Persons (P_Id,FirstName,LastName)
VALUES (seq_person.nextval,'Lars','Monsen')
be assigned the next number from the seq_person sequence. The "FirstName" column would be set to
"Lars" and the "LastName" column would be set to "Monsen".
37. SQL Views
A view is a virtual table.
This chapter shows how to create, update, and delete a view.
SQL CREATE VIEW Statement
In SQL, a view is a virtual table based on the result-set of an SQL statement.
A view contains rows and columns, just like a real table. The fields in a view are fields from one or more
real tables in the database.
You can add SQL functions, WHERE, and JOIN statements to a view and present the data as if the data
were coming from one single table.
SQL CREATE VIEW Syntax
CREATE VIEW view_name AS
FROM table_name
WHERE condition
Note: A view always shows up-to-date data! The database engine recreates the data, using the view's
SQL statement, every time a user queries a view.
SQL CREATE VIEW Examples
If you have the Northwind database you can see that it has several views installed by default.
The view "Current Product List" lists all active products (products that are not discontinued) from the
"Products" table. The view is created with the following SQL:
CREATE VIEW [Current Product List] AS
SELECT ProductID,ProductName
FROM Products
WHERE Discontinued=No
We can query the view above as follows:
SELECT * FROM [Current Product List]
Another view in the Northwind sample database selects every product in the "Products" table with a
unit price higher than the average unit price:
CREATE VIEW [Products Above Average Price] AS
SELECT ProductName,UnitPrice
FROM Products
WHERE UnitPrice>(SELECT AVG(UnitPrice) FROM Products)

SELECT * FROM [Products Above Average Price]
Another view in the Northwind database calculates the total sale for each category in 1997. Note that
this view selects its data from another view called "Product Sales for 1997":
CREATE VIEW [Category Sales For 1997] AS
SELECT DISTINCT CategoryName,Sum(ProductSales) AS CategorySales
FROM [Product Sales for 1997]
GROUP BY CategoryName
SELECT * FROM [Category Sales For 1997]
We can also add a condition to the query. Now we want to see the total sale only for the category
"Beverages":
SELECT * FROM [Category Sales For 1997]
WHERE CategoryName='Beverages'
SQL Updating a View
You can update a view by using the following syntax:
SQL CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW Syntax
CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW view_name AS
FROM table_name
WHERE condition
Now we want to add the "Category" column to the "Current Product List" view. We will update the view
with the following SQL:
CREATE VIEW [Current Product List] AS
SELECT ProductID,ProductName,Category
FROM Products
WHERE Discontinued=No
SQL Dropping a View
You can delete a view with the DROP VIEW command.
SQL DROP VIEW Syntax
DROP VIEW view_name
38. SQL Date Functions

SQL Dates
The most difficult part when working with dates is to be sure that the format of the date you are
trying to insert, matches the format of the date column in the database.
As long as your data contains only the date portion, your queries will work as expected. However, if a
time portion is involved, it gets complicated.
Before talking about the complications of querying for dates, we will look at the most important built-in
functions for working with dates.
MySQL Date Functions
The following table lists the most important built-in date functions in MySQL:
Function
Description
NOW()
Returns the current date and time
CURDATE()
Returns the current date
CURTIME()
Returns the current time
DATE()
Extracts the date part of a date or date/time expression
EXTRACT()
Returns a single part of a date/time
DATE_ADD()
Adds a specified time interval to a date
DATE_SUB()
Subtracts a specified time interval from a date
DATEDIFF()
Returns the number of days between two dates
DATE_FORMAT()
Displays date/time data in different formats
SQL Server Date Functions

The following table lists the most important built-in date functions in SQL Server:
Function
Description
GETDATE()
Returns the current date and time
DATEPART()
Returns a single part of a date/time
DATEADD()
Adds or subtracts a specified time interval from a date
DATEDIFF()
Returns the time between two dates
CONVERT()
Displays date/time data in different formats
SQL Date Data Types

MySQL comes with the following data types for storing a date or a date/time value in the database:
DATE - format YYYY-MM-DD
DATETIME - format: YYYY-MM-DD HH:MM:SS
TIMESTAMP - format: YYYY-MM-DD HH:MM:SS
YEAR - format YYYY or YY
SQL Server comes with the following data types for storing a date or a date/time value in the
database:
DATE - format YYYY-MM-DD
DATETIME - format: YYYY-MM-DD HH:MM:SS
SMALLDATETIME - format: YYYY-MM-DD HH:MM:SS
TIMESTAMP - format: a unique number
Note: The date types are chosen for a column when you create a new table in your database!
SQL Working with Dates
You can compare two dates easily if there is no time component involved!
Assume we have the following "Orders" table:
OrderId
ProductName
OrderDate
Geitost
2008-11-11
Camembert Pierrot
2008-11-09
Mozzarella di Giovanni
2008-11-11
Mascarpone Fabioli
2008-10-29
Now we want to select the records with an OrderDate of "2008-11-11" from the table above.
SELECT * FROM Orders WHERE OrderDate='2008-11-11'
OrderId
ProductName
OrderDate
Geitost
2008-11-11
2008-11-11
Now, assume that the "Orders" table looks like this (notice the time component in the "OrderDate"
column):
OrderId
ProductName
OrderDate
Geitost
2008-11-11 13:23:44
Camembert Pierrot
2008-11-09 15:45:21
2008-11-11 11:12:01
Mascarpone Fabioli
2008-10-29 14:56:59
If we use the same SELECT statement as above:

SELECT * FROM Orders WHERE OrderDate='2008-11-11'
we will get no result! This is because the query is looking only for dates with no time portion.
Tip: If you want to keep your queries simple and easy to maintain, do not allow time components in
your dates!
39. SQL NULL Values

NULL values represent missing unknown data.
By default, a table column can hold NULL values.
This chapter will explain the IS NULL and IS NOT NULL operators.
SQL NULL Values
If a column in a table is optional, we can insert a new record or update an existing record without
adding a value to this column. This means that the field will be saved with a NULL value.
NULL values are treated differently from other values.
NULL is used as a placeholder for unknown or inapplicable values.
Note: It is not possible to compare NULL and 0; they are not equivalent.
SQL Working with NULL Values
Look at the following "Persons" table:
P_Id
LastName
FirstName
Hansen
Ola
Svendson
Tove
Pettersen
Kari
Address
City
Sandnes
Borgvn 23
Sandnes
Stavanger
Suppose that the "Address" column in the "Persons" table is optional. This means that if we insert a
record with no value for the "Address" column, the "Address" column will be saved with a NULL value.
How can we test for NULL values?
It is not possible to test for NULL values with comparison operators, such as =, <, or <>.
We will have to use the IS NULL and IS NOT NULL operators instead.
SQL IS NULL
How do we select only the records with NULL values in the "Address" column?
We will have to use the IS NULL operator:
SELECT LastName,FirstName,Address FROM Persons
WHERE Address IS NULL
LastName
FirstName
Hansen
Ola
Pettersen
Kari
Address
Tip: Always use IS NULL to look for NULL values.

SQL IS NOT NULL
How do we select only the records with no NULL values in the "Address" column?
We will have to use the IS NOT NULL operator:
SELECT LastName,FirstName,Address FROM Persons
WHERE Address IS NOT NULL
LastName
FirstName
Address
Svendson
Tove
Borgvn 23
In the next chapter we will look at the ISNULL(), NVL(), IFNULL() and COALESCE() functions.
40. SQL NULL Functions
SQL ISNULL(), NVL(), IFNULL() and COALESCE() Functions
Look at the following "Products" table:
P_Id
ProductName
UnitPrice
UnitsInStock
UnitsOnOrder
Jarlsberg
10.45
16
15
Mascarpone
32.56
23
Gorgonzola
15.67
20
Suppose that the "UnitsOnOrder" column is optional, and may contain NULL values.
We have the following SELECT statement:
SELECT ProductName,UnitPrice*(UnitsInStock+UnitsOnOrder)
FROM Products
In the example above, if any of the "UnitsOnOrder" values are NULL, the result is NULL.
Microsoft's ISNULL() function is used to specify how we want to treat NULL values.
The NVL(), IFNULL(), and COALESCE() functions can also be used to achieve the same result.
In this case we want NULL values to be zero.
Below, if "UnitsOnOrder" is NULL it will not harm the calculation, because ISNULL() returns a zero if the
value is NULL:
SQL Server / MS Access
SELECT ProductName,UnitPrice*(UnitsInStock+ISNULL(UnitsOnOrder,0))
FROM Products
Oracle
Oracle does not have an ISNULL() function. However, we can use the NVL() function to achieve the
same result:
SELECT ProductName,UnitPrice*(UnitsInStock+NVL(UnitsOnOrder,0))
FROM Products
MySQL
MySQL does have an ISNULL() function. However, it works a little bit different from Microsoft's ISNULL()
function.
In MySQL we can use the IFNULL() function, like this:
SELECT ProductName,UnitPrice*(UnitsInStock+IFNULL(UnitsOnOrder,0))
FROM Products
or we can use the COALESCE() function, like this:
SELECT ProductName,UnitPrice*(UnitsInStock+COALESCE(UnitsOnOrder,0))
FROM Products
41.SQL Data Types
Data types and ranges for Microsoft Access, MySQL and SQL Server.
Microsoft Access Data Types
Data type
Description
Storage
Text
Use for text or combinations of text and numbers. 255 characters

maximum
Memo
Memo is used for larger amounts of text. Stores up to 65,536 characters.

Note: You cannot sort a memo field. However, they are searchable
Byte
Allows whole numbers from 0 to 255
1 byte
Integer
Allows whole numbers between -32,768 and 32,767
2 bytes
Long
Allows whole numbers between -2,147,483,648 and 2,147,483,647
4 bytes
Single
Single precision floating-point. Will handle most decimals
4 bytes
Double
Double precision floating-point. Will handle most decimals
8 bytes
Currency
Use for currency. Holds up to 15 digits of whole dollars, plus 4 decimal

places. Tip: You can choose which country's currency to use
8 bytes
AutoNumber
AutoNumber fields automatically give each record its own number,

usually starting at 1
4 bytes
Date/Time
Use for dates and times
8 bytes
Yes/No
A logical field can be displayed as Yes/No, True/False, or On/Off. In code, 1 bit

use the constants True and False (equivalent to -1 and 0). Note: Null
values are not allowed in Yes/No fields
Ole Object
Can store pictures, audio, video, or other BLOBs (Binary Large OBjects)
Hyperlink
Contain links to other files, including web pages
Lookup Wizard
Let you type a list of options, which can then be chosen from a dropdown list
up to 1GB
4 bytes
MySQL Data Types

In MySQL there are three main types : text, number, and Date/Time types.
Text types:
Data type
Description
CHAR(size)
Holds a fixed length string (can contain letters, numbers, and special characters).
The fixed size is specified in parenthesis. Can store up to 255 characters
VARCHAR(size)
Holds a variable length string (can contain letters, numbers, and special
characters). The maximum size is specified in parenthesis. Can store up to 255

characters. Note: If you put a greater value than 255 it will be converted to a TEXT
type
TINYTEXT
Holds a string with a maximum length of 255 characters
TEXT
Holds a string with a maximum length of 65,535 characters
BLOB
For BLOBs (Binary Large OBjects). Holds up to 65,535 bytes of data
MEDIUMTEXT
Holds a string with a maximum length of 16,777,215 characters
MEDIUMBLOB
For BLOBs (Binary Large OBjects). Holds up to 16,777,215 bytes of data
LONGTEXT
Holds a string with a maximum length of 4,294,967,295 characters
LONGBLOB
For BLOBs (Binary Large OBjects). Holds up to 4,294,967,295 bytes of data
ENUM(x,y,z,etc.)
Let you enter a list of possible values. You can list up to 65535 values in an ENUM
list. If a value is inserted that is not in the list, a blank value will be inserted.
Note: The values are sorted in the order you enter them.
You enter the possible values in this format: ENUM('X','Y','Z')
SET
Similar to ENUM except that SET may contain up to 64 list items and can store
more than one choice
Number types:
Data type
Description
TINYINT(size)
-128 to 127 normal. 0 to 255 UNSIGNED*. The maximum number of digits may be
specified in parenthesis
SMALLINT(size)
-32768 to 32767 normal. 0 to 65535 UNSIGNED*. The maximum number of digits

may be specified in parenthesis
MEDIUMINT(size)
-8388608 to 8388607 normal. 0 to 16777215 UNSIGNED*. The maximum number

of digits may be specified in parenthesis
INT(size)
-2147483648 to 2147483647 normal. 0 to 4294967295 UNSIGNED*. The maximum

number of digits may be specified in parenthesis
BIGINT(size)
-9223372036854775808 to 9223372036854775807 normal. 0 to

18446744073709551615 UNSIGNED*. The maximum number of digits may be
specified in parenthesis
FLOAT(size,d)
A small number with a floating decimal point. The maximum number of digits may
be specified in the size parameter. The maximum number of digits to the right of
the decimal point is specified in the d parameter
DOUBLE(size,d)
A large number with a floating decimal point. The maximum number of digits may
be specified in the size parameter. The maximum number of digits to the right of
the decimal point is specified in the d parameter
DECIMAL(size,d)
A DOUBLE stored as a string , allowing for a fixed decimal point. The maximum
number of digits may be specified in the size parameter. The maximum number of
digits to the right of the decimal point is specified in the d parameter
*The integer types have an extra option called UNSIGNED. Normally, the integer goes from an negative
to positive value. Adding the UNSIGNED attribute will move that range up so it starts at zero instead of
a negative number.
Date types:
Data type
Description
DATE()
A date. Format: YYYY-MM-DD

Note: The supported range is from '1000-01-01' to '9999-12-31'
DATETIME()
*A date and time combination. Format: YYYY-MM-DD HH:MM:SS

Note: The supported range is from '1000-01-01 00:00:00' to '9999-12-31 23:59:59'
TIMESTAMP()
*A timestamp. TIMESTAMP values are stored as the number of seconds since the
Unix epoch ('1970-01-01 00:00:00' UTC). Format: YYYY-MM-DD HH:MM:SS
Note: The supported range is from '1970-01-01 00:00:01' UTC to '2038-01-09
03:14:07' UTC
TIME()
A time. Format: HH:MM:SS

Note: The supported range is from '-838:59:59' to '838:59:59'
YEAR()
A year in two-digit or four-digit format.

Note: Values allowed in four-digit format: 1901 to 2155. Values allowed in two-digit
format: 70 to 69, representing years from 1970 to 2069
*Even if DATETIME and TIMESTAMP return the same format, they work very differently. In an INSERT or
UPDATE query, the TIMESTAMP automatically set itself to the current date and time. TIMESTAMP also
accepts various formats, like YYYYMMDDHHMMSS, YYMMDDHHMMSS, YYYYMMDD, or YYMMDD.
SQL Server Data Types
Character strings:
Data type
Description
Storage
char(n)
Fixed-length character string. Maximum 8,000 characters
varchar(n)
Variable-length character string. Maximum 8,000 characters
varchar(max)
Variable-length character string. Maximum 1,073,741,824 characters
text
Variable-length character string. Maximum 2GB of text data
Unicode strings:
Data type
Description
nchar(n)
Fixed-length Unicode data. Maximum 4,000 characters
nvarchar(n)
Variable-length Unicode data. Maximum 4,000 characters
nvarchar(max)
Variable-length Unicode data. Maximum 536,870,912 characters
ntext
Variable-length Unicode data. Maximum 2GB of text data
Storage
Binary types:
Data type
Description
bit
Allows 0, 1, or NULL
binary(n)
Fixed-length binary data. Maximum 8,000 bytes
varbinary(n)
Variable-length binary data. Maximum 8,000 bytes
varbinary(max)
Variable-length binary data. Maximum 2GB
image
Variable-length binary data. Maximum 2GB
Storage
Number types:
Data type
Description
Storage
tinyint
Allows whole numbers from 0 to 255
1 byte
smallint
Allows whole numbers between -32,768 and 32,767
2 bytes
int
Allows whole numbers between -2,147,483,648 and 2,147,483,647
4 bytes
bigint
Allows whole numbers between -9,223,372,036,854,775,808 and

9,223,372,036,854,775,807
8 bytes
decimal(p,s)
Fixed precision and scale numbers.

5-17
Allows numbers from -10^38 +1 to 10^38 1.
bytes
The p parameter indicates the maximum total number of digits that can
be stored (both to the left and to the right of the decimal point). p must
be a value from 1 to 38. Default is 18.
The s parameter indicates the maximum number of digits stored to the
right of the decimal point. s must be a value from 0 to p. Default value is
0
numeric(p,s)
Fixed precision and scale numbers.

5-17
Allows numbers from -10^38 +1 to 10^38 1.
bytes
The p parameter indicates the maximum total number of digits that can
be stored (both to the left and to the right of the decimal point). p must
be a value from 1 to 38. Default is 18.
The s parameter indicates the maximum number of digits stored to the
right of the decimal point. s must be a value from 0 to p. Default value is
0
smallmoney
Monetary data from -214,748.3648 to 214,748.3647
4 bytes
money
Monetary data from -922,337,203,685,477.5808 to
8 bytes
922,337,203,685,477.5807
float(n)
Floating precision number data from -1.79E + 308 to 1.79E + 308.

4 or 8
The n parameter indicates whether the field should hold 4 or 8 bytes.
bytes
float(24) holds a 4-byte field and float(53) holds an 8-byte field. Default
value of n is 53.
real
Floating precision number data from -3.40E + 38 to 3.40E + 38
4 bytes
Data type
Description
Storage
datetime
From January 1, 1753 to December 31, 9999 with an accuracy of 3.33

milliseconds
8 bytes
datetime2
From January 1, 0001 and December 31, 9999 with an accuracy of 100
nanoseconds
6-8 bytes
smalldatetime
From January 1, 1900 to June 6, 2079 with an accuracy of 1 minute
4 bytes
date
Store a date only. From January 1, 0001 to December 31, 9999
3 bytes
time
Store a time only to an accuracy of 100 nanoseconds
3-5 bytes
datetimeoffset
The same as datetime2 with the addition of a time zone offset
8-10
bytes
timestamp
Stores a unique number that gets updated every time a row gets
created or modified. The timestamp value is based upon an internal
clock and does not correspond to real time. Each table may have only
one timestamp variable
Date types:
Other data types:

Data type
Description
sql_variant
Stores up to 8,000 bytes of data of various data types, except text, ntext, and
timestamp
uniqueidentifier
Stores a globally unique identifier (GUID)
xml
Stores XML formatted data. Maximum 2GB
cursor
Stores a reference to a cursor used for database operations
table
Stores a result-set for later processing
42. SQL Functions

SQL has many built-in functions for performing calculations on data.
SQL Aggregate Functions
SQL aggregate functions return a single value, calculated from values in a column.
Useful aggregate functions:
AVG() - Returns the average value
COUNT() - Returns the number of rows
FIRST() - Returns the first value
LAST() - Returns the last value
MAX() - Returns the largest value
MIN() - Returns the smallest value
SUM() - Returns the sum
SQL Scalar functions
SQL scalar functions return a single value, based on the input value.
Useful scalar functions:
UCASE() - Converts a field to upper case
LCASE() - Converts a field to lower case
MID() - Extract characters from a text field
LEN() - Returns the length of a text field
ROUND() - Rounds a numeric field to the number of decimals specified
NOW() - Returns the current system date and time
FORMAT() - Formats how a field is to be displayed
Tip: The aggregate functions and the scalar functions will be explained in details in the next chapters.
43. SQL AVG() Function
The AVG() function returns the average value of a numeric column.
SQL AVG() Syntax
SELECT AVG(column_name) FROM table_name
SQL AVG() Example
We have the following "Orders" table:
O_Id
OrderDate
OrderPrice
Customer
2008/11/12
1000
Hansen
2008/10/23
1600
Nilsen
2008/09/02
700
Hansen
2008/09/03
300
Hansen
2008/08/30
2000
Jensen
2008/10/04
100
Nilsen
Now we want to find the average value of the "OrderPrice" fields.

SELECT AVG(OrderPrice) AS OrderAverage FROM Orders
OrderAverage
950
Now we want to find the customers that have an OrderPrice value higher then the average OrderPrice
value.
SELECT Customer FROM Orders
WHERE OrderPrice>(SELECT AVG(OrderPrice) FROM Orders)

Customer
Hansen
Nilsen
Jensen
44. SQL COUNT() Function
The COUNT() function returns the number of rows that matches a specified criteria.
SQL COUNT(column_name) Syntax
The COUNT(column_name) function returns the number of values (NULL values will not be counted) of
the specified column:
SELECT COUNT(column_name) FROM table_name
SQL COUNT(*) Syntax
The COUNT(*) function returns the number of records in a table:
SELECT COUNT(*) FROM table_name
SQL COUNT(DISTINCT column_name) Syntax
The COUNT(DISTINCT column_name) function returns the number of distinct values of the specified
column:
SELECT COUNT(DISTINCT column_name) FROM table_name
Note: COUNT(DISTINCT) works with ORACLE and Microsoft SQL Server, but not with Microsoft Access.
SQL COUNT(column_name) Example
O_Id
OrderDate
OrderPrice
Customer
2008/11/12
1000
Hansen
2008/10/23
1600
Nilsen
2008/09/02
700
Hansen
2008/09/03
300
Hansen
2008/08/30
2000
Jensen
2008/10/04
100
Nilsen
Now we want to count the number of orders from "Customer Nilsen".

SELECT COUNT(Customer) AS CustomerNilsen FROM Orders
WHERE Customer='Nilsen'
The result of the SQL statement above will be 2, because the customer Nilsen has made 2 orders in
total:
CustomerNilsen
2
SQL COUNT(*) Example

If we omit the WHERE clause, like this:
SELECT COUNT(*) AS NumberOfOrders FROM Orders
NumberOfOrders
6
This is the total number of rows in the table.
SQL COUNT(DISTINCT column_name) Example
Now we want to count the number of unique customers in the "Orders" table.
SELECT COUNT(DISTINCT Customer) AS NumberOfCustomers FROM Orders
NumberOfCustomers
3
This is the number of unique customers (Hansen, Nilsen, and Jensen) in the Orders table.
45. SQL FIRST() Function
The FIRST() function returns the first value of the selected column.
SQL FIRST() Syntax
SELECT FIRST(column_name) FROM table_name
SQL FIRST() Example
O_Id
OrderDate
OrderPrice
Customer
2008/11/12
1000
Hansen
2008/10/23
1600
Nilsen
2008/09/02
700
Hansen
2008/09/03
300
Hansen
2008/08/30
2000
Jensen
2008/10/04
100
Nilsen
Now we want to find the first value of the "OrderPrice" column.

SELECT FIRST(OrderPrice) AS FirstOrderPrice FROM Orders
FirstOrderPrice
1000
46. SQL LAST() Function

The LAST() function returns the last value of the selected column.
SQL LAST() Syntax
SELECT LAST(column_name) FROM table_name
SQL LAST() Example
O_Id
OrderDate
OrderPrice
Customer
2008/11/12
1000
Hansen
2008/10/23
1600
Nilsen
2008/09/02
700
Hansen
2008/09/03
300
Hansen
2008/08/30
2000
Jensen
2008/10/04
100
Nilsen
Now we want to find the last value of the "OrderPrice" column.

SELECT LAST(OrderPrice) AS LastOrderPrice FROM Orders
LastOrderPrice
100
47. SQL MAX() Function
The MAX() function returns the largest value of the selected column.
SQL MAX() Syntax
SELECT MAX(column_name) FROM table_name
SQL MAX() Example : We have the following "Orders" table:
O_Id
OrderDate
OrderPrice
Customer
2008/11/12
1000
Hansen
2008/10/23
1600
Nilsen
2008/09/02
700
Hansen
2008/09/03
300
Hansen
2008/08/30
2000
Jensen
2008/10/04
100
Nilsen
Now we want to find the largest value of the "OrderPrice" column.

SELECT MAX(OrderPrice) AS LargestOrderPrice FROM Orders
LargestOrderPrice
2000
48. SQL MIN() Function
The MIN() Function
The MIN() function returns the smallest value of the selected column.
SQL MIN() Syntax
SELECT MIN(column_name) FROM table_name
SQL MIN() Example
O_Id
OrderDate
OrderPrice
Customer
2008/11/12
1000
Hansen
2008/10/23
1600
Nilsen
2008/09/02
700
Hansen
2008/09/03
300
Hansen
2008/08/30
2000
Jensen
2008/10/04
100
Nilsen
Now we want to find the smallest value of the "OrderPrice" column.

SELECT MIN(OrderPrice) AS SmallestOrderPrice FROM Orders
SmallestOrderPrice
100
49. SQL SUM() Function
The SUM() function returns the total sum of a numeric column.
SQL SUM() Syntax
SELECT SUM(column_name) FROM table_name
SQL SUM() Example
O_Id
OrderDate
OrderPrice
Customer
2008/11/12
1000
Hansen
2008/10/23
1600
Nilsen
2008/09/02
700
Hansen
2008/09/03
300
Hansen
2008/08/30
2000
Jensen
2008/10/04
100
Nilsen
Now we want to find the sum of all "OrderPrice" fields".

SELECT SUM(OrderPrice) AS OrderTotal FROM Orders
OrderTotal
5700
50. SQL GROUP BY Statement
Aggregate functions often need an added GROUP BY statement.
The GROUP BY statement is used in conjunction with the aggregate functions to group the result-set by
one or more columns.
SQL GROUP BY Syntax
SELECT column_name, aggregate_function(column_name)
FROM table_name
GROUP BY column_name
SQL GROUP BY Example
O_Id
OrderDate
OrderPrice
Customer
2008/11/12
1000
Hansen
2008/10/23
1600
Nilsen
2008/09/02
700
Hansen
2008/09/03
300
Hansen
2008/08/30
2000
Jensen
2008/10/04
100
Nilsen
Now we want to find the total sum (total order) of each customer.
We will have to use the GROUP BY statement to group the customers.
SELECT Customer,SUM(OrderPrice) FROM Orders
GROUP BY Customer
Customer
SUM(OrderPrice)
Hansen
2000
Nilsen
1700
Jensen
2000
Nice! Isn't it? :)

Let's see what happens if we omit the GROUP BY statement:
Customer
SUM(OrderPrice)
Hansen
5700
Nilsen
5700
Hansen
5700
Hansen
5700
Jensen
5700
Nilsen
5700
The result-set above is not what we wanted.

Explanation of why the above SELECT statement cannot be used: The SELECT statement above
has two columns specified (Customer and SUM(OrderPrice). The "SUM(OrderPrice)" returns a single
value (that is the total sum of the "OrderPrice" column), while "Customer" returns 6 values (one value
for each row in the "Orders" table). This will therefore not give us the correct result. However, you have
seen that the GROUP BY statement solves this problem.
GROUP BY More Than One Column
We can also use the GROUP BY statement on more than one column, like this:
SELECT Customer,OrderDate,SUM(OrderPrice) FROM Orders
GROUP BY Customer,OrderDate
51. SQL HAVING Clause
The HAVING clause was added to SQL because the WHERE keyword could not be used with aggregate
functions.
SQL HAVING Syntax
FROM table_name
HAVING aggregate_function(column_name) operator value
SQL HAVING Example
O_Id
OrderDate
OrderPrice
Customer
2008/11/12
1000
Hansen
2008/10/23
1600
Nilsen
2008/09/02
700
Hansen
2008/09/03
300
Hansen
2008/08/30
2000
Jensen
2008/10/04
100
Nilsen
Now we want to find if any of the customers have a total order of less than 2000.
GROUP BY Customer
HAVING SUM(OrderPrice)<2000
Customer
SUM(OrderPrice)
Nilsen
1700
Now we want to find if the customers "Hansen" or "Jensen" have a total order of more than 1500.
We add an ordinary WHERE clause to the SQL statement:
WHERE Customer='Hansen' OR Customer='Jensen'
GROUP BY Customer
HAVING SUM(OrderPrice)>1500
Customer
SUM(OrderPrice)
Hansen
2000
Jensen
2000
52. SQL UCASE() Function

The UCASE() Function
The UCASE() function converts the value of a field to uppercase.
SQL UCASE() Syntax
SELECT UCASE(column_name) FROM table_name
SQL UCASE() Example
P_Id
LastName
FirstName
Address
City
Hansen
Ola
Timoteivn 10
Sandnes
Svendson
Tove
Borgvn 23
Sandnes
Pettersen
Kari
Storgt 20
Stavanger
Now we want to select the content of the "LastName" and "FirstName" columns above, and convert the
"LastName" column to uppercase.
SELECT UCASE(LastName) as LastName,FirstName FROM Persons
LastName
FirstName
HANSEN
Ola
SVENDSON
Tove
PETTERSEN
Kari
53. SQL LCASE() Function

The LCASE() function converts the value of a field to lowercase.
SQL LCASE() Syntax
SELECT LCASE(column_name) FROM table_name
SQL LCASE() Example
P_Id
LastName
FirstName
Address
City
Hansen
Ola
Timoteivn 10
Sandnes
Svendson
Tove
Borgvn 23
Sandnes
Pettersen
Kari
Storgt 20
Stavanger
Now we want to select the content of the "LastName" and "FirstName" columns above, and convert the
"LastName" column to lowercase.
SELECT LCASE(LastName) as LastName,FirstName FROM Persons
LastName
FirstName
hansen
Ola
svendson
Tove
pettersen
Kari
54. SQL MID() Function

The MID() function is used to extract characters from a text field.
SQL MID() Syntax
SELECT MID(column_name,start[,length]) FROM table_name
Parameter
Description
column_name
Required. The field to extract characters from.
start
Required. Specifies the starting position (starts at 1).
length
Optional. The number of characters to return. If omitted, the MID() function returns
the rest of the text.
SQL MID() Example
: we have the following "Persons" table:
P_Id
LastName
FirstName
Address
City
Hansen
Ola
Timoteivn 10
Sandnes
Svendson
Tove
Borgvn 23
Sandnes
Pettersen
Kari
Storgt 20
Stavanger
Now we want to extract the first four characters of the "City" column above.
SELECT MID(City,1,4) as SmallCity FROM Persons
SmallCity
Sand
Sand
Stav
55. SQL LEN() Function
The LEN() function returns the length of the value in a text field.
SQL LEN() Syntax
SELECT LEN(column_name) FROM table_name
SQL LEN() Example
P_Id
LastName
FirstName
Address
City
Hansen
Ola
Timoteivn 10
Sandnes
Svendson
Tove
Borgvn 23
Sandnes
Pettersen
Kari
Storgt 20
Stavanger
Now we want to select the length of the values in the "Address" column above.
SELECT LEN(Address) as LengthOfAddress FROM Persons
LengthOfAddress
12
9
9
56. SQL ROUND() Function
The ROUND() function is used to round a numeric field to the number of decimals specified.
SQL ROUND() Syntax
SELECT ROUND(column_name,decimals) FROM table_name
Parameter
Description
column_name
Required. The field to round.
decimals
Required. Specifies the number of decimals to be returned.
SQL ROUND() Example

We have the following "Products" table:
Prod_Id
ProductName
Unit
UnitPrice
Jarlsberg
1000 g
10.45
Mascarpone
1000 g
32.56
Gorgonzola
1000 g
15.67
Now we want to display the product name and the price rounded to the nearest integer.
SELECT ProductName, ROUND(UnitPrice,0) as UnitPrice FROM Products
ProductName
UnitPrice
Jarlsberg
10
Mascarpone
33
Gorgonzola
16
57. SQL NOW() Function

The NOW() function returns the current system date and time.
SQL NOW() Syntax
SELECT NOW() FROM table_name
SQL NOW() Example : We have the following "Products" table:
Prod_Id
ProductName
Unit
UnitPrice
Jarlsberg
1000 g
10.45
Mascarpone
1000 g
32.56
Gorgonzola
1000 g
15.67
Now we want to display the products and prices per today's date.
SELECT ProductName, UnitPrice, Now() as PerDate FROM Products
ProductName
UnitPrice
PerDate
Jarlsberg
10.45
10/7/2008 11:25:02 AM
Mascarpone
32.56
10/7/2008 11:25:02 AM
Gorgonzola
15.67
10/7/2008 11:25:02 AM
58. SQL FORMAT() Function

The FORMAT() function is used to format how a field is to be displayed.
SQL FORMAT() Syntax
SELECT FORMAT(column_name,format) FROM table_name
Parameter
Description
column_name
Required. The field to be formatted.
format
Required. Specifies the format.
SQL FORMAT() Example : We have the following "Products" table:

Prod_Id
ProductName
Unit
UnitPrice
Jarlsberg
1000 g
10.45
Mascarpone
1000 g
32.56
Gorgonzola
1000 g
15.67
Now we want to display the products and prices per today's date (with today's date displayed in the
following format "YYYY-MM-DD").
SELECT ProductName, UnitPrice, FORMAT(Now(),'YYYY-MM-DD') as PerDate
FROM Products
ProductName
UnitPrice
PerDate
Jarlsberg
10.45
2008-10-07
Mascarpone
32.56
2008-10-07
Gorgonzola
15.67
2008-10-07
59.
SQL Quick Reference
SQL Statement
Syntax
AND / OR
FROM table_name
WHERE condition
AND|OR condition
ALTER TABLE

ADD column_name datatype
or
DROP COLUMN column_name
AS (alias)
SELECT column_name AS column_alias

FROM table_name
Or
SELECT column_name
FROM table_name AS table_alias
BETWEEN
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name
BETWEEN value1 AND value2
CREATE DATABASE
CREATE DATABASE database_name
CREATE TABLE
CREATE TABLE table_name

(
...
)
CREATE INDEX
CREATE INDEX index_name

or
CREATE UNIQUE INDEX index_name
CREATE VIEW
CREATE VIEW view_name AS

FROM table_name
WHERE condition
DELETE

or
(Note: Deletes the entire table!!)
DELETE * FROM table_name
(Note: Deletes the entire table!!)
DROP DATABASE
DROP DATABASE database_name
DROP INDEX
DROP INDEX table_name.index_name (SQL Server)

DROP INDEX index_name ON table_name (MS Access)
DROP INDEX index_name (DB2/Oracle)
DROP INDEX index_name (MySQL)
DROP TABLE
DROP TABLE table_name
GROUP BY

FROM table_name
HAVING

FROM table_name
HAVING aggregate_function(column_name) operator value
IN
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name
IN (value1,value2,..)
INSERT INTO

VALUES (value1, value2, value3,....)
or
(column1, column2, column3,...)
VALUES (value1, value2, value3,....)
INNER JOIN
FROM table_name1
INNER JOIN table_name2
LEFT JOIN
FROM table_name1
LEFT JOIN table_name2
RIGHT JOIN
FROM table_name1
RIGHT JOIN table_name2
FULL JOIN
FROM table_name1
FULL JOIN table_name2
LIKE
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name LIKE pattern
ORDER BY
FROM table_name
ORDER BY column_name [ASC|DESC]
SELECT
FROM table_name
SELECT *
SELECT *
FROM table_name
SELECT DISTINCT
SELECT DISTINCT column_name(s)

FROM table_name
SELECT INTO
SELECT *
FROM old_table_name
or

FROM old_table_name
SELECT TOP
SELECT TOP number|percent column_name(s)

FROM table_name
TRUNCATE TABLE
TRUNCATE TABLE table_name
UNION

UNION
UNION ALL

UNION ALL
UPDATE
UPDATE table_name
SET column1=value, column2=value,...
WHERE
FROM table_name
60. SQL Hosting

SQL Hosting
If you want your web site to be able to store and display data from a database, your web server should
have access to a database system that uses the SQL language.
If your web server will be hosted by an Internet Service Provider (ISP), you will have to look for SQL
hosting plans.
The most common SQL hosting databases are MySQL, MS SQL Server, and MS Access.
You can have SQL databases on both Windows and Linux/UNIX operating systems.
Below is an overview of which database system that runs on which OS.
MS SQL Server
Runs only on Windows OS.
MySQL
Runs on both Windows and Linux/UNIX operating systems.
MS Access (recommended only for small websites)
Runs only on Windows OS.

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SQL

[Structured Query Language]

SQL is an ANSI (American National Standards Institute) standard

SQL DML and DDL

Quotes around Text Fields

Greater than or equal

Less than or equal

Search for a pattern

If you know the exact value you want to return for at

Note: In some versions of SQL the <> operator may be written as !=

Combining AND & OR

7. SQL ORDER BY Keyword

ORDER BY DESC Example

8. SQL INSERT INTO Statement

Now we want to insert a new row in the "Persons" table.

Insert Data Only in Specified Columns

9. SQL UPDATE Statement

SQL UPDATE Warning

10. SQL DELETE Statement

Delete All Rows

SELECT TOP 2 * FROM Persons

SQL TOP PERCENT Example

12. SQL LIKE Operator

A substitute for zero or more characters

A substitute for exactly one character

Any single character in charlist

Any single character not in charlist

SQL Wildcard Examples

Using the % Wildcard

WHERE City LIKE '%nes%'

Using the _ Wildcard

Using the [charlist] Wildcard

14. SQL IN Operator

15.SQL BETWEEN Operator

BETWEEN Operator Example

Note: The BETWEEN operator is treated differently in different databases.

NOT BETWEEN 'Hansen' AND 'Pettersen'

16. SQL Alias

The "Orders" table:

Now we want to list all the persons with any orders.

19. SQL LEFT JOIN Keyword

The "Orders" table:

The "Orders" table:

The "Orders" table:

We use the following SELECT statement:

23. SQL SELECT INTO Statement

24. SQL CREATE DATABASE Statement

SQL CREATE TABLE Syntax

CREATE TABLE Persons

LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL,

SQL PRIMARY KEY Constraint on ALTER TABLE

The "Orders" table:

ALTER TABLE Persons

33. SQL CREATE INDEX Statement

Now we want to add a column named "DateOfBirth" in the "Persons" table.

Change Data Type Example

36. SQL AUTO INCREMENT Field

CREATE TABLE Persons