8 Sci LM U4 - M1
8 Sci LM U4 - M1
8 Sci LM U4 - M1
Science
Learners Module
Unit 4 Module 1
Department of Education
Republic of the Philippines
Science Grade 8
Learners Module
First Edition, 2013
ISBN: 978-971-9990-72-7
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Published by the Department of Education
Secretary: Br. Armin A. Luistro FSC
Undersecretary: Yolanda S. Quijano, Ph.D.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Unit 4: Living Things and Their Environment
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Module 1. Biodiversity
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1
Levels of Biodiversity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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2
Activity 1: Whats in a name? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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2
Classifying and Naming Organisms
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3
Archaea Domain: Kingdom Archaebacteria
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5
Bacteria Domain: Kingdom Eubacteria. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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6
Activity 2: How do bacteria in yogurt look like? . . . . . . . . . .
...
8
Protists. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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10
Fungi
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15
The Plant Kingdom. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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16
Nonvascular Plants. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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17
Vascular Plants
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Gymnosperms
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Angiosperms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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20
Importance of Angiosperms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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22
Harmful Plants
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The Animal Kingdom
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23
Sponges. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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23
Cnidarians
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24
Flatworms
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25
Roundworms
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Segmented Worms
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Mollusks
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.
27
Echinoderms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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28
Arthropods
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29
Activity 3: What can you do to prevent dengue? . . . . . . . . .
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30
Chordates
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.
32
Vertebrates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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32
Fishes
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. . . . 32
Amphibians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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34
Reptiles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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Birds
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. . . . 35
Mammals
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37
Low and High Biodiversity
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38
Activity 4: What is the importance of biodiversity to
ecosystems? . .
39
Protecting and Conserving Biodiversity
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41
Activity 5: I create the future . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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41
UNIT 4
Living Things and Their
Environment
Module 1
Biodiversity
Unit 4
MODULE
BIODIVERSITY
Overview
From Grades 3 to 7 you have studied some of the different organisms and
their easily observable characteristics. You learned about those organisms that you
find just around you and other places in the country. You were taught that organisms
form the biotic component of an ecosystem. You were introduced to the cells that
differ in plants and animals. In addition, you learned about organisms other than
plants and animals. Some of these consist only of a single cell while others have
many. You may also had a chance to look at organisms that are so small and can be
seen only with the microscope.
This module will introduce you to the concept of biodiversity, specifically the
variety of organisms living on Earth. This will discuss how they are classified and
named. It will also show the similarities and differences of these organisms. It will
describe the different groups to which these organisms belong. It will let you discover
uses of some not just as food but also in medicine, agriculture, industries and the
ecosystems where they are present. In addition, you will know about the harmful
effects of some to other organisms.
The module will further show you the advantages of high biodiversity over low
biodiversity. It will also help you recognize the value of biodiversity in your
community. Most importantly, this hopes to encourage you to start or continue
protecting and conserving your communitys biodiversity for future generations.
Levels of Biodiversity
Biodiversity is coined from the words, biological diversity. Usually, scientists
would refer to three levels of biodiversity namely: different kinds of organisms
(species diversity), genetic information that organisms contain (genetic diversity)
and different kinds of places where organisms live and the interconnections that bind
these organisms together (ecosystem diversity). If you recall, you have learned
about ecosystem diversity in the lower grades. You will know more about genetic
diversity in Grade 9.
Species diversity consists of the large number and all different kinds, shapes,
colors and sizes of organisms that inhabit the Earth. It includes the smallest and the
simplest bacterium (pl. bacteria) to the complex, bigger, brightly colored flower or
fish. Add to this the carabao, the tallest acacia, the biggest elephant and a human
like you. These organisms are found in various places from the soil, to the rivers,
oceans, forests, salty or hot places, in short in every corner of the Earth. Some of
them even live in your body. At present, more than a million organisms have been
identified and named while many more are being discovered every year. Just
recently, foreign and local researchers have found that diversity of reptiles and
amphibians in the Northern Philippines is even greater than what has been known
and identified.
If there are a lot more of the organisms in the world than you can count, how
will you be able to know about them? Does an organism you see in your place, for
example, have the same name in another place? Do organisms have to be
classified? Why? Try the following activity.
Activity 1
Whats in a name?
Objectives:
After performing this activity, you should be able to:
1.
2.
Materials Needed:
pictures of organisms
2
pencil or ballpen
sheet of paper
Procedure:
1.
2.
With your group, discuss how each of these organisms is called in your
community. Accept any name which your groupmates will give for an organism.
If you know other names by which an organism is called in another place,
include them. Write these on the sheet of paper.
3.
Be ready when your teacher asks you to present your work to the class. Take
note of how the other groups named each of the organisms shown.
Q1. Are there organisms that others gave the same name to as your group did?
Give examples.
Q2. Are there organisms that others gave a different name to as your group did?
What are these organisms?
Q3. What can you say about your knowledge of the organisms before the other
groups presentations and the teachers discussion?
For organisms to be studied and information about them shared to those who
need it, scientists grouped them into meaningful classifications. The different groups
are ranked from the largest to the smallest groups. Large groups include many
organisms with few similarities. Small groups include few organisms having more
similarities. Organisms which have more similarities would then, be closely related
than those which have less similarities. These classifications or categories consist of
the domain, kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus and species.
The domain is the largest category into which organisms have been
classified. This is followed by the kingdom category subdivided into various phyla
(sing. phylum). A phylum consists of different classes, each class with several orders,
an order with different families. Families consist of several genera (sing. genus) and
each genus comprise the smallest group of various species.
A species is a group of similar organisms and capable of reproducing their
own kind. This means only members of the same species can mate and produce
fertile offspring. The dog, waling-waling (an orchid), milkfish (local name, bangus),
rice plant and humans like you are examples of a species.
With the information available about organisms from the early studies to the
present, scientists came up with the three-domain system of classification. Before,
4
organisms were only grouped into eukaryotes and prokaryotes. Remember in your
previous year, you knew about the nucleus in cells that contain DNA in chromosomes
having a role in heredity. In eukaryotes, these materials are enclosed in a membrane
while in prokaryotes they are not. Most prokaryotes are tiny and unicellular, thus, are
referred to as microorganisms. A lot of eukaryotes are multicellular, thus, are larger
in size because of the greater number of cells their bodies contain.
Recently, prokaryotes have been divided into two domains, namely: Archaea
and Bacteria. The eukaryote group was retained and now consists the third domain
(Eukarya) that includes protists, fungi, plants and animals. Table 1 shows an example
of how organisms are classified.
Bangus
Wolf
Lion
Kingdom
Domesticated
Cat
Animalia
Animalia
Animalia
Animalia
Animalia
Phylum
Chordata
Chordata
Chordata
Chordata
Chordata
Class
Mammalia
Mammalia
Actinopterygii
Mammalia
Mammalia
Order
Carnivora
Carnivora
Gonorynchiformis
Carnivora
Carnivora
Family
Felidae
Canidae
Chanidae
Canidae
Felidae
Genus
Felis
Canis
Chanos
Canis
Panthera
catus
familiaris
chanos
lupus
leo
Category
Species
(a)
(b)
If you live in areas which make salt, have you observed the orange or yellow
color in salt ponds? This is due to the presence of halophiles. These archaebacteria
are adapted to very salty environments. Examples are Haloccocus dombrowski and
Halobacterium salinarum.
Q9. Read about the Dead Sea and the Great Salt Lake of Utah, USA. What do
these have in common?
Figure 2 below are examples of thermophiles. This group of archaebacteria
can live in places with high temperature. These areas include volcanic hot springs
with temperatures from 80 to 110C. They also inhabit the small deep sea openings
where hot water with temperatures higher than 250C come out. Thermophiles turn
hydrogen sulfide (H2S) released from these openings to food for other organisms and
in turn are provided essential nutrients by the former.
(a)
(b)
What comes into your mind when you hear the word bacteria?
Bacteria consist of a very diverse group. They have varied shapes (Figure 3).
They can be found in almost all kinds of places, in soil, water and air. Some are
7
present in raw or spoiled food; others live in or on other organisms including your
body. You must have known that they also cause disease and harm to other
organisms. But most importantly, bacteria have a variety of uses for the environment
and for humans.
(Adapted from: Philippines. Department of Education. (2009). Science and Technology II.
Textbook (Rev. ed.). Pasig City: Instructional Materials Development Corporation. p.246).
Have you heard about the rise of leptospirosis cases in the recently flooded
areas in a number of places in the country? Leptospirosis is a bacterial infection due
to exposure to the spirochete bacterium, Leptospira interrogans. These bacteria are
present in the urine and tissues of cattle, pigs, horses, dogs, rats, and wild animals. It
has been found out that the largest number of leptospira bacteria are in the urine of
rats. Anybody can be infected through contact with water, soil, food and vegetables
that are contaminated with urine of these animals. The bacteria enter the body
through cuts in the skin or surfaces of the eyes or nose. It is important for you to
know that the disease is preventable and treatable with antibiotics.
Q12. Can you think of ways by which you can avoid leptospirosis?
Q13. Who do you think are the people who are likely to be infected with anthrax?
Antiobiotics are substances that kill or inhibit disease-causing organisms. Do
you know that certain bacteria are used to produce antibiotics? Streptomycin, an
antibiotic used to treat tuberculosis and certain types of pneumonia is made by
Streptomyces griseus. Streptomyces venezuelae on the other hand produces
chloramphenicol used in killing bacteria that cause typhoid fever and skin infections.
Escherichia coli is naturally found in the large intestine of humans. It feeds on
partially digested food moving from the stomach to the small intestines. These
bacteria meanwhile provide the much needed vitamin B12 that otherwise the human
body cannot produce. E. coli however, once present in other areas in the body can
produce poisons causing diarrhea or kidney damage and even death.
Do you know that many of these bacteria are also involved in making some of
the foods or drink you like?
Some bacteria convert cheap materials into useful products such as food.
Examples are Lactobacilli bulgaricus and Streptococcus thermophilus of the lactic
acid bacteria group. These are specifically involved in making sour milk or yogurt.
Yogurt is made by adding a culture of Lactobacillus bulgaricus present in the starter
to skimmed milk powder. Lactase in the bacteria changes the milk sugar into lactic
acid. When this occurs, proteins in milk curdle which gives yogurt its semi-liquid
texture. Be familiar with these bacteria by doing the following activity.
Activity 2
How do bacteria in yogurt look like?
Objectives:
After performing this activity, you should be able to:
9
1.
2.
3.
10
Materials Needed:
2 droppers
coverslip
microscope
diluted yogurt
glass slide
methylene blue
Procedure:
1.
2.
Q14.
Follow
precautionary
measures in
handling the
microscope.
TAKE
CARE!
3.
Observe under the LPO and HPO of the microscope.
Q15. Describe what you see under the HPO.
Q16.
Q17.
Have you heard about oil-eating bacteria? Some members of eubacteria are
able to break down or remove pollutants through the process of bioremediation.
Scientists at University of the Philippines-Dilimans Molecular Microbiology
Laboratory have identified a number of bacteria which can help solve the problem of
oil spills in oceans and seas through this technology. These are Pseudomonas
aeruginosa, Acinetobacter baumanii, Paenibacillus thiaminolyticus, Bordetella
bronchiseptica and Lysinibacillus sphaericus.
Another group of bacteria (Figure 4), the cyanobacteria are plantlike
because they have chlorophyll-containing cells. Most of them are single-celled, some
form filaments, while others form spores. Cyanobacteria grow in ditches, esteros, or
in moist places like gardens and sidewalls where light is present. In Northern Luzon
people eat raw Tab-tab (Nostoc) as salad. Spirulina cells are rich in protein, thus,
have been grown to produce Single Cell Protein (SCP). It is used as swine and cattle
feed and is also recommended as food for humans.
11
(e)
Protists
Earlier you were introduced to protists. Are they prokaryotes or eukaryotes?
What can you remember from Grade 7 about algae? How were they classified?
Members of Kingdom Protista come from unrelated ancestors. This grouping
is referred to by biologists as an artificial grouping. The inclusion of the large number
of unicellular organisms under this kingdom is just for convenience.
Protists differ in size, movement and method of obtaining energy. Though
most of protists are microscopic, some can grow to as high as several meters.
In terms of method in obtaining energy, protists are classified into three
groups. Phototrophs produce their own food. Heterotrophs feed on other
organisms. This group is also divided into a group with no permanent part for
12
movement, those with cilia, and those with limited movement. Others which are
nonmotile and form spores belong to the sporozoan group. Members of this group
are all parasitic.
Phototrophs are like plants in that they have chlorophyll. This group includes
the algae, dinoflagellates, and euglenoids.
Algae may be green, golden, brown or red. The chlorophyll in green algae is
not masked in contrast to the other members of the group. The carbohydrate that
green algae produce is stored as starch. They grow on wet, humid rocks or bark of
trees, in non-flowing canals, in seas, freshwater bodies and even polluted waterways.
Green algae differ in size and shape. Some are unicellular; others form colonies,
sheets, filaments, tubes and ribbons (Figure 5). Some green algae are edible. The
marine green alga Caulerpa lentillifera is eaten fresh as salad.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
13
In one of your trips to the seashore, did you notice something like one of
those shown in Figure 7? If your answer is yes, you have seen brown algae! Most
members of this group are marine so you can see them just lying around on the
beach. Brown pigments mask their chlorophyll.
Laminaria
Brown algae are the largest of the algae species. Giant kelps, a member of
this group can grow to more than 30 meters in length. This group of algae store
carbohydrate in the form of laminarin.
Do you know that brown algae have something to do with your favorite ice
cream or toothpaste? Some members of the group contain alginic acid used as an
ingredient in making these two, including candy and cream cosmetics.
Leaflike and bubblelike structures called bladders are present in brown algae.
They float near the water surface where light is present.
Q19. What is the importance of bladders in brown algae?
Have you heard eaten gozo? Eucheuma muricatum (Figure 8) or kanot-kanot,
another name for gozo, is a member of the red algae group. The group differs from
the rest of the algae by storing food in the form of floridean starch. As their name
suggests, red pigments mask their chlorophyll.
Eucheuma muricatum
Gracilaria salicornia
14
Red algae can change color depending on whether they are exposed or
hidden from light. When they are exposed to light, they are bright green in color. If
they grow without much light, they are colored red. Members of the group consist of
both microscopic and large multicellular organisms. Most of them are found in marine
waters.
There are species in the group that help form coral reefs because of their
ability to produce calcium carbonate. Economically, E. muricatum is useful being a
source of agar and carageenan. If you are fond of eating gulaman, note that it comes
from agar. Eucheuma farming has become a source of livelihood in certain areas in
Central Visayas and Mindanao. Likewise, Gracilaria salicornia (Figure 8) is an agar
source and edible too.
Q20. Why is light important to algae?
Most members of dinoflagellates live in oceans and seas. They are mostly
unicellular. Some occur as single organisms, while others form colonies. An important
dinoflagellate to know is Pyrodinium bahamense var. compressum (Figure 9). They
are the ones that cause red tide when present in large numbers. During red tide,
people should not eat clams and mussels in the affected areas. This is because these
organisms might have fed on the dinoflagellates which produce toxins and cause
paralysis of the diaphragm that can lead to death.
Q21. What is the danger of eating clams when red tide occurs?
The euglenoids are microscopic and unicellular. Euglena belongs to this
group. It lives in freshwater bodies. Organisms of this group have a whiplike flagellum
for movement. Some euglenoids have chlorophyll.
Euglena has an interesting characteristic of getting food. When light is
available to, it makes food utilizing chlorophyll. In the absence of light, it absorbs
nutrients from dead organic matter.
Heterotrophs with no permanent structure for movement include the
radiolarians, foraminiferans and amoeba (Figure 10). They move by means of the
pseudopods or pseudopodia. Notice the extensions at the sides of these organisms.
15
pseudopodia
foraminiferans
radiolaria
n
amoeba
(Source: Philippines. Department of Education. (2009). Science and Technology II. Textbook (Rev.
ed.). Pasig City:
Instructional Materials Development Corporation. p.259).
Trypanosoma
(a)
Trichonympha
(b)
Fungi
You must have seen the orange colored growth on spoiled corn, the gray to
black or white spots on a three-day old bread left in a warm and humid or moist place.
Or the kabuti, that your father gathered from the woods and yeast used in making
bread. All these are fungi.
You first encountered the eukaryotic fungi in Grade 7. You have also learned
that they have no chlorophyll thus, cannot produce their own food. Some are
parasites, because they survive by living on a host organism. Others feed on decaying
matter and are called saprophytes. Fungi also have cell walls but are made up of
chitin.
Fungi undergo asexual reproduction by forming buds and many spores.
Actually, the black thing you see in fungi are spores in large numbers. These spores
are abundant in the environment as they are carried easily by wind, water, animals, or
humans. When spores land in areas suitable for their growth, new fungus develops.
Fungal bodies consist of hyphae with rootlike rhizoids that attach them to the
substrate on which they grow. Hyphae absorb and provide nutrients to the fungi by
extending downward into the substrate. Fungi also reproduce sexually when male and
female hyphae join together.
Fruiting structures extend upward where spores are produced. Fungi are
classified according to the kind of fruiting structures they form (Figure12). In bread
mold Rhizopus, spores are produced in the sporangium.
17
(Source: Philippines. Department of Education. (2009). Science and Technology II. Textbook (Rev. ed.). Pasig City:
Instructional Materials Development Corporation. p.264).
Q24. Where are spores of yeasts produced? How are yeast spores called?
Q25. Where are mushroom spores produced?
Q26. What is the advantage of the large numbers of spores produced by fungi?
Examples of fungi used as food are Volvariella sp. and Pleurotus sajor-caju
(oyster mushroom). Others utilized in soy sauce making include the yeast,
Saccharomyces rouxii and the mold, Aspergillus oryzae. Yeast is an ingredient in
making bread.
Fungi are involved in decomposing organic materials. Decomposition is made
faster using Trichoderma harzianum. An important mold to mention is Penicillium
notatum. It is used in making penicillin, a drug that kills disease-causing bacteria.
Some fungal species however, can be harmful to other organisms and
humans. The mold Aspergillus flavus produces aflatoxin, a poisonous substance. If
large amounts of aflatoxin in moldy corn, garlic or peanuts are ingested, both poultry
and humans can be poisoned. The parasitic fungi Trichophyton mentagrophytes and
T. rubrum, cause athletes foot. T. rubrum can also cause ringworm.
Q27. From what you know and have observed about fungi, in what conditions do they
grow?
You knew earlier that plants belong to the eukaryote group. They are
multicellular and because they have chlorophyll, they can make their own food.
Plants consist of two big groups: those which do not have tissues to transport water
and food (nonvascular) and those that have this transport system (vascular).
Nonvascular Plants
Have you noticed green patches attached to stones or cement walls
especially during the rainy season or in moist, wet and shady areas?
Liverworts, mosses and hornworts (Figure 13) are nonvascular plants. They
are attached to the places where they live by means of their root-like rhizoids. These
rhizoids absorb water and nutrients instead of true roots. They also do not have true
stems and leaves so they grow very close to damp grounds, stone walls or tree
trunks.
(a)
(b)
(c)
Q29. Why do you think nonvascular plants cannot grow very large or tall?
Vascular Plants
From studying water-dwelling organisms, you will now deal with ferns which
thrive on land with true roots, stems and leaves. Ferns also reproduce by spores.
More than 900 species of ferns can be found in moist, shaded and mountainous
areas in the country. They exhibit diversity in size from a few millimeters to about 12
meters. Some ferns still inhabit freshwaters (Figure 14b), while others grow on tree
trunks. The Anabaena cyanobacterium you studied earlier are present in the
underside of azolla, a water fern.
Q30. Examine Figure 14a. Can you explain how it earned its name?
Have you heard of tree ferns (Figure 14c)? At first glance, you may think it is
a tree with a sturdy trunk. You should know that they are not strong as woody plants.
Salvinia sp.
(b)
20
Gymnosperms
Seed plants consist of those which bear seeds contained in cones and those
inside a protective layer of tissue. Plants whose seeds are borne in cones (Figure
15a) are called gymnosperms. Examples of gymnosperms are the conifers, cycads,
ginkgoes, and gnetophytes. Many conifers like pine trees grow in cold countries and
in elevated places in warmer climates. They are woody trees and have tough needlelike leaves.
(a)
(b)
Figure 15. (a) Benguet pine cones and (b) a Ginkgo biloba tree growing in Tokyo,
Japan.
They also supply pulp to paper-producing factories. Other species provide resin,
used in making perfumes and varnishes. Pine cones are popular Christmas
decoration items.
Q34. How would uncontrolled cutting of pine trees, for example, affect the forest
ecosystem?
Angiosperms
You are most familiar with members of this group as you may have played
with their flowers even at an early age. In the earlier grades, you have learned how
varied they are in terms of parts and habitat. You also studied about what parts are
involved in reproduction and ways by which they reproduce. They are also called
flowering plants since flowers, as well as fruits, are involved in their reproduction and
development.
Angiosperms can be classified according to their lifespan. Annuals live for a
year or one growing season and die like rice and corn. Biennials develop roots,
stems and leaves during the first year, produce seeds on the second year, then die.
Perennials live for many years, usually producing woody stems like tsitsirika,
bamboo, and trees.
Leaves of angiosperms also differ in their arrangement in the stem. Study
Figure 16.
(Source: Philippines. Department of Education. (2009). Science and Technology II. Textbook (Rev. ed.).
Pasig City: Instructional Materials Development Corporation. p.276).
Q35. Which plant leaves are arranged alternately, radially and opposite each other?
Flowering plants are also classified as to the number of cotyledons present in
their seeds. Monocotyledons or monocots have only one cotyledon present, while
dicotyledons or dicots have two. Coconut and grasses are examples of monocots.
22
Gumamela and mango are dicots. Other differences among the two are exhibited in
characteristics of some of their parts as shown in Figure 17.
(Source: Philippines. Department of Education. (2009). Science and Technology II. Textbook
(Rev. ed.). Pasig City: Instructional Materials Development Corporation. p.276).
You can observe several flowers from different plants and you may see other
differences or similarities among them.
24
Importance of Angiosperms
Look around you. Think of what you have eaten or what you have used
earlier. Were there any from this group of plants mentioned that you have eaten, or
in any way used?
Angiosperms of importance worth mentioning are Filipinos staple food: rice
for most of us, corn in some areas; vegetables like camote tops, malunggay,
cabbage, carrots, saluyot and squash.
Q38. Make a list of the uses of coconut that you know.
Many of our agricultural products, both fresh and processed are exported.
Examples are banana from Davao, mango from Guimaras, coffee from various
provinces, pineapple from Bukidnon and tobacco from provinces in Northern Luzon.
Furniture made from rattan are also sold to various countries abroad. Sugar cane
from different provinces is also another grown for export.
Many angiosperms have been developed to prevent and cure some diseases.
Lagundi, sambong, ampalaya, and banaba to name a few are now commercially
available for specific ailments.
Q39. Describe how birds, butterflies and spiders benefit from members of the
angiosperms.
Q40. What is the greatest contribution of plants to living things on Earth?
Harmful Plants
Some plants can be harmful to animals, humans, and even to other plants.
Care must be taken that cows and other livestock should not graze in areas where
sorghum grow. It is known to cause cyanide poisoning in livestock as young leaves
contain a poisonous substance.
Jatropha curcas (tuba-tuba/tubang bakod) is popular due to its being an
alternative source of bio-fuel. Although known to have medicinal properties, its seed
is poisonous. The fruits which are usually eaten by children cause stomach pain,
burning sensation in the throat and vomiting. Manihot esculenta (cassava) if boiled
with its bark on it can be poisonous. The bark contains hydrocyanic acid. It is advised
that during cooking, the pot cover should be removed for the cyanogas to escape. A
word of caution: do not eat any part of a plant which you are not familiar with.
Echinochloa crus-galli (dawa-dawa) and Digitaria sanguinalis (saka-saka) are
weeds which are alternative hosts to abaca and corn mosaic viruses.
Q41. What harm can weeds do to crops if they grow together?
25
Sponges
Sponges, the simplest animals, belong to Phylum Porifera. They live in
shallow and deep oceans. The young of sponges are motile, while adults are
attached to solid materials like rocks. The body of a hard sponge is supported by a
skeleton called spicules, made of either glasslike silica or calcium carbonate. A
network of protein fibers supports soft sponges. This is the one used for bathing and
washing.
26
Figure 18. Structure of a sponge showing how water and food and waste
materials move in and out of its body, respectively.
Water and food enter through the pores into the sponge body (Figure 18).
Food is brought to the collar cells with the beating of flagella. Waste water and
materials go out of the sponge through the osculum.
Cnidarians
Members of Phylum Cnidaria consist of animals whose tentacles contain
stinging cells called nematocysts. These poison-filled structures are used for
defense and to capture their prey or food. Once released, this can be painful and
even fatal like an attack by jellyfishes.
Corals form colonies of various colors and secrete a hard skeleton. These
accumulate to form coral reefs which are of great importance as they are one of the
worlds most productive ecosystems. A coral reef is where fishes and other marine
organisms breed. At present however, coral reefs are destroyed by pollution from oil
spills and dynamite fishing. Add to these the silt and sediments that flow down from
the mountains because of farming, mining and logging activities.
27
(Source: Philippines. Department of Education. (2009). Science and Technology II. Textbook (Rev. ed.).
Pasig City: Instructional Materials Development Corporation. p.287).
Flatworms
Tapeworms are also parasitic flatworms like flukes without a digestive system. It can
have fish, cows and pigs as hosts. Humans can be infected with tapeworms if they
eat uncooked fish, beef or pork.
Q44. Why do you think parasitic flatworms do not have a digestive system?
Roundworms
Roundworms are members of Phylum Nematoda. Compared to flatworms,
roundworms also known as nematodes have long, cylindrical and slender bodies.
28
Some roundworms are free-living while others are parasites of animals and plants.
The free-living ones are important as they are decomposers in the soil in both marine
and freshwaters. A lot of them are found in decaying organic matter. Parasitic
roundworms can be found in moist tissues of plants and animals. Heartworms for
example can infect dogs and cats. Humans can be infected with parasitic
roundworms such as trichina worms, hookworms and the more common pinworms
and Ascaris (Figure 20) afflicting children.
(Source: Philippines. Department of Education. (2009). Science and Technology II. Textbook
(Rev. ed.). Pasig City:
Instructional Materials Development Corporation. p.288).
Figure 20. A male and female Ascaris with its internal parts shown.
Digested food is taken in the mouth and exit in the anus.
Q45. Study Figure 20. How many openings does an Ascaris body have?
Segmented Worms
The third group of worms among the animal phyla belongs to Phylum
Annelida. Also known as annelids, these animals are characterized by a segmented
or repeated body parts. This makes them move easily and with flexibility. Annelids
are mostly found crawling in moist soil or swimming in sea and freshwaters.
Examples of annelids are earthworms, polychaetes and leeches. Most polychaetes
are marine living in tubes attached to rocks or sand. They get floating food through
the feathery gills. Sandworms are examples of polychaetes.
Annelids have nervous, circulatory, digestive and excretory systems. Each
29
segment contains most of the internal structures of these systems. Gas exchange
only occurs by diffusion through their skin. This is why earthworms need to be in
moist places like under rocks or stay buried in the soil. As they feed and burrow
through the soil, they get nutrients and eliminate wastes (castings) through the anus.
In this way they aerate the soil and the castings serve as fertilizer.
Leeches are blood-sucking annelids. They have suckers in both ends of their
bodies that are also used to attach themselves to their hosts. They secrete an anticlotting chemical that has been used in medicine.
Mollusks
Mollusks (Phylum Mollusca) are soft-bodied invertebrates with most of them
covered by a shell. They have complex respiratory, reproductive, circulatory,
digestive and excretory systems functioning together for their survival. The mollusks
body has three parts: a muscular foot for locomotion, a mantle that produces the
shell, and the visceral mass that contains their internal organs. Mollusks consist of
three classes: the Gastropods, Bivalves and Cephalopods.
Q46. Study Figure 21. How would you describe univalves? bivalves?
(Source: Philippines. Department of Education. (2009). Science and Technology II. Textbook
(Rev. ed.). Pasig City:Instructional Materials Development Corporation. p. 291.)
Gastropods, also called univalves, as you have observed, has only one shell.
They are mostly marine with freshwater and terrestrial members. Those living in seas
have gills for breathing and those on land use the lining of their mantle as lungs. Sea
and land slugs, as well as nudibranchs are examples of gastropods.
You may be most familiar with the bivalves as you see them on your dining
table more often. These molluscs as you have observed consist of two shells
attached to each other. Some bivalves are attached to rocks while others remain in
the sand or mud. They use their mantle cavity to feed by trapping suspended
particles in water and for gas exchange. Mussels, oysters, and clams are bivalves.
30
The cephalopod group include the squid and cuttlefish with internal skeleton.
The chambered nautilus has external skeleton while the octopus is shell-less. All
cephalopods are described as the most active mollusks, moving very fast using arms
and tentacles in catching prey.
Q47. Into which group would you classify halaan? the giant African snail?Tridacna
(taklobo)?
Many mollusk species are utilized as food like tahong (mussels), talaba
(oyster), halaan (clam), scallops, and kuhol or suso to name some. Other species
are made into decorative items.
Golden kuhol, however, has become a pest to rice and other crops. They eat
a lot of plant leaves and reproduce rapidly. The giant African snail Achatina fulica was
found to be an intermediate host to a rat lungworm that causes meningitis.
Echinoderms
You can be fascinated by the star-shaped sea star or the spinestudded sea
urchin and the appearance of the sand dollar. Along with the brittle star and the sea
cucumber, they belong to Phylum Echinodermata. All echinoderms are found in a
marine environment. Sea lily, another echinoderm, is rooted in the sand at the bottom
of the sea, while sea cucumber burrows in mud of deep or shallow waters.
Parts of most echinoderms radiate from the center of the body. They also
have spines which are extensions made of hard calcium. Under the skin, these form
an internal skeleton called the endoskeleton.
Sea stars have the ability to regenerate. A cut arm can easily regrow into a
new sea star.
Unique to echinoderms is the presence of the water-filled tubes that spread
out to form the tube feet (Figure 22). Tube feet are used for getting food, moving
around and gas exchange.
31
(Source: Philippines. Department of Education. (2009). Science and Technology II. Textbook
(Rev. ed.). Pasig City: Instructional Materials Development Corporation. p. 294.)
Figure 22. Sea star showing (a) arms radiating from the center of the
body, (b) spines, and (c) tube feet.
Echinoderm species which are edible include the sea urchin and sea
cucumber. Holothuria edulis, a sea cucumber, is dried and used as ingredient for
chopsuey and soups.
Remember the role of coral reefs in the environment? Sea urchins are
important to coral reefs because they consume algae that otherwise overgrow and
can kill the corals. In contrast, the sea star, crown of thorns, are predators of coral
polyps posing a threat to the existence of the reefs.
Arthropods
Have you observed what grasshoppers, spiders, crabs and centipedes have
in common? If you take a look at each of these you will notice that they have
jointed legs. These animals belong to Phylum Arthropoda. The group is considered
the most successful of all animal phyla as they are present in almost all types of
habitats. There are arthropods that walk or crawl, some can fly, while others swim
in salty and freshwaters.
Recall in Grade 6, you learned that arthropods have an exoskeleton. This
is made of chitin and varies from thin and flexible to thick and hard exoskeletons.
These animals grow a new skeleton many times in their life to give way to growth,
specifically, increase in size through the process of molting.
Q48. How do arthropods differ from echinoderms?
Q49. What could be the function of the exoskeleton in arthropods?
Arthropods are grouped based on the type of exoskeleton, the number of
body sections and the kind of appendages like mouth parts present. Appendages
32
Activity 3
What can you do to prevent dengue?
Objectives:
33
Materials Needed:
sheet of paper
illustration of life cycle of Aedes aegypti
34
Procedure:
1.
Study the different stages in the life cycle of Aedes aegypti below.
Stage III:
Stage I:
Stage II:
Mosquito eggs hatch into larva (plural: larvae). It is the second and the most
easily seen stage of mosquito development. A larva always lives in water and
eats a lot of algae and organic matter. It breathes in air from above the water
surface through a tube called siphon. When disturbed, it dives down to the
bottom, so it is also called a wriggler. It returns to the surface to breathe. This
stage usually lasts about five to seven days.
Q57. What can you do to stop the reproduction of the dengue virus-carrying
mosquito? Name at least 5.
35
Q58. Into what group of arthropods would you classify the mosquito and why?
Chordates
Animals belonging to Phylum Chordata have four characteristics that are
present in any of the stages in their life cycle. These are the notochord, the dorsal
hollow nerve cord, gill slits and a post-anal tail. In many chordates, the notochord
later becomes the backbone. Humans being a member of the chordate group have
the notochord, tail and gill slits only in the embryo stage.
However, there are lower chordates that do not have a backbone. Examples
are the tunicates and lancelets. The adult tunicates have only the gill slits present
but the larva stages have all the four features. Tunicates attach to solid materials like
rocks or coral reefs. They are filter feeders, taking in food particles suspended in
water.
Lancelets have the four chordate characteristics present in the adult stage.
They live in the sandy ocean bottom. They are also suspension feeders. Lancelets
move in a fishlike motion using the muscles on both sides of their body.
Vertebrates
Most vertebrates are sea and land dwellers forming the large group of
chordates. The vertebrates notochord is replaced by the backbone or the vertebral
column (vertebra, plu. vertebrae). The nerve cord is enclosed by the projections of
the vertebrae. The protected nerve cord enlarges at the anterior end to develop into
the brain. The tail can be the bone and muscle that animals use for swimming in
aquatic species. For some vertebrates, the gill slits remain till the adult stage. In
others, these are modified into structures for gas exchange.
Fishes
Fishes are vertebrates found in salty, fresh, cold or even hot water. Most
have scales for protection, paired fins for movement and gills for gas exchange.
Fishes may lay eggs to reproduce or give birth to live young. They are cold blooded
because their body temperature changes when environment temperature changes.
Certain fishes do not have true teeth or may be jawless as compared to the others.
Jawless fishes belong to Class Agnatha. Examples are the lampreys and hag
fish. Lampreys, being parasites, have tooth-like structures in their mouth that can
attach to bodies of other fishes and feed on their tissues and blood. The hagfish is
wormlike and use a toothlike tongue to eat dead organisms.
Cartilaginous fishes include the rays, skates and sharks. They have a
skeleton made of the soft, flexible protein material called cartilage. Most cartilaginous
fishes are covered with a tough, sandpaperlike skin due to the presence of toothlike
36
scales. Skates and rays have winglike fins and move in a gliding motion through the
water. Some of them eat floating planktons while others feed on invertebrates at the
bottom of seas and oceans.
Sharks may feed on small fishes or on floating algae. The whale shark
(Rincodon typus), the largest fish, and locally known as butanding is found in marine
waters of Cebu, Sorsogon and Dumaguete.
The diverse groups of bony fishes belong to Class Osteichthyes. These are
the fishes that have an endoskeleton made of hard, calcium material called bone.
Bony fishes are more familiar to you like bangus (milkfish), tuna, goldfish, and tilapia.
The non-familiar lungfish breathes through the lungs in addition to having gills also
for respiration. Eels are wormlike fishes. Figure 23 shows some of the members of
the bony fishes.
37
Amphibians
Amphibia means double life from which amphibians got their name. This
refers to animals that live part in water and part on land. Most lay small, shell-less
eggs surrounded by jellylike substance in moist places or in water. These hatch into
tadpoles with gills and tails. They lose the tail to develop lungs as well as legs and
move to land but close to water or damp habitats. They also have moist skin to help
the lungs for gas exchange while in dry land. Amphibians are divided into three
groups, the caecilians, salamanders, and frog and toads. Ceacilians live in water
or bury themselves in moist soil. Salamanders live in forest floors under rocks and
decaying logs.
Both frogs and toads jump. Some frogs can leap and attach to tree trunks and
branches. Toads are terrestrial and can even survive in hot places or desert. Frogs
have smooth skin while toads have rough or warty skin. Frogs and toads eat worms,
insects or small animals.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(Adapted from: Philippines. Department of Education. (2009). Science and Technology II. Textbook
(Rev. ed.). Pasig City: Instructional Materials Development Corporation. p. 302.)
Figure 24. Amphibians include (a) the mud puppy, (b) a tree frog,
(c) caecilian, and (d) toad
Q60.
Q61.
Reptiles
Reptiles are animals that exhibit more adaptations for living on land. They lay
eggs with shells to protect them from drying. They also have smooth or rough scales
for protection from loss of body water.
38
Lizards and snakes have smooth scales. Examples of lizards are the house
lizard, gecko (tuko), monitor lizard (bayawak), chamleleon and horned toad. Snakes
are legless and have flexible jaws to enable them to swallow their prey whole. A
common snake species is the reticulated python seen in zoos. Poisonous species
include the cobra and the rattle snake. Snakes however, avoid people and do not
attack unless provoked or hurt.
Crocodiles and alligators are also reptiles. They are predators of fish, deers,
small cows or carabaos, and even attack humans. Alligators live in freshwater and
are only found in North and South America. Crocodiles live in fresh and salty waters
in tropical and subtropical regions. In the Philippines, two species are present, the
endemic Crocodylus mindorensis (Philippine Crocodile) and the saltwater
Crocodylus porosus. The Philippine crocodile is considered a critically endangered
crocodile species in the world.
Bodies of turtles and tortoises are enclosed in a shell. The head, legs and
tail are pulled inside this shell as protection from predators. Tortoises live on land
while turtles live mostly in water. Pawikan (marine turtles) live in the sea and females
come to shore only to lay eggs. There are species of marine turtles which are at
present in danger of extinction.
Birds
If reptiles are adapted to land life, most birds are adapted to fly.
Characteristics of birds that enable them to fly include: presence of wings and
feathers, large flight muscles in the breast bone and reduced weight. Birds weigh
less because their bones are light and hollow filled with air. Birds also have eggs with
shells and the legs are covered with scales. Their body temperature remains the
same despite varying environmental temperature due to the insulation provided by
feathers.
Birds have bills or beaks (Figure 25), and in coordination with the type of
wings and feet they have, are adapted to where they live and the kind of food they
eat.
39
(Source: Philippines. Department of Education. (2009). Science and Technology II. Textbook (Rev. ed.). Pasig City:
Instructional Materials Development Corporation. p. 305.)
Q62.
Examine the beak of the Philippine eagle. If it is for cutting, what do you think
does this bird eat?
Examples of birds that do not fly are the kiwi, penguin and ostrich.
Q63.
Compare the legs of amphibians and reptiles with birds that you are familiar
with.
You often eat chicken during meals or even merienda. Or maybe balut and
salted eggs from ducks are your favourites! Snakes and big animals also prey on
smaller birds. You enjoy the relaxing chirping or singing of some birds and their
varied colors. Although certain birds feed on rice or corn grains, they have a role in
dispersing seeds to various places, resulting to perpetuation of many plant species.
The Philippine Eagle, which is found only in our country, has been declared
as a critically endangered species. It means that there is a possibility that the species
will disappear or be lost. The main reason is the loss of their habitat-- the forests -due to logging and their conversion to farmlands.
Q64.
If you live somewhere in eastern Luzon, Samar, Leyte or Mindanao where the
Philippine eagles specifically live, suggest ways to protect their habitat.
40
Mammals
Mammals differ from other animals because they have mammary glands that
produce milk to nourish their young and most have hair or fur. They breathe in air,
have four-chambered hearts and are warm-bloodied. Most of them also give birth to
live young and care for them.
The first group of mammals, called monotremes, lay eggs similar to those of
birds. The spiny anteater (echidnas) living in Australia, New Zealand and New
Guinea as well as the duck-billed platypus are monotremes (Figure 26).
Marsupials or the pouched mammals also give birth to live young. After birth,
the young are kept inside pouches and are nourished with the milk from the
mammary glands within these pouches. Some marsupials are found in Central and
South America. The opossum lives only in North America. Others, such as the more
familiar koalas, kangaroos and wombats and flying phalangers, are found in Australia
and New Zealand.
The eutherians comprise the largest group of mammals. Known as the
placental mammals, they bear fully developed young inside the mothers uterus.
These young are attached to the placenta through which they receive nourishment
until they are born. After birth, they continue to be cared for and nourished by milk
from the mammary glands. Table 2 presents the different groups of placental
mammals and their representatives.
Characteristics
insect-eating
flying
gnawing
rodentlike
Examples
shrews, moles
bats
rats, mice, squirrels
rabbits, hares
41
Order
Characteristics
Edentata
Cetacea
Sirenia
Proboscidea
Carnivora
toothless
aquatic
aquatic
trunk-nosed
flesh-eating
Ungulata
hoofed foot
Primates
Examples
armadillos
whales, dolphins
dugong, manatee
elephants
dogs, cats, bears, seals,
walruses
horses, zebras, rhinoceros,
giraffes, carabaos, goats, pigs
lemurs, monkeys, apes, humans
(Source: Philippines. Department of Education. (2009). Science and Technology II. Textbook (Rev. ed.). Pasig
City: Instructional Materials Development Corporation. p. 307.)
Q65.
Q66.
Primates are the most highly developed of all animals. They are able to walk
erect, with fingers and toes adapted to grasp or hang on branches and hold things or
manipulate food. They also have a high degree of intelligence. Primates exhibit social
behavior like living in organized groups or communities. They take care of orphaned
individuals or even fight with competing groups. Scientists would like to believe that
the care given by females to their young contribute to their ability to survive.
Q67.
Mammals are present in various places, from the very cold to the warmest
regions and in salt waters. Many live among humans. Mammals have become an
important part of ecosystems. In grasslands, zebras eat plants and in turn are killed
and eaten by lions. In forests, bats eat insects and compete with monkeys for fruits.
Seeds are then spread for plants to grow in other areas. Wastes of these mammals
serve as fertilizers to plants. In human communities, rats carry bacteria and dogs
virus that cause diseases. In farmlands, carabaos work for people, while cows, sheep
and goats provide meat and milk. Rats destroy crops and compete with humans for
rice grains. In whatever way, good or bad, mammals affect the ecosystems where
they live.
You have just gone through all the different groups of organisms on Earth
known to science at present. You have learned about their similarities and
differences. The discussions and activities also showed how they are useful to one
another and the whole ecosystem or how some harm others.
drought or disasters as well as competition with other species. This results to a stable
ecosystem with lesser rate of species loss. Tropical rainforests are located in places
near the equator, while temperate rainforests are found in the temperate regions.
Q68.
Based on the discussion above, how will you describe an ecosystem with low
biodiversity?
Activity 4
What is the importance of biodiversity to
ecosystems?
Objectives:
After performing this activity, you should be able to:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Materials Needed:
photos of different ecosystems
pencil/ballpen
Procedure:
1.
2.
Q69.
3.
43
Photo by MD Sebastian
Q70.
Q71.
Q72.
What will happen if a strong typhoon comes and heavy flooding occurs?
Q73.
How will this affect the helpers and owner of the plantation?
4.
(Source: Philippines. Department of Education. (2009). Science and Technology II. Textbook (Rev. ed.).
Pasig City: Instructional Materials Development Corporation. p. 339).
Q74.
Q75.
Describe some relationships and interactions that occur among these biotic
components.
Q76.
Predict the effect of the presence of many crown of thorns sea star to the
ecosystem and its biotic components.
Q77.
Q78.
The North Pole and certain deserts are examples of ecosystems with low
biodiversity.
Q79. Give other examples of familiar ecosystems with low biodiversity.
Habitat destruction
Invasion of introduced species
Population increase
Pollution
Overcollection/overharvesting of resources
Think of the biodiversity in your community at present. What would it look like
in the future?
In the following activity, you are going to make a list of conditions that you want
to see in your world in the future. Prioritize them, suggest ways and take action to
make them happen.
* Threats to Biodiversity. Retrieved from http://www.e-education.psu.edu/geog030/node/394
Activity 5
I create the future1
1
Adapted from Illinois Biodiversity Basics, a biodiversity education program of the Illinois
Department of Natural Resources, Chicago Wilderness, and the World Wildlife Fund
45
Objectives:
After performing this activity, you should be able to:
1. Make a personal and group vision for the future in relation to biodiversity
2. Analyze the different ways that government, groups, and individuals are
doing in order to arrive at the envisioned future, and
3. Take personal action towards conserving biodiversity.
Materials Needed:
copies of Priority Pyramid worksheet and Making it Happen handout for
each student and for each small group
pencil or ballpen
notebook or sheet of paper for the future log
Procedure:
Part I. My Future World
1.
As a class, you are going to make a list of conditions that you want to see in
your world in the future and then, suggest ways and take action to make it
happen. Ask yourself this question: What do you want the future world to be?
What things or conditions do you want to see in the world, say, 50 years from
now? Make a list of at least five such conditions.
2.
Be ready to share your ideas when your teacher will ask the class. Your
classmates will be sharing their ideas as well, so listen carefully. Your teacher
will write all the ideas on the board. Look at what visions of the future you and
your classmates have come up with.
Q80. What conditions do you and your classmates want to see in your future world?
3.
Get a copy of the Priority Pyramid from your teacher. Complete this pyramid
with the conditions that you want your future world to have, ranking them from
the most important to the least. Write what for you is the most important
condition at the topmost box of the pyramid, the next two conditions on the next
level, and so on.
4.
You will next share your personal pyramid in a small group. When it is your turn,
show your group your pyramid and explain how you chose your top three
conditions. When it is the turn of your groupmates to share, be sure to listen to
their explanations as well.
5.
Now, discuss with your groupmates and create a group pyramid that will
represent your groups priorities for the future. Each one should make a copy of
your group pyramid. Decide who among you will present to the class your
groups top three priorities.
46
6.
Compare your personal pyramid to the pyramid that your group came up with.
Q81.
Q82.
How do you feel about the final result, that is, the group pyramid?
Q83.
How do you feel about the process you went through to come up with the
group pyramid?
Will our dreams for the future come true by simply thinking about them?
1.
Look at the different blocks (conditions) on your group pyramid. Are you
aware of anything that you or other people are already doing to ensure that
these will happen in the future? Make a list and discuss these with your
groupmates.
Q85.
Q86.
2.
Obtain a copy of the Making it Happen handout from your teacher. Read
about each of the projects and choose those that you think are making or will
make significant contributions to meeting the top three priorities in your group
pyramid. For each project that your group will choose, write a sentence or two
to describe ways it is working to achieve the identified priority. You can also
add what your group thinks as the projects strongest and weakest points.
Keep a future log for a week. Your log should list in bullet form, all your
activities, behaviors, speech and thoughts for each day. At the end of each
day, think about and write down how each bullet item affects the world around
you, either positively or negatively, and what consequences it could have for
the future.
2.
Each day, add ways that you can do more to help preserve the earths
biodiversity.
Q88.
What changes in your daily actions can you carry out to contribute to
conserving biodiversity?
Remember that the biodiversity found in your community, are what you need
to live and survive. As students, start right by taking seriously your learning and
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