01-Context Sensitive Rock Slope Design Solutions

CONTEXT SENSITIVE ROCK SLOPE
DESIGN SOLUTIONS
Publication No. FHWA-CFL/TD-11-002
Central Federal Lands Highway Division

12300 W. Dakota Ave.
Lakewood, CO 80228
January 2011
1. Report No.
FHWA-CFL/TD-11-002
Technical Report Documentation Page

2. Government Accession No. 3. Recipient's Catalog No.
4. Title and Subtitle
5. Report Date
January 2011
Context Sensitive Rock Slope Design Solutions
6. Performing Organization Code

J2009-05
7. Author(s)
Richard D. Andrew, Ryan Bartingale and Howard Hume
8. Performing Organization Report No.
9. Performing Organization Name and Address

Yeh and Associates, Inc.
5700 E. Evans Ave.
Denver, CO 80222
12. Sponsoring Agency Name and Address
Federal Highway Administration
12300 W. Dakota Ave., Suite 210B
Lakewood, CO 80228
10. Work Unit No. (TRAIS)

11. Contract or Grant No.
DTFH68-07-D-00001
13. Type of Report and Period Covered
Final Report
June 2008 December 2010
14. Sponsoring Agency Code
HFTS-16.4
15. Supplementary Notes

COTR: Khamis Haramy, FHWA-CFLHD. Advisory Panel Members: Khamis Haramy, Mathew DeMarco,
and Roger Surdahl, FHWA-CFLHD; Khalid Mohamed, FHWA-EFLHD; Rich Barrows, FHWA-WFLHD;
Scott Anderson and Barry Siel, FHWA-RC; Matt Greer, FHWA-CO; and Ty Ortiz, CDOT. This project was
funded under the FHWA Federal Lands Highway Coordinated Technology Implementation Program (CTIP).
16. Abstract
The Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) Federal Lands Highway Division (FLHD) evaluated the
application of context sensitive solutions (CSS) for rock slope design. The application of context sensitive
design in transportation is a method of developing facilities that fit within the engineered setting and preserve
scenic, aesthetic, historic, and environmental resources while maintaining safety and mobility.
Proper development of context sensitive solutions starts before the scoping stage and incorporates a number
of factors, including community concerns, the effects of roadway development on the physical character of
the surrounding area, and a visual prioritization of design considerations. Before starting construction, the
contractor and land management agency should agree on a defined standard of performance and
communication protocols to ensure that all project goals are attained.
The aesthetics of common rock slope construction and mitigation practices can be enhanced with some
modifications. Advantages, limitations, design guidelines, aesthetic value, construction materials, case
examples, relative costs, and maintenance procedures are included for each method. Discussions are intended
to guide the reader in CSS rock slope development.
17. Key Words

CONTEXT SENSITIVE SOLUTION, CSS, ROCK
SLOPES, ROCK EXCAVATION, AESTHETIC
ROCK SLOPE, SLOPE STABILIZATION,
ROCKFALL PROTECTION.
19. Security Classif. (of this report)
Unclassified
Form DOT F 1700.7 (8-72)
18. Distribution Statement

No restriction. This document is available to the
public from the sponsoring agency at the website
http://www.cflhd.gov.
20. Security Classif. (of this page)

Unclassified
21. No. of Pages

122
22. Price
Reproduction of completed page authorized
SI* (MODERN METRIC) CONVERSION FACTORS

APPROXIMATE CONVERSIONS TO SI UNITS
Symbol
When You Know
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To Find
Symbol
millimeters
meters
meters
kilometers
mm
m
m
km
square millimeters
square meters
square meters
hectares
square kilometers
mm2
m2
m2
ha
km2
LENGTH
in
ft
yd
mi
inches
feet
yards
miles
25.4
0.305
0.914
1.61
in2
ft2
yd2
ac
mi2
square inches
square feet
square yards
acres
square miles
645.2
0.093
0.836
0.405
2.59
fl oz
gal
ft3
yd3
fluid ounces
gallons
cubic feet
cubic yards
oz
lb
T
ounces
pounds
short tons (2000 lb)
Fahrenheit
fc
fl
foot-candles
foot-Lamberts
lbf
lbf/in2
poundforce
poundforce per square inch
AREA
VOLUME
29.57
milliliters
3.785
liters
0.028
cubic meters
0.765
cubic meters
NOTE: volumes greater than 1000 L shall be shown in m3
ml
l
m3
m3
MASS
28.35
0.454
0.907
grams
kilograms
megagrams (or metric tons)
g
kg
Mg (or "t")
TEMPERATURE (exact degrees)

5 (F-32)/9
or (F-32)/1.8
Celsius
Lux
candela/m2
lx
cd/m2
ILLUMINATION
10.76
3.426
FORCE and PRESSURE or STRESS

4.45
6.89
newtons
kilopascals
N
kPa
APPROXIMATE CONVERSIONS FROM SI UNITS

Symbol
When You Know
Multiply by
To Find
Symbol
LENGTH
mm
m
m
km
millimeters
meters
meters
kilometers
0.039
3.28
1.09
0.621
mm2
m2
m2
ha
km2
square millimeters
square meters
square meters
hectares
square kilometers
0.0016
10.764
1.195
2.47
0.386
ml
L
m3
m3
milliliters
liters
cubic meters
cubic meters
0.034
0.264
35.314
1.307
g
kg
Mg (or "t")
grams
kilograms
megagrams (or "metric tons")
0.035
2.202
1.103
Celsius
inches
feet
yards
miles
in
ft
yd
mi
square inches
square feet
square yards
acres
square miles
in2
ft2
yd2
ac
mi2
fluid ounces
gallons
cubic feet
cubic yards
fl oz
gal
ft3
yd3
ounces
pounds
short tons (2000 lb)
oz
lb
T
AREA
VOLUME
MASS
TEMPERATURE (exact degrees)

1.8C+32
Fahrenheit
foot-candles
foot-Lamberts
fc
fl
ILLUMINATION
lx
cd/m2
lux
candela/m2
N
kPa
newtons
kilopascals
0.0929
0.2919
FORCE and PRESSURE or STRESS

0.225
0.145
ii
poundforce
poundforce per square inch
lbf
lbf/in2
CONTEXT SENSITIVE ROCK SLOPE DESIGN SOLUTIONS TABLE OF CONTENTS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................. 1
CHAPTER 2 CONTEXT SENSITIVE CONSIDERATIONS FOR ROCK SLOPES ............... 3
UNDERSTANDING CONTEXT................................................................................................... 3
THE DESIGN PROCESS ............................................................................................................... 3
Slope Stability Analysis .............................................................................................................. 3
Geologic Features and Their Effects on Slope Character and Stability.................................. 4
Methods of Excavation ............................................................................................................... 5
Safe and Natural-Looking Rock Cuts ......................................................................................... 5
Visual Prioritization .................................................................................................................... 6
Short-Range Viewshed ........................................................................................................... 6
Long-Range Viewshed............................................................................................................ 7
Stabilization, Protection, and Avoidance Measures ................................................................... 7
Building Consensus among Stakeholders ................................................................................... 7
Preparing a Bid ........................................................................................................................... 8
CHAPTER 3 ROCK EXCAVATION METHODS................................................................... 13
BLASTING ................................................................................................................................... 13
Effect of Geologic Structure on Blasting Procedure................................................................. 13
Discontinuity Sets ................................................................................................................. 13
Slope Dip .............................................................................................................................. 17
Slope Strike ........................................................................................................................... 17
Mud and Soft Seams ............................................................................................................. 17
Blasting Methods ...................................................................................................................... 18
Production Blasting............................................................................................................... 18
Controlled Blasting ............................................................................................................... 18
Explosives ................................................................................................................................. 23
Dynamite ............................................................................................................................... 23
Ammonium Nitrate and Fuel Oil (ANFO)............................................................................ 23
Slurry (Water Gel) ................................................................................................................ 23
Emulsion Explosives............................................................................................................. 25
Drilling Methods ....................................................................................................................... 25
Downhole Drilling ................................................................................................................ 25
Step Drilling .......................................................................................................................... 25
Horizontal Drilling ................................................................................................................ 26
Drilling Equipment ................................................................................................................... 29
Downhole Drilling Rig ......................................................................................................... 29
Track Drilling Rig (Percussion Drill Head) .......................................................................... 29
iii
Portable Crane-Mounted or Hand-Held Drills ...................................................................... 31

Blasting Design ......................................................................................................................... 31
Presplit Blasting .................................................................................................................... 31
Smooth Blasting .................................................................................................................... 33
Cushion Blasting ................................................................................................................... 34
Removing Drill Hole Traces and Blasting Scars .................................................................. 35
Ripping...................................................................................................................................... 35
Ripping Equipment ............................................................................................................... 36
Breaking .................................................................................................................................... 37
CHAPTER 4 ROCK SLOPE/LANDSCAPE INTEGRATION ................................................ 41
PHYSICAL ALTERATIONS ...................................................................................................... 41
Major Slope Warping ................................................................................................................ 41
Expanded Slope Rounding ........................................................................................................ 44
Drainage Intercept Laybacks .................................................................................................... 45
Ditch Width Variation............................................................................................................... 46
Slope Angle Variation............................................................................................................... 48
COSMETIC ENHANCEMENTS ................................................................................................. 51
Rock Staining ............................................................................................................................ 51
CHAPTER 5 ROCK SLOPE STABILIZATION ...................................................................... 55
SLOPE GEOMETRY ALTERATION ......................................................................................... 55
Scaling....................................................................................................................................... 55
Hand Scaling ......................................................................................................................... 56
Mechanical Scaling ............................................................................................................... 57
Trim Blasting ........................................................................................................................ 58
REINFORCEMENT SYSTEMS .................................................................................................. 59
Internal Stabilization ................................................................................................................. 59
Rock Anchors........................................................................................................................ 59
Rock Mass Bonding .............................................................................................................. 66
External Stabilization ................................................................................................................ 69
Shotcrete ............................................................................................................................... 69
DRAINAGE SYSTEMS............................................................................................................... 76
CHAPTER 6 ROCKFALL PROTECTION .............................................................................. 79
Rockfall Protection Design ........................................................................................................... 79
Mesh and Cable Nets ................................................................................................................ 82
Draped Mesh/Nets (Drapery Systems) ................................................................................. 82
iv
Anchored Mesh/Nets ............................................................................................................ 87

Barriers...................................................................................................................................... 89
Earthen Barriers .................................................................................................................... 89
Concrete Barriers .................................................................................................................. 91
Structural Walls .................................................................................................................... 91
Flexible Barriers.................................................................................................................... 92
Attenuators ............................................................................................................................ 94
Barrier Design ....................................................................................................................... 95
Catchment Areas ....................................................................................................................... 96
Ditches .................................................................................................................................. 96
Hybrid Ditches ...................................................................................................................... 98
CHAPTER 7 ROCKFALL MITIGATION SELECTION ........................................................ 99
Considerations............................................................................................................................... 99
Security/Reliability ................................................................................................................... 99
Constructability ......................................................................................................................... 99
Service Life ............................................................................................................................... 99
Suitability ................................................................................................................................ 100
Aesthetics ................................................................................................................................ 100
Cost Effectiveness ................................................................................................................... 100
Comparison of Mitigation Methods ............................................................................................ 100
Maintenance Concerns ................................................................................................................ 100
Managing Rockfall Incidents .................................................................................................. 100
Documentation .................................................................................................................... 100
Action Plan.......................................................................................................................... 101
Maintenance Procedures ......................................................................................................... 102
CHAPTER 8 CONCLUSIONS ............................................................................................... 103
REFERENCES ........................................................................................................................... 105
BIBLIOGRAPHY ....................................................................................................................... 107
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. Illustration. Rock discontinuity orientation parameters................................................... 4
Figure 2. Illustration. Details of typical slope cuts to be avoided. .................................................. 9
Figure 3. Illustration. Perspective view of the desired slope configuration and key design
elements for different geographic settings. (a) Alpine environment with slope rounding and talus
deposits (b) Arid/desert environment with blocky slope transitions and sparse vegetation. ........ 10
Figure 4. Illustration. Example of typical details for a sculpted rock cut. .................................... 11
Figure 5. Illustration. Slope variation details used to enhance aesthetics. .................................... 11
Figure 6. Illustration. The four primary mechanisms of slope failure. ......................................... 13
Figure 7. Illustration. Excessive end break caused by blasting parallel to jointing (modified from
Konya and Walter 2003). .............................................................................................................. 15
Figure 8. Illustration. Excessive backbreak caused by blasting perpendicular to jointing (modified
from Konya and Walter 2003). ..................................................................................................... 15
Figure 9. Illustration. The effect of joint orientation on the quality of the final wall face (modified
from Matheson 1986). ................................................................................................................... 16
Figure 10. Illustration. Example of an excavation that blasts against the dip on the left side and
with the dip on the right side (modified from Konya and Walter 2003)....................................... 17
Figure 11. Illustration. Example of a blasting pattern that runs parallel to strike (modified from
Konya and Walter 2003). .............................................................................................................. 18
Figure 12. Photo. Example of a presplit slope in massive sandstone. Note the abundant drill hole
traces (half casts). .......................................................................................................................... 20
Figure 13. Illustration. Cross section of a cushion blasting design using buffer holes to control the
burden on the cushion holes (modified from Cummings 2002). .................................................. 21
Figure 14. Photo. Final configuration of a cushion-blasted slope in granitic rock. ...................... 22
Figure 15. Illustration. Cross section of downhole and step drilling with sub-drilling techniques
(modified from Cummings 2002). ................................................................................................ 26
Figure 16. Illustration. Horizontal drilling design concept (modified from Cummings 2002)..... 27
Figure 17. Photo. Drill hole traces left by horizontal drilling parallel to the rock face (fan
drilling).......................................................................................................................................... 28
Figure 18. Photo. Blast damage caused by horizontal drilling perpendicular to the rock face. .... 29
Figure 19. Photo. Common track drill used to advance vertical blastholes. ................................. 30
Figure 20. Illustration. Three options using lightly loaded, distributed charges in presplit blasting
(modified from U.S. Department of the Interior 2001). ................................................................ 33
Figure 21. Photo. Bulldozer with an integral ripping attachment. ................................................ 36
Figure 22. Photo. Typical hinge- or radial-style ripper (Nichols and Day 2005). ........................ 37
Figure 23. Photo. Application of a hydraulic hammer attached to an excavator. ......................... 38
Figure 24. Photo. A hydraulic hammer sculpting a rock face (the material to be removed has been
outlined with common marking paint). ......................................................................................... 38
Figure 25. Photo. A hydraulic hammer expanding a sculpted area, creating planting areas and
more natural-looking slope variation. ........................................................................................... 39
Figure 26. Photo. Completed rock slope prior to placement of topsoil and a native seed mix. .... 39
Figure 27. Photo. Example of major slope warping on a cut slope. ............................................. 43
vi
Figure 28. Photo. Slope rounding using long-reach excavator, Hyampom Road, California....... 44
Figure 29. Photo. Expanded slope rounding can prevent this type of erosion and overhang. ...... 45
Figure 30. Photo. Drainage intercept layback cut into a slope, Hyampom Road, California. ...... 46
Figure 31. Photo. Ditch width variation used to break up the slope face and mask drill hole traces.
....................................................................................................................................................... 47
Figure 32. Photo. Ditch width variation can camouflage blast scars and drill traces. .................. 48
Figure 33. Photo. Slope angle variation helps match the natural topography of the surrounding
area. The lower three tiers in the slope were excavated to simulate the natural benches in
sedimentary units. ......................................................................................................................... 49
Figure 34. Photo. Steep, exposed rock faces are good candidates for slope angle variations. ..... 50
Figure 35. Photo. Rock slope excavated using slope variation and sculpting techniques. ........... 51
Figure 36. Photo. Rock excavation shortly after construction. Note the stark contrast of the
freshly excavated material and the naturally weathered rock surfaces. Glenwood Canyon,
Colorado. ....................................................................................................................................... 52
Figure 37. Photo. Staining on the completed cut slope used to create a natural-looking rock face.
....................................................................................................................................................... 52
Glenwood Canyon, Colorado. ....................................................................................................... 52
Figure 38. Photo. Application of stain to a newly constructed rock slope.................................... 53
Figure 39. Photo. Hand scalers removing loose material from a cut slope South Fork Smith River
Road, California. ........................................................................................................................... 57
Figure 40. Photo. Using a long-reach excavator for mechanical scaling. ..................................... 58
Figure 41. Illustration. Typical tensioned anchor (or rock bolt). .................................................. 60
Figure 42. Illustration. Typical untensioned rock dowel. ............................................................. 61
Figure 43. Illustration. Example slope analysis diagram (modified from Hoek and Bray 1981). 62
Figure 44. Photo. Tunnel crest supported with dowels that have been covered with colored grout.
....................................................................................................................................................... 63
Figure 45. Photo. Rock bolts installed in an area where the surrounding rock has eroded away,
reducing the effectiveness of the bolts. ......................................................................................... 64
Figure 46. Photo. Installation of rock bolts using a track drill. .................................................... 65
Figure 47. Photo. Installing rock reinforcement using a drill rig suspended from a crane. .......... 66
Figure 48. Photo. Installation of polyurethane resin from man lift, Poudre Canyon, Colorado. .. 67
Figure 49. Photo. Polyurethane resin used in a fracture, Poudre Canyon, Colorado. ................... 69
Figure 50. Photo. Welded wire mesh can be attached to the rock face before shotcrete is applied.
....................................................................................................................................................... 70
Figure 51. Photo. Shotcrete can be used to protect a slope from erosionand sculpted to mimic
the natural rock face (Ada County Highway District 2003). ........................................................ 71
Figure 52. Photo. Sculpted shotcrete used to stabilize a tunnel portal (the area directly below the
dry-stack wall is the sculpted shotcrete). ...................................................................................... 72
Figure 53. Photo. Application of the first layer of structural shotcrete........................................ 74
Figure 54. Photo. Installation of the first layer of structural shotcrete. ........................................ 75
Figure 55. Photo. Application of the final sculpted shotcrete faade. ......................................... 75
Figure 56. Photo. Completed structural shotcrete support, ready for staining. ............................. 76
Figure 57. Illustration. Effective rockfall protection design requires an accurate slope profile,
which identifies source areas, launch points, and runout zones (Brawner 1994). ........................ 81
vii
Figure 58. Photo. A rockfall-prone slope draped with unsecured wire mesh. Wolf Creek Pass,
Colorado. ....................................................................................................................................... 83
Figure 59. Photo. Erosion can lead to failure in a drapery system if the mesh is not secured
sufficiently beyond the area of slope degradation at the top of the slope. .................................... 84
Figure 60. Photo. Rock slope treated with colored draped rockfall mesh. ................................... 86
Figure 61. Photo. A drapery system that was not visually mitigated............................................ 86
Figure 62. Photo. An anchored Tecco mesh system secured by a grid of rock bolts, US 299 in
Northern California. ...................................................................................................................... 88
Figure 63. Photo. A detail of the anchors used to secure the mesh system shown above. ........... 88
Figure 64. Photo. Installation of a flexible rockfall barrier on Guanella Pass, Colorado. ............ 89
Figure 65. Photo. A conventional earthen berm can protect a highway from rockfall with low
bounce height and low rotational energy. ..................................................................................... 90
Figure 67. Photo. Concrete barriers used as a rockfall protection measure. Notice the damage
caused by a large rock impact. ...................................................................................................... 92
Figure 68. Photo. Example of a ring-net flexible barrier. ............................................................. 93
Figure 69. Illustration. Design of a typical rockfall fence (modified from Transportation Research
Board 1996)................................................................................................................................... 94
Figure 70. Photo. An attenuator combines a standard fence with a draping system. Georgetown,
Colorado. ....................................................................................................................................... 95
Figure 71. Illustration. Cross-section of a typical Oregon ditch design (modified from Pierson,
Gullixson, and Chassie 2002). ...................................................................................................... 97
Figure 72. Photo. A hybrid ditch design. ...................................................................................... 98
viii
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1. Description, advantages, and limitations of common excavation practices. .................. 14
Table 2. Explosives commonly used in transportation projects. .................................................. 24
Table 3. Comparison of vertical drilling rigs (modified from Konya and Walter 2003).............. 30
Table 4. Parameters for drilling in a presplit blasting operation (modified from U.S. Department
of the Interior 2001). ..................................................................................................................... 31
Table 5. Parameters for drilling in a smooth blasting operation (modified from U.S. Department
of the Interior 2001). ..................................................................................................................... 33
Table 6. Parameters for drilling in a cushion blasting operation (modified from U.S. Department
of the Interior 2001). ..................................................................................................................... 34
Table 7. Overview of rock slope/landscape integration techniques. ............................................ 42
Table 8. Overview of stabilization procedures and their limitations. ........................................... 56
Table 9. Properties of different rock-bonding products (Arndt, DeMarco, and Andrew 2008). .. 68
Table 10. An overview of rockfall protection measures and their limitations.............................. 80
Table 11. Recommended mesh material usage as a function of block size and slope angle
(modified from Muhunthan et al. 2005). ...................................................................................... 84
Table 12. Properties of different rockfall and slope stability mitigation measures. ................... 101
Table 13. Maintenance procedures for mitigation measures. ..................................................... 102
ix
LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS

~
AASHTO
ASTM
AWG
BS
CALTRANS
CDOT
CFLHD
CSS
DOT
EFLHD
FHWA
FLH
FLHD
FS
ft
ft2
ft-tons
in
kJ
kPa
m
m2
MPa
MSE
PTI
PVC
U.S.
WFLHD
Approximately equal to
American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials
American Society for Testing and Materials/ASTM International
American Wire Gage
British Standard
California Department of Transportation
Colorado Department of Transportation
Context Sensitive Solutions
Department of Transportation
Eastern Federal Lands Highway Division
Federal Highway Administration
Federal Lands Highway
Federal Lands Highway Division
Factor of Safety
Foot (feet)
Square foot (feet)
Foot-Tons
Inch(es)
KiloJoules
Kilopascal
Meter(s)
Square meter(s)
Megapascal
Mechanically Stabilized Earth
Post-Tensioning Institute
Polyvinyl Chloride
United States
Western Federal Lands Highway Division
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We are grateful for the contributions and cooperation of the Central Federal Lands Highway
Division (CFLHD) advisory panel (Khamis Haramy, Mathew DeMarco, Roger Surdahl, Khalid
Mohamed, Rich Barrows, Scott Anderson, Barry Siel, Matt Greer, and Ty Ortiz). Specifically,
Khamis Haramys efforts and contributions in the role of CFLHDs Contracting Officers
Technical Representative (COTR) are greatly appreciated. Finally, we extend our thanks to
Martha Connors who performed the detailed editing of this document.
xi
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
To meet a Vital Few Goal on Environmental Stewardship and Streamlining, the Federal
Highway Administration (FHWA) has implemented context sensitive solutions (CSS), a set of
principles designed to improve the quality and lessen the environmental impact of transportation
projects. In CSS, the word context refers to a projects surroundingsits natural environment
as well as its historical setting and role in the community (i.e., its use as a public space or
thoroughfare). Thus, under the rules of CSS, every project will be planned, designed, and
constructed with each of these considerations in mind. In support of this program, the FHWA
promotes the development of principles and processes that can be used in all states and within
federal lands to improve the quality of transportation decision-making. This includes
opportunities to enhance environmental protection and encourage partnerships that promote
ecosystem conservation or encourage broader mitigation strategies.
One way to achieve this objective is to incorporate CSS principles in designing rock slopes for
transportation facilitiesin other words, to design facilities that fit within the project setting and
preserve scenic, aesthetic, historic, and environmental resources while maintaining safety and
mobility. Many federal agencies served by the Federal Lands Highway Division (FLHD)
manage roadways in complex geologic settings, often in steep mountainous terrain, with
numerous environmentally sensitive features. Projects constructed in these regions often require
rock excavation, slope stabilization, and rockfall mitigation to achieve the desired roadway
template and provide a safe public facility.
Rock excavation through mountainous terrain for the construction of travel corridors has been in
continuous development for many years. Many of the existing excavation methods use blasting
techniques that were originally developed for use by the mining industry and were mainly
focused on maximum rock excavation and rapid production with little attention to environmental
protection or the aesthetic impacts of the final cut. State DOTs often struggle in designing a safe
rock slope that does not appear overly engineered and seems to fit within the project setting.
Over the past several years, rock slope design technologies have been developed for
transportation application, but there is no comprehensive document that compares existing and
developing technologies or offers selection and implementation guidelines related to context
sensitive areas. This document will discuss existing and developing technologies for contact
sensitive designs and provide a reference for the selection, evaluation, design, and construction
of rock slopes.
Moreover, there is very little published information focusing specifically on the aesthetic
concerns of rock slope construction, slope stabilization, and rockfall protection measures. Many
of the techniques reviewed in this document are derived from personal experiences,
conversations with state DOT construction design personnel, and case histories. Beginning in
the early 1990s, engineers Kerry Cook and Craig Dewey have been applying these techniques to
several FLHD projects. Examples of some of these projects were presented in the FHWA
Special Roadway Aesthetic Treatments Photo Album Workbook. The workbook is intended as a
living document where examples of innovative aesthetic treatments that have been applied
1
nationwide on U.S. transportation projects are highlighted. Robert Cummings published one of
the first papers that specifically addressed blasting and rock slope alterations that address both
safety and aesthetics (Cummings 2002). Cummings paper discusses aesthetically appealing
rock slope design for new construction of travel corridors, but does not consider slope
stabilization, rockfall protection, or slope maintenance issues. This paper addresses the most
common stabilization, protection, and maintenance techniques used in areas that experience high
rockfall hazards, as well as the aesthetic impacts of each.
This paper also addresses the costs associated with various CSS practices. For example,
although engineers have developed new mitigation techniques that can control small or discrete
rockfall events, we know that large or frequent failures cannot be easily or economically
mitigated. The designer must always assess mitigation construction costs versus the impacts and
losses caused by rockfall and design the roadway layout and/or mitigation alternatives
accordingly.
The objective of this report is to provide design, construction, and maintenance solutions for rock
slope excavation, stabilization, and mitigation in context sensitive regions. It addresses state-ofthe-art and state-of-practice technologies for the evaluation, design, and construction of context
sensitive rock slopes. Key features of the report include the following:
Advantages and limitations of existing and developing technologies and their

acceptability for use on context sensitive projects.
Relative cost comparisons of design, construction, and maintenance options.
Design methods and examples for each application.
CHAPTER 2 CONTEXT SENSITIVE CONSIDERATIONS FOR ROCK SLOPES

UNDERSTANDING CONTEXT
To design and construct natural-looking rock slopes, the designer/engineer and contractor must
first consider the following questions (Maher et al. 2005):
How will the proposed transportation improvement affect the general physical character of
the area surrounding the project?
Does the area to be affected have unique historic or scenic characteristics?
What are the safety, capacity, and cost concerns of the community?
Answering the above questions will help the engineer/designer address the basic issues of CSS in
the early stages of roadway layout or mitigation method.
The critical first step of CSS is assessing the surrounding areathe context of the projectand
then designing the rock slope to follow the areas natural characteristics. Rock slope context can
include such factors as weathering patterns, fracture planes, vegetation, rock/slope color, and
roadway layout. For example, the context of Zion National Park in southern Utah features steepwalled, light- to reddish-brown canyons with sparse vegetation and numerous rock outcroppings.
Thus, an engineer following CSS would design cut slopes that were steeply sloped, colored to
match the natural staining, and re-vegetated with a native seed mix. In contrast, the context in
Washingtons Olympic National Park and other areas of the Pacific Northwest includes heavily
vegetated, moderately sloping landscape. Cut slopes designed to follow CSS principles in this
area would be laid back, with rounded transitions between the cut area and the natural slope; the
designer might also use revegetation and rock coloring to help blend the cut face into the natural
terrain.
THE DESIGN PROCESS
The design process can be broken into five distinct steps: assessing slope stability, selecting the
most appropriate excavation technique(s), designing safe and aesthetically pleasing rock cuts,
determining visual prioritization, and developing any necessary stabilization and/or rockfall
protection methods. Designers must also establish consensus among stakeholders throughout the
design process.
Slope Stability Analysis
Engineers analyze slope stability for rock (or predominantly rock) slopes by using the scan-line
survey and stereographic analysis technique, often referred to as a kinematic analysis. A scanline survey evaluates the dip, orientation, spacing, and surface condition of the discontinuities in
a section of rock. A kinematic analysis considers the potential for movement in a slopeany
motion thats geometrically possibleand determines the possibility that a rock mass might
move or slide.
If a proposed slope angle presents a kinematically possible mode of failure, it should be analyzed
using a stability analysis method (i.e., limit equilibrium analysis), which compares the forces that
will be resisting failure to those that could be causing it. The ratio between these two sets of
forces is the slope factor of safety, or FS.
Geologic Features and Their Effects on Slope Character and Stability
Geology is the main consideration in determining the best excavation technique(s), slope design,
stabilization, and protection measures for a rock slope. For engineers and other rock slope
designers, some of the key components of a slopes geology are its orientation and angle and the
type and structure of rock it comprises.
Slope Orientation and Angle:
To determine the inclination and orientation, or attitude, of a slope or any other type of plane,
geologists typically measure two angles: strike and dip. The strike is defined as the line of
intersection between the slope and the horizontal plane. Identifying the strike tells the engineer
the precise direction that the slope is facing. Strike is measured in degrees and bearing (compass
direction) relative to north; for example, a slope with a strike of N45E is oriented45 east of
due north. The dip is the maximum angle, measured from a horizontal plane, of the surface that
is perpendicular to the strike. An apparent dip is any other dip in the slope thats not
perpendicular to the strike line (and therefore not as steep).
Discontinuity orientation is most conveniently expressed as dip and dip direction for rock slope
engineering purposes. The dip direction is the direction of the horizontal trace of the strike line
measured clockwise from north. The orientation of the plane can be completely defined by five
digits. Dip is expressed in 2 digits and dip direction in 3 digits. By always writing dip direction
as three digits, there can be no confusion as to which set of figures refers to dip direction. For
example, a discontinuity with a dip of 55 degrees and an azimuth orientation of 90 degrees
would be expressed as 55/090. A discontinuity with a dip of 5 degrees and an azimuth
orientation of 310 degrees would be expressed as 05/310. This is illustrated in Figure 1.
4
1
3
2
1 = strike
2 = dip direction
3 = apparent dip
4 = dip
Figure 1. Illustration. Rock discontinuity orientation parameters.
Rock Type and Structure:

Slope stability also depends heavily on the type and condition of the rock and soil that comprise
the slope. In slopes consisting primarily (or entirely) of rock, the biggest concern is the geologic
structure of the rock: its discontinuitiesbedding surfaces, joints, foliation, faults, and other
natural defectsand the location and orientation of those discontinuities. Its the geometric
interrelationship of the rock mass and its discontinuities that determines, to a large part, the
stability of a slope.
In all but the rare case of a completely unfractured rock unit, the rock mass can be considered a
three-dimensional assemblage of rock blocks delineated by sets of discontinuities. These
discontinuities can occur as unique, randomly oriented features or repeating members of a
discontinuity set. This system is sometimes referred to as the structural fabric or characteristic of
the rock mass. In most cases, engineering properties of the fractured rock massstrength,
permeability, and deformabilitydepend more on the discontinuities than on the properties of
the intact rock.
For example, geologic structure can influence many short-range aesthetic features, such as slope
texture and roughness, as rock with multiple fractures (less than 1/3 to 1 meter or 1 to 3 feet
apart) is likely to show blasting/machine scars and other unacceptable levels of surface damage.
For extremely weak rock, engineers use classic soil mechanics principles for defining the FS of
the rock mass. Methods that use soil mechanics principles are limit equilibrium approaches such
as the method of slices (e.g., Bishop Method, Spencer-Wright Method, and Morgenstern-Price
Method). There are several different computer programs for analyzing slope stability,
excavation design, and geotechnical applications.
Methods of Excavation
CSS principles require engineers to determine the best excavation technique(s) for the project,
considering the type of rock to be removed, the end use of the material, and the cost and context
of the roadway. Different rock types require different types of excavation. In many cases, the
excavation method will influence the dimensions and stability of the final slope and the rockfall
mitigation strategy. Different types of excavation will also produce varying levels of superficial
damage, such as drill-hole traces and machine scars. Thus, excavation method(s) must be agreed
to by all project stakeholders. These excavation methods are addressed in Chapter 3.
Safe and Natural-Looking Rock Cuts
To ensure safety, the angle (or angles) of the rock cut should be developed in accordance with
the results of a kinematic analysis. All relevant modes of failure that may occur with an
improperly cut slope angle must be considered. If a slope is cut at an angle that allows for one or
more of the possible modes of failure, it may require expensive mitigation and maintenance for
many years after the initial construction. Designing a slope in a manner that takes into account
all relevant failure modes will reduce the stabilization and/or protective measures required,
which will minimize costs, and, if context is properly considered, will improve the aesthetics of
the slope.
Designing a natural-looking rock cut can be challenging if the designer is not familiar with
current design practices and proper techniques for stabilization and protection. Construction
drawings and specifications should include examples of the proposed layout of the rock cut in
the form of pictures, sketches, and acceptable/unacceptable cut slope configurations and
excavation techniques. Flexibility is essential in context sensitive design because the
heterogeneity of geological formations and the changing topography along the length of a rock
cut often require on-site design decisions. Communication between the contractor and the
contracting agency, before and during construction, is paramount in creating rock cuts that are
safe and aesthetically acceptable to all stakeholders.
Visual Prioritization
Visual prioritization is the process of determining which aesthetic enhancements will truly
enhance the visible aspects of the roadway and those that will result in needless expense. In
many cases, visual prioritization is performed by a landscape specialist working as part of a
multidisciplinary highway design team and in close coordination with the land management
agency. Visual impacts should be considered according to their location as well as the duration
and distance of motorist and non-motorist view (i.e., how long a person will see the feature and
from how far away). In general, the most significant visual impacts to the highway user are
those that will be apparent for longer than approximately 10 seconds when driving at the posted
speed limit.
When prioritizing visual impacts, the designer must consider both the short- and long-range
viewsheds (Cummings 2002).
Short-Range Viewshed
The short-range viewshed includes slope features that are visible within short distances, normally
in the motorists final approach or while they are passing the slope. Short-range features include
slope texture, roughness, revegetation, stabilization methods, blasting/machine scars, and certain
rockfall protection structures (e.g., rockfall draperies). While these features all contribute to the
overall aesthetics of the slope, they typically require careful evaluation against duration of
motorist view to avoid needless expense. The posted speed along a roadway and the location of
the slope with respect to the roadway are main factors when evaluating the duration of view.
Motorists are less likely to notice intricate slope texture or rock bolts while traveling at high
speeds past a slope. Short-range features located on the inside of a curve, near the slope crest,
parallel to the roadway, or on the slope-end opposite of traffic direction are less likely to be
noticed than features located on the outside of curves, at eye level, on the slope-end facing traffic
direction, or in straight roadway sections that offer extended view times.
Long-Range Viewshed
The long-range viewshed includes features that are visible to motorists at some distance from the
slope, even while traveling at high speeds. Long-range features include slope variations, cut
slope angles, and rockfall protection structures such as rockfall barriers and fences. Probably the
most effective method of increasing rock cut aesthetics is fitting long-range features into the
landscape by mimicking natural landform processes and by creating proper transitions between
cut slopes and the natural terrain. Areas with long monotonous cuts, slopes with an extended
view, highly variable topography, and geologically significant areas are good candidates for
long-range features.
Stabilization, Protection, and Avoidance Measures
If a slope cannot be stabilized by proper slope angle selection, slope stabilization measures
normally provide the most cost-effective and aesthetically pleasing means of rockfall mitigation.
Stabilization measures work to reduce or inhibit rockfall by either removing the unstable
section(s) of rock or providing internal or external support to the rock mass (either increasing the
resisting forces in the rock mass or decreasing the driving forces).
Engineers must review potentially unstable slopes or areas of rockfall and consider all applicable
stabilization methods in terms of cost, feasibility, stability improvement, and aesthetic impacts,
then perform limit equilibrium stability analyses with the proposed stabilization measures until
the slope is at the AASHTO-recommended factor of safety (FS).
In areas of high rockfall risk or where stabilization is not feasible, engineers must evaluate the
effects of rockfall protection methods on potential impact energies, bounce height of rockfall,
maintenance requirements, cost, and aesthetics. The use of rockfall protection methods accepts
the reality that rockfall will occur and strives to protect structures by stopping, diverting, or
controlling it.
Protection structures are normally placed at the toe of the slope and act to either stop the rockfall
or deflect it from the roadway. A common feature of all protective structures is their energyabsorbing characteristics. Properly designed protective structures are able to absorb repeated
high-energy rockfall impacts.
Avoidance measures may be a valid option if the cost of stabilization, protection, and
maintenance is greater than the avoidance cost. Avoidance should always be considered in very
hazardous areas, although it can be an expensive option. Avoidance options include elevating
the roadway, tunneling, or relocating the roadway. An in-depth discussion of avoidance
structures and design parameters is outside the scope of this report.
Building Consensus among Stakeholders
Effective CSS designs also require consideration of stakeholder concerns, particularly those
involving safety and cost. One of the challenges in any type of rock slope designparticularly a
natural-looking rock slopeis developing a cut slope that meets long-term stability objectives.
7
For example, rock slopes that are cut near vertical typically look more natural, but they are less
stable than cuts that are laid back at a specific slope ratio that is not as steep as the surrounding
terrain. Thus, its imperative that the designer/engineer establish an understanding with the
stakeholders that addresses all of the aesthetic, safety, and cost considerations of the
improvements. A successful context sensitive project involves gathering all stakeholders early in
the scoping and design process to prevent confusion, disagreements, and delays that may develop
later.
Preparing a Bid
Once established, the desired slope parameters should be included in the bid document as a set of
measurable guidelines that will provide acceptable aesthetics and safety while allowing the
contractor flexibility in construction. Designers should avoid detailed design specifications to
allow the contractor some freedom during construction, as slope layout is highly dependent on
local geologic features.
Project bid documents should include the following (modified from Cummings 2002):
x
A standard of performance that is defined through measurable physical characteristics.

These characteristics can be in the form of acceptable vs. unacceptable excavation
techniques, which will produce a certain level of slope roughness, texture, and drill hole
traces/machine scars as shown in Figure 2.
Photos, cross sections, and plan views reflecting the anticipated cut slope configuration
and sculpting, see Figures 3 through 5, plus description or illustrations of the intended
aesthetic enhancements, such as revegetation and rock staining.
A list of acceptable/unacceptable stabilization and protective mitigation methods.
In addition, the contractor must agree to the level of aesthetic attainment described in the bid
documents, and the contracting agency must commit to inspecting, measuring, and enforcing the
aesthetic criteria as strictly as it does any other elements of a construction or mitigation project.
Avoid oversized,
massive benching of cuts
Avoid shear rock faces

and exposed half-casts
Figure 2. Illustration. Details of typical slope cuts to be avoided.
(a)
(b)
Figure 3. Illustration. Perspective view of the desired slope configuration and key design elements for
different geographic settings. (a) Alpine environment with slope rounding and talus deposits (b) Arid/desert
environment with blocky slope transitions and sparse vegetation.
10
PLAN VIEW
SECTION VIEW
Overburden
Areas of rounding
Rock ledge
Proposed rock cut
Proposed rock cut
Note: Round overburden on top of cut following contours into draws and onto ridges
Figure 4. Illustration. Example of typical details for a sculpted rock cut.
Existing base
rock face
Proposed
rock cut
Existing vegetation
Existing contours
Proposed talus
side slope
New base of
rock face
Figure 5. Illustration. Slope variation details used to enhance aesthetics.
11
CHAPTER 3 ROCK EXCAVATION METHODS

This section reviews standard excavation practices used to construct and modify rock slopes and
provides current design and construction guidelines for their use in context sensitive areas.
Several of these practices have been used for many years, while others are new techniques or
recent modifications of established methods. The most common are blasting (which includes
drilling the holes to be filled with explosives), ripping, and breaking. Table 1 provides a brief
description of these procedures, along with the advantages and limitations of each. Each
procedure is discussed in detail below.
BLASTING
Blastingthe controlled use of explosives to excavate rockhas been part of construction
engineering for hundreds of years.
In any blasting situation, the geologic structure of the rock mass will be the most important
consideration. Other considerations include the degree of scarring that would be acceptable
(some areas can tolerate more blasting scars than others), cost, and safety (blasting cannot be
performed in close proximity to populated areas).
Effect of Geologic Structure on Blasting Procedure
The first consideration when designing a blasting operation should be the local geologic
conditions. Rock competency and fracture patterns can have a significant impact on the success
of a blasting operation.
Discontinuity Sets
When discussing blasting, the single most important geologic factor is fracture: the spacing and
orientation of any breaks, or discontinuity sets, in the rock. In particular, the orientation of the
discontinuity sets with respect to the cut slope angle will influence any slope failures that may
occur along the slope face. The modes of failure can be grouped into four primary mechanisms,
shown left to right in Figure 6.
x
x
x
x
(a)
planar failure (a),

wedge failure (b),
circular failure (c), and
toppling failure (d).
(b)
(c)
(d)
(d)
Figure 6. Illustration. The four primary mechanisms of slope failure.
13
Table 1. Description, advantages, and limitations of common excavation practices.
PROCEDURE
DESCRIPTION
ADVANTAGES
LIMITATIONS
Presplit
Blasting
Presplit holes are blasted before

production blasts. Procedure
uses small diameter holes at
close spacing and lightly loaded
with distributed charges.
Protects the final cut by

producing a fracture plane along
the final slope face that fractures
from production blasts cannot
pass. Can produce steeper cuts
with less maintenance issues.
Performs well in hard competent
rock.
The small diameter borings limit

the blasting depth to 15 m (50
ft). Borehole traces are present
for entire length of boring. Does
not perform well in highly
fractured, weak rock.
Smooth
Blasting
Smooth blast holes are blasted

after production blasts.
Procedure uses small diameter
holes at close spacing and lightly
loaded with distributed charges.
Produces a cosmetically
appealing, stable perimeter. Can
be done on slopes years after
initial construction. Drill hole
traces are less apparent than
presplitting. Performs best is
hard, competent rock.
The small boring diameter limits

blasting depth to 15 m (50 ft).
Borehole traces are present for
much of the boring length. Does
not protect the slope from
damage caused by production
blasting. Does not perform well
in highly fractured, weak rock.
Cushion
Blasting
Cushion blasting is done after

production blasts. Larger drill
holes are used with small
diameter, lightly loaded
distributed loads. Space around
the explosive is filled with
crushed rock to cushion the
explosive force.
Reduces the amount of radial

fracturing around the borehole
and also reduces borehole traces.
The large diameter holes allow
blasting depths up to 30 m (100
ft). Produces a ragged final
slope face. Performs well in all
rock types.
Radial fractures are more

abundant than presplit and
smooth blasting. Slope face is
more prone to raveling. A
catchment area is recommended
at slope base. More demanding
on the driller. Borehole traces
still apparent in hard, competent
rock.
Step Drilling
Larger diameter drill holes,

drilled vertically and used as
production blasting (although
spaced closer and loaded lighter
to minimize radial fractures).
Slope face is formed along base
of blast holes.
If properly designed the final

slope face shows minimal signs
of blasting. Can be used when
sloped controlled blasting
cannot. Best used in moderately
to highly fractured rock.
Can produce extensive damage

to slope or inadequate base
fracturing if not designed
properly. Should only be used
with experienced driller and
blasting engineer. Only
applicable for slopes between
0.7:1 and 1:1 (H:V). Does not
perform well in hard competent
rock.
Horizontal
Drilling
Larger diameter, closely spaced,

lightly loaded horizontal borings
are used for production style
blasting. Used in massive rock
to eliminate drill holes or in
areas of poor access.
Eliminates bore hole traces when

drilled perpendicular to the slope
face. Good in massive rock
where traces are not acceptable.
Demanding on the driller and

explosives engineer. Can
produce extensive radial
fractures or inadequate base
fracturing if not loaded properly.
Requires complicated loading
and timing procedures, and
special stemming procedures.
Ripping
Uses a tractor with an attached

tooth or teeth that is lowered into
the rock and dragged to break up
material for excavation.
Much cheaper and safer than

blasting. Can be done in close
proximity to development
without disturbance. Is effective
on a variety of angled cuts and
an excavator can be used after
ripping to slope sculpting.
The tooth of the ripper can leave

scars on the rock surface. The
tractor cannot be used on steep
slopes because of risk of
overturning. Ripping is limited
to relatively low density rocks.
14
In order to avoid long-term slope instability and increased maintenance costs, designers should
measure and evaluate prominent discontinuities on the rock face using a scan line survey and
computer-based kinematic analysis, also known as a equal area net (or stereonet) analysis.
Regardless of the number of joints in a slope, one set will usually be the dominant (or weakest)
and therefore will dictate the rock slope design. Generally speaking, the direction of this
dominant joint will have the greatest influence on blasting results and potential failure modes.
For example, if this joint set is parallel to the final slope face as illustrated in Figure 7, the
borehole can prematurely link to the joint, which will create coarse or blocky burden
fragmentation and severe end break (breakage at the end of the row of blastholes). In this case,
increasing the borehole spacing will reduce fragmentation size (if the end result of the blast will
be rip-rap, the explosive load can also be reduced).
Free face
Blocky
Blocky
Endbreak
End break
Good Wall
Final rock face
Figure 7. Illustration. Excessive end break caused by blasting parallel to jointing (modified from Konya and
Walter 2003).
However, there can be problems blasting perpendicular to the final slope face, as well illustrated
in Figure 8. While end break is not typically a problem in this case, backbreak (or overbreak)
fractures that extend from the blastholes back into the final slope facecan be significant
(backbreak can cause slope instability and possible raveling of large blocks during excavation
and thereafter). In addition, creating blastholes in an area with a significant number of joints can
create blocky breakage. Reducing the spacing between blastholes can prevent this, but it might
make backbreak worse. In this case, using smaller blastholes with a better distribution of powder
may be the best solution (Konya and Walter 2003).
Blocky
Blocky
oint
Joint
No N
end break
Endb
Backbreak on final face
Figure 8. Illustration. Excessive backbreak caused by blasting perpendicular to jointing (modified from
Konya and Walter 2003).
15
When blasting perpendicular to the final slope face, discontinuities occurring at sharp angles
from the excavation plane tend to have the biggest effect. For example, discontinuities between
30 and 80 dont have much impact, but discontinuities from 20 to 25 can create some
backbreak. Discontinuity angles less than 15 can allow the blast energy to travel into the
discontinuity plane, which can cause it to form the final slope face as shown in Figure 9.
However, if these discontinuity planes are favorably orientated with respect to the road
(orientations that parallel the road alignment or road bed), they can be used for the final face of
the cut slope, resulting in a more natural-looking rock cut. The use of favorable joint orientation
and/or bedding planes for controlling the blast is the most common and accepted method for
developing rock slopes that fit within the geologic context of the surrounding area.
Drill Hole
Induced Fracture
Natural Fracture
Final Face
Figure 9. Illustration. The effect of joint orientation on the quality of the final wall face (modified from
Matheson 1986).
16
Slope Dip
A slopes dipits fall, illustrated as an imaginary line running down the steepest part of the
slopeis another important factor to be considered in blasting. Blasting with the dip carries a
greater risk of backbreak than blasting against the dip because the discontinuities (joints,
bedding, etc.) channel the energy along the planes. However, this type of blasting allows
engineers to use smaller explosive charges (or blast larger burdens) because the blasted rock
moves more readily down the slope than it would if the blast were oriented against the dip.
Blasting with the dip also creates a better-looking slope toe.
On the other hand, blasting against the dip typically creates less backbreak but can create more
overhangs. It also can leave more material at the slope toe, resulting in a rough surface. Blasting
against the dip also removes a smaller burden, meaning it will require more explosives.
Figure 10 illustrates the effect of dip on blasting. In this cut, blasting on the left side was
performed against the dip, while blasting on the right side was done with the dip.
Overbreak
Joints
Toe
Figure 10. Illustration. Example of an excavation that blasts against the dip on the left side and with the dip
on the right side (modified from Konya and Walter 2003).
Slope Strike
The strike of a slopethe direction the crest of the slope travels (i.e., the "across slope"
direction), also plays a role in blasting design. Blasting parallel to strike in bedded rock can
produce unpredictable results. The blast pattern intersects many different rock layers, and each
layer will respond differently, as fragmented block size, toe conditions, and degree of backbreak
all may vary slightly among them as shown in Figure 11.
Mud and Soft Seams
In addition to strike and dip, the presence of mud or soft seams in a slope also requires special
consideration in the blast design. They can occur in any rock type, and are often unseen. Clay
seams often respond like a liquid in that during initiation of a blast they provide an almost
instantaneous attenuation of explosive energy. Therefore, it is essential to stem across soft seams
to obtain good blasting results.
17
Figure 11. Illustration. Example of a blasting pattern that runs parallel to strike (modified from Konya and
Walter 2003).
Blasting Methods
Blasting is used for rock excavation on both small- and large-scale projects. There are two
general types: production blasting and controlled blasting.
Production Blasting
Production blasting uses large explosive charges, widely spaced, that are designed to fragment a
large amount of burden (the rock that lies between the existing slope face and the blasthole).
Production blasting is the most efficient way to remove large rock burdens, but it typically
creates radial fractures around the blasthole and backbreak (fractures that extend into the final
slope face), which reduce the strength of the remaining rock mass and increase its susceptibility
to slope raveling and rockfall.
Controlled Blasting
Controlled blasting is used for removing material along the final slope face. In some cases, its
also used before production blasting to create an artificial fracture along the final cut slope,
which will prevent the radial cracks caused by production blasting from penetrating back into the
finished face.
18
Controlled blasting can also be used alone, without production blasting. Controlled blasting
creates less backbreak than production blasting because it removes less burden and uses more
tightly spaced drill holes with lighter charges.
There are several types of controlled blasting; they vary most importantly in the amount of
burden they remove and the type of powder they use. The discussion below will focus on
controlled blasting techniques that best minimize the visual impacts of the blasting process, thus
meeting the objectives of CSS design. These techniques are presplit blasting, smooth blasting,
and cushion blasting.
Presplit Blasting:
Presplit blasting, or presplitting, is used before production blasting to protect the final rock face
from damage caused by the production blasting. Presplitting creates a fracture plane along the
final slope face, which prevents the radial cracks created by production blasting from penetrating
into the finished face; without presplitting, production blasting damage can extend up to 15 m
(50 ft) into the final slope face. Presplitting also allows for steeper and more stable cuts than any
other blasting procedure. In massively bedded, competent rock, a properly charged presplit blast
will contain drill hole half cast (the hole trace is split in half, axially) for almost the entire length
of the blast line and will have no backbreak because the energy from the blast will travel
uniformly, thus creating a continuous fracture between holes.
However, presplitting creates abundant visible drill traces, which makes it unsuitable in some
areas (such as national parks). In some cases, these half casts can be chipped away with a
pneumatic hammer, but its very difficult to eliminate them without completely removing the
outer layer of rock. In areas where such scars are not acceptable, presplit blasting will not be a
suitable option. Figure 12 shows an example of a cut slope that used presplit basting methods
which left visible half casts in the slope face.
Presplit blasting requires relatively small drill holes, between 5 to 10 cm (2 to 4 in) in diameter
because its goal is to create discrete fractures, not massive breaking. However, because the small
hole diameters allow the drill bit to deviate from the anticipated line more readily than larger
drill diameters; the maximum depth of presplitting is usually about 15 m (50 ft). For this reason
presplitting is used only for relatively small blasting operations.
Because of these limitations, presplitting is most often used on slopes steeper than 1H:1V (45),
which helps the drillers to maintain adequate hole alignment at depth. Presplitting performs best
in competent, hard to extremely hard rock; it is the best method for minimizing backbreak, as the
induced fracture plane prevents the shockwave from the main blast from being effectively
propagated behind the final face of the rock mass. Presplitting is most difficult in highly
fractured, weathered, and/or soft rock, where it requires the use of closely spaced drill holes
and/or uncharged guide holes (see below).
19
Figure 12. Photo. Example of a presplit slope in massive sandstone. Note the abundant drill hole traces (half
casts).
Smooth Blasting:
Smooth blasting, also called contour blasting or perimeter blasting, can be used before
production blasting as an alternative to presplitting. Its also used after production blasting,
either as an entirely different event or as the last delay of the production blast. Smooth blasting
uses drill holes with roughly the same diameter and depth as those used in presplitting, spaced
slightly further apart and loaded with a slightly larger charge density. If the burden is adequately
reduced, smooth blasting produces a more ragged slope face with minimal backbreak.
Smooth-blasted slopes may require more maintenance than presplit slopes due to increased radial
fractures from the controlled blasting and overall fracturing from production blasting. Although
smooth blasting creates abundant drill hole traces, theyre generally less noticeable than the half
casts left by presplitting. If drill hole traces are not acceptable, smooth blasting may be suitable
only if the cut slope height is small and the drill traces can be easily removed with a pneumatic
hammer or other device (see below).
20
Smooth blasting is best preformed in hard, competent rock, although it can be used in soft or
highly fractured rock by increasing the spacing of the drill holes and/or adding uncharged guide
holes to the pattern. Smooth slope blasting can be used on a variety of cut slope angles and is
effective in developing contoured slopes with benches or other slope variations.
Cushion Blasting:
Cushion blasting, sometimes referred to as trim blasting, uses a row of lightly loaded buffer
holes filled with crushed stone over the entire depth of the hole, which reduce the impact on the
blasting holes and protect the surrounding rock mass from the shock caused by the blast, thus
minimizing the stress and fractures in the finished slope face as shown in Figure 13.
Figure 13 also illustrates other blast hole drilling techniques (breaker, production, and looker
drill holes), which can be used in conjunction with cushion blasting to fragment and mobilize the
rock mass in the production zone. The application of these drilling methods is contingent on the
structural characteristics of the rock, the existing and final slope geometry, and access via
pioneering to the production zone.
Pioneer Off
Breaker Hole
Cushion Hole
Production Hole
Buffer Hole
Looker
Bp
Figure 13. Illustration. Cross section of a cushion blasting design using buffer holes to control the burden on
the cushion holes (modified from Cummings 2002).
21
The maximum diameter for cushion holes used in transportation is typically 75 mm (3 in). The
drill steel used to advance these smaller holes tends to drift at depth, meaning the maximum
depth is usually held to 12 m (40 ft). Cushion blasting creates some backbreak, which can make
a slope more prone to raveling. Because cushion blasting can increase the danger of rockfall, the
catchment area may need to be enlarged.
Figure 14 shows a recently constructed slope created using cushion blasting in fractured granitic
rock. Note the wider ditch width in relation to the cut height.
Cushion blasting is more demanding than presplit or smooth blasting for the explosives engineer
because hole spacing, burden, and charge density must be carefully chosen and continually
reassessed in order to minimize backbreak. It also can be more time consuming because more
drilling is required and charges take more time to load.
In poorly lithified, moderately to highly fractured and weathered formations, cushion blasting
produces better results than smooth or presplit slope blasting. However, even cushion blasting
may can leave drill hole traces in massive, homogeneous formations with few fractures.
Figure 14. Photo. Final configuration of a cushion-blasted slope in granitic rock.
22
Explosives
The type of explosive used in any project depends on the hardness and structural characteristics
of the rock and the overall geometry of the cut (burden, depth, and width). There are numerous
types of explosives, and for each type there are several different concentrations and mixtures.
Properties to be considered when selecting an explosive include its sensitivity, density, strength,
water resistance, fumes, price, and availability. Table 2 provides a general overview of
explosives commonly used in the transportation industry.
Dynamite
Dynamite is the best known and most widely used explosive. It is classified according to its
percentage by weight of nitroglycerin (percentages range from 15 to 60%). Strength does not
increase linearly with proportion, however. For example, 60% dynamite is about 1.5 times
stronger than 20% dynamite.
There are several variations in dynamite composition:
Straight dynamite consists of nitroglycerine, sodium nitrate, and a combustible absorbent

(such as wood pulp) wrapped in strong paper to make a cylindrical cartridge.
Gelatin dynamite consists of a nitrocellulose-nitroglycerine gel. It is available in very

high strengths (up to 90% nitroglycerin), making it useful for excavating extremely hard
rock.
Ammonia dynamite has similar composition to straight dynamite, but a portion of the
nitroglycerine content is replaced with ammonium nitrate to create more stable and less
costly dynamite. It has a strength of approximately 85% of straight dynamite.
Ammonium Nitrate and Fuel Oil (ANFO)

This combination of a nitrogen fertilizer and fuel oil has largely replaced dynamite in medium
and large borehole blasting. The explosiveness of ANFO greatly increases with the
concentration of fuel oil (the maximum is 6%). Mixing can be done on-site or in the factory,
although premixed compounds present concerns regarding handling and storage (premixed
ANFO has been known to spontaneously combust when kept in storage for long periods of time).
Straight ammonium nitrate can be shipped and stored the same way as any other blasting agent.
ANFO does not combust well in water, but it can be sealed in bags to prevent water seepage.
Slurry (Water Gel)
Also known as a dense blasting agent (DBS), slurry is a mixture of a sensitizer, an oxidizer,
water, and a thickener. The sensitizer can be any number of reducing chemicals, but is usually
TNT (trinitrotoluene). The oxidizer is ammonium nitrate. The thickener is guar gum or starch.
High-density slurry can remove a greater burden than ANFO, which allows for the use of smaller
diameter boreholes (or wider borehole spacing) to obtain the same explosive power and
fragmentation. However, the higher price of the slurry may offset the cost savings of drilling
fewer holes. Slurries are reasonably insensitive, but temperature and density have large effects
23
Table 2. Explosives commonly used in transportation projects.

TYPE OF
EXPLOSIVE
DYNAMITE
AMMONIUM
NITRATE AND FUEL
OIL (ANFO)
SLURRY (WATER
GEL)
EMULSION
EXPLOSIVES
Medium and large

borehole blasting and
cushion blasting. The
most common generalpurpose explosive in
use today.
Ammonium nitrate (a
nitrogen fertilizer)
mixed with up to 6%
fuel oil.
Often used in place

of dynamite
because of safety
and convenience.
Has begun to
replace dynamite,
particularly in wet
or submerged
conditions.
A sensitizer
(typically TNT), an
oxidizer
(ammonium
nitrate), water, and
a thickener (such as
guar gum or
starch).
An oxidizer
solution (typically
ammonium
nitrate) and oil.
Most Common
Application(S)
Most often used in smaller

boreholes. Gelatin
dynamites are useful for
blasting extremely hard
rock.
Composition
Straight dynamite contains

nitroglycerine, sodium
nitrate, and a combustible
absorbent (e.g., wood
pulp). Ammonia dynamites
contain ammonium nitrate.
Gelatin dynamites contain
nitrocellulose to create the
gelatinous consistency.
Strength
Straight dynamite is the

benchmark for explosive
weight/strength
comparisons. It is generally
available in 15% to 60%
concentrations of
nitroglycerin (gelatin
dynamite contains up to
90% nitroglycerin).
Ammonia and gelatin
dynamites are less volatile
and sensitive to shock and
friction than straight
dynamite.
Similar strength to
straight dynamite.
Stronger than
ANFO, less strong
than gelatin
dynamite.
Similar in strength
to slurry
explosives.
Premixed compounds
can be sensitive. If
not pre-mixed, they
are quite stable and
insensitive.
A lot less sensitive

than dynamite but
more sensitive than
emulsion. More
sensitive at higher
temperatures.
Straight dynamite has good

water resistance. Gelatin
dynamite is nearly
waterproof. Ammonia
dynamite has poor water
resistance.
Straight dynamite has
some toxic fumes.
Ammonia and gelatin
dynamite fumes are less
toxic.
Dynamite is easy to obtain
and relatively inexpensive.
Poor water resistance
Good to excellent
water resistance.
Emulsions are the

least sensitive
type of
explosives.
Cartridges are
fairly resistant to
rupturing during
normal handling.
Excellent water
resistance.
ANFO produces less

toxic fumes than
dynamite but more
than slurry or
emulsion explosives.
The least expensive
and most available
explosive.
Slurries and
emulsions have a
similar fume class.
Slurries and
emulsions have a
similar fume
class.
Widely available.
Less expensive
than dynamite,
more expensive
than ANFO.
Similar in both
cost and
availability to
slurries.
Impact Sensitivity
Water Resistance
Fumes
Price/
Availability
24
on this (i.e., slurries become less sensitive and less fluid as temperature decreases). Sensitivity
can be increased by adding sensitizers to the composition. Slurries load about three times faster
than conventional dynamite, making them more convenient and faster to use.
Emulsion Explosives
Emulsions are a water-in-oil type of explosive consisting of microdroplets of super-saturated
oxidizer solution within an oil matrix. The oxidizer is usually ammonium nitrate. Packaged in a
thin, tough plastic film, emulsion cartridges have a good degree of rigidity and resistance to
rupturing during normal handling but maintain the ability to rupture and spread when tamped.
Drilling Methods
Blast holes are drilled at various orientations, from vertical through horizontal. To create vertical
holes, which are used almost exclusively in production blasting, rock slope excavation uses two
types of drilling: downhole and step drilling. Horizontal drilling is used for both production and
controlled blasting because of limited drill rig access or geometry requirements. Angled drilling
can be performed as determined by slope face angle requirements.
Downhole Drilling
Also known as vertical or production drilling, this technique is used in production blasting using
a conventional rotary tri-cone blast hole rig or a rotary percussion rig if smaller blast holes are
adequate.
Step Drilling
Step drilling is another type of vertical drilling thats also used in production blasting, most often
to produce relatively flat and benched slopes (usually shallower than 1:1 H:V). Its similar to
downhole drilling, but creates holes that gradually increase or decrease in depth to allow for a
stepped slope "break" line shown earlier in Figure 14. (This method is technically not part of a
controlled blasting operation because it relies on backbreak to form the slope face.) If done
properly, step drilling can produce a slope face that shows minimal signs of blastingjust drill
holes entering the slope face, which are noticeable only by someone looking directly at the face.
On projects involving step drilling, drillers have been awarded a pay item for tightening the drill
hole pattern and using lighter, distributed loading to avoid performing excessive blasting charges
along the slope later.
Step drilling is limited to ideal geologic conditions, such as blocky volcanic rock, where
breakage at the bottom of each blasthole is reasonably well controlled, but it can provide good
results with minimal backbreak. It has proven popular with contractors who favor the vertical
drilling setup.
25
In step drilling, the blast holes are loaded with more explosives (about 25% greater charge
density) at the bottom of the hole, which helps to ensure proper fracturing along the base of the
excavation. However, this heavier loading will also increase the amount of radial fracturing and
backbreak along the final slope face and create the need for a widened catchment area. Step
drilling should be used only when the driller and blast designer are experienced in the practice
because of the potential for excessive backbreak and a ragged slope face. In most instances, the
vertical drill holes are extended beyond the final cut line (a practice known as sub-drilling) to
ensure proper fragmentation and achieve a more natural final cut face as illustrated in Figure 15.
Js or J L
H
Js or J L
Js or J L
Jp
Jp
Jp
Jp
Jp
Production Drilling
Jp
Jp
Slope Angle > 0.75:1

(H:V)
Step Drilling
Figure 15. Illustration. Cross section of downhole and step drilling with sub-drilling techniques (modified
from Cummings 2002).
Horizontal Drilling
Horizontal drilling is an effective technique for starting new excavations and for small
excavations with poor access at the top of the slope. There are two basic techniques used for
horizontal drilling. The first uses blastholes drilled perpendicular to the final rock face as shown
in Figure 16, while the second uses holes drilled parallel to the rock face. When drilling
perpendicular to the face, angled holes are typically required to mobilize and fragment the rock
at the toe (these holes are called toe lifters) and the ditch (ditch lifters) to achieve the proper final
slope configuration.
The second method sometimes uses a fan configuration, which can leave a distinctive pattern is
shown in Figure 17.
26

Cut Slope
e
lo p
S
g
tin
xis
Ba
>1.5
H
Ba
Max. Subdrill 3m (9.8ft)

except where ledging
and pocketing
Ditch Lifter
Toe Lifter
Ba
Bp =Top Burden <2Ba

Ba =Apparent Burden <H/1.5
H =Depth of Cut
Figure 16. Illustration. Horizontal drilling design concept (modified from Cummings 2002).
In horizontal drilling, it can be difficult to maintain drill hole orientation, location, and depth.
However, this is critical to avoid excessive fracturing in the final cut slope. In some cases,
special drilling equipment (such as drills suspended from a crane) may be required to access the
upper portions of the rock face. Special loading and timing allowances also may be required,
and the drilling pattern must be adjusted to keep the drill steel from drifting downward.
The loading of explosives is also more complicated in horizontal drilling. It typically requires
either packaged product or pneumatically loaded bulk product and stemming (filling, such as
drilling cuttings, thats used to fill the blast hole above or between charges to stem, or retain
the explosive force within the hole).
27
Figure 17. Photo. Drill hole traces left by horizontal drilling parallel to the rock face (fan drilling).
In addition, horizontal drilling and blasting can produce badly fractured slope faces, as the
production blastholes typically extend all the way to the final rock face. For this reason, a
widened catchment area is recommended for slopes excavated this way.
Figure 18 depicts blast damage to a rock face that was excavated using horizontal blasting
methods. Note the draped wire mesh in the upper portion of the photo, which was installed to
control rockfall that was caused, in part, by blast damage.
28
Figure 18. Photo. Blast damage caused by horizontal drilling perpendicular to the rock face.
Drilling Equipment
Drilling horizontal holes is accomplished using a rig with a boom-mounted drill guide (generally
a track rig) that has the ability to rotate the drill guide into a horizontal position and drill.
Vertical and angled holes are bored using a downhole drilling rig or a track drilling rig as
compared in Table 3.
Downhole Drilling Rig
Drilling with a downhole rig is best suited for vertical or near-vertical boreholes, deep drilling,
and hard rock. Bit diameters range from 75 to 230 mm (3 to 9 in), allowing for precise borings
at significant depths (although downhole drilling is engineered for a maximum depth of about 60
m or 200 ft, greater depths have routinely been achieved). Most of these drills are mounted on
trucks or large tracks and therefore require wider, moderately graded benches to access the site.
Track Drilling Rig (Percussion Drill Head)
Track drills, also known as drifter drills, are the most commonly used drills in civil applications
and can be used to advance vertical, angled or horizontal boreholes up to 12 m (40 ft) in depth.
Bit size ranges between 40 and 150 mm (1.7 and 6.0 in.). The holes are advanced through
percussion, either through a drill at the head or with tooling such as a downhole pneumatic
hammer. They feature a boom that allows for borings along a slope face at a height determined
by the boom length as seen in Figure 19. Track drilling rigs are generally smaller than downhole
rigs and have better maneuverability, and consequently can access more difficult terrain.
29
Table 3. Comparison of vertical drilling rigs (modified from Konya and Walter 2003).
Most Common
Application(s)
Depth and
Penetration
Air Requirements
Noise Impacts
Shanks and
Coupling
Impact and
Vibration
DOWNHOLE DRILLING RIG
PERCUSSION/TRACK DRILLING RIG
Hard rock drilling of relatively deep

holes. Can drill straighter holes and
holes of different sizes with same rig.
Maintains a virtually constant
penetration rate at all depths. Has higher
average drilling speed for deep holes.
Can require less air because drill exhaust
helps clean holes. Can use high-pressure
air to increase drilling speeds.
Comparatively low impact makes
downhole drilling quieter, as exhaust
noise is muffled in the hole.
No shank pieces or coupling required.
Uses standard API rod threads.
Fewer moving parts. Almost all energy
goes into rock instead of into mounting,
meaning less wear on rig.
Rock drilling of relatively shallow holes (vertical,

angled and horizontal).
Higher initial penetration rates, but drilling speed
falls off with each steel added.
Requires air for both hole cleaning and drilling.
High-pressure air can cause drift and shorten steel
life.
Requires drill exhaust muffler to reduce noise.
Impact noise difficult to control.
Shank piece and coupling threads subject to higher
wear rates and more frequent replacement.
Rig must withstand much of the drilling impact
and vibration.
Figure 19. Photo. Common track drill used to advance vertical blastholes.
30
Portable Crane-Mounted or Hand-Held Drills

Drilling on slopes with limited access will require horizontal drilling (see above) and/or the use
of portable crane-mounted or hand-held drills, which can drill both vertical and angled borings.
When drilling blastholes deeper than 5 m (15 ft), the drill will be mounted to a rigid frame or
platform, typically suspended from a crane, to ensure proper alignment. Maximum drilling depth
for portable rigs is around 12 m (40 ft) and bit sizes range from 40 to 100 mm (1.7 to 4 in). For
borings less than 5 m (10 ft) deep, a hand-held sinker drill or jackleg-mounted drill (a drill
supported on a single leg) can be used. However, drilling with a hand-held drill is slow because
its downward pressure is limited by the weight of the drill and the physical strength of the
operator.
Blasting Design
Blasting projects must be designed with several factors in mind, including the type of explosives
used, borehole diameter, and loading levels. Each type of blastingpresplit, smooth, and
cushion blastinghas its own formula.
Presplit Blasting
As discussed above, presplit blasting (or presplitting) is most often done before production
blasting to create a secondary fracture plane that will protect the final slope face from damage in
the main production blast. Table 4 lists recommended borehole diameters, burden, spacing, and
explosive charges for presplit blasting.
Table 4. Parameters for drilling in a presplit blasting operation (modified from U.S. Department of the
Interior 2001).
Hole Diameter
(mm)
38-44
50-64
75-90
100
(in)
1.50-1.75
2.00-2.50
3.00-3.50
4.00
Spacing
(m)
0.3-0.46
0.46-0.6
0.6-1.0
0.6-1.2
(ft)
1.00-1.50
1.50-2.00
1.50-3.00
2.00-4.00
Explosive Charge
(kg/m)
(lb/ft)
0.03-0.1
0.08-0.25
0.03-0.1
0.08-0.25
0.05-0.23
0.13-0.50
0.23-0.34
0.25-0.75
In order to reduce fracturing, presplit blasting holes are drilled with smaller diameters than
production holes. Presplit-hole diameter will also be influenced by many other factors, as well.
For example, large-diameter holes can hold more explosives and can be spaced further apart than
small-diameter holes, but can cause more backbreak if the burden-to-spacing ratios are not
properly designed. Large-diameter holes yield lower drilling and blasting costs because they are
less expensive per unit volume to drill. Large-diameter holes are better suited for relatively
homogeneous, easily fractured rock with few planes of weakness (discontinuities) and for deep
rock cuts. Small-diameter holes use less explosives and require smaller spacing between holes,
which allow for better distribution of explosives, more uniform rock breakage, less backbreak,
and reduced ground vibrations. Although more holes must be drilled, small-diameter holes can
be drilled quickly, resulting in a relatively low unit cost. However, this may be offset by higher
explosives costs, as more explosives are required to fill the extra holes. In addition, drilling
depths on small-diameter holes are limited because the small-diameter drill bits are more likely
to wander at depth than larger bits.
31
Theoretically, the burden for presplit blasting is unlimited. But in reality, variations in geology
that are not visible on the outer face of the slope can limit that burden. Thus, the engineer must
core the interior of the slope to identify the condition of the rock before determining the blasting
design. In any case, a minimum of 10 m (30 ft) of burden is recommended for any presplit
blasting procedure.
Hole spacing in presplit blasting is typically 10 to 12 times the borehole diameter. In very
favorable geologic conditions, spacing can be increased to 14 times the borehole diameter.
Wider spacing is used for hard, competent material with relatively few discontinuities; in very
soft and/or weathered materials, spacing is decreased. In weak and soft formations or where
corners are blasted, unloaded guide holes are recommended to direct the cracking. These guide
holes are drilled between the normally spaced presplit holes (thus, using guide holes prevents the
contractor from spacing the presplit holes any further apart).
Holes used for presplit blasting are lightly loaded and range from 22.5 to 25 mm (7/8 to 1 in) in
diameter. A heavier charge (2 to 3 times the normal load) is used at the bottom of the borehole
to ensure shearing at the floor. A common charge density is approximately 0.45 kg per square
meter (0.1 lbs per square foot) of face area in the main section of the hole and 0.9 to 1.3 kg per
square meter (0.2 to 0.3 lbs per square foot) at the bottom. The loads may have an air annulus
(ring) surrounding them to cushion the explosive blast and reduce the radial cracking around the
borehole. Figure 20 indicates three configurations.
The authors of the DuPont Blasters Handbook (1978) show that slurry or water gel (in the form
of Tovex T-1) can provide excellent presplitting results while permitting increased loading
rates and reduced labor costs. Konya and Walter (2003) recommend ammonium nitrate for all
controlled blasting. For small-scale blasting (such as sliver cuts) in presplitting operations, 50grain detonation cord has proven effective.
32
Detonating
Cord
Continuous Reel
Explosive
Coupler
Slender
Cartridge
Standard
Cartridge
Heavier Toe
Loads
Figure 20. Illustration. Three options using lightly loaded, distributed charges in presplit blasting (modified
from U.S. Department of the Interior 2001).
Smooth Blasting
Smooth blasting is a type of controlled blasting thats done either before production blasting, as
an alternative to presplitting, or afterwards, either as an entirely different event or as the last
delay of the production blast. Table 5 shows recommended borehole diameters, burden, spacing,
and explosive charges for smooth blasting.
Table 5. Parameters for drilling in a smooth blasting operation (modified from U.S. Department of the
Interior 2001).
Hole Diameter
(mm)
(in)
38-44
1.50-1.75
50
2.0
Spacing
(m)
0.6
0.75
Burden
(ft)
2.00
2.50
(m)
1
1.06
(ft)
3.00
3.50
Explosive Charge
(kg/m)
(lb/ft)
0.05-0.55
0.12-0.25
0.05-0.55
0.12-0.25
As with presplit holes, smooth blasting holes are smaller than production holes in order to limit
fracturing around the drill hole. The diameter of the hole is a function of geology, as discussed
above.
33
The burden-to-spacing ratio for smooth blasting is approximately 1.5 to 1. Hole spacing for
smooth blasting is slightly greater than presplit blasting, about 14 to 20 times the hole diameter,
which means that holes are approximately 0.7 to 1.5 m (2.3 to 5 ft) apart. Wider spacing is used
for hard rock and closer spacing is used for weak rock. Unloaded guide holes (drilled between
the normally spaced blastholes) are recommended for weak and soft formations or for blasting
corners.
The charge density, diameter, distribution, and explosive type used in smooth blasting are
essentially the same as with presplit blasting. In smooth blasting, the borehole should be sealed
with a tamping plug, clay plug, or other type of stemming to prevent the charge from being
extruded from the hole by charges on earlier delays. Stemming also prevents excessive rifting
(splitting) of the rock and permits the use of lighter charges because blast energy is better
contained and therefore better distributed.
Cushion Blasting
Cushion blasting, another type of controlled blasting thats typically done after production
blasting, uses a row of lightly loaded buffer holes filled with crushed stone (stemming), which
reduces the impact on the surrounding rock as well as the finished slope face. Cushion blasting
can be used with both vertical and angled holes, and good alignment is essential in both cases.
The cushion holes are drilled along the final slope line and loaded with light, well-distributed
charges and fired after the main production blast.
The required burden is established either by the last row of production boreholes or by a separate
set of buffer holes (these buffer holes determine the burden so that the cushion blast holes
produce enough backbreak to avoid borehole traces).
Table 6 shows the recommended borehole diameters, burden, spacing, and explosive charges for
cushion blasting.
Table 6. Parameters for drilling in a cushion blasting operation (modified from U.S. Department of the
Interior 2001).
Hole Diameter
(mm)
(in)
50-64
2.00-2.50
75-90
3.00-3.50
100-115
4.00-4.50
127-140
5.00-5.50
152-165
6.00-6.50
Spacing
(m)
1.0
1.2
1.5
1.8
2.1
Burden
(ft)
3.00
4.00
5.00
6.00
7.00
(m)
1.2
1.5
1.8
2.1
2.7
(ft)
4.00
5.00
6.00
7.00
9.00
Explosive Charge
(kg/m)
(lb/ft)
0.03-0.1
0.08-0.25
0.05-0.2
0.13-0.5
0.1-0.3
0.25-0.75
0.3-0.45
0.75-1.00
0.45-0.7
1.00-1.50
Diameters of buffer and cushion boreholes are smaller than those of production holes, and buffer
boreholes have a slightly larger diameter than cushion boreholes. The diameter of a cushion hole
depends on many factors, as discussed above.
The burden for cushion holes varies according to the rock characteristics. For example, the
burden of hard, competent rock will be smaller than the burden of soft, easily fractured rock. It
34
is important to conduct one or more test blasts and continually analyze and back-calculate results
from production blasting to determine the proper burden, spacing, and charge density.
The spacing on cushion and buffer blastholes varies depending on the bedrock type and
structural characteristics, but generally ranges from 15 to 24 times the borehole diameter. The
burden-to-spacing relationship varies, but spacing on cushion holes should always be less than
the width of the burden being removed (U.S. Department of the Interior 2005). When removing
weak, heavily fractured material or when blasting corners, uncharged guide holes can be drilled
between the normally spaced cushion holes to guide the blast-induced fracture.
Charge loading in cushion blasting is similar to that in smooth blasting in that lightly loaded,
well-distributed charges are fired after the main production blast. Charges are typically 25 mm
(1 in) in diameter and charge densities are 0.45 to 0.7 kg per square meter (0.1 to 0.15 lb per
square foot) of face area for the main borehole and two to three times that for the bottom of the
borehole. Historically, cushion holes are surrounded by some type of stemming (crushed rock or
other loose inert material that helps cushion the blast) for the entire length of the borehole.
According to the DuPont Blasters Handbook (1978), an air annulus surrounding the charge
produces similar results and reduces loading time.
Removing Drill Hole Traces and Blasting Scars
In weak rock, drill hole traces can be removed by chipping away at the corners of the traces or
removing the outer layer of rock using a hoe ram, excavator bucket, or pneumatic hammer. For
strong rock, it is nearly impossible to completely remove these traces.
In some cases, blasting is followed by other methods of excavation, which are used to get rid of
remaining rock and soil to create a more aesthetically appealing final face. In cases where there
is less rock to remove in the first place, these methods can be used on their own.
Ripping
Ripping is a process of breaking up rock and soil with a large tooth or teeth attached to the back
of a bulldozer.
Where feasible, ripping is generally preferred over blasting because it is considerably less
expensive; ripping costs are typically 50 to 65% less than blasting. Ripping is also significantly
less dangerous than blasting and requires fewer permits and special precautions. Ripping can be
done in close proximity to populated areas or other places where blasting noise and vibrations
are restricted. However, ripping is limited to soft to moderately firm, fractured rock and
construction of low-angle cut slopes and shallow, near vertical cuts. In dense rock formations,
light blasting is sometimes performed before ripping.
Once the material is loosened by ripping, an excavator can be used to remove it and perform
slope sculpting (see below). Ripping gives the contractor a lot of freedom to aesthetically
enhance a slope by adding additional contour and allowing for revegetation in certain areas.
35
The teeth on rippers can leave scar marks on the rock after excavation. In most cases, these can
removed using the same procedure used to remove drill hole traces. In soft and/or massive rock,
the contractor may use a jet of high-pressure water or a vibratory compactor, known as a plate
bucket, which is attached to an excavator or loader to remove the scars.
Ripping is usually done in one direction, but in very tough materials ripping in a grid pattern will
increase excavation efficiency. The pass spacing is determined by the end use of the material
(fill, aggregate, waste, etc.) and the capacity of the excavating equipment. In most cases, it is
best to maximize ripping depth, but in stratified formations it may be best to rip along the natural
layers.
Ripping is generally done in the same direction that loading will take place (i.e., parallel to the
plane). However, when the material exhibits a foliation or bedding plane, ripping perpendicular
to the plane produces much better fracturing.
Ripping Equipment
There are basically two types of rippers: the pull- (or tow-) type ripper and the integral bulldozermounted ripper. In rock excavation, a bulldozer-mounted ripper as shown in Figure 21 works
better than a pull-type ripper because it can exert greater downward pressure.
Rippers also come in single- and multi-toothed configurations. Single-toothed rippers are used
for difficult ripping work, where maximum ripping depth is required and/or the material is dense.
Multi-toothed rippers, which can use up to five teeth, are used for softer ground or for secondary
purposes such as breaking up already ripped ground.
Figure 21. Photo. Bulldozer with an integral ripping attachment.
Choosing the proper bulldozer-mounted ripper depends of four factors: downward pressure on
tip, horsepower of the bulldozer, weight of the bulldozer, and angle of tooth penetration (Kelly
1970). The first three factors will influence the size and type of the bulldozer used, and the last
is a function of the style of ripper (see below). Bulldozer style and size is not discussed in this
36
document. Most ripper manufacturers websites includes information on the bulldozers that are
compatible with their products; ripper mounting brackets and hydraulic control mechanisms vary
widely.)
Here three main styles of rippers:
Hinge-Style Ripper:
The hinge-style ripper, also known as the radial-type ripper shown in Figure 22, is fixed to the
bulldozer with a pin, around which the ripper arm rotates. Because of its maneuverability, this
type of ripper is best at creating sculpted and natural-appearing rock cuts.
Parallelogram-Style Ripper:
The parallelogram-style ripper features two hinged arms, which keep the shank (the tang of the
tooth) vertical and hold the tooth at a constant angle as it is lowered into the material. This
provides excellent penetration in many types of rock. The parallelogram-style ripper works best
in easy to moderately rippable materials. In more difficult conditions, contractors prefer to have
the option of selecting different tooth angles, which provides better penetration, and so would
use an adjustable parallelogram-style ripper.
Figure 22. Photo. Typical hinge- or radial-style ripper (Nichols and Day 2005).
Breaking
Breaking is done with a hydraulic hammer (also known as a breaker or hoe ram), a percussion
hammer fitted to an excavator that is typically used for demolishing concrete structures and is
shown in Figure 23. It is used to break up rock in areas where blasting is prohibited due to
environmental or other constraints. Like a ripper, a hydraulic hammer can be used in most rock
types, although when sculpting a slope face, it works best in soft or moderately to highly
fractured rock; existing discontinuities in the rock act as presplit lines, minimizing hammerinduced scars and fractures while creating a slope face that appears to be naturally weathered.
37
Figure 23. Photo. Application of a hydraulic hammer attached to an excavator.
To allow for maximum downward pressure, the hammer is positioned perpendicular to the
ground surface as shown in Figure 24. Hammering locations are spaced evenly in a grid-like
fashion so that the end rock product is fractured into pieces that can be loaded and hauled. For
slope excavations, the hammering angle should be not be parallel to the major discontinuity
orientation, as this may cause fractures into the final slope face as Figure 25 shows.
Figure 24. Photo. A hydraulic hammer sculpting a rock face (the material to be removed has been outlined
with common marking paint).
38
Figure 25. Photo. A hydraulic hammer expanding a sculpted area, creating planting areas and more
natural-looking slope variation.
After breaking, the excavated slope can be configured to look like a part of the natural landscape,
with the addition of boulders and topsoil and reseeding with native vegetation as Figure 26
shows.
Figure 26. Photo. Completed rock slope prior to placement of topsoil and a native seed mix.
39
CHAPTER 4 ROCK SLOPE/LANDSCAPE INTEGRATION

A major component of context sensitive design is the final appearance of an engineered slope:
how it looks on its own as well as how it fits into the surrounding landscape. To create the best
and most natural-looking results, engineers and designers typically use a combination of
excavation, as discussed earlier in Chapter 3, and rock slope/landscape integration, which uses
physical and cosmetic alterations to modify the shape of a slope and give it a more natural
appearance by mimicking the surrounding topography.
In some cases, safety or cost concerns make it impossible to achieve a completely natural look.
However, in any case, the engineer and the contractor should strive to develop a slope that is
safe, looks natural, and satisfies the interests of all project stakeholders.
Table 7 provides an overview of the most common rock slope/landscape integration techniques,
along with the advantages and limitations of each. Each procedure is discussed in detail below.
PHYSICAL ALTERATIONS
Physical alterations, which remove or reposition sections of rock and/or soil, are an effective way
to improve the appearance and stability of a slope.
Major Slope Warping
Major slope warping is the process of rounding (or sculpting) the lateral ends of a cut slope to
smooth its transition to the surrounding terrain as shown in Figure 27. It can be accomplished
through blasting/ripping, scaling, and other excavation techniques, which were discussed in
greater detail in Chapter 3.
Although this technique can be used on any rock type, it generally produces the best results in
hard rock. Creating a lower angled slope on the ends of a cut increases the exposed surface area
of the rock there, resulting in faster weathering rates compared to rock in steeper sections of
slope.
Major slope warping has become a common practice on highway projects, industrial parks, golf
courses, landscaped open space around corporate buildings, and other such features. The
disadvantages of this technique include increased cost due to a larger amount of required
excavation and drilling, additional right-of-way, and increased long-term maintenance for scaling
on slopes with erodible materials (as with any rock cut, it is very important to thoroughly scale
the slope immediately after excavation and periodically thereafter to remove any loose rock that
could potentially dislodge).
41
Table 7. Overview of rock slope/landscape integration techniques.
BEST ROCK
TYPES/ADVANTAGES
PROCEDURE
DESCRIPTION
Major Slope Warping
Rounds the ends of the

cut to smooth the
transition between the
rock cut and the natural
terrain.
Can be used on any rock

type. Best used on inside
turns of the roadway and
ridge and valley systems.
Flatter portions of the slope will be

more exposed to weathering and
erosional processes. Requires blasting
procedures capable of angled borings.
Slope ends are visible to motorists for
a longer time.
Expanded Slope
Rounding
Rounds the crest of the

cut slope to smooth the
transition to the natural
terrain.
Can be done on any rock

type. Best on slopes with a
minimal colluvial cover.
The crest is often an area of
increased weathering and
blasting damage, removing
it reduces rockfall hazard.
Areas of thick colluvial cover will

require soil excavation techniques and
possible access problems.
Drainage Intercepts
Specifically designed to
transition topographical
low areas to high areas
by gradually decreasing
the slope angle
transiting to the low
area.
Can be used in any rock

type. Combining with
expanded slope rounding
and major slope warping
will improve aesthetics.
Blasting procedure must be capable of

different angles of borings. Rockfall
launching features may result if the
transition section is rough. Slope ends
are visible to motorists for a longer
time.
Ditch Width Expansion
Provides slope variation

longitudinally along the
slope and often extends
throughout the slope
height. Works well in
areas of long
monotonous cuts.
Can be used on any rock

type. Ditch width variations
can be used to hide drill
hole traces. Effective in
reproducing natural
undulations in the slope.
May be difficult in moderately to

highly fractured rock because of
kinematics. Blasting procedure must
be capable of variable angled borings.
Can cause rockfall launching features.
Slope Angle Variation
Varies the slope angle

laterally along the slope
to accentuate prominent
geological features or
differences in
weathering rates.
Design changes with rock

type. Layered rocks result
in a stair step pattern while
massive rock depends on
intrusions and competency
variations. Very effective in
sculpting the rock.
Very dependent on geological features.

Rockfall prone areas can cause
problems due to launching features.
Often increases time of construction.
False Cut Embankment

And Median Berm
Adds topography along

the shoulder or median
of divided highways for
screening, variety, and
areas of re-vegetation
and landscaping.
Adds topography along the

shoulder or median of
divided highways for
screening, variety, and areas
of re-vegetation and
landscaping.
Designer must ensure the barrier will

not launch or overturn errant vehicles.
Should not be left with an excessively
regular surface.
Rock Staining
Stain is applied to the

rock surface to help
blend the freshly cut
slope color to the natural
weathered rock color.
Stain is applied to the rock

surface to help blend the
freshly cut slope color to the
natural weathered rock
color.
Must test several stains to find the

correct color that fits the natural
conditions. Slope should be
thoroughly scaled and can be power
washed to remove loose material.
42
LIMITATIONS/DISADVANTAGES
Figure 27. Photo. Example of major slope warping on a cut slope.
Slope warping can be designed using a few different methods: using a slope offset and angle
table, contour grading plans, or an equation relating cut slope height, distance, and slope angle
(Cummings 2002). The desired transition from a steeper to a shallower slope angle is typically
shown in the cross section portion of the construction drawings. The transition section is shaped
like a circular segment, with the slope angle gradually decreasing from the angle of the main cut
face to that of the natural slope. Its important to follow a common radius in the transition
section (i.e., the area from the excavated slope face to the natural slope) because the viewshed is
always tangent to the slope when seen from the side.
After excavating the main slope up to the transition section, the contractor will start decreasing
the slope angle along the designed circular segment until the natural slope angle is reached.
Conventional excavating equipment is generally used to achieve the desired effect. In hard rock
major slope warping generally requires drilling angled borings (with equipment such as a track
rig), blasting/ripping, and scaling. Following the excavation, revegetation in the transition
sections and/or slope face provides additional natural enhancement and helps blend the cut slope
into the natural environment even more.
43
Expanded Slope Rounding

Expanded slope rounding helps to blend the crest of a cut slope into the natural terrain by
sculpting the upper portion of the cut, shown in Figure 28, using standard excavation techniques.
In rippable material, this is typically accomplished with an excavator; in hard rock, the contractor
will use explosives.
Expanded slope rounding can be done on a variety of rock types. It does not produce slope
launching features, as the angle of the cut slope in unchanged, and does not require any blasting
techniques other than those used in blasting the final finished rock face. Disadvantages include
increased cost of excavation, blasting, and the potential for a small increase in right-of-way.
Expanded slope rounding also requires thorough scaling after initial excavation and periodically
thereafter.
Figure 28. Photo. Slope rounding using long-reach excavator, Hyampom Road, California.
Slope rounding is a very effective way to enhance slope aesthetics in areas where motorists or
pedestrians have an unobstructed or extended view of the slope crest. It also provides an
opportunity for creating ledges and encouraging revegetation. In many cases, the crest is the
most weathered and blast-damaged section of the slope; therefore, removing part of the crest
through expanded slope rounding helps to reduce rockfall and long-term erosion problems.
Figure 29 shows a slope on which slope rounding was not constructed. Note the areas of
overhanging topsoil and vegetation mat, caused by excessive erosion at the top of slope.
44
Figure 29. Photo. Expanded slope rounding can prevent this type of erosion and overhang.
Currently, the FLHD shows the desired degree and location of slope rounding for any given
project in the Typical Sections of standard construction drawings. Conceptual drawings
depicting slope rounding and other techniques are provided in the Embankment Benching and
Serrated Cut Slope special drawing, which is included in most FLHD projects.
Rounding generally requires drilling, blasting, excavation, and scaling equipment. When
explosives are required, controlled blasting should be used to minimize the damage to the final
slope face. In slopes with hard bedrock at the brow, a row of satellite holes can be drilled
behind the main slope trim line, then lightly loaded and detonated to reduce backbreak and fly
rock.
If the slope has a substantial amount of unconsolidated material along the brow, the material
should be removed with a track-mounted excavator or by hand. Long-reach excavators are
typically used in areas with steep terrain. Using large radii to define the rounded slope crest in
the transition area is visually more appealing than using smaller standard radii, as the larger radii
generally appear more natural.
Drainage Intercept Laybacks
Drainage intercept laybacks are a modification of major slope warping specifically designed to
transition from the typically uniform cut slope to natural recessed areas or swales (the recessed
area does not need to be actual water drainage). Drainage intercept laybacks are extremely
effective visually because they break up the uniformity of both small and long sections of the cut
slope to more closely resemble a natural slope shown in Figure 30. In the transition zone
45
between the cut slope and the swale, the slope angle is decreased and the slope crest is rounded
back as it would be in expanded slope rounding. Ledges can be incorporated into the design to
help mitigate rockfall and to facilitate revegetation.
Figure 30. Photo. Drainage intercept layback cut into a slope, Hyampom Road, California.
Constructing drainage intercept laybacks is cost effective because it does not require a large
amount of additional excavation. Also, because there is only a slight slope angle difference
between the topographically high and low areas, it is effective even in highly fractured
formations where the discontinuity orientations limit the slope angles that can be constructed.
In the area of the existing depression, the slope angle between the ridge area and the drainage is
gradually reduced. The ditch width can also be widened for additional visual enhancement. The
desired slope angle variation can be shown in the cross sections, but because this is a matter of
the owner's criteria and choice, most successful projects require oversight by the owners
representative to achieve the appropriate amount of layback at each drainage feature.
The equipment used to construct drainage intercept laybacks is similar to that used in slope
rounding, as described previously. In addition, drainage intercept laybacks require a drill rig
capable of drilling angled borings, and may also require explosive, excavation, and scaling
equipment. If the slope material is softer bedrock or a slope cover over bedrock, a conventional
excavator and/or hoe ram can be used. Good accessibility to the top of the slope is another
requirement.
Ditch Width Variation
In ditch width variation, engineers use blasting, ripping, scaling, and other excavation techniques
to alter the width of a ditch that runs down the cut slope face. Ditch width variations are used in
long monotonous cuts, at geologically significant locations, and at drainage intercepts. They are
46
also used in places where the ditch is much wider at the center of the slope than at the top and
bottom, which creates an unnatural concave shape in the center of the cut slope.
Figures 31 and 32 show examples of ditch width variations made along a vertically cut, presplit
slope. The expansions add variation to the otherwise monotonous slope face, provide a wider
catchment area for rockfall, and help camouflage the exposed drill hole traces.
Figure 31. Photo. Ditch width variation used to break up the slope face and mask drill hole traces.
Slope and slope crest geometry are key factors in designing ditch width variations. In addition,
because expanding ditch width can change the slope angle, the designer must also consider the
structural characteristics of the rock mass in order to avoid constructing a potentially unstable
slope (a scan line survey and kinematic analysis using an equal angle or equal area net will
reveal potentially hazardous slope angles). When varying the slope angle, the blaster should
gradually change the borehole inclination to prevent the intersection of two different slope
angles, which could make the slope appear unnaturally flat.
When designing ditch width variations, the slope designer also should observe the natural slopes
in the area and try to replicate their natural variations. For example, sedimentary formations
often form steep, smooth-sided cliff faces, while igneous rock usually forms a much more
irregular gradient.
The slope should be excavated from the top down and/or from the roadway inward. The slope
should be thoroughly scaled after excavation to remove any potentially unstable material. If
blasting is required, the blast plan should accommodate the variations in the slope and ditch. To
47
reduce backbreak, blasting should be set up to follow the natural rock structure instead of with
presplitting or line drilling methods. Ditch width variation requires drilling rigs capable of
drilling angled borings, as well as excavation, blasting/ripping, and scaling equipment.
Figure 32. Photo. Ditch width variation can camouflage blast scars and drill traces.
Slope Angle Variation

Slope angle variations are used to break up the planar look of a blasted cut slope, see Figures 33
and 34. They can also be used to accentuate prominent geological features (such as intrusive
units and variations in rock weathering rates); to replicate the roughness of the surrounding
terrain; and to sculpt knolls, minor ridges, and drainages.
Engineers typically use rock mass discontinuities or existing seams, more resistant
intrusions/rock units, and geologically significant areas to shape the cuts. If rockfall potential
exists, mitigation methods such as rock bolts, expanded roadside ditches, or mesh may be needed
as discussed in Chapter 5.
Figure 33 illustrates the effective use of slope angle variation to simulate the natural weathering
patterns in interbedded sandstone, siltstone, and claystone. Special blasting and layout staking
techniques were used to direct the contractor to the desired cut slope configuration along the
corridor.
48
Figure 33. Photo. Slope angle variation helps match the natural topography of the surrounding area. The
lower three tiers in the slope were excavated to simulate the natural benches in sedimentary units.
Slope angle variations can be most easily shown in the plans through a slope exception table or
tabulation of station and offset to the slope toe and catch point, which is the point where the
excavated slope meets the natural slope (Cummings 2002). Designers typically look to the
surrounding natural rock outcroppings to determine the ideal degree of slope angle variation.
Because different rock types have different fracturing and weathering patterns, there is no
universal design for slope variations. In general, rock formations that are good candidates for
this technique are cliff-forming units (as opposed to slope-forming units), which can be seen in
the surrounding topography as fairly steep exposed rock faces with easily discernable rock
texture.
The excavation should proceed in a top-down fashion, and any loose rocks should be removed
and the slope thoroughly scaled after completion to remove any potential rockfall sources. For
added visual enhancements, vegetation (trees, grasses, shrubs) and/or boulders can be placed on
benches or along the roadside.
49
Figure 34. Photo. Steep, exposed rock faces are good candidates for slope angle variations.
Slope variation requires drilling equipment capable of angled boring, such as a track rig or hand
drills, which can be used in competent material, or ripping equipment, which is a better choice in
softer or fractured rock. Scaling equipment will also be required.
Figure 35 shows an example of slope angle variation and rock sculpting in a metamorphic rock.
The existing rock structure was used to control the blast damage and shape the final
configuration of the slope. Following each blast, excess and loose material was removed down
to the more stable rock units. The overall slope angle was constructed at a 1:1 slope, with
steeper zones nearby providing the appearance of a naturally exposed rock outcropping.
50
Figure 35. Photo. Rock slope excavated using slope variation and sculpting techniques.
COSMETIC ENHANCEMENTS
Rock slope/landscape integration also can involve cosmetic changes to the slope, including the
application of stain to help blend the areas of cut rock into the existing terrain.
Rock Staining
Rock staining products, which are sprayed or dripped onto the fresh rock face, can bring the cut
rock to its natural, weathered color within weeks. Some products are pigmented stains, while
others create the new color by leaching minerals from the rock or through photoreactivity.
Before staining, the engineer should conduct several test sections on the excavated rock cut to
determine the type of stain that will create the best match with the surrounding rock. Not every
stain is compatible with all types of rock, and the final color depends on stain concentration and
formulation. Several coats of stain may be required if the fresh and weathered faces look very
different. Stain applied to highly fractured and/or absorbent rocks tends to fade; meaning these
types of rock may not be good candidates for staining. The designer should use choose a color
that matches the surrounding rock, including areas of natural dripping and streaking. Areas that
feature vegetation (including lichens and moss) typically cannot be accurately simulated with
staining. Figure 36 is an aerial oblique of a rock excavation shortly after construction and Figure
37 is a photograph of the completed slope from the roadway. The rock face was stained to help
create a cut slope that is indistinguishable from the surrounding natural rock.
51
Figure 36. Photo. Rock excavation shortly after construction. Note the stark contrast of the freshly excavated
material and the naturally weathered rock surfaces. Glenwood Canyon, Colorado.
Figure 37. Photo. Staining on the completed cut slope used to create a natural-looking rock face.
Glenwood Canyon, Colorado.
52
Rock staining is a very effective and cost efficient way to quickly blend the color of fresh or
faintly weathered excavated rock faces to that of the surrounding natural rock faces. This can
create significant visual enhancements in both the short- and long-range perspectives.
Rock staining requires oversight by the owner or qualified expert during the application.
The slope should be dry and all loose material and vegetation removed before stain is applied. In
many cases, the slope face is pressure-washed to remove fine-grained particles that would inhibit
the stain penetration. Equipment required to perform rock staining usually includes an air
compressor, hose, rock stain, application nozzle, and a man lift large enough to reach the top of
the slope.
Figure 38 shows the application of rock stain using a hand-held sprayer and man lift (or crane).
Figure 38. Photo. Application of stain to a newly constructed rock slope.
53
CHAPTER 5 ROCK SLOPE STABILIZATION

In many cases, engineered slopes require stabilization to ensure their long-term viability and
reduce localized slope failure (which includes erosion and rockfall). Generally speaking, the
most effective strategy is to prevent the failure at the source through stabilization, not to install
structures to protect against them in the future.
There are many methods that can be used to stabilize a rock slope. These include altering the
slope geometry, installing drainage, adding reinforcement, or a using combinations of these
methods. Table 8 provides an overview of common stabilization procedures. A more detailed
discussion of each is included in this section.
SLOPE GEOMETRY ALTERATION
These methods change the configuration of a slope by removing rock and/or soil.
Scaling
Scaling is the process of removing loose or potentially unstable material (or a small section of
slope) that might dislodge or affect the trajectory of falling rock by creating a launching point for
materials falling from above. It is accomplished by hand or mechanical scaling, or by small
blasting operations called trim blasting. Scaling is effective on natural and newly excavated
slopes, and is done as periodic maintenance for any slopes that pose a potential rockfall hazard to
roadways.
Scaling is used to reshape slopes and to stabilize existing slopes and mitigate rockfall. For new
construction, scaling should be completed immediately after the initial slope construction and
periodically thereafter to remove any loosened rocks. Hand scaling on existing slopes may be
required on a more regular basis, depending on the construction and condition of the rock face.
As a stabilization or mitigation measure, scaling is typically effective for a period of two to ten
years, depending on site conditions, so it is not considered a permanent mitigation measure.
However, it is relatively inexpensive and serves as an effective short-term strategy. Because it
enhances site safety, it is routinely included with other mitigation efforts such as new rock
excavation, rock reinforcement, or draped mesh.
Because of the obvious danger from falling debris, complete road closures are generally
employed during scaling operations. In some cases, temporary measures such as draped netting
suspended from a crane can be employed while traffic is flowing, but such cases are rare.
Temporary barriers (including concrete Jersey barriers, cable net fences, bound or confined hay
bales, and earthen berms) are often used to protect the roadway surface, bodies of water,
buildings, or other critical features from rockfall.
In most cases, engineers will indicate areas that require scaling in the roadway layout plans. In
all cases, scaling operations should be observed and carefully controlled to prevent the creation
of unsupported or overly steep slope areas. This is particularly true when using heavy
excavation equipment.
55
Table 8. Overview of stabilization procedures and their limitations.

MITIGATION
MEASURE
DESCRIPTION/PURPOSE
LIMITATIONS
SLOPE GEOMETRY MODIFICATION

Hand/Mechanical
Scaling
Trim Blasting
Used to remove loose rock from slope via hand tools

and/or mechanical equipment. Commonly used in
conjunction with other stabilization methods.
Used to remove overhanging faces and protruding
knobs and to modify the slope angle to improve
rockfall trajectory and slope stability.
A temporary measure that usually needs to be

repeated every 2 to 10 years, as the slope face
continues to degrade.
Possible right-of-way issues, debris
containment, difficulty with drilling, and
undermining or loss of support by key block
removal (blocks which exert major control
the stability of other blocks).
REINFORCEMENT
Internal Stabilization
Tensioned steel bars used to increase the normalRock Bolts
force friction and shear resistance along
discontinuities and potential failure surfaces.
Applied in a pattern or in a specific block.
Rock Dowels
Shear Pins
Injectable
Resin/Epoxy
Untensioned steel bars installed to increase shear

resistance and reinforce a block. Increase normalforce friction once block movement occurs. Less
visible than rock bolts.
Provide shear support at the leading edge of a
dipping rock block or slab using grouted steel bars.
Can easily be blended with surrounding rock by
colored concrete.
Resin/epoxy injected into the rock mass through a
borehole; travels along joints to add cohesion to
discontinuities. Decreases the number of rock bolts
or dowels needed in a rock slope. Great for
aesthetics as it cannot be seen.
External Stabilization
Pneumatically applied concrete requiring high
Shotcrete
velocity and proper application to consolidate.
Primarily used to halt the ongoing loss of support
caused by erosion and raveling. Adds small amount
of structural support for small blocks. Sculpted
and/or colored shotcrete can be used for improved
aesthetics and to cover rock bolts and dowels.
Drainage must be installed.
DRAINAGE
Reduce water pressures within a slope using
Weep Drains
horizontal drains or adits. Commonly used in
conjunction with other design elements. Good for
aesthetics because drains are rarely visible.
Less suitable on slopes comprising small

blocks. Requires good access to slope.
Visible bolt ends and hex nuts may need to
be covered with shotcrete to improve
aesthetics.
Passive support system requires block
movement to develop bolt tension. Requires
good access to slope. Visible bolt ends may
need to be covered.
Cast-in-place concrete needed around bars to
contact leading edge of block. Requires good
access to slope.
Joint apertures must be greater than 2 mm
(1/16 in) for migration of product. In slopes
with excessive moisture, product will expand
and provide little increase in cohesion.
Should not be used as the only mitigative
measure on a rock slope.
Reduces slope drainage. Can be unsightly
unless sculpted or colored. Wire mesh or
fiber reinforcement required to prevent
cracking. Must be applied in a minimum
thickness of 50 mm (2 in) to resist
freeze/thaw. Quality and durability are very
dependent on nozzleman skills.
Difficult to quantify the need and verify the

improvements achieved. Will need periodic
cleaning to maintain water drainage.
Hand Scaling
Hand scaling is the most common and inexpensive form of scaling. Workers rappel from the top
of the slope or work out of a crane or man lift basket and use steel pry bars or air bags (also
known as pneumatic pillows) to remove any loosened rocks. In most cases, several workers are
56
scaling a slope at one time. Hand scaling is effective on small areas that are accessible by
workers and that have rocks that are not too big to be removed manually.
Scaling companies typically provide their own equipment, including rappelling ropes, harnesses,
pry bars, air bags, air compressors, and safety equipment. If access from the roadway is not
feasible, a helicopter may be used to transport the scalers to an area above the slope. Figure 39
shows a typical hand-scaling operation.
Figure 39. Photo. Hand scalers removing loose material from a cut slope South Fork Smith River Road,
California.
Mechanical Scaling
Mechanical scaling is used on larger slope areas or to augment hand-scaling efforts. This
process uses hydraulic hammers, long-reach excavators as shown in Figure 40, or cranes that
drag a heavy object, such as a blasting mat or old "Caterpillar" track, across the slope
(contractors have developed many ingenious scaling implements, including bundled cables, large
steel rakes, and a used tread from a bulldozer, although not all methods have been equally
successful). For removing very large rocks, power-assisted mechanical equipment such as
pneumatic pillows or splitters can be inserted into open cracks, and then expanded to dislodge
the rocks.
57
Mechanical scaling can also be performed by placing explosives into cracks and drilled holes (a
process known as crack blasting) or using heavy construction equipment such as a trackhoe. It
should be noted that without confinement, crack blasting can be relatively ineffective and can
also produce loud explosions and flyrock.
Figure 40. Photo. Using a long-reach excavator for mechanical scaling.
The most important aspect of designing a rock scaling operation is ensuring the selected method
is capable of handling the rock (or sections of rock) that need to be removed. Once scaling has
begun on a feature, it will become unstable, and it cannot be left and the area re-opened to traffic
restored until it is removed.
Most mechanical scaling operations use a crane or excavator, plus a front-end loader and dump
truck to haul rock from the site.
Trim Blasting
Trim blasting, or trimming, is used to remove sections of rock that are too large for conventional
scaling operations. Trimming typically uses cushion or smooth blasting techniques, as described
earlier. After the rock section is blasted, the area should be hand scaled to remove smaller
material. As with all blasting procedures, trimming can produce flyrock and loud air-blast.
Trim blasting requires drilling equipment and explosives. Spires of rock or large single rocks
will require minimal blasting and drilling (which in many cases can be accomplished with hand
drills), while bigger rocks, rock overhangs, or unstable rock faces may require more extensive
drill and blast techniques.
58
REINFORCEMENT SYSTEMS
Most reinforcement systems work to strengthen the rock mass internally by increasing its
resistance to shear stress and sliding along fractures. Other systems work externally to protect
the rock from weathering and erosion and to add a small amount of structural support. An
example of this is shotcrete (concrete or mortar thats shot onto the rock).
Internal Stabilization
Internal stabilization is accomplished by tensioned and untensioned rock anchors, injectable
resin, and drainage.
Rock Anchors
The most common type of internal reinforcement are anchors, which are threaded steel bars or
cables that are inserted into the rock via drilled holes and bonded to the rock mass by cement
grout or epoxy resins. (Friction bolts are considered temporary measures and typically are not
used in the transportation industry.) Because the bond strength between the cement grout or
resin and the rock is less than the maximum yielding stress of the steel, it has a large impact on
the design load of the rock reinforcement.
Rock anchors can be used to secure a single loosened block or to stabilize an entire rock slope
that is affected by a prevalent rock structure. Bolt and cable lengths are highly variable and are
compatible with a variety of rock types, structural characteristics, and strengths. Anchors can be
combined with other stabilization techniques if they cannot mitigate the hazard alone.
Disadvantages include relatively high cost, susceptibility to corrosion, and lengthy installation
times, which can slow the construction of the rock slope.
The anchors used for slope stabilization are typically 6 m (20 ft) in length, 20 mm to 50 mm (5/8
to 2 in) in diameter and made of high-strength steel (bars can be coupled to increase the length
up to 30 m or 100 ft, but the total length of a stabilization bar is generally limited to 12 m or 40
ft). Rock anchors can be tensioned or untensioned.
Tensioned Anchors (Rock Bolts):
Tensioned anchors (also known as rock bolts) are used on rock masses that already show signs of
instability or on newly cut rock slopes to prevent movement along fractures and subsequent
decrease of shearing resistance. A hex nut and bearing plate are used to distribute the tensile
load from the bolt to the rock mass as illustrated in Figure 41.
Rock bolts are considered a type of active reinforcement due to the post-tensioning they provide,
and are used to add compressive stress to joints within a rock mass. This force increases the
friction along the fracture planes and helps to reduce block movement.
Tensioned rock bolts can require more time to install than dowels because installation involves
several steps: drilling, grouting the bond length and inserting the bar or cable, then tensioning the
anchor and grouting the free length. Because the tension in the bolt can reduce over time due to
creep and become seized by small shears in the rock mass, rock bolts may need periodic retensioning.
59
Figure 41. Illustration. Typical tensioned anchor (or rock bolt).
Plastic grout tube
Centralizers
Hex Nut
Beveled Washer
'Keyhole' bearing plate
h ut)
lengt
Free stage gro
d
n
(Seco
Existing rockcut face
gth
ed len ut)
Bondstage gro
t
(Firs
Untensioned Anchors:
There are two types of untensioned anchors used in rock stabilization: rock dowels and shear
pins. Both are untensioned, fully grouted steel bars used for passive reinforcement. Dowels are
used on steep slopes in the same fashion as rock bolts, while shear pins are used on flatter slopes
where bedding planes and discontinuities determine the slope angle and failure plane.
Rock dowels as illustrated in Figure 42, are typically used on newly excavated slopes. They can
be installed in a grid pattern to support an entire face or used to support one block. They provide
initial reinforcement through the shear strength of the steel, which increases friction along the
potential plane of weakness. Once block movement occurs, depending on dowel orientation, the
tensile strength of the bar is engaged and the normal force between opposing discontinuities is
increased.
Dowels can be used in highly fractured and weak rocks that cannot hold a tensioned rock bolt.
They also can create a more natural-looking slope face, as the plates can be removed in massive
rock formations without close jointing that would inhibit the face support contribution of the
dowel. The boreholes can be covered with grout thats been colored to match the surrounding
rock. Because dowels are installed in one step, they are quicker to install than tensioned bolts.
60
Plastic grout tube
Centralizers
Hex Nut
Beveled Washer
'Keyhole' bearing plate
Existing rockcut face
rout
ent g
Cem
Figure 42. Illustration. Typical untensioned rock dowel.
Shear pins are installed at the leading edge of a sliding block. They rely on the shear strength of
the steel dowel cross section to provide resistance in the sliding plane of the block. In places
where it is not possible to install shear pins directly into the block, the pins can be incorporated
into a concrete buttress.
Rock Anchor Design and Installation:
Rock reinforcement design relies primarily on surface mapping and logging discontinuities from
borehole data to assess fracture/joint patterns and other conditions, as discontinuities strongly
control rock slope stability. Surface mapping is usually conducted as window mapping or scanline mapping. In some cases, engineers should also obtain test hole data, especially if surface
mapping is not feasible due to the presence of overburden soil or for other reasons. As is true in
any slope assessment, it is also important to assess the groundwater present in the rock
discontinuities to measure slope stability.
To determine the slopes safety, the following conditions should be evaluated: the height and
thickness of the rock mass that requires stabilization, and the shear strength of the failure plane
(determined by the friction and cohesion of the plane, as well as groundwater conditions, rock
type, and other geologic features). Figure 43 depicts a rock slope stability analysis diagram
assuming a tension crack in the slope face for a planar slope failure.
61
The reinforcement load is applied in the stability analysis either as a single stabilizing element or
a series of reinforcing elements to achieve the desired factor of safety. The length of the bolt or
cable is dependent on the bond strength (adhesion to the rock) and the discontinuity spacing that
forms the deepest part of the block. Tendon lengths can range from 2 to 30 m (6 to 100 ft);
however, in the transportation industry, the tendon length rarely exceeds 10 m (30 ft). The
detailed requirements for site investigation and analysis of rock cuts are provided in FHWA HI99-007 Rock Slopes Reference Manual (Munfakh, Wyllie, and Mah 1998)
Where:
V = Water force in tension crack
U = Uplift water force on base of sliding block
W = Weight of sliding block
\f = Angle of slope face from the horizontal
\p = Angle of the sliding plane from the horizontal
Z = Height measured from bottom of the tension crack to the crest of the slope
Zw = Height of water column in tension crack
H = Overall height of the slope
Figure 43. Illustration. Example slope analysis diagram (modified from Hoek and Bray 1981).
Rock anchors are usually installed in a grid pattern, where each anchor is the same length and set
at a predetermined distance from the surrounding bolts. Following a set pattern can improve the
structural stability of an entire rock face, especially for weathered or highly fractured rock. On
competent rock masses with large block sizes, engineers typically identify key blocks" (i.e.,
blocks of rock that control support for surrounding blocks), then design a bolting pattern around
them that makes it more difficult for the surrounding blocks to move. Designing a key block
pattern requires engineers to map the three-dimensional fracture orientations, but can decrease
the number of rock bolts required to stabilize a slope.
In both tensioned and untensioned anchors, the bearing plate and hex nut are used to distribute
the load of the anchor to the rock face; a beveled washer is used to apply the load evenly when
the bolt is angled in relation to the rock face. In rock masses with few discontinuities, the plate
can be removed and the tendon (bar or cable) cut to allow for the installation of a grout cover or
plug. This method is highly contingent on the quality of rock and stability of the rock mass.
62
In the tunnel shown in Figure 44, dowels were used to support a tunnel crest; the visible ends
were covered with a colored grout to help mask their presence. Only the grout at the end of the
tunnel is visible because the surrounding rock is darker and provides more contrast with the
lighter-colored grout than the rock in the center of the tunnel.
Figure 44. Photo. Tunnel crest supported with dowels that have been covered with colored grout.
Design analysis determines the depth of the boreholes required for rock bolts and dowels. The
reinforcing element is grouted into place using either cement- or epoxy resin-based grout. Both
bonding agents use either a one- or two-step application process, depending on the type of
anchor being used.
Grouting for rock bolts is typically applied in two steps. In the first step, the grout or resin is
injected into the base of the boreholethe section known as the bond length of the boltand
allowed to set. After the bond length is dry, the bearing plate and hex nut are installed, the bolt
is tightened, and the remaining length (the free length) is filled with grout or resin. In some
cases, contractors can accomplish the grouting in a single step, by using two types of grout or
resin, each with a different set time. In this method, the bond length is filled with a quick-set
product while the remainder of the hole is filled with a slow-set product; the quick-set resin is
allowed to harden, then the bolt is tightened before the slow-set resin sets.
63
Shear pins and dowels can be grouted in one stage, using cement grout or a single resin.
When installing rock anchors, contractors often use polyester resin because of its ease of
application and adjustable set times. It comes in a two-part package that is inserted into the
borehole before the bolt. The bolt is inserted into the borehole and rotated in place to break up
and mix the resin. (The two-part resin cannot be used with cable tendons, which are flexible and
therefore do not effectively break up and mix the resin.) Polyester resin is generally used in
short-term or temporary applications. Cement grouts are slower to set, but form a reducing
environment that makes them better suited for corrosive environments and permanent
applications.
The final location of the rock reinforcement is determined in the field during construction. It is
imperative that the reinforcement is correctly located on a rock surface that is not prone to
weathering, as erosion around the bearing plate can cause a loss of tension. Figure 45 shows
bolts that have failed because of erosion of the surrounding rock.
Figure 45. Photo. Rock bolts installed in an area where the surrounding rock has eroded away, reducing the
effectiveness of the bolts.
Installing bolts, dowels, and shear pins most often requires a hand-held or mounted rock drill
(normally percussion style), reinforcing tendon (rod or tensionable cable), hex nuts, washers and
bearing plates, either epoxy or cement grout for adhesion, and a hydraulic jack or torque wrench.
64
Figure 46 illustrates the typical track drilling equipment used to install rock reinforcement. In
areas where access is difficult, a man lift or crane may be needed as shown in Figure 47.
Figure 46. Photo. Installation of rock bolts using a track drill.
65
Figure 47. Photo. Installing rock reinforcement using a drill rig suspended from a crane.
Rock Mass Bonding

In the mining industry, injectable resin and epoxy have been used since the 1960s to stabilize
underground coalmines. Since then, they have also been used on numerous geotechnical and
geological engineering projects. When injected into a rock mass via drilled boreholes as shown
in Figure 48, these materials follow any fractures and discontinuities around the holes, thus
increasing the rocks stability. Rock masses that are excessively fractured and/or contain voids
will require large amounts of filler, which can result in excessive cost overruns (for proper
resin/grout movement and to keep pumping pressures at a minimum, the discontinuity aperture
spacing should be at least 2 mm, or 1/16 in.).
In suitable slopes, injecting resin or epoxy is very effective in providing additional slope stability
without negatively effecting aesthetics. There is virtually no maintenance required after
resin/epoxy injection. And while research on the application and effectiveness for the use of
injectable resin/epoxy as the primary means of slope stabilization is ongoing, initial findings
indicate that it can reduce the number of rock bolts needed for slope stabilization.
66
Figure 48. Photo. Installation of polyurethane resin from man lift, Poudre Canyon, Colorado.
The first step in installing resin/epoxy is to choose the proper product to use in the rock mass.
The primary factor for determining this is the presence of water in the fractures. Products are
characterized as either hydrophilic or hydrophobic.
Hydrophilic products, such as polyurethane resin (PUR) and polyurethane (PU), incorporate
water into their chemical structure and will shrink (or swell) depending on the amount of water
present. Typically, hydrophilic products will swell between 25% and 3,000% and/or elongate
10% to 500%, depending on the presence of water and available space for expansion (Arndt,
DeMarco, and Andrew 2008). On the flip side, the product can shrink more than 10% in the
absence of water, and can also become dry and crack. Typically, hydrophilic products are used
as a water barrier or sealant. They perform best when in continuous contact with water. The
shear strength of hydrophilic products is significantly less than the more dense hydrophobic
products, but they permeate into moist or water-filled fractures and voids without requiring
significantly more pumping pressure, as hydrophobic products do.
Hydrophobic products, such as epoxy grouts (EP), react less with water and therefore expand
and contract considerably less than hydrophilic products. This results in a denser final product
with greater shear strength. Hydrophobic products will not permeate as well into water and
require higher pumping pressures when pumped into water-filled discontinuities because they
need to overcome the hydraulic head to displace the water. A comparison between PU, PUR,
and EP products is shown in Table 9.
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Table 9. Properties of different rock-bonding products (Arndt, DeMarco, and Andrew 2008).
PROPERTY
POLYURETHANE (PU)
POLYURETHANE RESIN
(PUR)
EPOXY (EP)
Component Mixing
One-Stage
Two Stage
Two-Stage
Injection Type
Foam/Gels/Grout
Grout
Grout
Injection Pressures
Low to High
700 to 21,000 kPa
(100 to 3,000 psi)
Low to High
70 to 21,000 kPa
(10 to 3,000 psi)
Low to Medium
200 to 5,500 kPa
(30 to 800 psi)
Density
Low to Medium
50 to 800 kg/m3
(3 to 50 pcf)
Medium to High
320 to 1,100 kg/m3
(20 to 70 pcf)
Low to High
80 to 960 kg/m3
(5 to 60 pcf)
Compressive/Tensile
Strength
Low
70 to 3,500 kPa
(10 to 500 psi)
Low to High
100 to 140,000 kPa
(15 to 20,000 psi)
Medium to High
34,000 to 140,000 kPa
(5,000 to 20,000 psi)
Viscosity
Low to Medium
Low to High
Very Low to High
Water Interactions
Hydrophilic
Hydrophilic/Hydrophobic
Hydrophobic
Expansion/Elongation
Varies
(10% to 3,000%)
Varies
(10% to 3,000%)
Minimal
Shrinkage
Varies
(1% to 10%)
Varies
(0% to 3%)
Minimal
Relative Product Cost
Low
Mid to High
High
Estimating the pre-injection volume of resin/epoxy can be difficult because it is dependent on the
moisture and interconnectivity of the fractures. Generally speaking, dry to slightly moist
fractures will require about twice the amount of product being injected per hole compared to
very moist to wet fractures.
Boreholes should be spaced approximately 2.5 to 5 m (8 to 16 ft) apart. Holes can be drilled
ahead of time or right before injection. In cases where the migration distance of the product is
unknown, drilling holes too close together can cause the resin/epoxy to extrude from adjacent
holes, while drilling the holes too far apart can result inadequate product distribution. The
placement and orientation of the injection boreholes should intersect as many fractures as
possible. Ideally, the boreholes should intersect the major discontinuities at a 90 angle and/or at
the intersection of fractures to maximize the injection potential of the product.
If possible, construction should take place during the regions dry season so that fractures will
contain minimal moisture. Injection should proceed from the bottom of the slope to the top. To
ensure proper distribution of product around the borehole, the contractor should proceed until
overrun is observed, then end pumping for approximately one minute to allow the product to
start to set. The contractor should then resume pumping to push the new volume of product into
other fractures and joint sets and continue this staged pumping procedure until overrun is seen
above the injection site. Pumping pressures need to be closely monitored and kept at a minimum
to prevent movement within the rock mass and/or the displacement of any rocks. Evidence
shows that pressures more than 1,800 kPa (250 psi) can cause problems, even though the
material specifications have ranges with upper ends exceeding this value. It is best to remove
68
overrun product immediately, before it becomes hard (at this stage, it easily peels from the rock
face). After the product dries, it will have to be chipped away.
Equipment required includes a man lift, shown earlier in Figure 48, capable of reaching the slope
crest, plus a percussion-type drill, either hand operated or attached to the lift, an air compressor
to operate the drill, a resin/epoxy pumping and mixing system, and an injection port with a
diameter slightly smaller than the borehole diameter.
Polyurethane Resin (PUR) was used recently on a mountain highway in Poudre Canyon,
Colorado, to stabilize 80 m2 (850 ft2) of a rockfall-prone slope adjacent to a tunnel portal. The
geology consisted of gneiss with fracture sets spaced between 0.5 and 3 m (1.5 to 9 ft) apart with
dry to slightly moist apertures with openings greater than 2 mm (1/8 in).
Sixteen holes, 38 mm (1.5 in) in diameter, were drilled between 3 to 3.5 m (10 to 12 ft) deep.
Between 90 to 315 kg (200 to 700 lb) of PUR was injected into each hole, for a total of more
than 2,250 kg (5,000 lb) of product. As shown in Figure 49, PUR was seen extruding out of the
surface fractures more than 1.5 m (5 ft) from the injection point. Injection times ranged from 20
to 40 minutes. No rockfall was encountered during the drilling or injection process, and there is
no visible evidence that any work has been done at the site.
Figure 49. Photo. Polyurethane resin used in a fracture, Poudre Canyon, Colorado.
External Stabilization
Shotcrete
Shotcrete is a wet- or dry-mix mortar with a fine aggregate (up to 23 mm, or 7/8 in) that is
sprayed directly onto a slope using compressed air. Several applications may be needed to build
the shotcrete up to the required thickness. Unreinforced shotcrete gives little structural support
or protection against weathering, but can be used to prevent differential erosion between units,
69
slope raveling, and loosening of blocks. Shotcrete can also be applied around the exposed ends
of rock bolts to help prevent weathering around the bearing plates and limit slope degradation.
To increase tensile strength and structural support, the contractor can include fibers in the
shotcrete mix or apply the shotcrete to welded wire mesh shown by Figure 50.
Figure 50. Photo. Welded wire mesh can be attached to the rock face before shotcrete is applied.
Shotcrete can vary in appearance from very roughin its natural, as-shot (unfinished)
conditionto moderately rough in the "rodded" condition, to as smooth as cast-in-place concrete
(with appropriate finishing). Architectural shotcrete (known as faade or sculpted shotcrete) can
produce a wide range of finished surfaces.
In contrast to cast-in-place concrete, shotcrete can be shaped, contoured, and colored to match
the surrounding rock as shown in Figure 51.
70
Figure 51. Photo. Shotcrete can be used to protect a slope from erosionand sculpted to mimic the natural
rock face (Ada County Highway District 2003).
In most instances, structural shotcrete is applied to rock slopes to protect a surface which, left
untreated, would erode (such as a fault zone or clay seam), or to provide structural support for
otherwise sound rock that is either undermined by erosion or is unstable due to unfavorable
orientations or degree of fracturing. This type of shotcrete application can be part of the original
construction or part of the remediation of an existing unstable rock slope.
Structural shotcrete can also be used to form part of a retaining system supporting the rock slope
as shown in Figure 52. The system typically includes other components such as welded wire
mesh, rock bolts, and/or dowels (the shotcrete also may be fiber-reinforced to improve its tensile
capacity). In these applications, the shotcrete will be required to resist or transfer loads and may
also have an essential surface protection function in conjunction with its structural function.
Unreinforced shotcrete can be used to cover a well-defined strip (or strips) of rock with a higher
rate of erosion than the surrounding rock (faults or shale lenses in sandstone, for example) or an
entire slope composed of highly erodible material. In the latter case, the designer should
consider laying the slope back to avoid a structured solution, as differential erosion of the rock
slope will create stability problems that become worse with time.
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Figure 52. Photo. Sculpted shotcrete used to stabilize a tunnel portal (the area directly below the dry-stack
wall is the sculpted shotcrete).
A faade of sculpted (or architectural) shotcrete can be used to improve the appearance of
structural shotcrete as well as an engineered slope.
In any shotcrete application, drainage (in the form of weep holes or wick drains) will be required
to draw water from behind the shotcrete to prevent elevated water pressure from causing
cracking and instability in both the shotcrete and localized blocks.
Color can be applied to the shotcrete surface to help it blend with its surroundings. To achieve
the best results, the designer and contractor should consider the following:
x
Although darker colors tend to be less intrusive than lighter ones, designers should
avoid applying dark shotcrete to light rock (or light shotcrete to dark rock).
Consider the overall color and tone of the undisturbed rock formations, determine the
average color of the surrounding rock, and apply that color to the shotcrete.
If the shotcrete is covering all the exposed rock, there is little point in aiming to achieve
a color match; its better to select an unobtrusive color that fits the local context.
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Instead of combining several colors in the shotcrete mix, start with a single color, and
then apply at least two different colors as stain.
Time always changes the color of both rock and shotcrete, through water staining, air
particles, exhaust emissions, vegetation growth, and weathering.
The texture of the shotcrete is almost as important as color, but it is often overlooked in shotcrete
applications. Most natural rock is characterized by a collection of planar surfaces, while
shotcrete has a granular, amorphous finish. Designers can apply a variety of textures to
shotcrete, such as these:
x
Troweling the shotcrete to a pattern that matches the natural planes in the rock;
Forming the shotcrete to a formal shape to create the impression of a purposeful

element, such as a retaining wall;
Stamping the shotcrete with timber boards or molds;
Leaving areas of exposed aggregate finish combined with a modest trowel finish to
provide natural-looking texture;
Sculpting the surface of the shotcrete to mimic the surrounding rock (the success of this
technique is heavily dependent on the skill of the operator). Welded wire mesh can be
used to construct a sculpted rock appearance.
Before shotcrete application, the rock face should be scaled and cleaned to remove any loose
material (rock, dirt, ice, vegetation, etc.) that may hinder bonding. Highly fractured or weak
rock should be removed to expose more competent material (if the shotcrete is incorporated with
welded wire mesh and rock bolts/dowels, this is not necessary). In any case, the face should be
free of flowing water but damp enough to facilitate proper curing. Any wire mesh should be
attached securely to the area of application, as it will act as a frame to hold the shotcrete in place.
As mentioned earlier, shotcrete comes in both wet and dry applications. The wet application is
mixed with water before it enters the application nozzle, while dry applications are mixed with
the water at the nozzle. Air entertainment is not possible with dry mixes, so resistance to
climatic freeze/thaw can be reduced.
Applied shotcrete varies in thickness, from 50 mm to 0.6 m (2 in to 2 ft). For thicker
applications, shotcrete should be applied in multiple layers of about 50 to 100 mm (2 to 4 in)
each and allowed to cure between applications. Installing shotcrete requires an air compressor,
application nozzle, and cement mixer. The application nozzle is either hand held or attached to a
man lift or crane. Reinforcing the shotcrete with welded wire mesh or fibers can greatly increase
its tensile strength, stand-up time, and rock-bonding potential, as well as the overall stability of
the rock mass.
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Figures 53 through 56 show the installation of sculpted shotcrete in a combined

structural/sculpted faade application. The first image, Figure 53, shows the shotcrete being
applied by hand from a man lift. The shotcrete was sprayed onto the rock at a slight angle
downward and built from the bottom up, to prevent slumping. Note the elements protruding
from the face: The white pipes are weep drains composed of 50 mm (2 in) PVC pipe. The largediameter steel bars are rock anchors, while the small-diameter bars were used as a guide to help
the contractor build the shotcrete to the required thickness.
Figure 53. Photo. Application of the first layer of structural shotcrete.
Figure 54 shows the installation near completion of the first layer of shotcrete on the slope,
which took three days to achieve. It is necessary for each layer to dry and gain enough strength
for the application of the subsequent layer.
74
Figure 54. Photo. Installation of the first layer of structural shotcrete.
After installation of the structural shotcrete is completed, the sculpted shotcrete faade is
installed. In Figure 55, the contractor has installed a grid of rebar and pockets of welded wire
mesh to help form and suspend the faade.
Figure 55. Photo. Application of the final sculpted shotcrete faade.
75
Figure 56 shows the finished sculpted shotcrete faade prior to the application of stain.
Figure 56. Photo. Completed structural shotcrete support, ready for staining.
DRAINAGE SYSTEMS
Slope stability can also be improved through the installation of drainage systems, which most
often consist of horizontal weep drains.
Water in a rock slope often contributes to slope instability, as excessive pore pressure acts on the
rock mass and lowers the shear strength along any discontinuities. Water also contributes to rock
degradation and fracture expansion and during the process of freeze-thaw weathering.
Normally, drainage systems are used in weak, highly fractured, or layered rock where
instabilities could occur along a potential sliding surface. Drainage is generally used to mitigate
larger rockslides and failures. In most cases, the drains are installed as uncased holes in massive
rock units, drilled with a track rig or portable drill. In weak or highly fractured rock, the drain
may be cased with a slotted polyvinylchloride (PVC) pipe to maintain the drain opening. Drains
are installed at the base of the slope, and require periodic maintenance to prevent clogging.
Usually, they are used in conjunction with other stabilization measures.
Horizontal drains can be installed in a rock slope to reduce pore pressure and improve stability,
and are a cost-effective, aesthetically pleasing, and relatively low-maintenance option for most
slopes with excessive flowing water. They are most effective for large-scale slope instability,
where the potential sliding planes are deeply seated within the rock mass.
76
The most important factor in designing horizontal drains is to orient the holes so they intersect
the maximum number of water-carrying fractures, as very little water is contained within the
intact rock. Drainage holes should be spaced about 3 to 10 m (10 to 33 ft) apart and drilled to a
depth of at least one-third of the slope height. Once the water is drained from the slope, it must
be diverted away from the slope base to prevent infiltration, which could create additional
stability issues. In addition, the slope base must be protected from motorists and any
obstructions that could damage the drains or inhibit water movement.
Piezometers installed in the slope can monitor the water pressure and the effectiveness of the
installed drainage, allowing engineers to determine if the drainage is sufficient or if additional
drains are needed.
Horizontal drains are constructed used conventional rock drilling equipment. The hole location,
orientation, and angle are determined based on the fracture patterns in the rock. The installer
may need to adjust the assumed orientation and angle based on water conditions encountered.
Normally, drainage holes in rock can be drilled using a track rig or hand-held drill (hand-held
drills are limited to relatively shallow drainage holes). In highly fractured or weak rock, the hole
should be cased with a perforated PVC pipe to prevent collapse. Perforation size should limit the
amount of fine particles that infiltrate into the pipe. Surface drainage produced from slope dewatering can be diverted or contained using a lined gutter, culvert, or collection system.
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CHAPTER 6 ROCKFALL PROTECTION
Structures designed to protect the areas around a slope from falling rocks include mesh or cable
nets, barriers and fences, and catchment areas (ditches at the toe of a slope, designed to prevent
rockfall from reaching the highway). These devices allow rocks to fall but prevent them from
causing any damage to a structure or the public. The protection can stop a rock, control its
trajectory, reduce its energy, and/or provide a catchment. In many cases, a catchment is used in
conjunction with an inclined deceleration zone.
However, because they are external to the slope, these structures are typically more difficult to
hideor to fit within the context of the surroundingsthan structures that are integrated into the
slope.
Another option for protecting against rockfall is the use of avoidance measures, such building a
tunnel, realigning the roadway, or constructing an elevated portion or portions, which ensure that
the road will be out of the path of any foreseeable rockfall.
ROCKFALL PROTECTION DESIGN
Because of the significant amount of information on protective methods and design available
today, only a brief overview of the most frequently used methods will be covered here. Table 10
provides an overview of the most common protective measures used in the transportation
industry.
To develop effective rockfall protection, the engineer should evaluate the slope through a
thorough site investigation. Factors affecting rockfall that must be considered include slope
height, topographic profile, variable slope angles, potential launch points, rock type variations,
soil cover, vegetative cover, potential runout areas, and impact zones.
A cross section and contour map that identifies geometric characteristics of the slope should be
developed. The cross section should begin at the source area (the origin of the falling rock) and
end past the runout zone as illustrated in Figure 57. This will help establish the rockfall height as
well as its potential energy. Significant features such as slope angle changes, launch points,
ridges, and gullies largely define the path of travel by channeling, launching, and/or hindering
the falling rock. They also affect the rockfalls mode of travel: rolling, bouncing, or free falling.
Existing impact locations on structures, trees, or other impediments allow the engineer to make
rudimentary estimates of bounce heights and launch points. Slope height and angle play a major
role in the amount of energy that is carried by the falling rock, but they are not the only factors to
consider.
79

Table 10. An overview of rockfall protection measures and their limitations.
PROTECTION
DESCRIPTION/PURPOSE
LIMITATIONS
MEASURE
MESH/CABLE NETS
Hexagonal wire mesh, cable nets, or high-tensileRequire a debris-collection catchment
Draped
strength steel mesh draped over a slope face to
area. Must consider debris and snow
Mesh/Nets
slow erosion, control the descent of falling rocks,
loads on anchors. Typically limited to
and restrict them to the catchment area.
areas with rocks smaller than 1.5 m (5 ft)
in diameter. Visible to passing motorists.
Free-draining, pinned/anchored-in-place nets or
May form pockets of accumulated rock.
Anchored
mesh. Used to apply active retention force to
Can be difficult to clean out. Can be
Mesh/Nets
retain rocks and soil on a slope.
visible to passing motorists.
BARRIERS
Barriers constructed of natural soil and rocks
Catchment area must be periodically
Earthen
(berms) or mechanically stabilized earth (MSE),
cleaned to remove accumulated material.
Barriers
placed at the distal end of a catchment area to
Berms of considerable height require a
improve its effectiveness. MSE walls, in
wide base area.
particular, can withstand large kinetic energies and
repeated impacts. Easily repaired. Earthen
material blends well with surrounding landscape.
Rigid barriers that provide protection from lowHigh stiffness causes barriers to crack
Concrete
energy impacts. Relatively cheap, easy to obtain,
and/or shatter in high-energy impact. Not
Barriers
and fast to install. Normally used as temporary
visually appealing.
barrier in context sensitive areas.
Rigid barriers used to intercept falling rocks and
Structural
restrict them to a prescribed catchment area. Can
cleaned to remove accumulated material.
Walls
withstand significant kinetic energies and repeated Prone to damage by high-energy events
impacts. Facing can be installed on road side of
walls to improve aesthetics.
Flexible barriers made of wire ring or highRequire room for rocks deflected by
Flexible
strength wire mesh with high energy-absorption
barriers during impacts. Must be cleaned
Barriers
capacity, supported by steel posts and anchor
out periodically. Fairly expensive to
ropes with a braking system. Fence is fixed at the construct and prone to damage by higherbottom to hold rocks. Effective on high- to lowenergy events. Do not blend well into
energy events.
surrounding landscape.
Flexible barriers similar to fencing (above) but not Visible to passing motorists. A catchment
Attenuators
attached at bottom (an extra length of fence lies on area is required and must be periodically
cleaned.
the slope face); allow rocks to move beneath the
two sections of fence and direct them into a
catchment area. Require less maintenance than
standard fencing.
CATCHMENTS
Ditches/hybrid Shaped catchment areas normally placed along the Tall or rough slopes require a wide fallout
roadside or slope base and used to contain
area. May have right-of-way issues.
ditches
rockfall. Aesthetically pleasing. Hybrid ditches
are a combination of a barrier and a ditch.
cleaned. Costly to install along existing
roadways.
80
Figure 57. Illustration. Effective rockfall protection design requires an accurate slope profile, which identifies
source areas, launch points, and runout zones (Brawner 1994).
Rockfall is also affected by slope cover, which, depending on its thickness, can significantly
reduce rock velocities and bounce heights and stop or stabilize falling rock, even on very steep
slopes. Similarly, the characteristics of the soil can also play a role: A layer of thick, loose soil
will dampen the velocities and bounce heights of falling rock upon impact, whereas a solid
smooth surface, such as a rock slope or compacted soils, does very little to hinder rock travel.
Slope roughness, a measure of the slope irregularities relative to the rock, can also affect
rockfall. For most rockfall analysis, roughness is described as a smooth, irregular, or ragged
portion of the slope. In steep terrain, a rough slope can cause rocks to bounce, but it can
decrease rockfall energy on flatter slopes.
Once a rockfall area has been evaluated, it can be further analyzed and quantified by both
empirical and computer methodologies. Several large-scale empirical rockfall studies have been
conducted over the last 40 years. One of the first important studies was conducted by Arthur
Ritchie in 1963. Further analysis, published by the Oregon Department of Transportation
(ODOT) in 1994 and 2002, advanced Ritchies framework and provided statistically significant
data by rolling more than 11,000 rocks (Pierson, Davis, and Pfeiffer 1994; Pierson, Gullixson,
and Chassie 2002). The result was a complete set design guidelines for catchment areas based
on a set of given slope parameters.
Computer modeling allows engineers to simulate rockfall, particularly in places where a
catchment ditch is not a viable option for rockfall control, as in areas where roadway widths are
constrained by narrow canyons and valleys. The Colorado Rockfall Simulation Program (CRSP)
was developed by the Colorado DOT to provide a reasonable model of falling rock based on a
set of slope input parameters. CRSP (which is currently undergoing major updating to a threedimensional approach, which will be known as CRSP-3D) is widely used in the North American
transportation industry and has proven useful in estimating rock velocity, kinetic energy, bounce
81
height, and runout distance. This information is critical in determining the most appropriate type
and installation of rockfall protection measures (Andrew 1992).
Mesh and Cable Nets
Mesh and cable nets are used to control rockfall in two ways: They either hold the rocks behind
the mesh/net or direct them to a catchment area at the bottom of the slope. They also work to
control erosion. Mesh and nets can be both unsecured (attached to anchors at the top of the mesh
or net only) or secured at both top and bottom. The most common configurations are draped
mesh/nets (also known as drapery systems) and anchored mesh/nets.
Draped Mesh/Nets (Drapery Systems)
A drapery system consists of wire mesh or cable netting thats suspended by anchors and hung
over a near-vertical slope (drapery systems can be used on slopes ranging from 35 to
overhanging, although rock slopes between 60 and 80 are the most common site). Drapery
systems are typically used on slopes between 15 and 45 m (50 and 150 ft) high, but they have
been used successfully on slopes up to 120 m (400 ft) high. They can be used on both uniform
and highly irregular slopes, and are not limited to a distinct rock/slope material type. These
systems are used to contain rockfall occurring beneath the mesh or net and control the descent of
detached material as it travels down the slope. They are designed to protect against raveling-type
rockfall that involves small-volume slope failures (up to about 7.6 m3 or 10 yd3) or blocks up to
1.5 m (5 ft), depending on the strength of the mesh used (Muhunthan et al. 2005), although
maintenance considerations may serve to reduce this maximum size.
Drapery systems can be either unsecured or secured. Unsecured systems attach the wire mesh
only at the top of the slope, allowing rockfall to occur between the mesh and the slope but
slowing it as it travels down the slope face shown in Figure 58, a process known as attenuation.
These systems also have the advantage of being self-cleaning, as they let the rocks out at the
bottom and therefore do not need to be cleared of debris.
Secured drapery systems incorporate breakaway tethers throughout the mesh, which work to
hold the mesh closer to the face but release it when impacted by falling rock. Mesh that is
secured this way is less likely to pillow and/or create the bridal veil appearance in areas with
overhanging features. The use of anchors also improves the performance of the system by
containing the rockfall closer to the face.
82
Figure 58. Photo. A rockfall-prone slope draped with unsecured wire mesh. Wolf Creek Pass, Colorado.
If properly designed, drapery systems require little maintenance and generally have a long design
life. They can also be visually mitigated so that theyre less visible and blend more into the
surrounding landscape (see below).
Design and Construction of Drapery Systems:
The first step of the design procedure is estimating the anticipated load that will be transferred to
the body of the mesh system. In cold climates, snow loading also should be considered.
Muhunthan et al (2005) conducted numerous back calculations on drapery systems and found
that wire mesh is capable of withstanding a full transfer of load from approximately 7.6 m3 (10
yd3) of rock material or blocks up to 1.5 m (5 ft) equivalent diameter. Rock sizes of 0.6 m (24
in.) are often used as the design limit when considering maintenance requirements.
The mesh or net should cover the entire section of slope that will be affected by rockfall, from
the area where rockfall begins to the paved surface of the roadway. In all cases, the upper
perimeter of the mesh should be anchored a minimum of 3 to 4 m (15 ft) above the rockfall area
or behind the degraded portion of the slope. Figure 59 shows a site where ongoing slope
degradation caused failure of a mesh drapery system that was installed too close to the area of
degradation.
Along roadways, drapery is usually designed to allow rocks to travel behind the mesh to the base
of the slope, where a catchment area has been constructed to prevent the rocks from traveling
onto the roadway. The catchment area will need to be cleaned periodically to remove
accumulated material. On steeply inclined slopes, the mesh normally terminates approximately
83
1.5 m (5 ft) from the slope base to keep rocks within the catchment area. In areas of high
snowfall, this termination height may need to be increased so that the bottom of the mesh is not
pinned to the slope by accumulated snow.
Figure 59. Photo. Erosion can lead to failure in a drapery system if the mesh is not secured sufficiently
beyond the area of slope degradation at the top of the slope.
Many types of mesh material have been used in drapery systems, and each is available with
several different wire diameters and grid/opening sizes. Most North American DOTs use either
double-twist hexagonal wire mesh, high-strength wire mesh, or cable/spiral rope net. The cable
and spiral rope net is much stronger than the double-twist wire, but also is also more expensive.
High Strength steel wire mesh is relatively new and fills an intermediate role between double
twist wire mesh and cable /spiral rope net. In many cases, cable net is combined with wire mesh,
a combination that has been particularly effective on slopes with larger rocks and to decrease the
rate of erosion of any slope. Table 11 summarizes the current guidelines for the use of mesh
drapery systems in North America.
Table 11. Recommended mesh material usage as a function of block size and slope angle (modified from
Muhunthan et al. 2005).
Mesh Material
Double-twist hexagonal mesh
Cable/spiral rope net
Block Size
0.6 0.9 m (2 3 ft)
1.2 1.5 m (4 5 ft)
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Slope Angle
50 - vertical
35 - overhanging
Appropriate anchor design for the drapery system should consider the weight of the system and
additional dynamic loading caused by rockfall and accumulation of snow. For more detailed
information on anchor load vs. anchor spacing design for various mesh and net systems, see
Muhunthan et al. (2005).
Several designs have been implemented to mitigate the aesthetic concerns of drapery systems,
particularly in context sensitive areas. They include:
x
x
x
x
Limiting the coverage area,

Securing the drapery more closely to the slope,
Promoting revegetation, and
Coloring system components.
On some slopes, engineers can limit the area covered by the draperygenerally at the bottom of
the slopeand still provide adequate rockfall protection. However, eliminating the mesh more
than 1.5 m (5 ft) from the slope base may require a wider and/or deeper catchment area to
prevent rocks from entering the road.
Anchoring the mesh more tightly to the slope reduces the gap between the slope and the mesh,
making the mesh less visible when viewed from the side. On moderately dipping slopes,
increased mesh contact helps to increase the normal force on the slope rock face reducing the
frequency of rockfall. Increasing mesh contact also reduces erosion and allows for revegetation
of soft bedrock slopes. However, on near-vertical to overhanging slopes, increasing mesh
contact can cause accumulation of material and increased static loads on the mesh. In these
cases, engineers can use breakaway systems, which pull the mesh closer to the slope face yet
allow the restraining elements to fail under larger rockfall events. These systems typically use
wire (e.g., No. 9 AWG) to anchor the draped mesh, which will yield on impact before the body
of the mesh ruptures.
Because of the lack of topsoil on many rock slopes, revegetation of constructed slopes can be
difficult. Placement of erosion control fabric behind the mesh can provide an area for small
shrubs and grasses to become established.
Many state DOTs routinely treat the mesh in their drapery systems with colored PVC or powder
coating that can help it blend with the surrounding rock. Although these products are available
in a range of earth tones, the darker colors (particularly dark brown) have proven to be the most
effective for reducing the visual impact of drapery systems. Figure 60 shows an example of a
mesh that was treated with a dark brown coating to help it blend into the natural setting. In this
photo, the rock cut in the distance was also treated with rock staining, while the lighter-colored
cut slope in the foreground was not treated. Note how the mesh is more visible in the area that
was not treated with the rock staining. Combining mesh coloring with other visual
enhancements such as revegetation, rock staining, or increased mesh-to-rock contact is an
effective way to reduce the visual impact of the mesh.
85
Figure 60. Photo. Rock slope treated with colored draped rockfall mesh.
Figure 61 shows a slope that was mitigated with draped wire mesh that was left untreated.
Although this installation has been an effective rockfall mitigation measure, its visual impacts
are significant: The mesh retains its shiny galvanized finish and, because the drapery was not
secured in close contact with the slope face, it has a distinct bridal veil effect.
Figure 61. Photo. A drapery system that was not visually mitigated.
86
Before a drapery system can be installed, the slope must be thoroughly scaled and the anchors
installed. Unless the drapes will be rolled out from the top of the slope, a staging area at the
slope base will be required to prepare the drapes for installation. For large installations or for
high slopes, a helicopter is usually the fastest and most cost-effective way to get the drapery to
the installation point. However, helicopter placement requires an emergency landing area as part
of the staging operations.
Equipment required for installing a drapery system includes the following:
x
Drill for installation of mesh anchors. A hand-held drill with a man lift or a track drill is
typically used for the anchor installation.
x
Crane or helicopter to place the wire mesh. The hourly rate of a crane is less than that of
a helicopter, but excessive slope heights, large mesh quantities, and difficult access often
make it faster and less costly to use a helicopter.
The majority of maintenance on a drapery system consists of removing trapped material in order
to prevent overloading of the wire mesh. Limited vegetation growth within the mesh area does
not reduce the effectiveness of the mesh, but large shrubs or trees can cause problems and should
be removed. Toppling of trees can cause both global and localized failure.
Anchored Mesh/Nets
Anchored systems consist of wire mesh or cable net that is anchored to the rock face in either a
grid pattern across the entire face or via a row of anchors along the upper and side perimeters of
the wire mesh, see Figures 62 and 63. They work to inhibit erosion, contain rockfall, and direct
rocks to the catchment area at the bottom of the slope. Anchored mesh differs from secured
drapery in a few important ways: While secured drapery systems are meant to contain small
rocks or channel larger rocks safely down a slope, an anchored mesh/cable net system is intended
to reinforce a slope face and, if possible, prevent rocks from ever detaching and falling. The
mesh or cable net used in an anchored system is vastly stronger than that used for a drapery, and
its fastening method consists of closely spaced rock bolts with plates that anchor the mesh to the
slope. These anchors are not designed to break away, but instead to provide a more robust and
permanent approach to stabilizing the slope.
Design and Construction of Anchored Mesh Systems:
In an anchored mesh system, rock bolts are typically used to attach the mesh or net to the slope;
the mesh is stretched between the bolts to increase its contact with the slope, which adds a
normal force to protruding blocks, thus increasing slope stability. Anchored systems are more
expensive than unsecured draped systems and, if not designed and constructed correctly, may
require periodic maintenance to remove accumulated material from behind the wire mesh.
87
Figure 62. Photo. An anchored Tecco mesh system secured by a grid of rock bolts, US 299 in Northern
California.
Figure 63. Photo. A detail of the anchors used to secure the mesh system shown above.
In some cases, the visual impact of mesh or net systems has made them unsuitable for use on an
otherwise natural-looking slope. Engineers have used the methods discussed above for drapery
systems to mitigate these impacts.
88
Barriers
Barriers provide rockfall protection by stopping falling rocks: They absorb the kinetic energy of
the rocks, block their trajectory, and detain them before they reach the highway. Barriers can be
earthen barriers, concrete barriers, structural walls, flexible barriers, and attenuators. They
can be used in conjunction with ditches when space does not allow for a ditch big enough to
provide adequate protection on its own.
Barriers can sustain large kinetic energies and repeated rockfall impacts. Generally speaking,
they are not as aesthetically pleasing as other protective measures, although proper placement
and color enhancements can help blend them into the surrounding area. Barriers and fences must
be placed in accessible areas to facilitate periodic maintenance and removal of accumulated
material. Figure 64 shows an example of an installation where the body of a cable net fence was
colored with a tan PVC coating and installed above the roadway, thus reducing its visual impact.
Figure 64. Photo. Installation of a flexible rockfall barrier on Guanella Pass, Colorado.
Earthen Barriers
Earthen barriers provide a steepened foreslope, which can provide considerable energy
dissipation due to its large mass and loose surface characteristics and therefore improve the
effectiveness of an adjacent catchment area. They can be berms or walls made of mechanically
stabilized earth (MSE).
Earthen Berms:
Berms are constructed from natural rocks and soil as shown in Figure 65. They hold up very
well to repeated impacts, and any damage that occurs to the berm can be repaired with an
excavator or backhoe.
89
Figure 65. Photo. A conventional earthen berm can protect a highway from rockfall with low bounce height
and low rotational energy.
Mechanically Stabilized Earth (MSE) Walls:

MSE walls are reinforced, engineered earthen walls designed to withstand medium- to highimpact energies (they are structurally much stronger and more cohesive as a unit that a
conventional earthen berm). An MSE wall is constructed by layering horizontal mats of
structural material (e.g., geo-fabric or wire grids) between coarse soil layers approximately 600
mm (24 in) thick to form a barrier up to 4 m (13 ft) high illustrated in Figure 66.
Testing has shown that MSE walls are highly effective in sustaining high kinetic energies and
repeated rockfall impacts. In many cases, timber facing is installed on the impact side of the
barrier to dissipate the rocks energy, while the road-side facing can feature full-height concrete
panels, timbers, or vegetation.
90
Geosynthetic
Facade
of choice
On-site soil
backfill
Jersey barrier
Slope
Roadway
Figure 66. Illustration. A MSE wall design (modified from Transportation Research Board 1996).
Concrete Barriers
Concrete barriers, shown in Figure 67, commonly known as Jersey barriers, are designed to
block low-energy impacts (generally less than 80 kJ or 30 ft-tons).
Due to their rigidity, Jersey barriers will shatter with high-energy impacts. They are relatively
inexpensive and easy to obtain, which contributes to their widespread use. Concrete barriers are
not aesthetically attractive, and therefore rarely used in context sensitive areas unless as a
temporary barrier.
Concrete barriers are normally placed adjacent to the roadway. Facing materials and colors that
fit within the project setting can be incorporated on the traffic side of these barriers to help them
blend into the landscape. Installation of simple concrete barriers requires a fork lift, backhoe, or
excavator to place the barriers.
Structural Walls
Structural walls are rigid structures, such as reinforced concrete walls, that are generally placed
adjacent to the roadway. As with concrete barriers, structural walls can be fitted with
appropriately colored and textured facing materials, which can help them fit within the existing
landscape.
Equipment required for structural walls varies depending on the type of wall and materials used.
All structural walls require a catchment area, and in many cases an excavator can be used to
excavate the base of the barrier (in some areas, blasting will be required).
91
Figure 67. Photo. Concrete barriers used as a rockfall protection measure. Notice the damage caused by a
large rock impact.
Flexible Barriers
Rockfall fences are designed as a flexible barrier, absorbing energy through deformation of the
fence material and braking elements as shown in Figure 68. The fencing material is most often
deformable cables and/or mesh, the most common types of which are woven wire-rope mesh net
or interlocking ring nets.
Testing has shown that interlocking rings can provide the greatest deformation and energy
absorption. The mesh is usually (though not always) supported by a series of steel beam posts
anchored to a foundation with grouted bolts. The foundation usually consists of a concrete cap
secured to rock bolts or a large concrete mass. The braking elements are incorporated into upslope anchor ropes, which use friction brakes that are activated during high-energy events to
absorb energy and provide additional support to the fence. Some of the largest fences are able to
withstand impact energies up to 5000 kJ (1,844 ft-tons).
92
Figure 68. Photo. Example of a ring-net flexible barrier.
Fences require a variety of equipment for installation. The fence posts and brake cables are
anchored into the ground using grouted anchors. Hand-held drills can be used to drill the anchor
holes, and a pump is used to place the grout. Steel H-beams (e.g., W8x48, as shown in Figure
69) are typically used as fence posts to support the fence. A substantial amount of woven steel
cable is used to construct the braking system, to attach the net to the fence, and to attach sections
of fence to one another.
In areas with difficult access, helicopter support may be needed, which will present additional
cost. Maintenance of fences involves periodic cleaning to remove accumulated rocks and debris.
93
Wire-Rope with braking element

Steel Post
Wire-Rope
Anchor
Grout
Drill hole
Friction Brake
Wire-Rope
Net
Chain-link Mesh
Concrete Base
Figure 69. Illustration. Design of a typical rockfall fence (modified from Transportation Research Board
1996).
Attenuators
Attenuators are a combination of traditional fencing and drapery systems. Unlike traditional
rockfall fences, they are not fixed to a bottom support wire rope but include a draped section that
lays on-slope, below the main body of the system as shown in Figure 70. This design is superior
to other types of rockfall protection in several ways:
x
x
x
x
The system is able to withstand much greater energies because it is designed to attenuate
the energy of the rockfall, not arrest the rock.
The system slows and redirects the rock so that it can be captured in a catchment area.
In areas of snow avalanches or debris flows, the flow can travel under the system without
causing damage.
Rocks do not accumulate in the system but are allowed to pass through, resulting in less
maintenance.
94
Figure 70. Photo. An attenuator combines a standard fence with a draping system. Georgetown, Colorado.
Figure 70 shows a slope that runs along I-70 near Georgetown, Colorado, an area that is known
to produce very high-energy rockfalls. A series of attenuators were installed to control the
rockfall and ensure that rocks traveling down the slope would be deposited in a catchment area
adjacent to the highway. Many of the attenuators have been placed high on the slope, above the
average viewshed of motorists.
Barrier Design
The first step in designing a rockfall barrier of any kind is evaluating the behavior of the typical
rockfall event. Barriers should be placed in the most likely rockfall path. This can be found by
talking with maintenance personnel or by observing rockfall scarring on the slope (tree scars,
rockfall chutes, etc). Once the rockfall path has been found, the barrier should be placed where
the rockfall bounce heights and average kinetic energy are at their lowest, to maximize
catchment.
As discussed previously, computer models have proven to be a useful tool in evaluating rockfall
behavior. The model will guide the designer on the most effective location of the fence. No
protection system will be able to stop 100% of the rockfall, so systems are designed to stop an
approximate percentage of the rocks that fall. Barriers and fences used today are generally
95
designed for retentions of greater than 85%, but each slope is different and a balance must be
found between cost of mitigation and level of safety.
Correct placement on the slope is essential in managing the height and capacity of the barrier,
which in turn will reduce the cost and visual impact of the system. The placement of barriers can
also be key in helping to mask their presence. They can be placed high on the slope or out of
view from passing motorists, although engineers must keep in mind that the area must be
accessible for periodic maintenance and removal of accumulated material.
Site selection will have the largest effect on the means and methods used by a contractor to
construct a barrier or fence. Barriers located in difficult access areas will require experts in
installation. For sites with difficult founding conditions, foundation elements using rock dowels
and/or small-diameter piles (micropiles) for support may be required. Barriers located adjacent
to the roadway typically use more conventional construction techniques.
Catchment Areas
Catchment areas are sections of flat or negatively sloped ground used to dissipate rockfall energy
and to collect rocks and other debris that have detached from the slope. Catchment areas can be
ditchestrenches dug along the foot of a slopeor hybrid ditches, which combine a ditch with a
barrier (typically a wall or berm).
Ditches
Ditches have been used for many years to stop rockfall before it reaches the road. In most cases,
they are located along the side of the road, but in cases where rockfall source areas are not
adjacent to a roadway ditches have been constructed upslope from the travel corridor. In all
cases, the ditch must be accessible to the machinery needed to remove accumulated rockfall
material. Because ditches require additional right-of-way, constructing ditch catchment areas
along existing roadways can be cost prohibitive if a substantial excavation is required. Ditches
are aesthetically appealing because they are located below the road grade and out of view from
the passing motorist. Moreover, they do not require imported material that may appear foreign
to the setting.
Ditches are a very effective rockfall protection measure. They are the most used and probably
the most aesthetically acceptable protective measure because they do not obstruct the motorists
view of the surrounding area. In steep terrain, however, the rock slope cut height can be
excessive when a wider catchment area is constructed. The designer should always bear in mind
that increasing the catchment width could potentially increase the height of the slope
significantly, thereby impacting its overall stability.
Current ditch design criteria assume the rock cut is fairly uniform in slope. Natural rock slopes
or slopes with incorporated warping may have undulations that cause rockfall launching features,
resulting in the rocks to traveling further from the slope base than anticipated. Rockfall
modeling programs such as the new Colorado Rockfall Simulation Program (CRSP-3D) can be
used to estimate the rockfall parameters and develop a basis for ditch design. In all ditch
96
designs, the ditch must remain accessible to machinery for periodic removal of accumulated
material.
Ditch Design:
Ritchie was the first to research the effectiveness of ditches, and he produced a ditch design now
known as the Ritchie Ditch Criteria in 1963. In 2002, the Oregon Department of
Transportation (ODOT) produced the Rockfall Catchment Area Design Guide, which modified
the Ritchie criteria to make them more compatible with todays highway design standards. Both
ditch designs are currently being used, although the Ritchie guidelines are not generally used as a
design method because they do not comply with the current AASHTO design regulations.
To upgrade the design criteria and address limitations of the Ritchie Criteria, ODOT conducted
an in depth study into ditch design. They developed a collection of design charts that gives ditch
widths for slope heights of 12.2 m, 15.2 m, 18.3 m, 21.3 m and 24.4 m (40 ft, 50 ft, 60 ft, 70 ft
and 80 ft) with slope angles ranging from vertical through 1V:1H. ODOTs guidelines also
include approximate percent of rocks retained (30 to 99%) and catchment area grades (4H:1V,
6H:1V, and Flat). The slopes used in this study were all smooth presplit slopes, meaning the
ditch width may have to be adjusted for natural slopes or for slopes with incorporated ledges.
A sample cross-section of slope using Oregon ditch design guidelines is shown in Figure 71.
Figure 71. Illustration. Cross-section of a typical Oregon ditch design (modified from Pierson, Gullixson, and
Chassie 2002).
Ditch construction generally requires standard earth moving equipment, such as a grader,
backhoe, or excavator. An exception is in areas where the ditch is to be constructed into rock; in
those cases, blasting may be required.
97
Hybrid Ditches
For slopes with heights greater than those provided in the ODOT criteria (24 m, or 79 ft) and for
slopes with potential launching features, a barrier can be constructed on the roadway side of the
ditch as Figure 72 shows. Numerous types of barriers can be used for hybrid ditches, including
MSE walls, concrete (Jersey) barriers, and earthen berms. Hybrid barriers increase the
effectiveness of the catchment ditch without increasing its required width.
Figure 72. Photo. A hybrid ditch design.
Hybrid ditch construction requires equipment similar to that used in conventional ditch
construction, plus equipment necessary for constructing the additional hybrid element.
98
CHAPTER 7 ROCKFALL MITIGATION SELECTION
Selecting effective rock slope stabilization and rockfall protection measures (collectively referred
to as rockfall mitigation) is critical for protecting the public and structures from falling rock.
Population growth, past practices, and the deterioration of older constructed rock slopes has
brought more attention to the need to mitigate existing rockfall hazards. In addition, there are
many naturally occurring rockfall areas that have become hazardous because of the presence of
roads or structures.
CONSIDERATIONS
Mitigation selection should be based on several things:
x The degree of security or reliability necessary for a site.
x The constructability of the potential options.
x The service life required.
x The suitability of potential mitigation options with respect to the characteristics of the
specific rock mass.
x Aesthetics.
x The cost effectiveness.
Security/Reliability
The reliability of rockfall mitigation is related to the potential or probability for damage or harm
in the event of a rockfall. The likelihood of a rockfall event causing immitigable damage would
determine the degree of increased security or level of hazard reduction. If the prospects of a rock
falling do not potentially cause a hazard or damage, then it is likely that mitigation is
unnecessary.
Constructability
The constructability of the mitigation plays a large role in its selection, and there are many facets
to this issue. For example, many sites along highways have unique space and right-of-way
characteristics. In these cases, typical issues may include the difficulty of installing a wide,
double-sided, mechanically stabilized earth (MSE) barrier, trimming and scaling of rocks located
above residences, or limited access to slopes for installing reinforcement or netting.
Service Life
The duration that rockfall mitigation is expected to be effective for (service life), can be related
to how fast the rock erodes and how fractured the rock is, as well as the most economical type of
mitigation for the site. For example, rock bolts placed in highly fractured shale may last only
three to five years and mitigate only large blocks. Maintenance costs on these bolts would be
expected to be high, and the rock face would probably need additional reinforcement on a regular
basis, but that cost might still be lower than reshaping the slope. However, if a client prefers a
long-term, low-maintenance solution, then a different mitigation solution would be selected.
99
Suitability
The suitability of rockfall mitigation is determined by several factors, and should be determined
based on a thorough analysis of the rockfall hazard and slope characteristics, which include the
presence of weak materials, discontinuities adverse to the slope strike and angle, block size, and
the presence of tension cracks and/or groundwater. The site should also be evaluated to
determine the potential effects of rockfall and the desired effects of the selected mitigation.
Aesthetics
Another consideration in rockfall mitigation selection is the aesthetic effect of the mitigation
method, as well as its potential impact on the natural scenery and historic setting and any native
wildlife. When developing mitigation alternatives, the measures should be constructed in such a
way as to minimize impacts to the setting while also reducing the potential rockfall hazard.
Cost Effectiveness
The effectiveness of mitigation relative to the initial and maintenance costs plays as substantial
role in its selection. More often than not, cost is the primary factor in selecting the type of
rockfall mitigation. Cost effectiveness can be difficult to measure in advance of installation and
is related to the probability of how much of the potential significant damage will be mitigated.
COMPARISON OF MITIGATION METHODS
Table 12 shows a qualitative comparison of different stabilization and protection measures. This
table is intended to be used as a quick reference. Roadway layout and rock characteristics will
have a large influence on each of the criteria and may alter the range of values for each.
MAINTENANCE CONCERNS
Following construction, maintenance personnel should perform daily patrols of rockfall-prone
areas to keep the travel way clear of hazardous debris. Patrol frequency can range from a few
times per shift during low-frequency periods to 24 hours per day, seven days a week during highrockfall periods. Seasonal occurrences of freeze/thaw or heavy precipitation as well as wild fires
and other events, all can increase rockfall potential.
Managing Rockfall Incidents
Documentation
Rockfall events should be documented to establish areas of increased rockfall activity and help
with future mitigation selection and design. Information that should be included in the rockfall
documentation includes:
x date and location of rockfall event (including a mile marker or other location
description);
x size and number of rocks involved;
x rockfall source area, if known;
x rockfall stopping point in relation to the travel corridor; and
x possible triggering mechanism(s).
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Table 12. Properties of different rockfall and slope stability mitigation measures.
Durability
Constructability/
Special Expertise
Road Closure/
Traffic Restrictions
Aesthetic Impacts
Cost
Maintenance
Requirements
L-H
L-M
L-M
L-M
L-H
M-H
L-H
L-H
L-H
L-M
M-H
M-H
M
M-H
M-H
H
H
M
M-H
M-H
H
H
M
H
H
P
P
P
P
P
L
L
M
M-H
L
M-H
M-H
M
M-H
M-H
L
L
L
L
L
L-H
M-H
L-H
L-M
L-M
M-H
M-H
M-H
M-H
M
M
Y
Y
M-H
M-H
L
L-M
L-H
L-M
L
L
L-M
M-H
M-H
M-H
M
M-H
M-H
M-H
H
L-M
M
M-H
M-H
L
L
M
M
M
P
P
P
Y
Y
L-M
M-H
M
M-H
M-H
L
L
L-M
M
M
M-H
M-H
M-H
M-H
M
Complexity
MITIGATION
MEASURE
Effectiveness
CRITERIA
STABILIZATION METHODS
Excavation
L-M
Hand/Mechanical
Scaling
L-H
Trim Blasting
Reinforcement
M-H
Rock Bolts
M
Dowels
M
Shear Pins
M-H
Shotcrete
M-H
Injectable
Resin/Epoxy
M
Wire Mesh
(anchored)
Drainage
L
Weep Drains
PROTECTION METHODS
Mesh/Cable Nets
Draped Mesh
Suspended Systems
Barriers and Fences
Earthen Berms
Concrete Barriers
Structural Walls
Fencing
Attenuators
Ditches
Ritchie/ODOT
L
M-H
H
L
P
L-M
L-H
L = low, M = medium, H = high, VH = very high, N = no, Y = yes, P = possibly
Action Plan
In all areas where rockfall occurs, a maintenance team should have a set action plan in case of a
large rockfall event. In high-risk areas, the plan must be well defined and routinely practiced by
maintenance personnel. The action plan should include:
x
x
x
x
roles and responsibilities of early responders;

contact information for emergency and traffic control personnel;
site-assessment procedure for qualified personnel, including slope stability evaluation and
possible remedial measures; and
location and/or procurement procedures for all machinery required for rockfall removal.
101
Maintenance Procedures
All cut slopes and their attendant stabilization and protection systems must be monitored for
damage, weathering, stability, and rock accumulation. Periodic maintenance will be needed to
uphold safety. In previous chapters, maintenance issues and possible rockfall-induced damage
were discussed with each mitigation method covered. Table 13 summarizes common
maintenance procedures for each of these measures.
Table 13. Maintenance procedures for mitigation measures.
MAINTAINED ITEM
STABILIZATION MEASURES
Cut Slope
Rock Bolts
Rock Dowels
Shear Pins
Shotcrete
Injectable Resin/Epoxy
Wire Mesh (Anchored)

Weep Drains
MAINTENANCE PROCEDURE
Periodic scaling (every 2 to 10 years) to remove loosened and/or unstable
material.
Check to ensure hex nuts and bearing plates are flush with rock face. Tighten
any loosened hex nuts to appropriate load.
If bolt extends from slope face, end may be cut for aesthetics. If grout adhesion
has failed or slope surface has eroded (i.e., slope extends past dowel end),
conduct stability analysis on slope.
Ensure bending or shearing of pins has not occurred from block movement. If
it has, shear pins may need to be re-installed or block removed.
If shotcrete is cracked or separated from rock face, remove and reapply.
Clear any drains that are plugged or blocked with obstructions.
Maintenance of resin/epoxy is not needed after injection. If rockfall or stability
problems persist after injection, additional stabilization or protection measures
may be needed.
Remove any accumulated material suspended in mesh or at slope base.
If mesh is damaged, repair or replace damaged section(s).
Clear drains periodically; remove any obstructions.
PROTECTION MEASURES
Draped Mesh/Suspended Mesh
Earthen Berms
Concrete Barriers
Structural Walls
Fencing/Hybrid Fencing
Ditches
Remove any accumulated material suspended in mesh or at slope base.

If mesh is damaged, repair or replace damaged section(s).
Clear accumulated material periodically. Repair any damaged section(s) of
berm.
Clear accumulated material periodically. Replace any damaged section(s) of
barrier.
Clear accumulated material periodically. Repair damaged section(s) of wall.
Clear accumulated material. Check fence, cables, braking devices, and posts
for damage and repair/replace any damaged part(s).
Clear accumulated material periodically.
102
CHAPTER 8 CONCLUSIONS
CHAPTER 8 CONCLUSIONS
Developing context sensitive solutions for rock slope design and rockfall mitigation is a stepwise
process that must involve all stakeholders early in the scoping and design process. Excavation
and mitigation design must take into account the areas scenic concerns, historical significance,
and wildlife corridors, as well as the safety, cost, and capacity of its roadways. Design
specifications should allow the project staff flexibility to modify the slope geometry and
engineer mitigation method(s) that fit regional characteristics, roadway theme, and geological
features. Context sensitive projects require frequent communication between the contractor and
the project owner to ensure the final product meets all stakeholders interests.
One of the most important considerations in a context sensitive transportation project is
developing a slope angle and configuration that fits within the context of the project setting. The
cut slope is typically visible to the motorists for a long distance as they move through the
corridor. Proper slope angle with respect to kinematics will have a large effect of the long-term
stability of the cut.
Rockfall mitigationincorporating both stabilization and protective measuresis another key
concern, and can have tremendous impact on roadway safety. Stabilization measures reduce the
frequency of rockfall by either removing the source of the rockfall or increasing the stability of
the rock face by increasing the resisting forces and/or decreasing the driving forces.
Stabilization measures are normally installed within the rock mass and are much less visible than
protection measures. Protection measures accept the reality that rockfall will occur and act to
stop, divert, or control it. These practices are installed external to the rock mass and therefore
are much more visible.
Maintenance for rock cuts, stabilization, and protective measures is essential to maintain a level
of safety required for the roadway. Continual weathering and erosion causes ever-increasing
rockfall potential and can decrease the effectiveness of stabilization methods. Protective
structures need to be monitored for damage, and accumulated material removed, to ensure their
proper functioning.
103
REFERENCES
REFERENCES
Ada County Highway District. April 3, 2003. Shaw Mountain Project Will Improve Road Safety
and Slope Stability. Project No. 502034.
Andrew, Richard D. 1992. Selection of Rockfall Mitigation Techniques Based on Colorado
Rockfall Simulation Program. Transportation Research Record Vol. 1343.
Transportation Research Board, National Research Council.
Arndt, B., M. DeMarco, and R. Andrew. Sept. 2008. Polyurethane Resin (PUR) Injection for
Rock Mass Stabilization. Publication No. FHWA-CFL/TD-08-004. Central Federal
Lands Highway Division, Federal Highway Administration, U.S. Department of
Transportation.
Brawner, C. O. 1994. Rockfall Hazard Mitigation Methods Participant Workbook. NHI Course
No. 13219: FHWA SA-93-085. Federal Highway Administration, U.S. Department of
Transportation.
Cummings, R. August 13-16, 2002. Rock Excavation Techniques for Aesthetic Enhancement.
Proceedings of the 53rd Annual Highway Geology Symposium.
DuPont Company. 1978. DuPont Blasters Handbook 16th edition. Wilmington, Del. E.I. du Pont
de Nemours & Co.
Hoek, E., and J. W. Bray. 1981. Rock Slope Engineering. 3rd edition. London, England. The
Institution of Mining and Metallurgy.
Kelly, L. O. 1970. A Guide to Ripping. CRP-Crose International, Inc.
Konya, C. J., and E. J. Walter. 2003. Rock Blasting and Overbreak Control. 2nd edition.
Publication No. FHWA-HI-92-001. Federal Highway Administration, U.S. Department
of Transportation.
Maher, M., et al. August 2005. Context Sensitive Roadway Surfacing Selection Guide. FHWA
CFL/TD-05-004. Federal Highway Administration, U.S. Department of Transportation.
Matheson, G. D. 1986. Design and Excavation of Stable Slopes in Hard Rock, With Particular
Reference to Presplit Blasting. Rock Excavation and Engineering in an Urban
Environment. London, England. The Institution of Mining and Metallurgy.
Muhunthan, B., et al. April 2005. Analysis and Design of Wire Mesh/Cable Net Slope
Protection. Report No. WA-RD 612.1. Washington State Department of Transportation.
Munfakh, G., D. Wyllie, and C. W. Mah. 1998. Rock Slopes Reference Manual. FHWA HI-99007. Federal Highway Administration, U.S. Department of Transportation.
Nichols, H. L., Jr., and D. A. Day. 2005. Moving Earth: The Workbook of Excavation. 5th
Edition. New York, N.Y. McGraw-Hill.
Pierson, L. A., S. A. Davis, and T. J. Pfeiffer. 1994. The Nature of Rockfall as the Basis for New
Catchment Area Design Criteria for 0.25H:1V Slopes, Report No. FHWA-OR-GT-95-05.
Oregon Department of Transportation.
Pierson, L. A., F. G. Gullixson, and R. G. Chassie. January 2002. Rockfall Catchment Area
Design Guide: Final Report SPR-3(032), FHWA-OR-RD-02-04. Oregon Department of
Transportation.
Ritchie, A.M. 1963. Evaluation of Rockfall and its Control, Highway Research Record No. 17.
Highway Research Board.
U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Reclamation. 2001. Engineering Geology Field
Manual. 2nd Edition, Vol. II. Washington, DC. U.S. Government Printing Office.
105
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Dick, R. A., L. R. Fletcher, and D. V. Andrea. 1987. Explosives and Blasting Procedure Manual.
Bureau of Mines Information Circular 8925. United States Bureau of Mines.
Franklin, J. A. and M. B. Dusseault. 1991. Rock Engineering Applications. New York:
McGraw-Hill.
Goodman, R. E. 1976. Methods of Geological Engineering in Discontinuous Rocks. St. Paul,
Minn.: West Publishing Company.
Handbook of Ripping: A Guide to Greater Profits. 4th ed. 1972. Peoria, Ill: Caterpillar Tractor
Company.
Hoek, E. and E. T. Brown. 1980. Underground Excavations in Rock. London: The
Institution of Mining and Metallurgy.
Hunt, R. E. Geotechnical Engineering Investigation Handbook. 2nd ed. Boca Raton: CRC Press.
Landslides Investigation and Mitigation. Special Report 247. 1996. Transportation
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107

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CONTEXT SENSITIVE ROCK SLOPE

Central Federal Lands Highway Division

Technical Report Documentation Page

4. Title and Subtitle

Context Sensitive Rock Slope Design Solutions

6. Performing Organization Code

8. Performing Organization Report No.

9. Performing Organization Name and Address

10. Work Unit No. (TRAIS)

15. Supplementary Notes

17. Key Words

18. Distribution Statement

20. Security Classif. (of this page)

21. No. of Pages

Reproduction of completed page authorized

SI* (MODERN METRIC) CONVERSION FACTORS

When You Know

TEMPERATURE (exact degrees)

FORCE and PRESSURE or STRESS

APPROXIMATE CONVERSIONS FROM SI UNITS

When You Know

TEMPERATURE (exact degrees)

FORCE and PRESSURE or STRESS

CONTEXT SENSITIVE ROCK SLOPE DESIGN SOLUTIONS TABLE OF CONTENTS

CONTEXT SENSITIVE ROCK SLOPE DESIGN SOLUTIONS TABLE OF CONTENTS

Portable Crane-Mounted or Hand-Held Drills ...................................................................... 31

CONTEXT SENSITIVE ROCK SLOPE DESIGN SOLUTIONS TABLE OF CONTENTS

Anchored Mesh/Nets ............................................................................................................ 87

CONTEXT SENSITIVE ROCK SLOPE DESIGN SOLUTIONS TABLE OF CONTENTS

CONTEXT SENSITIVE ROCK SLOPE DESIGN SOLUTIONS TABLE OF CONTENTS

CONTEXT SENSITIVE ROCK SLOPE DESIGN SOLUTIONS TABLE OF CONTENTS

CONTEXT SENSITIVE ROCK SLOPE DESIGN SOLUTIONS TABLE OF CONTENTS

CONTEXT SENSITIVE ROCK SLOPE DESIGN SOLUTIONS TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS

CONTEXT SENSITIVE ROCK SLOPE DESIGN SOLUTIONS TABLE OF CONTENTS

Advantages and limitations of existing and developing technologies and their

Relative cost comparisons of design, construction, and maintenance options.

Design methods and examples for each application.

CHAPTER 2 CONTEXT SENSITIVE CONSIDERATIONS FOR ROCK SLOPES

CHAPTER 2 CONTEXT SENSITIVE CONSIDERATIONS FOR ROCK SLOPES

CHAPTER 2 CONTEXT SENSITIVE CONSIDERATIONS FOR ROCK SLOPES

Figure 1. Illustration. Rock discontinuity orientation parameters.

CHAPTER 2 CONTEXT SENSITIVE CONSIDERATIONS FOR ROCK SLOPES

Rock Type and Structure:

CHAPTER 2 CONTEXT SENSITIVE CONSIDERATIONS FOR ROCK SLOPES

CHAPTER 2 CONTEXT SENSITIVE CONSIDERATIONS FOR ROCK SLOPES

CHAPTER 2 CONTEXT SENSITIVE CONSIDERATIONS FOR ROCK SLOPES

A standard of performance that is defined through measurable physical characteristics.

A list of acceptable/unacceptable stabilization and protective mitigation methods.

CHAPTER 2 CONTEXT SENSITIVE CONSIDERATIONS FOR ROCK SLOPES

Avoid shear rock faces

Figure 2. Illustration. Details of typical slope cuts to be avoided.

CHAPTER 2 CONTEXT SENSITIVE CONSIDERATIONS FOR ROCK SLOPES

CHAPTER 2 CONTEXT SENSITIVE CONSIDERATIONS FOR ROCK SLOPES

Proposed rock cut

Proposed rock cut

Figure 4. Illustration. Example of typical details for a sculpted rock cut.

Figure 5. Illustration. Slope variation details used to enhance aesthetics.

CHAPTER 3 ROCK EXCAVATION METHODS