Ecss e HB 32 20 Part5a

ECSS-E-HB-32-20 Part 5A
20 March 2011
Space engineering
Structural materials handbook Part 5: New advanced materials,
advanced
metallic
materials,
general design aspects and load
transfer and design of joints
NOTE:
Thispdffiledoesnotcontainautomaticcrossreferences.Tomakeuseof
thecrossreferencespleaseusetheMSWordversionofthisdocument.
ECSS Secretariat
ESA-ESTEC
Requirements & Standards Division
Noordwijk, The Netherlands
ECSSEHB3220Part5A
20March2011
Foreword
ThisHandbookisonedocumentoftheseriesofECSSDocumentsintendedtobeusedassupporting
materialforECSSStandardsinspaceprojectsandapplications.ECSSisacooperativeeffortofthe
European Space Agency, national space agencies and European industry associations for the
purposeofdevelopingandmaintainingcommonstandards.
ThishandbookhasbeenpreparedbytheECSSEHB3230WorkingGroup,reviewedbytheECSS
ExecutiveSecretariatandapprovedbytheECSSTechnicalAuthority.
Disclaimer
ECSS does not provide any warranty whatsoever, whether expressed, implied, or statutory,
including,butnotlimitedto,anywarrantyofmerchantabilityorfitnessforaparticularpurposeor
anywarrantythatthecontentsoftheitemareerrorfree.InnorespectshallECSSincuranyliability
for any damages, including, but not limited to, direct, indirect, special, or consequential damages
arisingoutof,resultingfrom,orinanywayconnectedtotheuseofthisdocument,whetherornot
baseduponwarranty,businessagreement,tort,orotherwise;whetherornotinjurywassustained
bypersonsorpropertyorotherwise;andwhetherornotlosswassustainedfrom,oraroseoutof,
theresultsof,theitem,oranyservicesthatmaybeprovidedbyECSS.
Publishedby:
Copyright:
ESARequirementsandStandardsDivision
ESTEC,P.O.Box299,
2200AGNoordwijk
TheNetherlands
2011bytheEuropeanSpaceAgencyforthemembersofECSS
ECSSEHB3220Part5A
20March2011
Change log
ECSSEHB3220Part5A
Firstissue
20March2011
ECSSEHB3220Part5A
20March2011
Table of contents
Change log .................................................................................................................3
Introduction..............................................................................................................27
46
Aluminium alloys and their composites .......................................................28

46.1 Introduction............................................................................................................... 28
46.1.1
General....................................................................................................... 28
46.1.2
Conventional aluminium alloys ................................................................... 28
46.1.3
New aluminium alloys................................................................................. 28
46.1.4
MMC - metal matrix composites ................................................................. 29
46.1.5
FML - fibre metal laminates ........................................................................ 29
46.1.6
Material availability ..................................................................................... 29
46.2 Conventional aluminium alloys ................................................................................. 30

46.2.1
General....................................................................................................... 30
46.2.2
Chemical composition ................................................................................ 30
46.2.3
Aerospace alloys ........................................................................................ 36
46.2.4
Properties ................................................................................................... 36
46.3 New aluminium alloys............................................................................................... 37

46.3.1
Developments............................................................................................. 37
46.3.2
Aluminium-scandium alloys ........................................................................ 37
46.4 Al-Li - Aluminium-lithium alloys ................................................................................ 38

46.4.1
Development .............................................................................................. 38
46.4.2
Processing.................................................................................................. 38
46.4.3
Applications ................................................................................................ 39
46.4.4
Producers ................................................................................................... 39
46.4.5
Manufacturing processes ........................................................................... 41
46.5 Al-Li alloys: Characteristics ...................................................................................... 42

46.5.1
General....................................................................................................... 42
46.5.2
Microstructure............................................................................................. 43
46.5.3
Further development .................................................................................. 44
46.6 Al-Li alloys: Properties.............................................................................................. 44
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46.6.1
Data ............................................................................................................ 44
46.6.2
Tensile properties ....................................................................................... 44
46.6.3
Fracture properties ..................................................................................... 46
46.6.4
Fatigue properties....................................................................................... 48
46.6.5
Design values ............................................................................................. 52
46.6.6
Further development alloys ........................................................................ 53
46.7 Al-Li alloys: Stress corrosion cracking...................................................................... 53

46.7.1
General....................................................................................................... 53
46.7.2
Test............................................................................................................. 54
46.7.3
Stress corrosion cracking resistance.......................................................... 54
46.7.4
Recent alloys .............................................................................................. 57
46.8 Al-Li alloys: Manufacturing aspects .......................................................................... 58

46.8.1
General....................................................................................................... 58
46.8.2
Machining ................................................................................................... 58
46.8.3
Welding....................................................................................................... 58
46.8.4
Cost implications ........................................................................................ 59
46.8.5
Applications ................................................................................................ 60
46.8.6
Mass-saving ............................................................................................... 60
46.9 Al-Li alloys: Potential applications ............................................................................ 60

46.9.1
General factors ........................................................................................... 60
46.9.2
Space Shuttle external tank........................................................................ 61
46.9.3
A380 - Floor beams .................................................................................... 63
46.10 Oxide dispersion strengthened (ODS) alloys ........................................................... 64

46.10.1 Type and effect of dispersions.................................................................... 64
46.10.2 Processing.................................................................................................. 64
46.10.3 Cost factors ................................................................................................ 65
46.10.4 Applications ................................................................................................ 65
46.10.5 Properties ................................................................................................... 66
46.11 Rapidly solidified powder (RSP) alloys..................................................................... 72
46.11.1 Processing.................................................................................................. 72
46.11.2 Microstructure............................................................................................. 73
46.11.3 Development .............................................................................................. 73
46.11.4 Ambient temperature .................................................................................. 73
46.11.5 Elevated temperature ................................................................................. 75
46.12 Al-MMCs - Metal matrix composites......................................................................... 77
46.12.1 Introduction................................................................................................. 77
46.12.2 Manufacturing processes ........................................................................... 77
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46.12.3 Reinforcement materials............................................................................. 78
46.12.4 MMC nomenclature .................................................................................... 78
46.12.5 Advantages of MMCs ................................................................................ 79
46.12.6 Material availability ..................................................................................... 79
46.12.7 Sources of further information .................................................................... 80
46.13 Discontinuously reinforced Al-MMCs........................................................................ 81
46.13.1 Features ..................................................................................................... 81
46.13.2 Development .............................................................................................. 81
46.13.3 Matrix alloys................................................................................................ 81
46.13.4 Types of reinforcement............................................................................... 81
46.13.5 Processing.................................................................................................. 84
46.14 Discontinuously reinforced Al-alloys: Properties ...................................................... 86
46.14.1 General....................................................................................................... 86
46.14.2 Powder metallurgy MMCs .......................................................................... 87
46.14.3 MMCs produced by melt infiltration processes .......................................... 93
46.14.4 Spray-formed materials ............................................................................ 100
46.14.5 Further information ................................................................................... 101
46.15 Continuously Reinforced Al-Alloy MMC.................................................................. 102
46.15.1 General..................................................................................................... 102
46.15.2 Fibres........................................................................................................ 102
46.15.3 Matrix alloys.............................................................................................. 105
46.15.4 Characteristics.......................................................................................... 105
46.15.5 Processing................................................................................................ 106
46.16 Continuously reinforced Al-alloy MMC: Properties ............................................... 107
46.16.1 Mechanical properties .............................................................................. 107
46.16.2 Physical properties ................................................................................... 112
46.17 Al-alloy MMC: Potential applications ...................................................................... 112
46.17.1 Benefits of Aluminium-matrix composites................................................. 112
46.17.2 High specific strength and temperature resistance .................................. 113
46.17.3 High specific stiffness and good thermal properties ................................. 113
46.17.4 High conductivity with low thermal expansion .......................................... 114
46.17.5 High specific stiffness and dimensional stability....................................... 114
46.17.6 High specific strength and chemical resistance........................................ 114
46.18 References ............................................................................................................. 114
46.18.1 General..................................................................................................... 114
46.18.2 Sources .................................................................................................... 123
46.18.3 ECSS documents ..................................................................................... 124
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46.18.4 ASTM standards....................................................................................... 124
46.18.5 Other standards........................................................................................ 124
47
Titanium alloys and their composites.........................................................125

47.1 Introduction............................................................................................................. 125
47.2 Conventional alloys ................................................................................................ 125
47.2.1
Material selection factors.......................................................................... 125
47.2.2
Microstructure........................................................................................... 126
47.2.3
Effect of alloy elements ............................................................................ 126
47.2.4
Alloy classes............................................................................................. 127
47.2.5
Alloys for aerospace use .......................................................................... 128
47.2.6
Heat treatment.......................................................................................... 130
47.2.7
Mechanical properties .............................................................................. 130
47.2.8
Physical properties ................................................................................... 136
47.3 New alloys .............................................................................................................. 137

47.3.1
Developments........................................................................................... 137
47.3.2
Processing techniques ............................................................................. 137
47.4 Superplastic forming and diffusion bonding ........................................................... 138

47.4.1
Superplasticity .......................................................................................... 138
47.4.2
Diffusion bonding...................................................................................... 138
47.4.3
SPF/DB fabrication ................................................................................... 138
47.4.4
Materials ................................................................................................... 139
47.5 Discontinuously reinforced Ti-alloys ....................................................................... 140

47.5.1
Difficulties ................................................................................................. 140
47.5.2
Particulate reinforcements........................................................................ 140
47.5.3
Processing................................................................................................ 141
47.5.4
Properties ................................................................................................. 141
47.5.5
Further development ................................................................................ 141
47.6 Continuous fibre reinforced Ti-alloy MMC .............................................................. 141

47.6.1
Composite development........................................................................... 141
47.6.2
Monofilament reinforcements ................................................................... 142
47.6.3
Matrix selection......................................................................................... 143
47.6.4
Composite process technologies.............................................................. 143
47.7 Continuous fibre reinforced Ti-alloy MMC: properties ............................................ 144

47.7.1
Composite optimisation ............................................................................ 144
47.7.2
Tensile strength and stiffness................................................................... 144
47.7.3
Fatigue...................................................................................................... 146
47.7.4
Fracture toughness................................................................................... 147
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47.7.5
Elevated temperatures ............................................................................. 147
47.7.6
Thermo-mechanical fatigue ...................................................................... 147
47.8 Titanium alloys: Effect of hydrogen ........................................................................ 149

47.8.1
Material degradation mechanisms............................................................ 149
47.9 Titanium alloys: Effect of oxygen............................................................................ 150

47.9.1
Oxidation .................................................................................................. 150
47.9.2
Ignition and burning .................................................................................. 151
47.10 Coatings and protection systems ........................................................................... 151

47.10.1 Requirements ........................................................................................... 151
47.10.2 Potential coatings ..................................................................................... 151
47.11 Ti-alloys and MMCs: Potential applications............................................................ 152
47.11.1 Current use............................................................................................... 152
47.11.2 Developments........................................................................................... 152
47.11.3 Aerospace applications ............................................................................ 153
47.12 References ............................................................................................................. 154
47.12.1 General..................................................................................................... 154
47.12.2 ECSS documents ..................................................................................... 157
48
Superalloys and their composites ..............................................................158

48.1 Introduction............................................................................................................. 158
48.1.1
General..................................................................................................... 158
48.1.2
Alloy development .................................................................................... 158
48.1.3
Composites............................................................................................... 158
48.1.4
Service environment................................................................................. 159
48.1.5
Coating systems ....................................................................................... 159
48.2 Conventional alloys ................................................................................................ 159

48.2.1
General..................................................................................................... 159
48.2.2
Alloy groups.............................................................................................. 159
48.2.3
Aircraft engine applications ...................................................................... 160
48.2.4
Spacecraft engine applications................................................................. 168
48.3 New alloys .............................................................................................................. 171

48.3.1
Developments........................................................................................... 171
48.3.2
Directional solidification (DS).................................................................... 172
48.3.3
Single crystal (SC).................................................................................... 172
48.3.4
Powder metallurgy (PM) ........................................................................... 173
48.3.5
Oxide dispersion strengthened (ODS) alloys ........................................... 175
48.4 Discontinuously reinforced composites .................................................................. 177

48.5 Continuously reinforced composites ...................................................................... 178
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48.5.1
48.6 Tungsten fibre reinforced superalloy (TFRS) composites ...................................... 179

48.6.1
Development ............................................................................................ 179
48.6.2
Matrix alloys.............................................................................................. 180
48.6.3
48.6.4
Characteristics.......................................................................................... 186
48.7 Effect of hydrogen .................................................................................................. 186

48.7.1
Degradation mechanisms......................................................................... 186
48.7.2
Hydrogen embrittlement (HE)................................................................... 187
48.7.3
Hydrogen environment embrittlement (HEE)............................................ 188
48.7.4
Material sensitivity .................................................................................... 188
48.7.5
Creep in hydrogen environments ............................................................. 191
48.7.6
Fatigue in hydrogen environments ........................................................... 196
48.7.7
Fracture characteristics ............................................................................ 197
48.8 Effect of oxygen...................................................................................................... 200

48.8.1
Material selection factors.......................................................................... 200
48.8.2
Oxidation .................................................................................................. 200
48.8.3
Oxidation resistance ................................................................................. 200
48.8.4
Ignition and burn....................................................................................... 201
48.9 Coatings and protection systems ........................................................................... 202

48.9.1
Requirements ........................................................................................... 202
48.9.2
Types of coatings ..................................................................................... 203
48.9.3
Coating systems ....................................................................................... 203
48.9.4
Coated components ................................................................................. 203
48.9.5
Hydrogen fuel ........................................................................................... 203
48.10 Diffusion coatings ................................................................................................... 204

48.10.1 Types of coatings ..................................................................................... 204
48.11 Overlay coatings..................................................................................................... 207
48.11.1 Development ............................................................................................ 207
48.12 Thermal barrier coatings (TBC) .............................................................................. 209
48.12.1 Function.................................................................................................... 209
48.12.2 Coating construction................................................................................. 210
48.13 Coating influence on design ................................................................................... 211
48.13.1 Factors...................................................................................................... 211
48.13.2 Effect of coatings on mechanical properties............................................. 214
48.13.3 Chemical interaction ................................................................................. 214
48.13.4 Residual strains ........................................................................................ 216
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48.13.5 Tensile behaviour ..................................................................................... 217
48.13.6 Fatigue resistance .................................................................................... 219
48.13.7 Creep and relaxation ................................................................................ 222
48.13.8 Creep fatigue ............................................................................................ 226
48.14 Coatings: Future developments ............................................................................. 227
48.14.1 Materials ................................................................................................... 227
48.14.2 Service temperature ................................................................................. 228
48.14.3 Hydrogen environments ........................................................................... 228
48.15 Superalloys: Potential applications......................................................................... 228
48.15.1 Conventional alloys .................................................................................. 228
48.16 References ............................................................................................................. 230
48.16.1 General..................................................................................................... 230
48.16.2 ECSS documents ..................................................................................... 234
49
Intermetallic materials..................................................................................235
49.1 Introduction............................................................................................................. 235
49.1.1
Types of intermetallic compounds ............................................................ 235
49.2 Aluminide development .......................................................................................... 235

49.2.1
Features ................................................................................................... 235
49.2.2
Applications .............................................................................................. 236
49.2.3
Property data ............................................................................................ 237
49.2.4
Availability................................................................................................. 237
49.3 Nickel aluminides ................................................................................................... 237

49.3.1
49.4 Nickel aluminides: Properties ................................................................................. 240

49.4.1
General..................................................................................................... 240
49.4.2
49.4.3
49.4.4
Aqueous corrosion.................................................................................... 243
49.4.5
Coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE).................................................... 243
49.5 Titanium aluminides ............................................................................................... 244

49.5.1
General..................................................................................................... 244
49.5.2
49.5.3
Effect of micro-alloying or doping ............................................................. 245
49.6 Titanium aluminides: Properties ............................................................................. 247

49.6.1
General..................................................................................................... 247
49.6.2
49.6.3
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49.6.4
Thermophysical properties ....................................................................... 256
49.7 Iron aluminides ....................................................................................................... 260

49.7.1
49.8 Processing.............................................................................................................. 263

49.8.1
Development ............................................................................................ 263
49.8.2
Material processing .................................................................................. 263
49.8.3
Joining ...................................................................................................... 266
49.9 Further developments ............................................................................................ 266

49.9.1
Intermetallic compounds........................................................................... 266
49.9.2
Intermetallic matrix composites (IMC) ...................................................... 267
49.9.3
Protective coatings ................................................................................... 268
49.10 Intermetallic matrix composites .............................................................................. 268

49.10.1 General..................................................................................................... 268
49.10.2 Development ............................................................................................ 268
49.10.3 High temperature Ti-based IMC ............................................................... 270
49.11 Intermetallics: Potential applications ...................................................................... 274
49.11.1 General..................................................................................................... 274
49.11.2 Spaceplanes............................................................................................. 276
49.12 References ............................................................................................................. 276
49.12.1 General..................................................................................................... 276
50
Refractory and precious metals ..................................................................280

50.1 Introduction............................................................................................................. 280
50.2 Materials................................................................................................................. 280
50.2.1
General..................................................................................................... 280
50.2.2
50.2.3
Basic properties........................................................................................ 281
50.2.4
Alloys ........................................................................................................ 282
50.3 Applications ............................................................................................................ 282
51
Beryllium .......................................................................................................283
51.1 Introduction............................................................................................................. 283
51.2 Characteristics........................................................................................................ 283
51.2.1
Features ................................................................................................... 283
51.2.2
Applications .............................................................................................. 283
51.3 Products and facilities ............................................................................................ 284

51.3.1
Source ...................................................................................................... 284
51.3.2
Materials ................................................................................................... 284
51.3.3
Grades...................................................................................................... 284
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51.3.4
Fabrication................................................................................................ 285
51.4 Properties ............................................................................................................... 286

51.4.1
Influence of microstructure ....................................................................... 286
51.4.2
Grades...................................................................................................... 286
51.4.3
51.4.4
Effect of temperature ................................................................................ 287
51.5 Health and safety ................................................................................................... 294

51.5.1
Facilities.................................................................................................... 294
51.5.2
Health aspects.......................................................................................... 294
51.5.3
Extraction.................................................................................................. 295
51.6 Potential applications ............................................................................................. 295

51.6.1
Resum .................................................................................................... 295
51.7 References ............................................................................................................. 295

51.7.1
52
General..................................................................................................... 295
Ceramic matrix composites.........................................................................296

52.1 Introduction............................................................................................................. 296
52.2 Continuous fibre composites .................................................................................. 296
52.2.1
Matrix groups............................................................................................ 296
52.2.2
52.2.3
Technology status .................................................................................... 301
52.2.4
52.3 Carbon fibre reinforced silicon carbide ................................................................... 302

52.3.1
General..................................................................................................... 302
52.3.2
Fibres........................................................................................................ 303
52.3.3
Matrix........................................................................................................ 303
52.3.4
52.3.5
C/SiC LPI liquid polymer infiltration process............................................. 306
52.3.6
C/C-SiC LSI liquid silicon infiltration process............................................ 314
52.4 Silicon carbide fibre reinforced silicon carbide ....................................................... 315

52.4.1
52.4.2
Applications .............................................................................................. 316
52.4.3
52.4.4
Manufacturing of SiC-SiC ......................................................................... 316
52.5 SiC-SiC composite: Properties ............................................................................... 317

52.5.1
General..................................................................................................... 317
52.5.2
52.5.3
Environment ............................................................................................. 321
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52.6 Whisker reinforced composites .............................................................................. 321
52.6.1
Development ............................................................................................ 321
52.6.2
Properties ................................................................................................. 324
52.6.3
Applications .............................................................................................. 324

52.7.1
Resum .................................................................................................... 324
52.7.2
High temperature applications.................................................................. 324
52.7.3
High precision optical structures............................................................... 327
52.8 References ............................................................................................................. 329

52.8.1
53
General..................................................................................................... 329
Glass and glass-ceramic matrix composites .............................................337

53.1 Introduction............................................................................................................. 337
53.2 Continuous fibre composites .................................................................................. 337
53.2.1
53.2.2
53.2.3
Manufacture.............................................................................................. 339
53.3 Carbon fibre reinforced composites ....................................................................... 340

53.3.1
Material..................................................................................................... 340
53.3.2
53.3.3
Applications .............................................................................................. 343
53.4 Silicon carbide fibre reinforced composites ............................................................ 344

53.4.1
53.4.2
Effect of in-situ fibre strength.................................................................... 346
53.4.3
Effect of fibre-matrix bonding.................................................................... 346
53.5 Silicon carbide reinforced composites: properties .................................................. 346

53.5.1
LAS matrix composites............................................................................. 346
53.5.2

53.6.1
53.7 References ............................................................................................................. 359

53.7.1
54
General..................................................................................................... 359
Carbon-Carbon matrix composites.............................................................362

54.1 Introduction............................................................................................................. 362
54.1.1
Applications .............................................................................................. 362
54.1.2
High temperature...................................................................................... 362
54.1.3
Dimensional stability................................................................................. 362
54.2 Material description ................................................................................................ 362

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54.2.1
54.2.2
Manufacturing techniques ........................................................................ 364
54.3 C-C composite: Properties ..................................................................................... 367

54.3.1
54.4 Oxidation protection systems ................................................................................. 371

54.4.1
Requirements ........................................................................................... 371
54.4.2
Coating development................................................................................ 371
54.4.3
Matrix modification.................................................................................... 371
54.4.4
Design factors........................................................................................... 372

54.5.1
Resum .................................................................................................... 373
54.5.2
Commercial availability............................................................................. 373
54.6 Dimensionally stable structures.............................................................................. 374

54.6.1
Introduction............................................................................................... 374
54.6.2
Material characterisation .......................................................................... 375
54.6.3
Manufacturing process ............................................................................. 375
54.6.4
Sandwich structures ................................................................................. 377
54.6.5
Cylinder structures.................................................................................... 378
54.7 References ............................................................................................................. 380

54.7.1
55
General..................................................................................................... 380
Material availability.......................................................................................383
55.1 Introduction............................................................................................................. 383
55.2 Material forms......................................................................................................... 383
55.2.1
General..................................................................................................... 383
55.2.2
Procurement ............................................................................................. 383
55.2.3
Processing................................................................................................ 383
55.3 Standard product forms .......................................................................................... 384

55.3.1
General..................................................................................................... 384
55.3.2
Wrought metal products ........................................................................... 384
55.3.3
Standard materials for net-shape processing........................................... 384
55.4 Net-shape components .......................................................................................... 385

55.5 Data and product support....................................................................................... 385
55.5.1
Material supply ......................................................................................... 385
55.5.2
Property data ............................................................................................ 386
55.6 Data sources .......................................................................................................... 386

55.6.1
European expertise .................................................................................. 386
55.7 Costs ...................................................................................................................... 388
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55.7.1
56
Relative comparisons of materials............................................................ 388
General design rules ....................................................................................391

56.1 Introduction............................................................................................................. 391
56.2 Mechanical response ............................................................................................. 391
56.2.1
General..................................................................................................... 391
56.2.2
56.2.3
Material characteristics............................................................................. 392
56.3 Stress-strain response ........................................................................................... 394

56.3.1
Isotropic and anisotropic materials ........................................................... 394
56.4 Fracture characteristics .......................................................................................... 397

56.4.1
General..................................................................................................... 397
56.4.2
Near-isotropic materials with modest ductility .......................................... 397
56.4.3
Anisotropic, fibre reinforced MMCs .......................................................... 397
56.4.4
Anisotropic, fibre reinforced CMCs........................................................... 398
56.5 Residual stresses ................................................................................................... 399

56.5.1
Isotropic materials .................................................................................... 399
56.5.2
Anisotropic materials ................................................................................ 399
56.5.3
Influence on microstructure ...................................................................... 399
56.5.4
Influence on structures ............................................................................. 400
56.6 Defects ................................................................................................................... 400

56.6.1
General..................................................................................................... 400
56.6.2
Defect sources.......................................................................................... 400
56.6.3
Isotropic materials .................................................................................... 400
56.6.4
Anisotropic materials ................................................................................ 401
56.7 Machining ............................................................................................................... 402
57
56.7.1
General..................................................................................................... 402
56.7.2
Isotropic metal alloys ................................................................................ 402
56.7.3
Particulate MMC ....................................................................................... 402
56.7.4
Continuous fibre MMC.............................................................................. 402
56.7.5
Carbon-Carbon composites...................................................................... 403
56.7.6
Ceramic matrix composites ...................................................................... 403
56.7.7
Techniques ............................................................................................... 403
Environmental aspects of design................................................................404

57.1 Introduction............................................................................................................. 404
57.2 Space parameters .................................................................................................. 404
57.2.1
Material selection...................................................................................... 404
57.3 Application specifics ............................................................................................... 406

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57.3.1
Material selection...................................................................................... 406
57.4 Protection systems ................................................................................................. 406

57.4.1
Requirements ........................................................................................... 406
57.4.2
Types of protection systems..................................................................... 407
57.4.3
Evaluation of protection systems.............................................................. 407
57.5 References ............................................................................................................. 408

57.5.1
58
General..................................................................................................... 408
Joint selection factors..................................................................................410

58.1 Introduction............................................................................................................. 410
58.2 Basic considerations .............................................................................................. 410
58.2.1
Material characteristics............................................................................. 410
58.2.2
Joint strength ............................................................................................ 413
58.2.3
Joint design factors................................................................................... 414
58.3 Interlayers............................................................................................................... 414

58.3.1
Function and effect on fused joints........................................................... 414
58.4 Joint consolidation.................................................................................................. 415

58.4.1
Temperature and pressure ....................................................................... 415
58.5 Material compatibility.............................................................................................. 416

58.5.1
Chemical and physical.............................................................................. 416
58.6 Load introduction.................................................................................................... 417

58.6.1
Basic principles......................................................................................... 417
58.7 Operational environment ........................................................................................ 418

58.7.1
Environmental factors............................................................................... 418
58.8 References ............................................................................................................. 418

58.8.1
59
General..................................................................................................... 418
Joints between dissimilar materials ...........................................................419

59.1 Introduction............................................................................................................. 419
59.2 Requirements ......................................................................................................... 419
60
59.2.1
Temperature range................................................................................... 419
59.2.2
Structures ................................................................................................. 419
59.2.3
Loading..................................................................................................... 420
59.2.4
Joining methods ....................................................................................... 420
59.2.5
Joint components ..................................................................................... 421
Fusion joining ...............................................................................................422

60.1 Introduction............................................................................................................. 422
60.2 Joining techniques.................................................................................................. 422
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60.2.1
General..................................................................................................... 422
60.2.2
Liquid-phase processing........................................................................... 423
60.2.3
Solid-phase processing ............................................................................ 424
60.3 Joint configuration and performance ...................................................................... 424

60.3.1
60.3.2
Joint strength ............................................................................................ 427
60.4 References ............................................................................................................. 428

60.4.1
61
General..................................................................................................... 428
Mechanical connections ..............................................................................432

61.1 Introduction............................................................................................................. 432
61.1.1
Requirements ........................................................................................... 432
61.2 Versatile joints ........................................................................................................ 433

61.2.1
Applications .............................................................................................. 433
61.2.2
Mechanical techniques ............................................................................. 433
62
(Heading number reserved) .........................................................................435
63
(Heading number reserved) .........................................................................435
Figures
Figure 46.2-1 Aluminium alloys: Chemical composition and temper designation ............... 31
Figure 46.6-1 - Al-Li alloys: Fracture toughness versus yield strength for sheet
materials .............................................................................................................. 48
Figure 46.6-2 - Al-Li alloys: Comparison of fatigue crack growth behaviour for 2024T3 and 8090-T81 ................................................................................................. 49
Figure 46.6-3 - Al-Li alloys: Comparison of fatigue crack growth behaviour for 2024T3 and 2091-T8X................................................................................................. 50
Figure 46.6-4 - Al-Li alloys: Comparison of fatigue crack growth behaviour LITAL A
(8090) forgings at 20C........................................................................................ 52
Figure 46.7-1 - Al-Li Alloys: Influence of temper on stress corrosion cracking initiation
for 8090 plates, S-T direction............................................................................... 55
Figure 46.9-1 - Al-Li alloys: Applications - Space Shuttle external tank, major changes
from LWT ............................................................................................................. 62
Figure 46.9-2 - Al-Li alloys: Applications Airbus A380 floor beams..................................... 64
Figure 46.10-1 - Aluminium ODS alloys: Comparison of elevated temperature tensile
strength for various mechanically alloyed materials with Al-2618........................ 66
Figure 46.10-2 - Aluminium ODS alloys: Comparison of elevated temperature tensile
strength, proof stress and ductility ....................................................................... 67
Figure 46.10-3 - Aluminium ODS alloys: Effect of consolidation method on proof
stress ................................................................................................................... 68
Figure 46.10-4 - Aluminium ODS alloys: Effect of consolidation method on ductility............. 69
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Figure 46.10-5 - Aluminium ODS alloys: Creep response at 400C for 3 stress levels ......... 70
Figure 46.10-6 - Aluminium ODS alloys: Comparison of tensile creep curves at
different stress levels with Al-2618 ...................................................................... 71
Figure 46.10-7 - Aluminium ODS alloys: Comparison of fatigue resistance with Al2024..................................................................................................................... 72
Figure 46.12-1 Al-MMCs: Overview of manufacturing processes ....................................... 78
Figure 46.14-1 Al-MMCs: Typical elevated temperature properties of 2009/SiC-T4
DRA compared with conventional wrought aluminium alloys .............................. 92
Figure 46.14-2 Al-MMCs: Typical room and elevated temperature fatigue properties
of 2009/SiC DRA compared with conventional wrought aluminium alloys........... 93
Figure 46.17-1 Al-MMCs: Comparison between Al-continuously reinforced alumina
fibre composites and other materials................................................................. 113
Figure 47.2-1 - Titanium alloys: Effect of temperature on stiffness ...................................... 132
Figure 47.2-2 - Titanium alloys: Effect of temperature on strength ...................................... 133
Figure 47.2-3 - Titanium alloys: Creep properties ................................................................ 134
Figure 47.2-4 - Titanium alloys: Fatigue strength................................................................. 135
Figure 47.2-5 - Titanium alloys: UTS at elevated temperature for IMI 829 and Ti-1100 ...... 136
Figure 47.4-1 - SPF/DB fabrication: Titanium alloy m-values as a function of strain
rate..................................................................................................................... 140
Figure 47.7-1 - Titanium matrix composites: Fatigue life from in-phase and out-ofphase thermal-mechanical fatigue tests ............................................................ 149
Figure 48.2-1 - Superalloys: Development Curve ................................................................ 160
Figure 48.2-2 - Superalloys: Cooled turbine blade............................................................... 168
Figure 48.2-3 - Operating regimes for Space Shuttle and aero-engine turbines.................. 170
Figure 48.3-1 - ODS superalloys: Comparison of yield strength with casting
superalloys......................................................................................................... 176
Figure 48.3-2 - ODS superalloys: Comparison of tensile elongation with casting
superalloys......................................................................................................... 177
Figure 48.7-1 - Effect of hydrogen on creep rupture of Inconel 718 STA2........................... 192
Figure 48.7-2 - Effect of hydrogen on creep rupture of Inconel 718 STA1........................... 193
Figure 48.7-3 - Effect of hydrogen on creep rupture of Inconel 625..................................... 193
Figure 48.7-4 - Effect of hydrogen on creep rupture of Waspalloy....................................... 194
Figure 48.7-5 - Effect of hydrogen on creep rupture of MAR-M-246 conventionally
cast .................................................................................................................... 194
Figure 48.7-6 - Effect of hydrogen on creep rupture of MAR-M-246 directionally
solidified............................................................................................................. 195
Figure 48.7-7 - Effect of hydrogen on creep rupture of MAR-M-246 single crystal .............. 195
Figure 48.7-8 - Low cycle fatigue (LCF) life of Inconel 718 against temperature................. 196
Figure 48.7-9 - Superalloys: Crack growth rate of IN718 under various stress
intensities and hydrogen environments ............................................................. 198
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Figure 48.7-10 - Superalloys: Crack growth rate of IN718 as a function of cyclic rates
and hydrogen environments .............................................................................. 199
Figure 48.12-1 - Thermal barrier coating: Typical construction materials ............................ 210
Figure 48.13-1 - Coating design: Effect of temperature gradients on diffusion .................... 215
Figure 48.13-2 - Coating design: Example of failure diagram for IN-738LC ........................ 219
Figure 48.13-3 - Coating design: High cycle fatigue characteristics of coated CMSX-2......... 221
Figure 48.13-4 - Coating design: Schematic creep curves for substrate metal and
coating ............................................................................................................... 222
Figure 48.13-5 - Coating design: Schematic creep curves for coated system ..................... 223
Figure 48.13-6 - Coating design: Effect of coatings on stress rupture properties of
CSMX-2 alloy..................................................................................................... 224
Figure 48.13-7 - Coating design: Effect of plasma sprayed coating on stress rupture
properties of Cotac 784 alloy ............................................................................. 225
Figure 48.13-8 - Coating design: Typical creep fatigue effects for cooled gas turbine
blades ................................................................................................................ 227
Figure 48.15-1 - Superalloys: Space applications Hot structure ....................................... 229
Figure 49.6-1 - Titanium aluminides: Effect of temperature on Youngs modulus................ 252
Figure 49.6-2 - Titanium aluminides: Two-phase alloys - Ductility versus temperature ....... 253
Figure 49.6-3 - Titanium aluminides: Comparison of fatigue characteristics with Rene
95 superalloy ..................................................................................................... 254
Figure 49.6-4 - Titanium aluminides: Two-phase alloys Thermal diffusivity versus
temperature ....................................................................................................... 256
Figure 49.6-5 - Titanium aluminides: Two-phase alloys Specific heat versus
temperature ....................................................................................................... 257
Figure 49.6-6 - Titanium aluminides: Two-phase alloys Thermal conductivity versus
temperature ....................................................................................................... 258
Figure 49.6-7 - Titanium aluminides: Two-phase alloys Coefficient of thermal
expansion versus temperature .......................................................................... 260
Figure 49.7-1 - Iron aluminides: Room temperature behaviour of Fe-40Al(at. %) +
boron additions in different conditions ............................................................... 262
Figure 49.7-2 - Iron aluminides: Effect of conditioning and elevated temperature on
strength of Yttria ODS alloy system ................................................................... 263
Figure 49.10-1 - Intermetallic matrix composites: Characteristics of orthorhombic
phase titanium aluminide matrix ........................................................................ 271
Figure 49.10-2 - Intermetallic matrix composites: TiAl/SiC composite - Insamet foilfibre-foil processing steps ................................................................................. 273
Figure 49.11-1 - Intermetallics: Potential applications - Elevated temperature specific
strengths of materials ........................................................................................ 275
Figure 49.11-2 - Intermetallics: Potential applications - Outer skin structures for space
applications........................................................................................................ 276
Figure 51.4-1 - Beryllium S-200 grades: Effect of temperature on 0.2% yield strength ....... 289
Figure 51.4-2 - Beryllium S-200 grades: Effect of temperature on ultimate tensile
strength.............................................................................................................. 289
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Figure 51.4-3 - Beryllium S-200 grades: Effect of temperature on elongation ..................... 290
Figure 51.4-4 - Beryllium: Effect of temperature on thermal conductivity............................. 292
Figure 51.4-5 - Beryllium: Effect of temperature on diffusivity.............................................. 292
Figure 51.4-6 - Beryllium: Effect of temperature on expansion ............................................ 293
Figure 51.4-7 - Beryllium: Effect of temperature on specific heat capacity .......................... 294
Figure 52.2-1 - CMC composite development...................................................................... 298
Figure 52.2-2 - CMC composite development: Material combinations................................. 301
Figure 52.3-1 - Ceramic matrix composites: C-SiC load versus displacement curves
at RT and 1600C .............................................................................................. 305
Figure 52.3-2 - C/SiC LPI (EADS-ST): Manufacturing and inspection flow chart................. 307
Figure 52.3-3 - C/SiC LPI (EADS-ST): Specific heat capacity ............................................. 309
Figure 52.3-4 - C/SiC LPI (EADS-ST): Thermal conductivity ............................................... 310
Figure 52.3-5 - C/SiC LPI (EADS-ST): Surface emittance, with anti-oxidation coating........ 311
Figure 52.3-6 - C/SiC LPI (EADS-ST): Architecture of multi-layer, self-healing OPS .......... 312
Figure 52.3-7 - C/SiC LPI (EADS-ST): Function of layers in OPS ....................................... 313
Figure 52.3-8 - C/C-SiC LSI (DLR): Mechanical properties for XT and XB grades .............. 315
Figure 52.5-1 - SiC-SiC composites: High temperature flexural strength of various
compositions...................................................................................................... 317
Figure 52.5-2 - SiC-SiC composite (bidirectional): Typical tensile stress-strain curve ......... 318
Figure 52.5-3 - SiC-SiC composites: Typical bending strength versus temperature
profiles compared with C-SiC composite........................................................... 319
Figure 52.5-4 SiC-SiC composites: Representative through-thickness fracture
toughness versus temperature compared with C-SiC ....................................... 320
Figure 52.7-1 Ceramic matrix composites: FOLDHOST concept for deployable
decelerator......................................................................................................... 326
Figure 52.7-2 Ceramic matrix composites: Applications X-38 body flaps ...................... 327
Figure 52.7-3 - Ceramic matrix composites: Applications Optical communications
systems.............................................................................................................. 328
Figure 53.5-1 - Glass-ceramic composites: Tensile stress-strain curve for
unidirectional (0) SiC/LAS-II at room temperature ........................................... 347
Figure 53.5-2 - Glass-ceramic composites: Flexural stress-strain curve for
SiC/BMAS-III...................................................................................................... 348
Figure 53.5-3 - SiC reinforced glass-ceramic composite: Flexural strength versus
temperature for unidirectional SiC/LAS ............................................................. 349
Figure 53.5-4 - SiC reinforced glass-ceramic composite: Flexural strength versus
temperature for unidirectional SiC/LAS-III ......................................................... 350
Figure 53.5-5 - SiC reinforced glass-ceramic composite: Compressive stress-strain
response of 0, 0/90, and 45 SiC/LAS-III, at 23C....................................... 351
Figure 53.5-6 - SiC reinforced glass-ceramic composite: Flexural stress-strain data
for 0/45/90 SiC/LAS for a wide temperature range...................................... 351
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Figure 53.5-7 - SiC reinforced glass-ceramic composite: Strengths versus
temperature for monolithic LAS (Pyroceram) and unidirectional LAS/SiC
(Compglas) ........................................................................................................ 352
Figure 53.5-8 - SiC reinforced glass-ceramic composite: Dependence of failure
strengths with temperature and loading mode for 0 Compglas and
monolithic Pyroceram ........................................................................................ 353
Figure 53.5-9 - SiC reinforced glass-ceramic composite: Comparison of flexural
strength under various loading conditions for 0 SiC/LAS at 22C .................... 354
strength under various loading conditions for 0 SiC/LAS at 600C .................. 355
strength under various loading conditions for 0 SiC/LAS at 900C .................. 355
Figure 53.5-12 - SiC reinforced glass-ceramic composite: Room temperature fourpoint flexural fatigue of 0 SiC/LAS-II ................................................................ 356
Figure 53.5-13 - SiC reinforced glass-ceramic composite: Room temperature tensile
fatigue of 0 SiC/LAS-III..................................................................................... 357
Figure 53.5-14 - SiC reinforced glass-ceramic composite: Room temperature uniaxial
tensile fatigue of 0/90 SiC/LAS-II and 0/90 SiC/LAS-III ............................... 357
Figure 54.2-1 - Carbon-carbon composites: Schematic diagram of material selection
and processing routes ....................................................................................... 364
Figure 54.2-2 - Carbon-carbon composites: 4-D fibre architecture in SEPCARB 4-D........ 365
Figure 54.2-3 - Carbon-carbon composites: 3-D fibre preforms........................................... 365
Figure 54.2-4 - Carbon-carbon composites: Examples of multidirectional fibre
preforms............................................................................................................. 366
Figure 54.3-1 - Carbon-carbon composites: Predicted modulus values from
conventional theory without a matrix contribution.............................................. 368
Figure 54.3-2 - Carbon-carbon composites: Tensile response of 3-D composite ................ 369
Figure 54.3-3 - Carbon-carbon composites: Tensile response of 4-D composite ................ 370
Figure 54.6-1 Carbon-carbon composites: Manufacturing process equipment................. 376
Figure 54.6-2 Carbon-carbon composites: GOCE gradiometer ........................................ 377
Figure 54.6-3 Carbon-carbon composites: Test cylinders................................................. 379
Figure 54.6-4 Carbon-carbon composites: Pleiades flight cylinder ................................... 379
Figure 56.3-1 - Metals and MMCs: Stress-strain response compared with CFRP............... 395
Figure 56.3-2 - Metals and ceramic-based materials: Stress-strain response ..................... 396
Tables
Table 46.2-1 - Aluminium alloys: Comparison of national specifications for wrought
alloys.................................................................................................................... 33
Table 46.2-2 - Aluminium alloys: Comparison of national specifications for casting
alloys.................................................................................................................... 35
Table 46.4-1 - Al-Li alloys: Commercial sources and products .............................................. 40
Table 46.5-1 - Al-Li alloys: Typical properties compared with 7075....................................... 42
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Table 46.6-1 - Al-Li alloys: Mechanical properties ................................................................. 45
Table 46.6-2 - Al-Li alloys: Fracture properties ...................................................................... 47
Table 46.6-3 - Al-Li alloys: Fatigue crack growth rate of 1441 and 1163 sheet ..................... 51
Table 46.6-4 - Al-Li alloys: Design tensile strengths for extruded 8090 alloys ....................... 53
Table 46.7-1 - Al-Li alloys: Alloy 8090 - Results of stress corrosion tests.............................. 55
Table 46.7-2 - Al-Li alloys: Tentative stress corrosion thresholds for 8090 alloy ................... 56
Table 46.7-3 - Al-Li alloys: Results of stress corrosion test on sheet material, as
performed by NLR ............................................................................................... 56
Table 46.7-4 - Al-Li Alloys: SCC initiation behaviour of 8090 alloy compared with that
of conventional alloys .......................................................................................... 56
Table 46.7-5 - Al-Li alloys: Current commercial alloys summary of corrosion
resistance ............................................................................................................ 57
Table 46.8-1 Al-Li alloys: 2195-T8 plate and weldments - summary of fatigue crack
growth rate........................................................................................................... 59
Table 46.9-1 Al-Li alloys: Applications mass savings in Space Shuttle external
tank ...................................................................................................................... 61
Table 46.11-1 - RSP aluminium alloys: Ambient temperature use - nominal alloy
compositions........................................................................................................ 74
Table 46.11-2 - RSP aluminium alloys: Ambient temperature use -tensile properties ........... 74
Table 46.11-3 - RSP aluminium alloys: Elevated temperature - modified property
goals (minimum values) for shaped extrusions of P/M alloy CZ42 ...................... 75
Table 46.11-4 - RSP aluminium alloys: Room and elevated temperature tensile
properties of planar flow cast alloy FVS-0812 ..................................................... 76
Table 46.11-5 - RSP aluminium alloys: Room and elevated temperature tensile
properties of alloy FVS-1212 ............................................................................... 76
Table 46.11-6 - RSP aluminium alloys: Elastic modulus, density and weight-saving
parameters for thermally stable RS-P/M alloys ................................................... 76
Table 46.12-1 Al-MMCs: Summary of suppliers and capabilities........................................ 80
Table 46.13-1 Al-MMCs: Typical properties of SiB6 silicon hexaboride particulate
reinforcement Hexon ....................................................................................... 83
Table 46.13-2 Al-MMCs: Typical properties of constituents used for MMCC
MetGraf Al/Cf composites ................................................................................ 84
Table 46.14-1 Al-MMCs: Room temperature properties of AMC225xe and
AMC640xa ........................................................................................................... 87
Table 46.14-2 Al-MMCs: Elevated temperature properties of AMC225xe plate................. 88
Table 46.14-3 Al-MMCs: Elevated temperature properties of extruded AMC225xe
compared with Duralcan MMC's ........................................................................ 89
Table 46.14-4 Al-MMCs: Typical room temperature properties of DWA 2009/SiCp
and 6092/SiCp composites.................................................................................. 90
Table 46.14-5 Al-MMCs: Typical room temperature tensile properties of DWA
2009/SiCp extruded composites.......................................................................... 91
Table 46.14-6 Al-MMCs: Typical properties of CPS Al/SiCp composites........................... 94
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Table 46.14-7 Al-MMCs: Typical room temperature properties of TTC Al/SiCp
composites........................................................................................................... 95
Table 46.14-8 Al-MMCs: Typical properties of composites from M Cubed
Technologies ....................................................................................................... 96
Table 46.14-9 Al-MMCs: Typical properties of MMCC METSIC Al/SiCp
composite compared with aluminium and steel ................................................... 97
Table 46.14-10 Al-MMCs: Typical properties of Millenium Materials Carolite SiB6
particulate reinforced composites ........................................................................ 98
Table 46.14-11 Al-MMCs: Typical room temperature properties of MMCC
MetGraf Al/Cf composites ............................................................................... 99
Table 46.14-12 Al-MMCs: Typical properties of MMCC MetGraf Al/Cf composites
compared with other thermal packaging materials ............................................ 100
Table 46.14-13 Al-MMCs: Properties of Osprey CE Al-Si in-situ composite alloys ........ 101
Table 46.15-1 Al-MMCs: Typical properties of continuous reinforcing fibres ................... 103
Table 46.15-2 Al-MMCs: Typical properties of 3M Nextel 610 alumina fibre ................ 104
Table 46.16-1 Al-MMCs: Typical properties of continuously reinforced MMCs ................ 108
Table 46.16-2 Al-MMCs: Typical properties of 3M unidirectional Al-Nextel
composites......................................................................................................... 109
Table 46.16-3 Al-MMCs: Typical properties of 3M MMC push rods ................................. 110
Table 46.16-4 Al-MMCs: Typical properties of TRL MetPreg Al/Al2O3f continuous
fibre composites................................................................................................. 111
Table 47.2-1 - Titanium alloys: Effects of alloying elements on microstructure ................... 127
Table 47.2-2 - Titanium alloys: Influence of processing temperatures on nearalloys ...... 128
Table 47.2-3 - Titanium alloys for aerospace use: Characteristics ...................................... 128
Table 47.2-4 - Titanium alloys: Indicative mechanical properties......................................... 131
Table 47.2-5 - Titanium alloys: Physical properties.............................................................. 137
Table 47.7-1 - Titanium matrix composites: Typical room temperature tensile
properties........................................................................................................... 145
Table 47.7-2 - Titanium matrix composites: Typical strengths of UD SIGMA SiC
reinforced alloys................................................................................................. 146
Table 47.7-3 - Titanium matrix composites: Fatigue properties ........................................... 147
Table 47.8-1 - Titanium alloys: Effect of hydrogen............................................................... 150
Table 47.9-1 - Titanium alloys: Ignition and burn characteristics ......................................... 151
Table 47.10-1 - Titanium alloys: Potential coating systems ................................................. 152
Table 48.2-1 - Superalloys: Property requirements for engine components ........................ 161
Table 48.2-2 - Superalloys: For aero-engine component applications................................. 163
Table 48.2-3 - Superalloys: Typical mechanical properties.................................................. 164
Table 48.2-4 - Superalloys: Comparison of rocket engine and aircraft engine turbine
operation............................................................................................................ 169
Table 48.2-5 - Superalloys: Potential blade materials under evaluation for rocket
engine turbine components ............................................................................... 170
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Table 48.2-6 - Single crystal superalloys: Potential use in rocket engine turbines .............. 171
Table 48.3-1 - Reinforcing phases in directionally solidified (DS) eutectic superalloys ....... 172
Table 48.3-2 - Directionally solidified (DS) superalloys........................................................ 172
Table 48.3-3 - Single crystal (SC) superalloys ..................................................................... 173
Table 48.3-4 - Powder metallurgy of superalloys ................................................................. 174
Table 48.3-5 - Powder metallurgy nickel-based superalloys: Composition.......................... 174
Table 48.3-6 - Oxide dispersion strengthened (ODS) superalloys: Composition................. 175
Table 48.5-1 - Superalloy composites: Reinforcement phases............................................ 178
Table 48.5-2 - Superalloys: Typical mechanical properties of matrix materials for
composites......................................................................................................... 179
Table 48.6-1 - Tungsten fibre reinforced composites: Reinforcement and superalloy
matrix ................................................................................................................. 180
Table 48.6-2 - Tungsten fibre reinforced, nickel-based superalloys: Tensile properties
of development composites ............................................................................... 181
Table 48.6-3 - Tungsten fibre reinforced, cobalt-based superalloys: Tensile properties
of development composites ............................................................................... 182
Table 48.6-4 - Tungsten fibre reinforced, iron-based superalloys: Tensile properties of
development composites ................................................................................... 183
Table 48.6-5 - Tungsten fibre reinforced superalloy: Room temperature tensile
strength of thermally cycled composite.............................................................. 185
Table 48.6-6 - Summary of tungsten fibre reinforced superalloy (TFRS) systems .............. 186
Table 48.7-1 - Established mechanisms of hydrogen degradation in materials................... 187
Table 48.7-2 - Characteristics of hydrogen environment embrittlement (HEE).................... 188
Table 48.7-3 - Sensitivity of superalloys to hydrogen........................................................... 189
Table 48.7-4 - Effect of hydrogen on MAR-M-246 superalloys ............................................ 190
Table 48.7-5 - Effect of crystal anisotropy on RT hydrogen performance of PWA 1480
single crystal alloy.............................................................................................. 190
Table 48.7-6 - Effect of hydrogen on directionally solidified eutectic (DSE) and oxide
dispersion strengthened (ODS) superalloys ...................................................... 191
Table 48.7-7 - Low cycle fatigue (LCF) life degradation of superalloys in hydrogen
environments ..................................................................................................... 197
Table 48.8-1 - Ignition and burn characteristics of materials in oxygen environments......... 202
Table 48.10-1 - Diffusion coatings for superalloys: Various types and use.......................... 205
Table 48.10-2 - Diffusion coatings: Commercially available types ....................................... 207
Table 48.11-1 - Commercially available MCrAlY overlay coatings....................................... 208
Table 48.11-2 - Overlay coatings: Later studies with MCrAlY type coatings and
superalloys substrates ....................................................................................... 209
Table 48.12-1 - Thermal barrier coatings: Material systems ................................................ 210
Table 48.12-2 - Thermal barrier coating technology: Later studies...................................... 211
Table 48.13-1 - Coating design: Factors associated with coating systems for
oxidation and corrosion resistance .................................................................... 212
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Table 48.13-2 - Coating design: Comparison of technical factors for diffusion and
overlay coatings................................................................................................. 213
Table 48.13-3 - Coating design: Tensile properties of coated material systems.................. 218
Table 48.13-4 - Coating design: Fatigue properties of coated material systems ................. 220
Table 48.13-5 - Coating design: Creep properties of coated material systems ................... 226
Table 49.2-1 - Intermetallic compounds: Comparison of aluminide groups ......................... 235
Table 49.3-1 - Nickel aluminides: Characteristics of NiAl and Ni3Al intermetallic
compounds ........................................................................................................ 238
Table 49.3-2 - Nickel aluminides: Compositions (based on Ni3Al) under development ....... 239
Table 49.3-3 - Nickel aluminides: Composition, material designation and sources ............. 239
Table 49.4-1 - Nickel aluminides: Mechanical properties at elevated temperatures
with various conditioning.................................................................................... 241
Table 49.4-2 - Nickel aluminides: Modulus at elevated temperature ................................... 242
Table 49.4-3 - Nickel aluminides: Preliminary fatigue test data for IC218 and IC221 .......... 243
Table 49.4-4 - Nickel aluminides: Coefficient of thermal expansion..................................... 244
Table 49.5-1 - Titanium aluminides: Comparison of characteristics..................................... 245
Table 49.5-2 - Titanium aluminides: Typical compositions................................................... 246
Table 49.6-1 - Titanium aluminides: Mechanical properties for materials processed by
different techniques ........................................................................................... 248
Table 49.6-2 - Titanium aluminides: Indication of creep properties...................................... 255
Table 49.7-1 - Iron aluminides: Characteristics.................................................................... 261
Table 49.7-2 - Iron aluminides: Composition of development materials .............................. 261
Table 49.8-1 - Aluminides: Summary of manufacture and consolidation techniques........... 264
Table 49.9-1 - Further development: Intermetallic compounds............................................ 267
Table 49.10-1 - Intermetallic matrix composites: Summary of compounds and
reinforcements ................................................................................................... 269
Table 49.10-2 - Intermetallic matrix composites: Requirements for a reinforcement
fibre.................................................................................................................... 270
Table 50.2-1 - Refractory and precious metals: Attributes and disadvantages.................... 281
Table 50.2-2 - Refractory and precious metals: Basic physical properties .......................... 281
Table 50.2-3 - Refractory metal alloys: Examples................................................................ 282
Table 51.2-1 - Beryllium: Characteristics ............................................................................. 283
Table 51.3-1 Beryllium: Grades......................................................................................... 285
Table 51.4-1 - Beryllium grades: Composition and tensile properties.................................. 287
Table 51.4-2 - Beryllium grades S-200-F and SR-200-E: Mechanical properties at
various temperatures ......................................................................................... 288
Table 51.4-3 - Beryllium: Effect of temperature on modulus and physical properties .......... 291
Table 52.2-1 - Ceramic matrix composites: Fibre and matrix combinations with
sources of development/investigation................................................................ 299
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Table 52.2-2 - Development continuous fibre reinforced ceramic matrix composites:
Typical properties .............................................................................................. 302
Table 52.3-1 - Ceramic matrix composites: Typical properties of C-SiC composites
produced by different processing methods ........................................................ 305
Table 52.3-2 - C/SiC LPI (EADS-ST): Fabrication and inspection steps.............................. 307
Table 52.3-3 - C/SiC LPI (EADS-ST): Mechanical properties at different temperatures ...... 309
Table 52.3-4 - C/SiC LPI (EADS-ST): OPS used in OLCHOS programme ......................... 313
Table 52.3-5 - C/C-SiC LSI (DLR): Mechanical properties for different grades ................... 314
Table 52.5-1 - SiC-SiC composites: Indicative properties, as measured by SEP
(France) ............................................................................................................. 320
Table 52.6-1 - Ceramic matrix composites: Ceramic whiskers ............................................ 321
Table 52.6-2 - Ceramic matrix composites: Development whisker and matrix
combinations...................................................................................................... 323
Table 53.2-1 - Glass and glass-ceramic matrices ................................................................ 338
Table 53.3-1 - Carbon fibre/borosilicate unidirectional composites: Mechanical
properties........................................................................................................... 341
Table 53.3-2 - Unidirectional and angle-ply tensile data for Hercules HMU carbon
fibre reinforced 7740 borosilicate glass composite............................................ 342
Table 53.3-3 - Mechanical test data for notched 0/90 reinforced HMU/7740
composites......................................................................................................... 343
Table 53.4-1 - SiC reinforced glass-ceramic composites: Comparison of RT
unidirectional (0) properties with SiC fibre reinforced epoxy ............................ 345
Table 54.3-1 - Carbon-carbon composites: Indicative mechanical properties ..................... 367
Table 54.4-1 - Carbon-carbon composites: Requirements for oxidation protection
systems for two applications.............................................................................. 372
Table 54.6-1 Carbon-carbon composites: Basic properties .............................................. 375
Table 55.6-1 - Advanced metals and ceramics: Significant European sources of
expertise ............................................................................................................ 387
Table 55.7-1 - Advanced metals and ceramics: Direct material costs ................................. 389
Table 55.7-2 - Advanced metals and ceramics: Relative costs of components ................... 390
Table 57.2-1 - Advanced metal- and ceramic-based materials: Relevance of space
parameters to material selection........................................................................ 405
Table 58.2-1 - Dissimilar materials for joints ........................................................................ 411
Table 59.2-1 - Joints between dissimilar materials: Representative list of materials ........... 420
Table 60.2-1 - Comparison of jointing and consolidation techniques................................... 423
Table 60.3-1 - Fused joints: Technology review of joints ..................................................... 425
Table 60.3-2 - Fusion joints: Published bond strengths for various joints ............................ 427
26
ECSSEHB3220Part5A
20March2011
Introduction
TheStructuralmaterialshandbook,ECSSEHB3220,ispublishedin8Parts.
Aglossaryofterms,definitionsandabbreviatedtermsforthesehandbooksiscontainedinPart8.
Thepartsareasfollows:
Part1
Overviewandmaterialpropertiesandapplications
Clauses19
Part2
Designcalculationmethodsandgeneraldesignaspects
Clauses1022
Part3
Loadtransferanddesignofjointsanddesignofstructures
Clauses2332
Part4
Integritycontrol,verificationguidelinesandmanufacturing
Clauses3345
Part5
Newadvancedmaterials,advancedmetallicmaterials,
generaldesignaspectsandloadtransferanddesignofjoints
Clauses4663
Part6
Fractureandmaterialmodelling,casestudiesanddesignand
integritycontrolandinspection
Clauses6481
Part7
Thermalandenvironmentalintegrity,manufacturingaspects, Clauses82107
inorbitandhealthmonitoring,softmaterials,hybrid
materialsandnanotechnoligies
Part8
Glossary
27
ECSSEHB3220Part5A
20March2011
46 Aluminium alloys and their

composites
46.1 Introduction
46.1.1
General
Aluminium alloys are established in aerospace, with many years of application and service
experience.
Alloy developments are described that have aimed at improving the mechanical characteristics of
basicaluminiumalloysandthelimitationsonservicetemperature.
The ability to improve dimensional stability by combining alloys with low CTE materials is an
advantageforspaceuse.
Thematerialsdescribedaredividedintothemaingroups:
Conventionalaluminiumalloys.
Newaluminiumalloys.
MMCmetalmatrixcomposites.
FMLfibremetallaminates
46.1.2
Conventional aluminium alloys
In recent years it has become clear that many of the problems associated with conventional
aluminium alloys, e.g. inconsistent fracture properties, were associated with the nature, size,
morphologyand distribution of intermetallic particles, both intended (as the strengthening phase)
and unintended (from tramp elements). Attention has therefore focussed on improving both alloy
chemistry and process technology to give more desirable structures in the finished material. In
additiontoalloymodifications,thishasresultedintheintroductionofmodifiedthermomechanical
treatments (combinations of heat treatments and hot or cold working) with new temper
designations,whichareexpansionsofthebasictempers,[See:46.2].
Specific data on conventional aluminium alloys are not given in this handbook, [See: MMPDS01
andPMP],Ref.[4671],[4672].
46.1.3
New aluminium alloys
Thesecanbegroupedas:
Aluminiumlithium(AlLi)alloys.[See:46.4]
Powdermetallurgy(P/M)alloys:
28
ECSSEHB3220Part5A
20March2011
oxidedispersionstrengthenedalloys(ODS),havingadditionsofsmall,stableparticles,
[See:46.10].
rapidly solidified powder (RSP) powder atomised materials which, due to rapid
cooling,havedifferentalloyingmechanisms,[See:46.11].
46.1.4
MMC - metal matrix composites
Various MMC material combinations are described, with emphasis on their typical mechanical
propertiesandhowtheseareaffectedbyelevatedtemperatures.Thesematerialscanbeclassedas
compositeshaving:
discontinuousreinforcementphases(particlesorshortfibres),[See:46.12],
continuousfibrereinforcement,[See:46.14].
46.1.5
FML - fibre metal laminates
FMLsarelaminatedsheetmaterialscontainingeitheraramidfibres(ARALL),glassfibres(GLARE)
orthenewerderivativeswithcarbonfibres(CARE),usuallybetweenthinsheetsofaluminiumalloy.
Originally developed for aircraft skin structures, the materials and characteristics of interest for
spaceusearedescribed,[See:Chapter100].
NOTE
46.1.6
Many of the materials described are development products;

somearemoreadvancedcommerciallythanothers.Allofthe
propertydataquotedistypicalvalues.
Material availability
After a boom in the development of advanced aluminiumbased materials, there have been some
notable withdrawals of previously commerciallyavailable products, Ref. [4647]. Information on
alternativematerialsispresentedinthehandbook,wherepossible.
Someorganisationsthathavewithdrawnproductsorceasedtradingare:
CedegurPechineyhasbeentakenoverbyAlcan.
ReynoldsMetalshavebeentakenoverbyAlcoa.
NOTE
Alcan and Alcoa are the remaining major suppliers for

aluminiumlithiumalloys.
BPMetalCompositesLtd.(Farnborough,UK)hasclosedtheirsiteandnolongermanufacture
particulate reinforced aluminium alloys. BP continues with SIGMA fibres for titanium
composites.TheFarnboroughsiteisnowoperatedbyAMCLtd.whoofferadvancedalloys
andMMCsproducedbypowdermetallurgy.
AMS Ltd.(previously Cray AdvancedMaterials) have ceased trading. Previously they were
exponents of the use of LPF liquid metal pressure forming for manufacturing continuous
fibreandpreformreinforcedcompositecomponents.Similarprocesstechniquesareinusein
theUSA,[See:46.14].
CosprayLtd.(partofAlcan)hasclosed.PreviouslytheyusedtheOspreyprocesstoproduce
particulate reinforced aluminium alloys. However, a German Osprey licensee, PEAK
Werkstoff(partofErbslhGruppe,D)producesarangeofaluminiumalloysandMMCs.
29
ECSSEHB3220Part5A
20March2011
Alcan does not actively market Duralcan particulate reinforced MMCs, but the casting
alloysareavailabletoorder.
Similarly,whilstaverylargenumberofaluminiumalloys,includinganumberofAlLialloys,have
beenregisteredwiththeAluminumAssociation(USA),Ref[4646],[4659],onlyalimitednumberof
alloysareofcommercialsignificanceandreadilyavailable.Likewise,furtherdevelopmentsofalloy
compositions,tempersandprocesstechnologiescontinuetoshowimprovementsinproperties.
It is therefore imperative that the designer consultswith the prospective material suppliersbefore
makinganycommitmenttotheuseofanyparticularmaterial.
46.2 Conventional aluminium alloys

46.2.1
General
Aluminium alloys are established aerospace materials worldwide. Their performance and
limitations, which are known for a wide range of environments, are based on over 40years
accumulatedresearch,development,applicationandserviceexperience.
The European Aluminium Association (EAA) provides details on aluminium alloys, markets and
linkstomaterialsuppliersinvariousmarketsectors,includingaerospace.
Thistopicservesasareferenceforthoseconventionalaluminiumalloysnowfindinguseasmatrix
materialsforthevariousmetalmatrixcomposites,Ref.[461],[462],[463],[4671].
[See:ECSSQ7071fordetailsofaluminiumalloysforspaceuse]
Fordesigndata,seeMMPDS01,Ref[4671]whichhassupersededMILHDBK5,Ref.[463].
46.2.2
Chemical composition
46.2.2.1
General
46.2.1 summarises the basis for classifying aluminium alloy composition under the International
system,Ref.[4660].
30
ECSSEHB3220Part5A
20March2011
Alloy
group
Wrought Alloys
Cast Alloys
Major alloying elements
Alloy
group
Major alloying elements
1XXX
99.00 percent minimum aluminium
1XX.0
99.00 percent minimum aluminium
2XXX
Copper
2XX.0
Copper
3XXX
Manganese
3XX.0
Silicon with added copper and/or magnesium
4XXX
Silicon
4XX.0
Silicon
5XXX
Magnesium
5XX.0
Magnesium
6XXX
Magnesium and Silicon
6XX.0
Unused Series
7XXX
Zinc
7XX.0
Zinc
8XXX
Other Elements
8XX.0
Tin
9XXX
Unused Series
9XX.0
Other Elements
For both cast and wrought alloys, the first digit indicates the main alloying element(s). For cast alloys only the
product form is indicated by the digit after the point; 0 = castings, 1 and 2 = ingot.
Wrought alloys: the second digit,

initially 0, indicates minor
modifications to the basic alloy
composition.
Cast alloys: modifications to the original alloy are

indicated by a serial letter added as a prefix,
starting with A but omitting I, O, Q and X.
Condition (Temper) is indicated by a suffix letter separated by a hyphen. The basic temper can be followed by a
further alpha-numeric code (optional)
Basic temper designations
As fabricated. Products for which there

are no special thermal or strain
hardening processes.
Annealed. Used for cast products to

improve ductility or dimensional
stability and for wrought products to
give lowest strength.
Solution heat treated. Unstable temper,

used only for alloys which
spontaneously age harden at room
temperature.
Strain hardened. For wrought products which are

strengthened by working, with or without thermal
treatments. The H is always followed by one or
more further digits.
Thermally treated to stable temper other than F, O

or H. Used for products thermally treated with or
without strain hardening. The T is always followed
by one or more further digits.
NOTE: The letter P can be used, after the temper
designation, to indicate variations to H, T or O
tempers agreed between supplier and purchaser.
Figure46.21Aluminiumalloys:Chemicalcompositionandtemperdesignation
Specifications and standards exist for aerospace grade aluminium alloys within each country, e.g.
DIN, ISO, DTD, and an International numbering system, based on the American Aluminium
Association(AA)system,iswidelyusedforwroughtalloys,Ref[4659].
The International system has largely replaced the nationallybased alloy designations within
Europe.
Russian wrought alloy designations, although using a 4digit code, are different to the AA
internationalsystem.
31
ECSSEHB3220Part5A
20March2011
46.2.2.2
Cross referencing national standards
Table 46.2.1 and Table 46.2.2 enable comparison of some national specifications for wrought and
castingalloydesignationnumbersrespectively,althoughthisisnotadefinitivelist,Ref.[461].
In addition the UNS system for numbering metals and alloys covers aluminium alloys, with code
numbersfromA00001toA99999,withthelastfourdigitsreflectingtheANSIcodeforthealloy,Ref.
[4661].Conventionalalloyspecifications,plussupplierproductcodes,areprovidedinRef.[4647].
Variations in alloy chemical composition can exist within different specification systems for so
calledequivalentalloys.Careisneededwhencomparingalloysacrossdifferentstandardssystems.
32
ECSSEHB3220Part5A
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Table46.21Aluminiumalloys:Comparisonofnationalspecificationsforwroughtalloys
International
Alloy
UK
France
AA
Type (1)
Old BS
Old NF
Werkstoff
DIN
Old UNI
1050A
1080A
1199
1200
1350
2011
Al99.5
Al99.8
Al99
[Al99.5]
Al Cu6 Bi Pb
A5
A8
A9
A4
A5L A5B
A-U5 Pb Bi
3.0255
3.0205
3.0257
3.1655
Al99.5
Al99.8
Al99
E-Al
Al Cu Pb Bi
2014A
Al Cu4 Si Mg
1B
1A
1
1C, 6L16, 6L17, 4L34
1E, G1E
FC1
H15,
L-grades; DTD.
A-U4 S G
3.1255
2017A
Al Cu4 Mg Si
L93, L94
A-U4 G
2024
Al Cu4 Mg1
2030
2031
[AlCuPbMg]
[AlCu2Ni1 MgFeSi]
2L97, 2L98 DTD-5090,

-5100A, (AMD2433)
H12
2117
Al Cu2 Mg
3L 86
2214
[AlCu4SiMg]
2218
2524
{AlCuNi]
[AlCu4Mg]
6L25
-
2618A
H16, DTD
3103
Al Mn1
3105
Germany
Italy
Sweden
Spain
SIS
UNE
3567
6362
New
UNI
9001/2
9001/4
9001/1
9001/5
9002/5
4007
4004
4010
4355
L-3051
L-3081
L-3001
L-3191
Al Cu Si Mg
3581
9002/3
4338
L-3130
3.1325
Al Cu Mg1
A-U4 G1
3.1355
Al Cu Mg2
3583
9002/4
A-U4Pb
A-U2 N
3.1645
-
AlCuMgPb
-
A-U2 G
3.1305
Al Cu Mg0.5
3577
9002/1
AlCuSiMn
N3, NS3
Air-9048610, -620.
A-U4N
A-U2 G N,
Air-9048-640
A-M1
3.0515
N31, NS31
A-MG05
3.0505
4043
4047
5005
[AlSi5]
[AlSi12]
Al Mg1
5056
Al Mg5
5083
Al Mg4.5 Mn
N21
N2
N41
N6,
2L58, 2L59
N8
A-S5
A-S12
A-G0.6
A-G5,
A-G5M
A-G4.5M C
5086
Al Mg4Mn
3.1924
Switzerland
CIS
EUROPE
CEN (2)
Al99.5
Al99.0
E-Al99.5
Al Cu6 Pb Bi
Al Cu4 Si
Mg
A0
-
L-3160
Al Cu4
Mg1.5
-
D16
1160
-
L-3180
D18
P-2214
7250
L-315
-
1163
3578
9002/6
L-3171
AK4-2
3568
9003/3
4054
L-3811
Al Mn
1400
AW-2618A
P-2618A
AW-3130
L-3140
AW-1050A
AW-1080A
AW-1199
AW-1200
AW-1350
AW-2011
AW-2014A
P-2014A
AW-2017A
P-2017A
AW-2024
P-2024
AW-2030
P-14
3103
9003/5
L-3831
AW-3150
3.2245
3.3315
Al Mn
AlMn0.5Mg0
.5
AlSi12
AlMg1
5764
9005/1
4106
L-3350
1510
3.3555
Al Mg5
4146
L-3320
1550
3.3547
Al Mg4.5 Mn
7790
9005/5
4140
L-3321
Al Mg4.5Mn
AlMg4Mn
5452
9005/4
Al Mg4Mn
AW-5005
AW-5056
P-32
AW-5083
AW-5086
P-5086
33
ECSSEHB3220Part5A
20March2011
5154A
Al Mg3.5(A)
N5
A-G3
3.3535
3.3537
3.3535
3.3206
Al Mg3
Al Mg2
Mn0.3
Al Mg2.7 Mn
Al Mg3
Al MgSi0.5
3574
9005/8
L-3392
AMG3
AW-5154A
5251
Al Mg2
N4
A-G2 M
3.3525
L-3361
AW-5251
5454
5554
5556A
5754
6060
Al Mg3.6
AlMg3Mn(A)
AlMg5.2MnCr
[AlMg3]
AlMgSi
N51
N52
N61
-
A-G2.5M C
A-G3 M
A-GS
7789
3575
3569
9005/3
9006/1
4125
4103
L-3391
L-3390
L-3442
AlMg2.7 Mn
Al Mg3
Al MgSi0.5
Al MgSi1Cu
6170
9006/2
L-3420
AD3
3569
4104
L-3441
AD31
A-SG M0.7
3.2315
Al Mg Si1
3571
9006/4
4212
L-3453
91E
E6, BT R6
A-85GS
3.2307
E-AlMgSi
3570
9006/3
-
4102
4102
L-3431
-
Al Mg Si1
Mn
-
AlZn6MgCu
DTD5130A, DTD5120
3.4394
7014
DTD5104A
Al Zn4.5 Mg
H17
A-Z5 G
3.4335
7791
9007/1
4425
L-3741
7049A
Al Zn8MgCu
Al Zn6 Mg Cu1.5
A-Z8GU
A-Z5 G U
Air-9048
A-4L, A-FeS
7075
2L95, L160,
L161, L162
-
3735
9007/2
L-3710
8011
L-3611
Al Zn4.5
Mg1
Al Zn6 Mg
Cu1.5
-
7020
Al Zn
4.5Mg1
Al Zn Mg
Cu1.5
-
AW-5454
AW-5754
AW-6060
AW-6061
P-6061
AW-6063
AW-6082
P-21, P-6082
AW-7010
P-7010
AW-7020
P-7020
AW-7049A
AW-7075,
P-7075, P-42
AW-8011A
6061
Al Mg1 Si Cu
H20
A-GS U C
3.3211
6063
Al Mg0.5 Si
H9
6082
Al Si1 Mg Mn
H30
6101A
6463
E-AlMgSi(A)
AlMgSi
7010
8011A
AlFeSi
3.4365
3.0915
Key:
(1)OldISOnumber;[CENEN573]
(2)EN573:AWprefixengineeringalloys.ALPprefix:AECMAaerospacealloy
V95
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Table46.22Aluminiumalloys:Comparisonofnationalspecificationsforcastingalloys
USA
AA
SAE
ISO
UK
BS/DTD
France
150.1
170.1
222.1 (1)
242.2
295.1, .2
319.2
333.0
336.1
355.1
356.1
A356.2
A360.2
A380.1
384.1
390.0
A413.1
A413.2
A443.1
514.1
34
39
38
326
321
322
323
336
309
306
303
305
35
320
Al99.5
Al99.7
Al Cu10 Si12 Mg
Al Cu4 Ni2 Mg2
Al Cu4
Al Si5 Cu3
Al Si8Cu3Fe
Al Si11 Mg Cu
Al Si5 Cu1 Mg
Al Si7 Mg
Al Si7 Mg
Al Si12 Mg
Al Si8 Cu3 Fe
Al Si10 Cu2 Fe
Al Si17 Cu4 Mg
Al Si12 Cu Fe
Al Si12
Al Si5
Al Mg5
LM0
LM12
4L35
2L91, 2L92
LM4
LM24
LM13
LM16
LM25
2L99
LM9
LM24
LM2
LM30
LM20 / LM2
LM6
LM18
LM5
520.0
324
Al Mg10
LM10
712
310
AlZn5Mg / Al Zn5 Mg Cr
Al Si6 Cu4 Zn
Al Si6 Cu3 Mn
Al Si9 Cu3 Mg
Al Si7 Mg
Al Si19 Cu Mg Ni
Al Si23 Cu Mg Ni
Al Si2 Cu Ni Fe Mg
Al Cu2 Ni Si Fe Mg
Al Si5 Mg
Al Mg8 Zn
Key:
(1) inactive.
LM31,
DTD5008B
LM21
LM22
LM26
LM27
LM28
LM29
3L51
3L52
DTD:716B,
722B
727B, 735B
DTD5018A
Germany
Italy
UNI
Sweden
SIS
3041
3045
7256
3050 / 6250-28
3600
3599
7257
3049
5075
5076
5079
4514
5077
3058
Europe
CEN (2)
Switzerland
CIS
14 4022
14 4231
14 4244
14 4253
14
14 4260
14 4261
-
G-Al99.5
G-Al Cu4 Ti
G-AlSi7 Mg
G-AlSi10 Mg
AL18V
AL6
AL30
AL5
AL9
AL4
3056
AL2
AL28
AL8,
AL27
3650 / 3602
14 4438
AC-71000 / AC-AlZn5Mg
G-Al Si6 Cu4

-
225
225
3052
3050
6251
3046
14 4230
14 4230
-
AL16V
AL6
AL26
-
AC-45000 / AC-AlSi6Cu4AC-45400 / AC-AlSi5Cu3

AC-46600 / AC-AlSi7Cu2
-
3.2341
G-Al Si5 Mg
235
3054
349
AC-51200 / AC-AlMg9
Werkstoff
DIN
A5
A7
A-U4 N T
A-U5 G T
A-S5 U
A-S10 U4
A-S11 UNG
A-S7 G
A-S7 G0.3
A-S10 G
A-S9 U3 Y4
A-S9 U3 Y4
A-S12, A-S12U
A-S13
A-G6
3.1841
3.2151
3.2161
3.2371
3.2371
3.2381
3.2161
3.2582
3.2581
3.3561
G-Al Cu4 Ti
G-Al Si6 Cu4
AlSi8Cu3
G-Al Si7 Mg
G-Al Si7 Mg
G-Al Si10 Mg
G-Al Si8 Cu3
G-Al Si12 (Cu)
G-Al Si12
G-Al Mg5
A-G10, A-G10Y4
3.3591
G-Al Mg10
A-Z5G
A-S5 U Z
A-S5 U
A-S2 U
-
3.2151
-
A-S4 G
-
VDS
225
226
233
231
230
244
AC-45200 / AC-45000
AC-45300 / AC-AlSi5Cu1Mg
AC-42000 / AC-AlSi7Mg
AC-43200 / AC-AlSi10Mg(Cu)
AC-47000 / AC-AlSi12(Cu)
AC-51300 / AC-AlMg5
-
(2) EN1706: AC prefix aluminium cast alloys.
35
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46.2.3
Aerospace alloys
46.2.3.1
General
The prime groups of alloys usedare the 2XXX, 6XXX and 7XXX (wrought) and AlSi casting alloys.
Thesematerials,afterspecificconditioning,achievehighstrengths.
46.2.3.2
AECMA EN standards
European standards and specifications (EN) are being developed and adopted. These are
progressivelysupersedingthevariousNationalstandardsinmemberstates,Ref.[4647].
Aerospace EN specification designations are controlled by AECMA and apply to a particular alloy,
conditionandform,e.g.
EN2092Aerospaceseries:AluminiumalloyAlP7075T6orT62:
cladsheetandstripbetween0.4mmand6mm.
ForinformationonAECMAstandards,[See:http://www.aecmastan.org]
46.2.3.3
SAE AMS standards
These are widelyused aerospace standards, published by the Aerospace Division of SAE
International,asAerospaceMaterialsSpecifications(AMS).Theycoveritemssuchasmanufacturing
and assembly processes, heat treatments and protection systems, so are in addition to chemical
compositionsstandards.
[See:http://www.aerospace.sae.org]
46.2.4
Properties
46.2.4.1
Elevated temperatures
Depending on the precise alloy composition and conditioning, mechanical properties decrease with
increasingtemperatureaboveabout100C.
Certainconventionalwroughtalloys,suchas2014A,2031and2618A,havebeendevelopedtoretain
usablepropertiesto200Cand300C,butthesearetheexception,Ref.[461].
46.2.4.2
Low temperatures
In general, the strength, ductility and toughness properties of aluminium increase with decreasing
temperature,Ref.[4648].Thereisnotransitiontemperaturebelowwhichbrittlenessoccurs,Ref.[46
1].
Of the various conventional alloy compositions available, only a few are considered for low
temperatureengineeringapplications,Ref.[4648]:
CPpurealuminium,whichhashighconductivity,e.g.usedforelectricalapplications.
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ECSSEHB3220Part5A
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AlCu,whichhasreducednotchedtoughnessatlowtemperatures,sonotwidelyused.
AlMn,whichhasmoderatestrength,e.g.tube,platesinheatexchangersapplications.
AlMg,whichisweldable.Coldworkimpairsductility,e.g.storageandtransportationtanks.
AlMgSi, which has moderate strength, is weldable with postweld treatment, e.g. mainly
aerospaceapplications.
AlZnMg,whichhasaseverelossofnotchtoughnessbelowabout77K,soisnotused.
46.3 New aluminium alloys

46.3.1
Developments
Themaindevelopmentsinaluminiumalloyscanbegroupedas:
AlLialuminiumlithiumalloys,[See:46.4].
ODSoxidedispersionstrengthenedsystems,[See:46.10].
MAmechanicallyalloyedsystems,whichareappliedtoAlLiandODSalloys.
RSPrapidlysolidifiedpowdersystems,[See:46.11].
All these materials offer weightsavings through increased specific properties or greater thermal
stabilitythanconventionalalloys.
46.3.2
Aluminium-scandium alloys
There is also interest in aluminiumscandium alloys, seen by some as the next generation of
aluminiumalloys.
Work on scandium additions in Alalloys began in the 70s in Russia, with some US patents issued
aroundthesametime.Inthe80s,ScadditionsinseveralalloysystemswereinvestigatedinRussia,
whichresultedinaseriesofRussianAlalloyswithaminorSccontent.
The effect of the Scaddition depends on the type and composition of the alloy, but the advantages
claimedinclude:
IncreasedstrengthfromAl3Scprecipitates.
Grainrefinementduringcastingorwelding.
Increased resistance to recrystallization and enhanced superplastic properties, which result

fromthegrainboundarypinningbyAl3Scparticles.
ICAA conferences have seen increasing numbers of papers on AlSc alloys over the past 10years.
Currently, the majority of openlypublished information relates to metallurgical studies and
evaluation,Ref.[4686].
Application examples come mainly from the sports and leisure equipment industry, but aerospace
organisationsarealsoinvestigatingAlScalloys,e.g.usedontheMiG29.
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46.4 Al-Li - Aluminium-lithium alloys

46.4.1
Development
46.4.1.1
Chemical composition
Thetwomaingroupsofaluminiumlithiumalloycompositionsare:
Withoutcopper,suchasAlMg,e.g.Russianalloysincluding1420.
Coppercontaining,e.g.2XXXand8XXXseriesalloys.
Only the coppercontaining alloys have so far achieved commercial application, so discussion is
limitedtothese.
Irrespectiveoftheirgroup,thelowfracturepropertiesofearlyAlLialloyswaslinkedtothepresence
oftrampelements,i.e.Na,K,Ca,HandS,whichcannowbecontrolledbytheuseofhighpurityLi
metalsandappropriatemanufacturingprocesses.
ThecurrentgenerationofAlLialloyslimitsomeelementswithincompositionsto,Ref.[4652]:
<0.002wt%Na.
<0.2wt% Fe and <0.1wt% Si, typically: Fe and Si form coarse constituent particles in age
hardeningalloys.
Higher silicon contents have been linked to an increased susceptibility to SCC stress corrosion
cracking.
46.4.1.2
Effect of lithium additions
The addition of lithium to an aluminium alloy reduces the density and increases the stiffness. As a
guide,each1%ofLithiumdecreasesdensitybyapproximately3%andgivesa6%modulusincrease
(foradditionsupto~4%).
Aluminiumlithium alloy development had to overcome many production difficulties and
uncertainties regarding the longlife suitability, in terms of transverse fracture sensitivity. The
anisotropy,mainlyresultingfromthetexturesdevelopedduringprocessing,stillremainsoneofthe
majorobstaclestothewideruseofthesealloysandmuchofthecurrentR&Dactivityisfocussedon
overcomingthisproblem.
46.4.2
Processing
The majority of initial development centred on ingot metallurgy for producing wrought products.
Thiswasfollowedby:
forginggrades,
weldablealloys,
powdermetallurgy,
particulatereinforcedcomposites,
superplasticforming.
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46.4.3
Applications
Aluminiumlithium alloys aim to supersede selected 2XXX and 7XXX series conventional alloys in
aerospacestructures,inparticulartheconventionalalloysusedforspecificcharacteristics,i.e.:
Damagetolerant:
2024T3,2204T3
Mediumstrength:
2014T6,2214T6
Highstrength:
7075T6,7050T6
Corrosionresistant:
Weldablealloy:
2219
7075T73
Anumberofcomprehensivereviewshavebeenundertakenonaluminiumlithiumalloys,Ref.[466],
[4614],[4615],[4649],[4650].ThesestudiesconsideredthecharacteristicsofAlLialloys,alongwith
informationonpotentialapplications.
46.4.4
Producers
Table46.4.1summarisesthecommercialsourcesofprimaryalloyandproductforms,Ref.[4656],[46
59],[4662].
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Table46.41AlLialloys:Commercialsourcesandproducts
Alloy
Composition (a)
Supplier
Cu
Li
Mg
Zr
Ag
Zn
Mn
Forms
Tempers
Target replacements
Standard alloys
sheet; 3-10mm
T83
2024-T3, 7075-T6,
7475-T6
sheet; 6.4-7.7mm
T82P (b)
2024-T62
sheet
T82P (b)
2024-T62
extrusions 1.2-75 mm
T8E65, T8E67
7075-T6511, 7050T76511 2024-T3511,

2026-T3511
0.25
plate 6.4-50mm
T8R78
2219-T87
0.35
0.35
extrusions 1.6-25mm
T8511
7075-T76511
0.05
0.35
plate 35-150mm
T87
2124-T851
0.04-0.16
0.25
0.10
sheet; extrusions/
forgings
T3, T34
0.95
0.08
Plate/sheet, extrusions
T1, T11
2024, 2524
2090
Alcoa
2.4-3.0
1.9-2.6
0.25
0.08-0.15
0.10
0.05
2098
Alcan
3.2-3.8
0.8-1.3
0.25-0.80
0.04-0.18
0.25-0.6
0.35
0.35
2x98
Alcan
2099
Alcoa
2.4-3.0
1.6-2.0
0.10-0.50
0.07-0.13
0.4-1.0
0.10-0.50
2195
Alcan
3.7-4.3
0.8-1.2
0.25-0.80
0.08-0.16
0.25-0.6
0.25
2196
Alcan
2.5-3.3
1.4-2.1
0.25-0.80
Ti+Zr 0.25
0.25-0.6
2297
Alcan
2.5-3.1
0.8-1.3
0.10-0.50
0.04-0.18
8090
Dolgarrog,
Otto Fuchs (c)
1.0-1.6
2.2-2.7
0.6-1.3
1.6
1.7
1441
recent modification to 2098 to give enhanced damage tolerance
VIAM
Special order alloys

2050
Alcan
3.2-3.9
0.7-1.3
0.20-0.6
0.06-0.14
0.20-0.7
0.25
0.20-0.50
2094
Alcan
4.4-5.2
0.7-1.4
0.25-0.80
0.04-0.18
0.25-0.6
0.25
0.25
2095 (d)
Alcan
3.9-4.6
0.7-1.5
0.25-0.80
0.04-0.18
0.25-0.6
0.25
0.25
2097 (e)
Alcoa
2.5-3.1
1.2-1.8
0.35
0.08-0.16
0.35
0.10-0.60
AMC500
AMC
Forgings
T1
Key:
(f)
(a)
A single figure denotes maximum content, except for 1441 where figures are nominal
(b)
Supplied on 'O' temper for subsequent heat treatment
(c)
Dolgarrog produce sheet; Otto Fuchs produce extrusions and forgings
(d)
Similar to 2195 but produced for super-plastic forming (SPF)
(e)
Alcoa alloy similar to 2297
(f)
Dispersion hardened Al-Li alloy made by proprietary powder metallurgy process
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46.4.5
Manufacturing processes
ThevariousprocessingroutesusedforAlLialloyscanbesummarisedas:
Inertatmosphereingotcasting,whichistheprimarysource.
Rolling into sheet or plate, which produces a higher degree of anisotropy compared with
conventionalalloys.
Extrusions, where, again, higher degree of anisotropy achieved. Close tolerances on long
sectionscanbedifficulttoachieve.
Forgings, which are limited to simple shapes as AlLi alloys rely on cold working prior to
ageingtoacquirestrength.8090iswellsuitedforhandforgingand2091forprecisionforging.
Nearnetshape,coveringdevelopmentofforgingandspinformingtechniques,Ref.[4650].
Thermomechanicaltreatment:AlLicanbesolutiontreatedusingmostestablishedtechniques.
Complexnewtempershavebeendevelopedtoimprovetoughnessbyunderageing.Theseare
designatedbytheletterX,e.g.T8XorbytheletterPwherethishasbeennegotiatedbetween
themanufacturerandpurchaser,e.g.T82P.
Welding, e.g. 2195, developing techniques, such as Variable Polarity Plasma Arc (VPPA), gas
tungstenarc,laserbasedandFrictionStirwelding,Ref.[4650].
Superplasticity,wheresuperplasticgradesof8090,2090and2095areavailable.
RSPrapidsolidificationprocesses,suchasLiquidDynamicCompaction(LDC).
Osprey Spray Deposition, used for particulatereinforced 8090 alloys, called COSPRAY by
AlcanandnowcarriedbyPEAKWerkstoff.
Planar Flow Casting, to enhance specific attributes, i.e. high strength or corrosion resistance,
elevated temperature performance or lower density by increased lithium content. Such
materialsaremoreexpensivethanthoseproducedbytheingotroute.
Mechanicalalloyedmaterials,suchasAMC500,whichofferimprovementsinthermalstability
andbetterstresscorrosioncrackingresistancethaningotAlLiproducts.
Mechanical alloying or high energy milling is used for dispersions added to alloys, giving a
discontinuouslyreinforcedmetalmatrixcomposite,[Seealso:46.13forpropertiesofSiCreinforced
alloys].
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46.5 Al-Li alloys: Characteristics

46.5.1
General
Table46.5.1givessometypicalcharacteristicsofAlLialloys.Theiruseisseenasdesirablebecauseof
areduceddensityandincreasedstiffness,enablingmasssaving.
Table46.51AlLialloys:Typicalpropertiescomparedwith7075
Alloy
Properties
Ultimate tensile
strength
(MPa) (1)
Yield stress
(MPa) (1)
Tensile modulus
(GPa)
Density
(kg/m3)
Coefficient of
thermal expansion
(106/K)
Heat capacity
(J/kg/K)
Thermal
conductivity
(W/cmC)
Electrical
conductivity
(% IACS)
Key:
AMC50
0
2090
2098
2099
2195
2196
2297
8090
7075
441531
503510
510600
510615
520540
414441
370480
400-500
400586
386483
470476
430550
470580
470490
379400
265435
300-420
303462
79.4
76
78
76
77.6
75.2
77
77
71.7
2590
2700
2620
2710
2630
2650
2540
2580
2810
23.6
21.4
23.6
1203
930
960
88
95.3
130
1719
19
33
(1)DatafromTable46.6.1orRef[463],andcoverarangeofformsandtempers
To successfully replace accepted 2XXX and 7XXX alloys, other properties need to be matched or
improved,theseinclude:
Strength,
Toughness,and
Fatigueresistance,coupledwith,
Acceptablecorrosionresistance.
Significant alloy development was needed to reach acceptance levels for these, and doubts have
remainedinsomeareasofparticularsensitivity:
Reducedductility,
Lowtransversestrengths,and
Susceptibilitytostresscorrosioncracking.
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Further studies have shown that a combination of a moderate lithium content of between 0.8% to
1.9%Li, depending on the base alloy composition, combined with further alloying additions and
process modifications, can improve the stress corrosion resistance and fracture characteristics, Ref.
[4650].
46.5.2
Microstructure
CharacteristicsspecifictoAlLialloyscanbesummarisedas:
Properties attained by AlLi alloys are strongly dependent on their microstructure. This is
affectedby:
alloychemistry,
processingroute,and
thermomechanicaltreatments.
Additionsofcopperandmagnesiumassistintheformationoffineprecipitates,i.e.Al2CuMg
andAl2CuLi.
Grain refinement in AlLi alloys is achieved by additions of zirconium, which also acts as a
recrystallisationinhibitor.
Most conventional aluminium alloys have an elongated pancake type of grain structure to
provide superior mechanical properties in the longitudinal and longtransverse directions.
However, this is deleterious to AlLi alloys. So, as far as is possible, a recrystallised
microstructure is sought, especially for damagetolerant grades. This can be promoted by an
underaged temper, T8X. However, a recrystallised structure does not give the highest
resistancetostresscorrosioncracking.
AdegreeofoptimisationandcompromiseisnecessarytoproduceanAlLialloywiththenecessary
properties. The higher anisotropy in AlLi alloys as compared to conventional alloys cannot be
avoided.
Furtherstudieshaveshowntheimportanceofalloyingandtraceelementcontrol,Ref.[4650]:
Control of tramp elements (Na, K, Ca, H, S), which are known to reduce fracture toughness,
Ref.[4652].
ControlofSiandFe;Siincreasesthesusceptibilitytostresscorrosioncracking,Ref.[4652].
Control of the LitoCu atomic ratio (to avoid formation of the phase) can produce good
damagetoleranceanddurability(inX2096).
SmallAgadditions(0.25to0.60%,typically)tothebasicAlCuLiMgalloy,Ref.[4651]:
instigatetheformationoffineprecipitates,whichimprovefracturetoughness.
improvestresscorrosionresistance.
ThisworkledtothedevelopmentoftheWeldaliteseriesofAlCuLiMgAgalloys,themost
notablebeing2195whichisnowusedfortheExternalTankfortheNASASpaceShuttle.
Mn additions to the base AlCuLi system with a controlled LitoCu atomic ratio can help
reducestrengthanisotropy.
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46.5.3
Further development
AlLialloyandprocessdevelopmentcontinueswiththeaimofoptimisingthematerialcharacteristics
for supersonic civil transport. For these highertemperature applications, one development alloy
(RX818)hadincreasedvolumefractionofstrengtheningprecipitatesthroughhigherlevelsofCuand
Mgandthermomechanicalprocessingwasusedtodevelopanunrecrystallisedmicrostructure,Ref.
[4663]. Although this alloy showed high strength levels, Ref. [4664] it was later dropped from this
studyduetopoorfracturetoughnessperformance,Ref.[4665].
Higher Cu and Mglevels when coupled with a Mn addition encouraged dispersoid formation and
promotedtherecrystallisationprocess(ML337developmentalloy).Thisgaveagoodcombinationof
thermal stability and mechanical properties (strength and fracture toughness) at temperatures up to
135C,Ref.[4664].InitialworkalsoindicatedthatML337exhibitsmoreisotropicductilityinthethree
directions,soimprovingthesheetformingability,Ref.[4651].
RX818 and ML337 are Reynolds Metals Company (now Alcoa) development alloys, based on the
Weldalitesystem,forNASA.RX818hasundergonefurtherdevelopmentandisnowavailablefrom
Alcan,inatempergivingimprovedmechanicalproperties,asalloy2098T82P,Ref.[4662].
46.6 Al-Li alloys: Properties

46.6.1
Data
Extensive,validatedpropertydataisincreasingfortheserelativelyrecentalloys.Manufacturersdata
sheetsareamainsourceofcomprehensivedata.
Asaresultofanisotropy,theminimumstrengthpropertiesinmostAlLiproductsoccurat60tothe
workingdirection.
Tensile and fracture toughness datafor the shorttransverse(ST) direction isscarce. This is a major
deficiency as the ST properties of AlLi alloys are poor, especially the ductility and fracture
toughness.TheSTfracturetoughnesscanbeaslowas50%ofthatofcomparableconventionalalloys.
However,recentdevelopmentsintheWeldalitefamilybyAlcan(Pechiney)haveresultedinalloy
2x98T82P (based on 2098) which has similar strength but better fracture toughness than the
conventionalaerospacesheetalloy2024T62,Ref.[4662].
46.6.2
Tensile properties
Ingeneral,thestaticstrengthlevelsofAlLialloyscomparewellwithconventionalmediumandhigh
strengthalloys.Theductilityis,however,usuallylower.
Table46.6.1providestypicaltensilepropertiesforthevariousalloytypesandproductforms,Ref.[46
6],[4656],[4657],[4658],[4662].
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Table46.61AlLialloys:Mechanicalproperties
Alloyand
temper
Elong.
Form
Direction(1)
(2)
UTS(MPa)
YS(MPa)
2090-T83
sheet
531
483
2090-T83
sheet
LT
503
455
2090-T83
sheet
45
441
386
2098-T82P
sheet
LT
503
476
2x98-T82P
sheet
LT
510
470
(%)
2099-T8E65
extrusion
600
550
2099-T8E65
extrusion
LT
520
470
2099-T8E67
extrusion
580
520
2099-T8E67
extrusion
LT
510
430
2195-T8R78
plate, 38 - 50mm
555
530
2195-T8R78
plate, 38 - 50mm
LT
575
530
2195-T8R78
plate, 38 - 50mm
45
560
505
2195-T8R78
plate, 38 - 50mm
ST
595
500
3.5
2195-T8R78
plate, 6.4 - 12.7mm
615
580
2195-T8R78
plate, 6.4 - 12.7mm
LT
600
556
11
2195-T8R78
plate, 6.4 - 12.7mm
45
525
490
12
2195-T8
plate, 11.4mm
609
574
8.5
2195-T8
plate, 11.4mm
45
526
490
12.7
2195-T8
plate, 11.4mm
55
510
470
14.7
2195-T8
plate, 11.4mm
60
527
472
14.9
2195-T8
plate, 11.4mm
65
563
492
14.5
2195-T8
plate, 11.4mm
70
567
503
9.2
2195-T8
plate, 11.4mm
LT
589
551
11.2
2196-T8511
extrusion, 1.2 - 6mm
520
470
2196-T8511
extrusion, 6 - 25mm
540
490
plate, 50mm
441
400
10
2297-T87
plate, 75mm
427
393
2297-T87
plate, 100mm
427
393
2297-T87
plate, 125mm
421
386
2297-T87
plate, 150mm
414
379
8090-T652
forging
430
350
8090-T852
forging
480
435
8090-T8151
plate
420
350
8090-T8151
plate
420
320
8090-T8151
plate
ST
370
265
2.5
8090-T81
sheet
420
360
8090-T81
sheet
415
290
11
1441-T1
sheet
415
315
16
1441-T1
sheet
430
325
14
1441-T1
sheet
45
405
280
18
1441-T1
extrusion
450
360
1441-T1
extrusion
475
390
1441-T11
sheet
450
395
9.5
2297-T87
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Elong.
Form
Direction(1)
(2)
UTS(MPa)
YS(MPa)
1441-T11
sheet
455
390
1441-T11
sheet
45
440
380
8.5
AMC500F1-T1
Forgings, 10-50mm
400
300
8-10
AMC500sa-T1
Forgings, 10-50mm
500
420
7-9
Alloyand
temper
Key
(%)
(1)DirectionisdefinedinASTME182305Annex2;
Llong;Ttransverse;
LTlongtransverse;
STshorttransverse;
(2)AngleinplanerelativetoLdirection.
46.6.3
Fracture properties
A summary of the fracture properties for various AlLi alloys and product forms is given in Table
46.6.2,Ref.[466],[4649],[4658],[4662].
Reliable data is still sparse and fracture toughness remains a problem with the high strength AlLi
alloys,butthenewer2x98alloyshowsgoodpromise.
FracturetoughnessdataforsomesheetmaterialsareprovidedinFigure46.6.1,Ref.[466].
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Table46.62AlLialloys:Fractureproperties
AlloyTemper
2090-T83
2098-T82P
2x98-T82P
2099-T8E65
2099-T8E65
2099-T8E67
2099-T8E67
2195-T8R78
2195-T8R78
2195-T8R78
2195-T8R78
2195-T8R78
2297-T87
2297-T87
2297-T87
2297-T87
2297-T87
8090-T8771
8090-T8771
8090-T8771
8090-T81551
8090-T81551
8090-T82551
8090-T82551
8090-T851
8090-T851
8090-T652
8090-T652
8090-T652
8090-T852
8090-T852
8090-T8151
8090-T8151
8090-T8151
8090-T81
8090-T81
1441-T1
1441-T1
1441-T11
1441-T11
Key
Form
Direction(1)
KQMPam
KIcMPam
KcMPam
sheet
sheet (Pechiney)
sheet (Pechiney)
extrusion
extrusion
extrusion
extrusion
plate, 38 - 50mm
plate, 38 - 50mm
plate, 6.4 12.7mm
plate, 6.4 12.7mm
plate, 6.4 12.7mm
plate, 50mm
plate, 75mm
plate, 100mm
plate, 125mm
plate, 150mm
plate
plate
plate
extrusion
extrusion
extrusion
extrusion
extrusion
extrusion
forging
forging
forging
forging
forging
plate
plate
plate
sheet
sheet
L-T
LT
LT
L-T
T-L
L-T
T-L
L
LT
30
27
66
55
37
35
43.9
130
160
-
40
LT
40
45
L-T
L-T
L-T
L-T
L-T
L
T
S-T
L
T
L
T
L
T
L
T
S-T
L
T
L
T
S-T
L
T
27
24
19
36
33
32
20
30
20
23
19
14
35
30
18
-
160
122
sheet (a)
sheet (a)
sheet (a)
sheet (a)
LT
TL
LT
TL
35
35.2
35.2
34.1
33
31.9
22
20
76.5 / 99.2 /
124
73.0 / 98.5 / 76.6 / 99.8 / 76.8 / 102.0 / -
(1)directionisdefinedinASTME182305Annex2;
(a)Sheetthickness1.4mmto1.8mm;widths200mm/400mm/600mm
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Figure46.61AlLialloys:Fracturetoughnessversusyieldstrengthforsheet
materials
46.6.4
Fatigue properties
46.6.4.1
Crack growth
Forsheetandthinplate,resultstodateindicatethatthefatiguecrackgrowthbehaviour(growthrate
vstressintensityfactor)ofAlLialloysisacceptablecomparedwiththatofconventionalalloys.
Figure 46.6.2 and Figure 46.6.3 show evidence of this, although optimisation of heat treatment is
necessaryforeachproductform,Ref.[466].
Alloy2091showninFigure46.6.3isnotcurrentlyofferedbyAlcan(Pechiney)becausealloys2098and
2x98havelargelysupersededit.Sincecomparativedataforthesealloysisnotpublished,thedatafor
2091isincludedhereforinformationonly.
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Figure46.62AlLialloys:Comparisonoffatiguecrackgrowthbehaviourfor
2024T3and8090T81
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Figure46.63AlLialloys:Comparisonoffatiguecrackgrowthbehaviourfor
2024T3and2091T8X
TheRussianalloy1441isunderevaluationbyNASAasafuselagesheetmaterialandshowedbetter
fatigue crack growth resistance than the conventional fuselage sheet alloy 1163 Al (2524 alloy). The
resultsaregiveninTable46.6.3,Ref.[4656].
Alloy2524isavariationofthe2024alloyseries,sotheseresultscangiveanindicationofproperties
comparedwith2024.
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Table46.63AlLialloys:Fatiguecrackgrowthrateof1441and1163sheet
Alloyand
Temper(2)
Direction(1)
KMPam
LT
average
range
18.6
31.0
0.37
2.00
0.28 - 0.40
1.26 - 3.17
18.6
0.29
0.14 - 0.51
31.0
1.50
0.69 - 2.57
18.6
0.79
0.42 - 1.21
LT
31.0
7.30
3.75 - 13.0
TL
18.6
31.0
0.70
3.40
0.68 - 0.73
2.56 - 4.14
18.6
0.78
0.62 - 0.98
31.0
3.85
3.30 - 4.40
18.6
0.92
0.74 - 1.14
31.0
4.70
3.44 - 5.53
1441-T1
TL
1441-T11
LT
1163-T3
TL
Testconditions:
d(2a)/dN,(mm/kcycle)
Testedatamaximumfatiguestressof100MPaandafrequencyof5Hz.Theratioof
minimumfatiguestresstomaximumfatiguestress(R)was0.
Testedonsheet1.2mmto2.0mmthickusingcentrecracktensionspecimensfrom
300mmto400mmwide.
Key:
(1)directionisdefinedinASTME182305Annex2;
(2)1163isaRussiananalogofAA2524
The pronounced material anisotropy of thicker sections, such as in forgings, produces variations in
fatigue crack growth behaviour. As shown in Figure 46.06.4, the shorttransverse direction is
noticeablypoorer,Ref.[466].
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Figure46.64AlLialloys:ComparisonoffatiguecrackgrowthbehaviourLITAL
A(8090)forgingsat20C
46.6.4.2
Strength
Itisnowacceptedthatthefatiguestrength(appliedstressvcyclestofailure)ofAlLialloyscanmatch
that of the equivalent conventional alloys in most product forms. This is also valid for notched
specimens.Publisheddataonfatiguestrengthscanbeconfusinganddependonwhentheworkwas
done, and whether specimens were notched or not. For dynamic mechanical applications, designers
can use only that information on the most commercially developed ingots and their optimised heat
treatments.Fatiguestrengthsinthickersectionshavestrongdirectionality.
46.6.5
Design values
46.6.5.1
General
Designvaluescanonlybestatedforidentifiablecombinationsof:
alloy
productform,and
thermomechanicaltreatment
A and B values are available from the suppliers for many of the other alloys referred to in this
handbook,Ref.[4662].
52
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46.6.5.2
Extrusions
Table 46.6.4 gives an indication of data for extrusions that reflect the minimum guaranteed values
whichcanbeexpected,Ref.[4614].
Table46.64AlLialloys:Designtensilestrengthsforextruded8090alloys
8090T8511
8090T82
UTS(MPa)
YS(MPa)
UTS(MPa)
YS(MPa)
A-value(1)
B-value(1)
Average
Standard
deviation
505
517
532
10.3
434
449
468
12.9
515
523
534
6.9
441
453
468
9.7
Key:
(1)AandBvaluesareavailablefromthesuppliersformanyoftheotheralloysreferredtoin
thishandbook,Ref.[4662].
46.6.6
Further development alloys
Continued development of AlLi alloys has centred on optimisation and overcoming the known
property limitations of the first generation commercial alloys such that second, and now third,
generation alloys have become available commercially and are covered in this handbook, [See also:
46.5].
Work continues on both alloy chemistry and process technology (including powder metallurgy
techniques)toimprovetheisotropyandtransversefracturetoughnessproperties.
PropertydataformanyexistingandnewerAlLialloysisstillunderevaluation.AandBvaluesare
becomingavailablefromalloysuppliers,whoalsoprovideotheruptodateinformation,Ref.[4662].
Further data on alloy 2090T83 sheet is published in MMPDS Metallic Materials Properties
DevelopmentandStandardization,whichhasreplacedMILHDBK5.
Additionaldataonalloy2297T8R85plateispublishedinthePMPPreliminaryMaterialProperties
Handbook,whichisaprecursortoinclusioninMMPDS,Ref.[4671],[4672].
46.7 Al-Li alloys: Stress corrosion cracking

46.7.1
General
Forspaceapplications,stresscorrosioncrackingisthemostcriticalformofdegradationthatdemands
examinationbecausetheSCCbehaviourofearlierAlLialloyswaspoor.Thesituationhasimproved
withmodificationstoalloychemistry,temperingandageingtreatments.
[Seealso:ECSSQST7036:Materialselectionforcontrollingstresscorrosioncracking].
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46.7.2
Test
TheSCCperformanceofselectedalloysisdeterminedagainstECSSQST7037(ASTMG44andG47)
usingastressedspecimenina3.5%sodiumchloride(NaCl)solution.
AlLialloysareusuallygivenalowresistance(class3)status,indicatingthatvisualcorrosionoccurs
after30daysandspecimenfailuresbefore30daysarenotuncommon.
The ST shorttransverse direction gives the lowest threshold stress for failure at levels as low as
50MPa.
ESAPSS01737hasbeenreplacedbyECSSQST7037.
46.7.3
Stress corrosion cracking resistance
46.7.3.1
Alloy type and temper
For 8090type alloys, the susceptibility to crack initiation is dependent on the copper content,
particularlyforalloyswithlowlevelsofmagnesium.Cracksdonotinitiateincopperfreealloys.The
initiation characteristics are also dependent on alloy temper. Overaged tempers give the best
resistancetoSCCinitiation.Duplexageingtreatmentscanalsoassistinobtainingabalancebetween
strength and SCC resistance. Where possible, the ageing temperature is reduced. Similar effects are
notedin2090alloys,withpeakagedmaterialssurvivinglonger.
ThecorrosionisinfluencedbythepresenceofTi(Al2CuLi)precipitatesatgrainboundarieswhichare
anodic to the matrix and preferentially dissolve causing intergranular cracking. Peakageing causes
precipitationwithinthegrains.
SmallAgadditionstoAlCuLiMgalloysystemshaveshownimprovementsinSSCresistanceover
nonAgcontainingalloys,Ref.[4651].[Seealso:Recentalloys].
Figure46.7.1showstheeffectofageingonSCCbehaviour,Ref.[4617].
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Figure46.71AlLiAlloys:Influenceoftemperonstresscorrosioncracking
initiationfor8090plates,STdirection
AccumulateddataontheSCCperformanceof8090AlLialloyforvariousproductformsisgivenin,
Ref.[4615],[4619],[4618],[466]:
Table 46.7.1, which gives the proposed classification of 8090 alloy in accordance with ECSS
standards,alongwiththeoriginalESAsource.
Table46.7.2givestentativestresscorrosionthresholdsfor8090.
Table46.7.3givesresultsofstresscorrosiontestsfor8090.
Table46.7.4comparestheSCCinitiationbehaviourof8090withconventionalalloys.
Table46.71AlLialloys:Alloy8090Resultsofstresscorrosiontests
ESAMetallurgy
ReportNo.
1338
1474
1631
1632
1798
Key
Materialtype
8090-T651 (25 mm plate)

8090-T8771 (90 mm plate)
8090-T81 damage tolerant sheet (75%
PS)
8090-T81 damage tolerant sheet (50%
PS)
8090-T8 forging
Proposed
classification(1)(2)
class 3
class 3
class 3
class 3
class 3
(1)TestsconductedtoESAPSS01737.ThisspecificationhasbeenreplacedbyECSSQST7037;
(2)Seealso:ECSSQST7036:Materialsselectionforcontrollingstresscorrosioncracking.
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Table46.72AlLialloys:Tentativestresscorrosionthresholdsfor8090alloy
Sheet
Temper
AlloyCategory
LTSCCthreshold,[MPa]
8090
8090
T81
T6/T8
damage tolerant
medium strength
200
> 350
Thinplate
Temper
STthresholdstress,[MPa](Altest3.5%NaCl)
8090
8090
T651
T8771
50-75
140
Forging
Temper
Thresholdstress,[MPa]
8090
T652
200
Table46.73AlLialloys:Resultsofstresscorrosiontestonsheetmaterial,as
performedbyNLR
Alloy
Nominalyield
stress[MPa]
8090-T8
450
8090C-T3
214
8090CT81
341
Lifetime[Days]
SCCtest
stress[MPa]
Initiation
Failure
200
300
200
300
200
300
>42
>42
>42
>42
1
2
>42
>42
>42
>42
>42
>42
Table46.74AlLiAlloys:SCCinitiationbehaviourof8090alloycomparedwith
thatofconventionalalloys
Alloy
8090
8090
8090
2024
2014
7070
7075
Key:
AgeingCondition
S.T.ThresholdStress,[MPa]
UA
PA
OA
T651
UA
PA
OA
T351
T651
T7651
T7351
60
115 (20 day)
230
<50 (20 day)
120 (2 day)
120 (6 day)
120 (29 day)
50 (20 day)
50 (20 day)
150 (20 day)
240 (20 day)
UA=Underaged;PA=Peakaged;OA=Overaged.
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46.7.3.2
Crack propagation
CrackpropagationisassessedusingaDCBdoublecantileverbeamspecimen,whichisnotchedand
fatigue precracked. Findings have been contradictory as to the relative merits of under and over
ageing. Hydrogen embrittlement can also occur in saline environments. All investigations do show
thatfor2090and8090alloys,thethresholdstressintensityK1SCCisreducedbyoverageing.
In general, the SCC behaviour of sheet and extrusion has improved during the alloy development
programmes.However,problemsaremoreacutewiththickersectionplateandforgings.
46.7.4
Recent alloys
Alloy 2195, a member of the Weldalite family and commerciallyavailable from Alcan, has
undergone evaluation of its SCC and fracture characteristics as a replacement for 2219 in welded
cryogenicfueltankapplications,Ref.[4650],[4651].[Seealso:46.9]
Theotheralloysofferedcommerciallyallshowimprovedcorrosionresistance,severalhavingbetter
propertiesthantheconventionalaerospacealloys2024and7075.
Alloy 2297, whilst having lower strength level than some of the other newer AlLi alloys, shows
comparableSCCresistancetoconventional7XXXseriesalloys,eveninheavyplatesectionsupto150
mmthick.
Table 46.7.5 provides a summary of SCC resistance and EXCO exfoliation corrosion susceptibility
dataforcurrentlyavailableplate,sheetandextrusions,Ref.[4662].
Table46.75AlLialloys:Currentcommercialalloyssummaryofcorrosion
resistance
Alloy
2098-T82P
2x98-T82P
2099T8E65
2099T8E67
2195T8R78
2196-T8511
2297-T87
Key:
Form
Direction(1)
SCCresistance(a)
MPa
Duration
EXCO(2)
rating(b)
sheet
sheet
LT
LT
>240
>240
30
30
extrusions
LT
330
P/EA
extrusions
LT
250
P/EA
plate
extrusions
plate
ST
345
207
30
30
EA
EA
EA
(1)DirectiontoASTME1823
(2)EXCOexfoliationcorrosionsusceptibility
(a)toASTMG47
(b)toASTMG34
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46.8 Al-Li alloys: Manufacturing aspects

46.8.1
General
Special attention is given to health and safety, along with handling of AlLi scrap to avoid
contaminationofthatfromconventionalalloys.Therefore,thesameprocessingequipmentcannotbe
usedforbothconventionalandAlLialloys.
46.8.2
Machining
AlLi alloys have machining characteristics similar to those of other aluminium alloys, with small
differencesincuttingspeedsandachievablesurfacefinish.Aspectsofmachiningcanbesummarised
as:
Chemicallyactivedustparticlesaregenerated.ThepresenceofLithiumhydroxidecanirritate
therespiratorysystemifinhaled.
Chemical milling generates more residue, so special equipment is needed for its efficient
removal.
Operationsthatgeneratemoltenmetal,e.g.EDMelectrodischargemachining,arebestavoided
becausemoltenAlLialloyreactsviolentlyinthepresenceofmoisture.
All scrap and swarf needs segregation from other recyclable aluminium alloys to avoid Li
contaminationandpossibledamagetofurnacesnotdesignedforLicontainingalloys.
AlLialloysprobablyneeddedicatedmachiningfacilities.
46.8.3
Welding
Weldalite049wasdevelopedspecificallyforenhancedweldability.Thesubsequentdevelopmentsin
thisfamilyofalloys,andinparticularalloy2195,arecandidatestoreplacetheexistingweldablealloy
2219,Ref.[4650].
2195 behaves well at cryogenic temperatures, especially when given a modified twostep aging
treatment,increasingitspotentialasamaterialforcryogenicfueltanks,Ref.[4667],[Seealso:46.9].
TheLicontentof0.8to1.2%givesamodestmasssaving.
Other AlLi alloys are weldable under suitable conditions and many of the newer alloys now
commerciallyavailableshowexcellentweldability:
Surface layers on the alloy are removed by chemical or mechanical machining, to prevent
porosityintheweld.
TIGweldinghasbeensuccessfullyappliedtoalloy8090,usingAl5Mgfillermetal.Apostweld
ageingtreatmentimprovesthestrength.
For alloy 2090, welds have been achieved with 4047 and 4145 fillers. Postweld solution
treatmentandageingcanincreasetheweldstrengthto80%ofthebasemetalstrength.
Weldments in alloy 2195 made with the VPPA (variable polarity plasma arc) technique have
beenextensivelyexamined,Ref.[4650],[4666].
ThenewertechniqueofFSWfrictionstirweldinghasalsobeenexaminedwithencouraging
results,Ref.[4666].
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Theweldingofalloy2195hasbeenextensivelystudiedaspartoftheSLWTsuperlightweighttank
development programme at NASA. The results of a study into the effects on fatigue crack growth
ratesaresummarisedinTable46.8.1,Ref.[4666].
TheresultsindicatethatbothVPPAandFSWproducedacceptablequalitywelds.
[Seealso:46.6fatigueproperties]
Table46.81AlLialloys:2195T8plateandweldmentssummaryoffatigue
crackgrowthrate
Alloy+
condition
t(mm)3
Orientati
on
K3
Test
temp.3
(C)
6.6
11
22
0.5-1.4
0.3-1.5
4.3- 7.8
2.7-8.0
33.7-78
29.4-77.2
All
All
Specim
enID
(MPam)
2195-T8
plate 1
6.35, 12.7
L-T, T-L
0.1, 0.5
24
93
VPPAW 1
6.35, 12.7
L-T
0.1, 0.5
24
1.0-1.8
9.0-1131
All
FSW 1
6.35, 12.7
L-T
0.5
196
24
94
2.6-2.7
14.8
5.6-11.6
13.3-13.5
98.6-114.2
34.3
-
All
All
All
2195 2
6.35,
31.75
All
0.1, 0.5
196
24
0.07-16.5
0.4-4.4
0.2-55
11-110
-
All
All
Key:
OrientationisdefinedinASTME1823Annex2.
Fatiguecrackgrowthrate,da/dN(106in/cycle).
VPPAWvariablepolarityplasmaarcwelding.
FSWfrictionstirwelding.
ConversionfromImperialunits:MATWEBhttp://www.matweb.com/tools/conversion.asp
1Ref.[4666]
2ResultsfromSLWTdesignallowablesprogram:R.E.ReinmullerSO89818AlLiMaterials
Database,LockheedMartinMannedSpaceSystems,NewOrleans,LA70189
3ConversionfromImperialunits:MATWEBhttp:/www.matweb.com/tools/conversion.asp
46.8.4
Cost implications
Ingeneral,thepriceofbasicAlLiproductforms(sheet,plate,extrusionsandforginggrades)ishigher
thanthatofcomparableconventionalalloys.
Specialdemandsduringproductionincreasecostsfurtheroverconventionalaluminium.Someofthe
contributoryfactorsare:
increasecostsforscrapsegregationandcontrol,
reducedscrapvalue,
increasedhandlingcosts,
increasedtoolwear.
Asproductpricesarenormallyvolumerelated,thesituationislikelytoimprovewiththewideruseof
particulargradesofAlLialloys,[Seealso:46.9].
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46.8.5
Applications
ThecostsindicateadistincthandicapforAlLialloysifoneisseekingtoreplaceestablished2XXXand
7XXXseriesalloys.
Thehigherfinisheditemcostcanonlybeoffsetagainstmasssaving;thereisnootherjustificationfor
usingAlLialloys.Suchmasssavingshavebeenshownforsomeaerospacestructures,[See:46.9]
46.8.6
Mass-saving
46.8.6.1
General
Whilstadirectmaterialsubstitutionapproachispossible,thehighestmasssavingsareobtainedfrom
AlLialloysbyoptimisingthedesign,[Seealso:46.9].
46.8.6.2
Direct material substitution
ForhighLicontainingalloys(8090,2090),amasssavingofabout8%canbeachieved.
Masssavingsintherangeof6%to7%areprobableforalloyswithamoderateLicontent,e.g.2098,
2099,2195,2196and2297,Ref.[4651].
46.8.6.3
Redesigned components
Byredesigningtotakeaccountoftheincreasedmodulus,masssavingsof15%to18%canbepossible,
providedthatstrengthcriteriaaremet.
46.9 Al-Li alloys: Potential applications

46.9.1
General factors
AlLi alloys appear attractive for space use, but the characterisation of stress corrosion cracking
behaviourcanpresentanobstacle,[See:46.7].AlLicanbeusedifacontractordemonstratesthatthe
possibilityofSCChasbeenaddressedforeachindividualapplicationandtheappropriateFailSafeor
SafeLifecriteriaaremet.
[See:ECSSQST7036;ECSSQST7037]
Initially, appropriate components were those needing minimum machining, little or no welding
havingnofatigueloading.Thisimpliedsheetproducts,netshapeforgingsandextrudedsectionsfor
componentssuchasbrackets,panels,strutsandadapterringsforsatellitestructures.
Single launch applications pose fewer problems than reusable, longlife structures. The recent
weldablealloys,e.g.Weldaliteseries,2095and2195havebeenappliedtocryogenictanks.
[See:SuperLightweightTank(SLWT)]
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AnexampleofthegrowingconfidenceinAlLialloysinlonglifestructuresistheiruseincommercial
aircraft applications. Traditionally, evaluation for use in space draws on the experience gained by
contractorswithmaterialsusedwithinaircraft.
[See:A380Floorbeams]
46.9.2
Space Shuttle external tank
46.9.2.1
General
TheETexternaltankistheonlymajornonreusablecomponentoftheSpaceShuttlesystem.TheETis
thesinglelargestelementwithdimensionsof46.94m(154feet)longand8.41m(27.6feet)diameter.
During launch it acts as the structural backbone of the Shuttle and contains the LH and LOX
propellant for the Orbiters 3 main engines. Early versions of the ET used aluminium, steel and
titaniumintheirconstruction.Theneedtoreducemassandsoenableheavierpayloadstobecarried
by the Orbiter, especially for the construction of ISS international space station, resulted in
modificationsintheoriginaldesign;assummarisedinTable46.09.1.
Table46.91AlLialloys:ApplicationsmasssavingsinSpaceShuttleexternal
tank
ETExternalTank
SWT
(Standard Weight Tank)
LWT (2)
(Light Weight Tank)
SLWT (3)
(Super Lightweight Tank)
Mass(kg)
34246 (75 500 lbs)

29710 (65 500 lbs)
26308 (58 000 lbs)
Missions
STS-1 to STS-5 (1)

STS-7
STS-6
STS-8 to STS-90
STS-91 (June 1998)
Key: (1)ETswerepaintedwhiteformissionsSTS1andSTS2.FromSTS3onwards,theywerenolonger
paintedtosaveweightandpreparationcosts.
(2)Materialsanddesignchanges,plusnewfabricationtechniques.
(3)Componentredesignanduseof2195aluminiumlithiumalloy.
46.9.2.2
Super Lightweight Tank (SLWT)
Theuseof2195alloyintheconstructionoftheSLWTisprobablythelargestuseofanAlLialloyin
currentspaceapplications.SLWTfirstflewinJune1998onmissionSTS91.
Theweightsavingofabout3402kgoverthepreviousLWTtankwasachievedbycomponentredesign
and the use of an AlLi alloy, which provides a 30% strength increase and 5% density reduction
comparedwiththepreviousmaterials,Ref.[4653].
DespitethemodificationstothedesignandmaterialsusedintheET,theoverallconceptremainsthe
same.
Figure46.9.1showsthemainETtankcomponentsandthechangesfromthepreviousLWT,Ref.[46
53],[4668].
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Key:
# = lbs.
Figure46.91AlLialloys:ApplicationsSpaceShuttleexternaltank,major
changesfromLWT
ThemainETtankcomponentsare:
LOX liquid oxygen tank, which is an aluminium monocoque structure composed of

preformed, chemicallymilled gores, panels, machined fittings and ring chords which are
assembled by fusion welding. The nose cone reduces drag and acts as a lightening rod. The
mainfeaturesare:
Dimensions:~8.4m(331inches)diameter~15.0m(592inches)long.
Capacity:~553962litres(19563cubicfeet).
Operatingpressure:~145kPa(20to22psi)
LHliquidhydrogentankisanaluminiumsemimonocoquestructureoffusionweldedbarrel
sections;5majorringframeswithforwardandaftellipsoidaldomes.Attheforwardendofthe
LH tank is the ET/Orbiter forward attachment pod strut. At the aft end are 2 ET/Orbiter
attachmentballfittingsandtheSolidRocketBooster(SRB)toETstabilisingstrutattachments.
Themainfeaturesare:
Dimensions(approximate):8.4m(331inches)diameter29.5m(1160inches)long.
Capacity:~1515461litres(53518cubicfeet).
Operatingpressure:~228kPa(32to34psi)
Intertank, which is a semi monocoque cylindrical structure with aluminium mechanically

joinedskin,stringersandmachinedpanels.FlangesoneachendjointheforwardLOXtankand
aft LH tank. It houses the ET instrumentation and provides an umbilical plate that interfaces
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withthegroundfacilityduringprelaunchoperations,suchaspurge,hazardousgasdetection,
H2boiloff.
Dimensions(approximate):8.4m(331inches)diameter6.9m(270inches)long.
The ET external surface has a multilayer thermal protection coating (about 25 mm thick) which
prevents ice forming on the tank structure and protects it from the thermal conditions during
prelaunch,launchandflight.
46.9.3
A380 - Floor beams
46.9.3.1
General
The Airbus A380 represents the latest development in large, widebodied, passenger aircraft. The
overalldimensionsare:
Wingspan:79.80m
Length:73.00m
Height:24.10m
Fuselagediameter:7.14m
The A380 family not only represents the largest civil aircraft built to date, but also provides a
technologyplatformforfuturecommercialaircraftdevelopmentprogrammes.
46.9.3.2
Material selection
Weightsavings were of paramount importance in the selectionof construction materialsin order to

providelowerfuelburn,reducedemissionsintotheatmosphereandloweroperatingcosts.
AlthoughAirbusconsideredtheuseofAlLialloysfortheA340,thefirstgenerationalloys,suchas
8090T8511 and 2091T851, were rejected over issues of thermal stability, anisotropy and crack
deviation. These problems have been resolved with the availability of the thirdgeneration AlLi
alloys.
Airbus has qualified alloys C460 (2099) from Alcoa and 2196 from Alcan in the form of heavy
extrusionsintheT8511temperforthemanufactureoffloorbeams;asshowninFigure46.9.2.
ExtrudedAlLialloyprofilesareusedinthemaindeckfloorbeams(A380800sections13and15),but
aredestinedforuseinbothdecksinthefreighterversion;adaptedtosuitlocalloads,Ref.[4685].
Both alloys exhibit better or equal properties to conventional alloy 7175T73511, with improved
corrosionresistance,andprovidesubstantialweightsavings.
Based on current experience, Airbus considers AlLi alloys as the main competitor to composite
materials for aircraft construction. As a result, other applications for AlLi alloys are under
consideration,suchasbottomwingstringersandfuselageskin,Ref.[4669],[4670].
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Fuselage diameter: 7.14 m
Figure46.92AlLialloys:ApplicationsAirbusA380floorbeams
Airbus also has a cooperative venture with Russia organisations, such as VIAM, to assess potential
uses of Russianorigin AlLi alloys. This programme considers a number of alloys with the aim of
generatingdatatoenableadirectcomparisonbetweenthepropertiesofRussianoriginmaterialswith
currentspecificationwesternmaterials.Theworkincludesprequalificationactivitiesonashortlistof
advancedmaterials,identifiedashavingtruepotential,Ref.[4684].
46.10 Oxide dispersion strengthened (ODS) alloys

46.10.1 Type and effect of dispersions
Dispersion strengthening relies on the distribution of many, very fine particles, usually a ceramic
oxide, throughout a pure metal. These particles are of nanometre size range (2nm to 10nm), and
interactwithdislocationstogivethestrengtheningeffectasstrainoccursinthemetal,Ref.[468].
Cryomilling pure aluminium powder in liquid nitrogen results in dispersion strengthening by the
formation of AlN aluminium nitride particles. After subsequent compaction and degassing, this
materialcanbeextrudedandthencoldrolledtothinsheet,Ref.[4655].
46.10.2 Processing
46.10.2.1 Powder
ODSalloysarepreparedbyapowdermetallurgyroute.Mechanicalalloying(MA)isthemainmethod
ofincorporatingtheoxideparticles,e.g.44mairatomisedaluminiumpowderwith0.05malumina
powder. Both are added to a high energy ball mill under liquid nitrogen (Raufoss A/S process).
Nitrogenprovidesanatmosphereastheattritorbreaksuptheparticlesandconsolidatesthemintothe
aluminium as oxynitrides. Particle content varies, but is under 10% and often nearer 3%. Alumina
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(oxynitride)isthepopularstrengtheningmedium,butothernonshearable,hardparticleswithhigh
meltingpointscanbeused,e.g.Al4C3,TiO2,ZrO2orAl3Ti.
46.10.2.2 Consolidation
Thepowderisconsolidatedeitherby:
hotisostaticpressing(HIP),or
vacuumhotextrusion.
46.10.2.3 Product forming

Theconsolidatedmaterialcanbeworkedfurthertoafinishedproductby:
forging,
extrusion,
swaging,
rollingtosheetorplatematerial.
46.10.3 Cost factors

Thealloysareexpensivetoproduceandtherearepracticallimitsonthesizeofbilletproducibleby
thepowderroute.
46.10.4 Applications
ODSalloysarespecialisedproductsforapplicationsneedingaluminiummaterialswith:
higherthermalstability,
greaterwearresistance,
hardness.
The hightemperature stability is of interest as a possible competitor to titanium in the temperature

range150Cto450C.
Aluminium nitride (AlN) dispersion strengthened materials have been considered for hypersonic
aircraftstructuralelements,duetotheir,Ref.[4655]:
highstrengthupto450C,
creepresistance,
graingrowthstability,
corrosionresistance(purealuminiummatrix),
highthermalconductivity(heatdissipation).
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46.10.5 Properties
46.10.5.1 General
EmphasisisgivenheretoODSalloyswitha3%particleadditionpreparedbyRaufossA/S,(Norway),
Ref.[469].
Aluminiumlithium alloy, AMC500, is also an ODS material produced by mechanical alloying, [See:
46.4,46.5,46.6].
46.10.5.2 Strength
ODSalloysaremediumstrengthmaterials,whichofferusablepropertiesto450C,e.g.proofstresses
ofaround120MPaat400C.
Figure 46.10.1 indicates the better strength retention of various mechanically alloyed systems above
200C compared with a conventional higher temperature alloy, such as 2618, Ref. [469]. However,
Figure46.10.2showsthatthestraintofailureissignificantlyreducedastemperatureincreases.
Figure46.101AluminiumODSalloys:Comparisonofelevatedtemperature
tensilestrengthforvariousmechanicallyalloyedmaterialswithAl2618
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Figure46.102AluminiumODSalloys:Comparisonofelevatedtemperature
tensilestrength,proofstressandductility
Themethodofpowderconsolidationalsoinfluencesmechanicalproperties,Ref.[469]:
Proofstress,asshowninFigure46.10.3.
Ductility,asshowninFigure46.10.4.
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Figure46.103AluminiumODSalloys:Effectofconsolidationmethodonproof
stress
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Figure46.104AluminiumODSalloys:Effectofconsolidationmethodon
ductility
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46.10.5.3 Creep resistance

InviewoftheproposeduseofODSalloysatelevatedtemperatures,creepresistanceisimportant.
Figure46.10.5showsthatat400Clifeexpectancyisreasonableifstressesarebelow100MPa,although
theultimatelimitationisthelowfailurestrain(<1%),Ref.[469].
Figure46.105AluminiumODSalloys:Creepresponseat400Cfor3stresslevels
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Figure46.10.6providescreepdataat250Cwhichindicatesmorestablebehaviourinthestressrange
100MPato160MPa,Ref.[469].
Dispersion content: 3%Al2 O3
Figure46.106AluminiumODSalloys:Comparisonoftensilecreepcurvesat
differentstresslevelswithAl2618
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46.10.5.4 Fatigue
Figure46.10.7showsthatthefatigueperformanceoftheODS3%aluminaalloyisinitiallyhinderedby
amodesttensilestrength,butahigherrunoutstressisreachedathighfrequenciesthanfor2024alloy.
ThissuggestsnofundamentaldeficienciesinthefatigueperformanceofODSalloys,Ref.[469].
Dispersion content: 3%Al2O3
Figure46.107AluminiumODSalloys:ComparisonoffatigueresistancewithAl
2024
46.11 Rapidly solidified powder (RSP) alloys

46.11.1 Processing
RSP powders are made by breaking molten metal into small droplets which are solidified very
rapidly.Thiscanbeachievedby:
atomisation,
splatcooling,or
meltspinning.
AswithODS[See:46.10],RSPmaterialsavoidsomeofthelimitationsofmeltingotmetallurgy,Ref.
[462].
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46.11.2 Microstructure
TheRSProuteproducesamicrostructuralgrainrefinement.Thesmallerthemeanfreepathbetween
obstaclestodislocationmovement(grainboundaries),thegreaterthestrengthening.Inaddition,finer
microstructuralfeaturesarelessapttoserveasfractureinitiatingflaws,therebyincreasingtoughness.
Grain size is reduced because of the short time available for nucleation and growth during
solidification.
InRSPprocessing,thenormalalloyinglimitsinaluminiumcanbeexceededasaresultofincreased
supersaturation. This enables greater precipitation hardening without harmful segregation effects,
which can arise in overalloyed ingot metallurgy alloys. Moreover, elements that are essentially
insoluble in the solid state, but have significant solubility in liquid aluminium, can be uniformly
dispersedinparticlesundergoingveryrapidsolidification.
In this way novel alloy compositions and strengthening phases can be produced which are not
achievablewithconventionalingotmetallurgy.
46.11.3 Development
Theprincipalpropertieswhichareenhancedbyrapidsolidificationprocessingare:
highambienttemperaturestrength,
corrosionandstresscorrosioncrackingresistance,
elevatedtemperatureproperties.
46.11.4 Ambient temperature

46.11.4.1 Alloys
ThemostsuccessfulmaterialsdevelopedhavebeenintheAlZnMgsubsystem(7XXXalloys).
In more highly alloyed 7XXX alloy variants, dispersed transitionmetal intermetallic phases were
achieved.Themostnotablealloydevelopmentshavebeen:
Cobaltcontainingalloys:7091and7090.
NickelandZirconiumcontainingalloy:CW67,Ref.[4611].
ThealloycompositionsaregiveninTable46.11.1.
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Table46.111RSPaluminiumalloys:Ambienttemperatureusenominalalloy
compositions
Alloy
Composition(wt%)
Zn
Mg
Cu
Co
Zr
Ni
Cr
Li
0.15
0.2
1.3
Rapidsolidification
7090
7091
CW67
7064
8.0
6.5
9.0
7.4
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.4
1.0
1.5
1.5
2.1
1.5
0.4
0.14
0.75 0.3
0.1
-
Mechanicallyalloyed
Al-9052
AMC500 (1)
4.0
4.0
Key:
AluminiumLithiumalloy,AMC500.[Seealso:46.4].
Approximatevalues.
0.5
1.1
0.4 (2) 1.1 (2)
46.11.4.2 Mechanical properties

Table46.11.2givestheambienttemperaturemechanicalpropertiesofthevariousalloys.
Table46.112RSPaluminiumalloys:Ambienttemperatureusetensileproperties
Alloy
7091
7090
CW67
7064
Al-9052
Key:
Temper
TE192
T7
T6511
T7
T7X1
T6
T7
F
F
UTS
YS
Elongation
(MPa)(1)
(MPa)(1)
(%)(1)
640
595
675
620
614
683
650
450
635
600
545
640
580
580
635
621
380
630
13
11
10
9
12
12
9
13
4
(1)Longitudinalpropertiesfromexperimentalextrusions.
46.11.4.3 Stress corrosion resistance

TheSCCresistanceof7090and7091isbetterthanI/M7XXXalloys.SCCresistancegenerallyincreases
with cobalt contents between 0% and 1.6%, Ref. [4612]. For ambient use, CW67 offers the best
combinationofstrengthandSCCresistance.
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46.11.4.4 Fatigue
The effect of P/M processing on the fatigue behaviour of Al alloys is complex. In general, the
resistance to fatigue crack initiation is improved, but resistance to fatigue crack propagation can be
reduced.
A further alloy, 7064 (formerly PM64) is in part strengthened by Zr, Cr and Cocontaining
dispersions. It also has good combinations of strength and SCC resistance, and has shown
superplasticity.
46.11.5 Elevated temperature

46.11.5.1 Alloys
Mostofthesuccessfulalloysdevelopedcontainiron,e.g.AlFeCealloycompositions,suchasCU78
andCZ42fromAlcoa.
Some further RSP/M materials are AlFeVSi composition alloys, of which Allied Signal FVS0812
and FVS1212 are made by planar flow casting, Ref. [4679], and AMC Calidus 350xq is made by
atomising,Ref.[4673].
46.11.5.2 Mechanical properties

Thecharacteristicsofeachgroupofalloyscanbesummarisedas:
AlFeCealloys,asshowninTable46.11.3,CZ42possessgoodstrengthsto315C,Ref.[4613].
AlFeVSi alloys, such as Calidus 350xq, FVS0812 and FVS1212, have usable strengths to
425C; as shown in Table 46.11.4 and Table 46.11.5. Furthermore, they contain a large
proportionofveryfinesilicidesthatincreasethemodulusandsoofferpotentialmasssavings
overTialloys,forexample;asshowninTable46.11.6.
Table46.113RSPaluminiumalloys:Elevatedtemperaturemodifiedproperty
goals(minimumvalues)forshapedextrusionsofP/MalloyCZ42
Temperature(1)
(C)
RT
166
232
260
316
Key:
TS
YS
(MPa) (MPa)
448
365
310
283
221
379
345
296
262
200
E
(GPa)
78.6
68.9
64.1
62.1
56.5
Elongation(%)
FractureToughness,
K1C(MPam)
5.0
L-T: 23, T-L: 18
(1)Valuesatstatedtemperature;AtRTto316C.
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Table46.114RSPaluminiumalloys:Roomandelevatedtemperaturetensile
propertiesofplanarflowcastalloyFVS0812
Temperature
YS
UTS
Elongation
(C)
(MPa)
(MPa)
(%)
(GPa)
24
149
232
316
427
413
345
310
255
138
462
379
338
276
155
12.9
7.2
8.2
11.9
15.1
88.4
83.2
73.1
65.5
61.4
Table46.115RSPaluminiumalloys:Roomandelevatedtemperaturetensile
propertiesofalloyFVS1212
Temperature
UTS
YS
Elongation
(C)
(MPa)
(MPa)
(%)
(GPa)
24
150
230
315
559
469
407
303
531
455
393
297
7.2
4.2
6.0
6.8
95.5
-
Table46.116RSPaluminiumalloys:Elasticmodulus,densityandweightsaving
parametersforthermallystableRSP/Malloys
E
(GPa)
(kg/m3)
Al-5Cr-2Zr
Al-5Cr-2Zr-1Mn
Al-8.3Fe-4.0Ce
Al-7.0Fe-6.0Ce
Al-8Fe-2Mo
Al-8.5Fe-1.3V-1.7Si
Al-2.4Fe-1.2V-2.3Si
80.8
86.5
79.6
80.0
86.2
88.4
95.5
2820
2860
2950
3010
2910
3020
3070
28.7
30.2
27.0
26.6
29.6
29.3
31.1
1.53
1.55
1.46
1.43
1.52
1.48
1.49
Al-Fe-V-Si
80
2990
27.6
1.49
Al-7.5Cr-1.2Fe
Al-6.3Cu-0.3Mn0.06Ti-0.1V-0.18Zr
89.0
2890
30.8
1.54
73.0
2860
25.5
1.46
Alloy(1)
Composition
CU78
CZ42
FVS-0812
FVS-1212
Calidus
350xq
RAE 72
I/M 2219
Key:
E/(2)
E1/3/(3)
(MNm/kg) (N1/3m7/3/kg)
(1)Sources:CUandCZfromAlcoa;FVSseriesfromAlliedSignalsInc.;CalidusfromAMC;others
unknown;
(2)E/Specificmodulus;
(3)E1/3/Bucklingparameter.
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46.12 Al-MMCs - Metal matrix composites

46.12.1 Introduction
There are many reasons for the interest in metal matrix composites. Initial developments were
stimulated by applications which needed improved mechanical properties compared with the
unreinforcedmatrixalloys,i.e.:
Increasedstrengthatroomorelevatedtemperature.
Increasedstiffness.
Sincetheoverallpropertiesofthecompositearelargelydeterminedbythoseofthereinforcingphase,
this has lead to further applications that take advantage of the physical properties of the
reinforcement,e.g.:
LowCTEcoefficientofthermalexpansion.
Highthermalconductivity.
Goodwearresistance.
VariousMMCmaterialcombinationsaredescribed,withindicationsoftheirtypicalmechanicaland
physicalproperties.Thesematerialscanbeclassedascompositeswitheither:
discontinuousreinforcementphases(particles,shortfibresorwhiskers),[See:46.13].
continuousfibrereinforcement,[See:46.15].
Just as with polymer matrix composites, most aluminiummatrix composites are part of a family of
materialswhosepropertiescanbetailoredbymodifyingthevolumeofreinforcingphaseorthematrix
alloy.
46.12.2 Manufacturing processes

A wide range of processes have been employed for the manufacture of MMC components, utilising
solid,liquidandvapourphasetechniques.Severaloftheseprocesstechnologiesaresuitableforboth
discontinuouslyandcontinuouslyreinforcedmaterials.
AnoverviewofthevariousprocessesisillustratedinFigure46.12.1.
FurtherinformationontheprocessesusedforcommerciallyavailableMMCisalsoprovided.
[See: 46.13 for discontinuously reinforced aluminiummatrix composites; 46.15 for continuously
reinforcedmaterials]
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Figure46.121AlMMCs:Overviewofmanufacturingprocesses
46.12.3 Reinforcement materials

Informationonthevariousmaterialsusedasthereinforcingphaseispresented.
[See:46.13discontinuouslyreinforcedMMCs;46.15continuouslyreinforcedMMCs]
46.12.4 MMC nomenclature

AstandardisednomenclatureforaluminiummatrixcompositeshasbeenestablishedbytheAmerican
National Standards Institute (ANSI) Committee H35 on Aluminium and Aluminium alloys under
standardANSIH35.5.
Thenomenclatureisbestillustratedbyanexample,e.g.:
2009/SiC/15pT4
where:
2009
indicates the matrix alloy and is the four-digit number registered with the
Aluminum Association
SiC
indicates the composition of the reinforcement material
15
indicates the volume percentage of reinforcement
code letter that indicates the form of the reinforcement, where p is particulate, w
is whisker and f is fibre.
NOTE
-T4
f is usedfor both continuousfibresand choppedfibres,i.e.a

discontinuousreinforcement.
indicates the temper designation of the matrix alloy (suffix, where appropriate)
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46.12.5 Advantages of MMCs

Compared with polymer matrix composites, aluminium MMCs offer a number of advantages,
including:
Highertransversestiffnessandstrength.
Highertemperaturecapability.
Reducedflammabilityrisk.
Higherthermalconductivities.
Electricalconductivity.
Betterradiationresistance.
Betterresistancetofuelsandsolvents.
Nomoistureabsorption.
Nooutgassing.
Suitableforfrictionandwearresistantapplications.
Component manufacture from discontinuouslyreinforced MMCs using conventional

metalworkingequipment.
46.12.6 Material availability

Whilstsomealuminiummatrixcompositematerialsarewellestablishedforsomeapplications,such
as brake discs, the industry is still relatively newand composedmainly of technology development
companies. This inevitably leads to the introduction of new companies and closures of others.
IdentifyingcurrentsuppliersofAlMMCmaterialscanthereforepresentdifficulties.
Table46.12.1 summarisesthe capabilities of the main suppliers (as of mid2005), together with their
geographiclocationsandtheirwebsiteaddressesforfurtherinformationandcontactdetails.
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Table46.121AlMMCs:Summaryofsuppliersandcapabilities
Supplier(location)
Reinforcements
Matrixalloys
AMC (UK)
SiC, p (a)
2124, 6061
CMT (UK)
Al2O3 , f
Al, Al-Cu2, ?
Electrovac (D)
SiC, p
AlSi7Mg
Sandvik-Osprey (UK)
Si
3M (US)
Al2O3 , f (a)
Al
Al, Al-Cu2,
?(b)
Ametek (US)
SiC, p
n.s (c)
CPS (US)
SiC, p
SiC, p ; Al2O3 ,
f
A356
pressure
infiltration
melt infiltration
3xx, 6061
melt stirring
Duralcan (Canada)
Process
powder
metallurgy
pressure
infiltration
pressure
infiltration
spray forming
melt infiltration
DWA-DRA (US)
SiC, p
2009, 6069, ?
M Cubed (US)
SiC, p
Al, AlSi
powder
metallurgy
melt infiltration
MC 21 (US)
SiC, p
3xx
melt stirring
Millenium Materials
(US)
SiB6 , p
cast alloys ?
melt stirring
MMCC
C, f
AlSi
PCC-AFT (US)
SiC, p
cast alloys ?
PEAK (D)
SiC, p
wrought
alloys
Triton Systems (US)
SiC, p
cast alloys ?
TRL (US)
Al2O3 , f
Al
TTC (US)
SiC, p
Al, AlSi
Key:
pressure
infiltration
pressure
infiltration
spray forming
pressure
infiltration
continuous melt
infiltration
melt infiltration
(a):f=fibre,p=particulate;(b):?=otheralloysavailable;(c):n.s.=notspecified
46.12.7 Sources of further information

Somefurtherinformationsourcesinclude:
MILHDBK174, Ref. [4674]: The American Department of Defense Composite Materials

HandbookhasavolumeonMetalMatrixComposites.
NOTE
IssueAonlyhaslimitedinformationonaluminiumMMCs.
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MMCAssess, Ref. [4675]: This was a European Brite Euram III thematic network project
coordinated by the University of Vienna and run from 1998 to 2001 to exchange and assess
information on MMCs. The website is still maintained and updated and contains a large
amountofdataonMMCmaterialsandprocesstechnologyandalistofpotentialsuppliers.
NOTE
The list is updated with names of new suppliers but does not
appeartobecheckedforthosenolongertrading.
D.B.Miracle; Metal Matrix Composites for Space Systems: Current Uses and Future
Opportunities, Ref [4676]. The author is with the US Air Force Research Laboratories which
sponsors much of the US (restricted) R&D on MMCs. However, a number of unrestricted
publicationsareavailablefordownloadfromthesitestated,Ref.[4676].
46.13 Discontinuously reinforced Al-MMCs

46.13.1 Features
The discontinuous nature of the reinforcement means that these composites are ideally suited to
applicationsneedingmultidirectionalproperties,i.e.inshapedcomponents.Thishasresultedinthe
availability of materials that can be formed by casting or metalworking processes such as rolling,
forgingorextrusion,andsubsequentlymachined.Componentsfrommostofthematerialscanalsobe
joined using conventional welding, soldering or brazing techniques in addition to mechanical
assembly.
46.13.2 Development
Manytypesofdiscontinuousreinforcementshavebeencombinedwithaluminiumalloysoverthelast
20 years. The objective is to improve both the mechanical and physical properties of the base alloy.
Somearenowestablishedascommercialmaterialswhilstfurtherdevelopmentcontinues.
Whilst initial interest was primarily in improved mechanical properties, there is now a significant
growth in the development of aluminiumbased MMCs as lightweight materials with high rigidity
andgoodthermalconductivity,coupledwithlowthermalexpansion.Thesearedestinedapplications
suchasthermalmanagementofhighpowersemiconductordevicesandsubstratesforspacemirrors.
46.13.3 Matrix alloys

Thematrixalloyshavebeenpowdermetallurgy,purealuminium,wroughtandcastingalloys.
Thewroughtalloystendtobefromthe2XXX,6XXXand7XXXseriesandthecastalloysfromthe3xx
seriesorsimplercleaneraluminiumsiliconalloys.
46.13.4 Types of reinforcement

46.13.4.1 General
Discontinuousreinforcementsareusuallygroupedas:
Particulate,e.g.Siliconcarbide
Shortorchoppedfibre,e.g.Aluminaorcarbon.
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Whisker,e.g.Siliconcarbide.
Whilst a variety of reinforcement materials and product forms have been studied only a limited
number have, so far, proved technically or commercially viable. The most popular is particulate
silicon carbide or chopped carbon fibres.Particulatesilicon hexaboride (SiB6)also hasa commercial
presence.
There does not appear tobe any commercialuse ofalumina oraluminosilicate particulates, mainly
due to difficulties in achieving good bonding with the matrix, or whisker materials due to the high
cost.Thesematerialshavethereforebeenexcludedfromthissection.
An alternative material is the family of highsiliconAlSialloys processed by spray forming. Whilst
strictly alloys, they are also described as insitu composites that contain a dispersion of silicon
particles in an aluminiumsilicon matrix, since the resulting product could not be made through
conventionalingotcastingtechniques.
46.13.4.2 Silicon carbide

Particulatesiliconcarbideiswidelyavailableinarangeofgrades.Ultrafine,FEPA1000or1500grits
(micron sized) particles are preferred for highstrength MMCs, primarily manufactured by powder
metallurgyroutes.
Slightlycoarserabrasivegritgrades,FEPA400to600(from10mto40m,typically)arefavouredfor
thermal management and wear resistant MMCs, which are generally produced via liquid metal
techniques.
Thepropertiesofsiliconcarbideofparticularinterestare,Ref.[4682]:
Lowdensity;3210kg/m3.
Highelasticmodulus;430GPa.
Highcompressivestrength;2800MPa.
Highhardness;2480Knoop.
Highthermalconductivity;1320W/mK.
Lowthermalexpansioncoefficient;3.4ppm/K.
Goodbondingwithaluminiummatrix.
[Seealso:43.12siliconcarbidetechnicalceramics]
46.13.4.3 Silicon hexaboride

An alternative particulate material has been put forward recently by Millenium Materials for some
applicationsnotdemandingthehighthermalconductivityofsiliconcarbide.
Silicon hexaboride (SiB6) has similar strength and hardness to silicon carbide but its lower density,
closertothatofmoltenaluminiumalloys,meansthatitismoreeasilydispersedbythemeltstirring
processandremainsinsuspensionfacilitatingshapecastingtechniquesandrecyclingofrunners.The
mainpropertiesarelistedinTable46.13.1.
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Table46.131AlMMCs:TypicalpropertiesofSiB6siliconhexaborideparticulate
reinforcementHexon
Appearance
Black Powder
Chemical formula
SiB6
Density
2430 kg/m3
Crystallographic structure
Orthorhombic
Hardness
2572 kg/m2
Melting point
1950C
Thermal coefficient of expansion
4.6 10-6/C
Modulus of elasticity
290 GPa
Oxidation resistance
Stable in air to 1550C
Electrical conductivity
6.5 to 200 ohm.cm (RT to 800C)
Thermal conductivity
9 W/m/K
MOR (1) strength
225 MPa
Key:
Suppliersdata
HexonSiB6isaregisteredtradenameofMillenniumMaterials
(1)ModulusofRupture
CaroliteisaproprietaryMMCfromMillenniumMaterials(USA)reinforcedwithsiliconhexaboride.
[Seealso:46.14propertiesofCarolitecomposites]
46.13.4.4 Chopped carbon fibres

Some gradesof pitchbased carbon fibres can be given a graphitising heat treatment. This results in
extremely high thermal conductivity in the axial (longitudinal) direction. Coupled with very low
(possibly negative) thermal expansion, low density and high modulus such reinforcements are of
interestforthermalmanagementcomposites.
Thechoppedfibresareobtainedbymillingtheprecursorresinfibrestoaround300mlengthbefore
thecarbonisationtreatment.TypicalpropertiesaregiveninTable46.13.2,Ref.[4681].
[Seealso:46.14propertiesofMetGrafAl/Cfcomposites]
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Table46.132AlMMCs:TypicalpropertiesofconstituentsusedforMMCC
MetGrafAl/Cfcomposites
Youngsmodulus
[GPa]
Material
(1)
CTE
[ppm/K]
Thermal
Conductivity
Density
[kg/m3]
L(4)
T(5)
L(4)
T(5)
[W/mK]
758
6.9
1.45
10
550
2140
6.9
1.45
10
900 to1100
2150
(3)
931 to
965
Al-Si alloy
69
69
23
23
155
2660
Fibres:
A and B (a)
(2)
Fibres:
C and D (b)
Key
(1)MMCCsuppliersdata;Allarepitchbasedproductsandaremilledbeforecarbonising;
(2)MilledfibresAandBareproducedfromthesameresinasCytecP120;
(3)MilledfibresCandDareproducedfromthesameresinasCytecK1100;
(4)LLongitudinal(listedasaxialinsuppliersdata);
(5)TTransverse
46.13.5 Processing
46.13.5.1 General
Particulate reinforced aluminium alloys can be manufactured by numerous routes, [See: Figure
46.12.1].
46.13.5.2 Occupational health and safety

ManytypesofceramicwhiskersandpolycrystallinefibreshavebeenevaluatedbytheWorldHealth
Organisations International Agency for Research on Cancer (Monograph 43, 1988) as possibly
carcinogenic to humans, and are subject to occupational health and safety risk control measures in
somejurisdictions.
Exposuretorespirabledustscontainingthesematerialsshouldbeavoided.Suchdustsarenotlikelyto
bereleasedfromMMCsintheirnormalhandlinganduse,butcontrolmeasuresneedtobetakenifthe
materialsaremachined,cutorsubjecttoabrasion.
RefertomanufacturersandsuppliersSafetyDataSheetsforfurtherinformation.
46.13.5.3 Powder metallurgy

Powdermetallurgyprocessesstartwithfineconstituentparticleswhichareblendedbyhighenergy
milling before compacting to billets by vacuum hot pressing or hot isostatic pressing (HIPing),
followedbythermomechanicallyprocessingtoafinishedproduct;similartoconventionalalloys.
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46.13.5.4 Liquid state

Liquidstateprocessingmethodsinclude,
meltstirringorstircasting,
pressurecastingorsqueezecasting,
infiltration,
sprayforming.
46.13.5.5 Stir casting

Thisisawellestablishedmethodinwhichaceramicpowder,usuallyparticulateSiC,ismixedintoa
molten aluminium alloy under controlled conditions. The process has been used to produce the
DuralcanseriesofAlbasedMMCswhicharesoldiningotorbilletformforsubsequentfabrication
bycastingrollingorextrusion.
The nature of the process limits the amount of reinforcement that can be incorporated to usually a
maximum of 20 volume percent. The usual matrix alloys are 3xx AlSi alloys, which both assist
manufactureandsubsequentcastingprocessesandalsocontributetothemechanicalpropertiesofthe
composite.
An advantage of these materials is that they can be shaped using conventional gravity or pressure
diecastingequipment.Themainapplicationsforthesematerialshavebeenforwearresistance,such
asbrakediscsformotorsportandforhighspeedtrains.
Animprovedhighspeedmixingprocess,recentlyannouncedbyMC21(USA),claimstheabilityto
incorporateupto40volumepercentoflowcostSiCparticulateinashortprocesscycletime.Thisis
said to enable the manufacture of cast composite products at lower cost than alternative processes.
Theprocesscanbeusedforcastingcomponents,directlyafterthestirringhasbeencompleted,orthe
moltencompositecanbecastintoingotsforsubsequentremeltingandcasting;asforDuralcantype
materials.
46.13.5.6 Pressure-assisted or squeeze casting

This process utilises a preform of ceramic particles or fibres which is placed in the cavity of a
conventionalmetaldiebeforethematrixalloyismechanicallyforcedintotheintersticesunderhigh
pressure.
Theadvantagesoftheprocessinclude:
Highproductionspeed,
Abilitytoproducecomponentsthatareselectivelyreinforced.
These advantages can reduce cost and enable the component to be machined or joined using
conventionaltechniques.Themainapplicationareahasthereforebeenintheautomotiveindustry.
46.13.5.7 Infiltration
InfiltrationtechniquesarenowwidelyusedforaluminiumbasedMMCsbecausetheyarecapableof
incorporatinghighvolumeloadingsofreinforcement.Thereareanumberofvariationsonthegeneral
principle, mainly depending on whether or not it is gas pressureassisted and the degree of
pressurisation.
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Gaspressureinfiltrationutilisesapreform(usuallyofSiC)whichiscastormouldedtonearnetshape
beforeintroductionintothecompositeproductiontooling.Thisprocessisalsousedforchoppedfibre
reinforcedcompositeswhichforsome,predominantlyflat,applicationsarepreformedwiththefibre
axesrandomlyalignedinoneplanetogiveenhancedthermalproperties.
Apressurelessprocess,knownasPrimex,wasdevelopedbytheformerLanxideCorporationandis
nowoperatedbylicensees(includingMCubedandTTC).Thisprocessusesmatrixalloyscontaining
magnesium,whichreactswithnitrogengasintheproductiontooling,togivespontaneouslyreduced
pressurewhichdrawsthemoltenmatrixintothepreform.Thisenablesloadingsofupto70volume
percent SiC reinforcement to be produced. In a variant of the process an infiltrated bed of SiC is
dispersedintoafurthervolumeofmatrixalloytogivecompositeswithlowerreinforcementloadings
whichcanbecastbyconventionaltechniques.
Thelowerpressurescomparedwithpressureorsqueezecastingmeanthatmorecomplexgeometries
can be produced, there is less tendency for damage to the performs and lower cost tooling can be
used,whichmakestheprocessmoresuitableforlowerproductionrates.
46.13.5.8 Spray forming

Sprayformingusesgaspressuretoatomisemoltenmetalintoastreamofsmalldroplets,whichare
thenrapidlysolidifiedonacontinuouslywithdrawnsubstrate.
Powdered reinforcement particles can be introduced into the stream of molten metal to produce
MMCswithfinematrixgrainsize.Thesecompositesaremainlyusedforwearresistantapplicationsin
theautomotiveindustry.
Alternatively, high siliconcontaining aluminium alloys can be spray formed to produce insitu
composites which contain higher silicon contents than that possible by conventional processing
techniques.Theseproductsareusedprimarilyfortheirlowerthermalexpansioncoefficientsthatare
tailoredaccordingtothealloycomposition.
46.14 Discontinuously reinforced Al-alloys: Properties

46.14.1 General
Owing to the differences in process methods and test conditions between products from different
manufacturers,thedatapresented(fromsuppliers)isgenerallygroupedaccordingtomaterial,i.e.:
Powdermetallurgy.
Meltinfiltrationprocesses.
Sprayformedmaterials.
Thetextattemptstodrawcomparisonsbetweenmaterials,wherepossible.
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46.14.2 Powder metallurgy MMCs

46.14.2.1 General
Products made by PM powder metallurgical processes are aimed primarily at highstrength and
elevatedtemperatureapplications.Datafromsuppliersofmaterialsinthiscategory,AMCandDWA,
ispresented.
WhilstmostofPMmaterialsareaimedatapplicationsinthermalmanagement,takingadvantageof
their high conductivity and low expansion, several materials suitable for structural applications are
alsoproducedthisway.
46.14.2.2 AMC225xe and AMC640xa

TheseAMCmaterialsareproducedfrom:
AMC225xe:2124alloywith25vol.%2mto3mSiC.
AMC640xa:6061alloywith40vol.%2mto3mSiC.
The products are available as plate, extrusions or forgings and typical room temperature properties
aregiveninTable46.14.1.
Table46.141AlMMCs:RoomtemperaturepropertiesofAMC225xeand
AMC640xa
Properties
AMC225xe*
AMC640xa*
Matrix alloy
2124
6061
Reinforcement
SiCp
SiCp
Volume (%)
25
40
Product form
plate
extrusion
extrusion
Heat treatment
T4
T6
T1
Orientation
Ultimate tensile strength (MPa)
650
570
560
Yield stress (MPa)
480
480
440
Fatigue Strength, 107 cycles, (MPa)

Elongation (%)
310
5
230
2.5
Youngs modulus (GPa)
115
140
140
Density (kg/m3)
Thermal conductivity, (W/mK)
2880
2900
150
130
Coefficient of thermal expansion,

(ppm/K)
Electrical conductivity (%IACS)
15.5
13.4
21
21
Suppliersdata
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TheeffectsoftemperatureonthetensilepropertiesofAMC225xeplatearegiveninTable46.14.2,and
on both tensile and fatigue properties of extruded material in Table 46.14.3, which also includes
results for two Duralcan materials tested under the same conditions. The good temperature
resistanceandstabilityofthesematerialsmakesthemsuitableforapplicationssuchasnozzleguide
vanesandcontrolvalveblocks.
Table46.142AlMMCs:ElevatedtemperaturepropertiesofAMC225xeplate
ThermalCycling
Temper
T4
As heat treated
T1
T4
After 200 thermal
cycles, 50C to
200C
T1
Temperature
UTS
YS
(C)
(MPa)
(MPa)
150
616
474
200
530
448
260
194
128
350
65
48
150
428
321
200
358
276
260
200
102
350
65
48
150
442
369
200
343
265
260
193
125
350
59
45
150
348
269
200
265
187
260
150
92
350
56
46
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Table46.143AlMMCs:ElevatedtemperaturepropertiesofextrudedAMC225xe
comparedwithDuralcan MMC's
Material
225xe - T4
(1)
225xe - T1
(1)
W2F20A-T6
(2)
F3S20S T6 (3)
Key
Temp.
UTS
YS
(C)
(MPa)
(MPa)
(GPa)
Fatiguestrength,107
cycles,(MPa)
24
633
486
116.2
410
150
616
474
110.9
330
200
530
448
108.3
203
250
194
128
106.6
100
24
477
328
115.2
290
150
428
321
111.1
200
200
358
276
109.2
160
250
200
102
107.3
105
24
369
286
97.3
280
150
345
267
92.1
195
200
314
236
89.9
150
250
228
213
87.3
110
24
331
282
104.9
180
150
264
225
99.8
110
200
230
201
97.2
95
250
150
122
94.6
70
(1)AMC225xe(2124+25%SiCpextrudedbar);
(2)DuralcanW2F20AT6(2618+20%Al2O3pextrudedbar);
(3)DuralcanF3S20ST6(A359+20%SiCpforgeddisc).
46.14.2.3 DWA 2009/SiC and 6092/SiC

DWA is one of the longest established suppliers of powder metallurgy based AlMMCs to the
aerospace industry. Most of their products utilise FEPA F1000 (measured around 6 m) SiC
particulatesalthoughthefinerF1500grade(around2m)isbeingevaluated.
Themostcommonlyusedproductsarebasedon2009and6092aluminiumalloyswithreinforcement
loadingsupto25%.
Table 46.14.4 gives room temperature properties of 2009/SiC/15.5 extrusion together with data for
6092/SiCextrusionswithtwodifferentSiCcontentsandonematerialinplateform.
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Table46.144AlMMCs:TypicalroomtemperaturepropertiesofDWA
2009/SiCpand6092/SiCpcomposites
2009/SiC
/15.5p
Properties(1)
Form
Temper
Thickness (mm)
Density (kg/m3)
Tensile
strength
(MPa)
Compressive
strength
(MPa)
Shear
strength
(MPa)
Flexural
strength
(MPa)
Flexural
yield
strength
(MPa)
Yield stress
(MPa)
Elongation
(%)
Elastic
modulus
(GPa)
Compressive
modulus
(GPa)
CTE(ppm/K)
Key:
L
LT
6092/SiC
/17.5p
extrusio extrusio
n
n
T-42
T-6
95.3
2.3
2823
2796
552
510
510
6092/SiC
/17.5p
6092/SiC/
25p
sheet
T-6
2.5
2796
462
455
extrusio
n
T-6
18.8
2823
517
483
L
LT
462
-
407
386
427
407
L
LT
303
-
290
290
310
290
L (E/d=1.5)
L (E/d=2.0)
LT (E/d=1.5)
LT (E/d=2.0)
L (E/d=1.5)
L (E/d=2.0)
LT (E/d=1.5)
LT (E/d=2.0)
L
LT
L
LT
L
LT
372
345
7
6
95
92
793
1000
703
827
448
7
105
-
731
958
758
958
689
855
696
841
393
365
8
7
101
101
703
945
696
910
683
834
683
834
421
400
5
4
121
114
L
LT
105
-
100
100
121
113
L
LT
16.4
-
15.3
16.9
(1)Suppliersdata
Furtherdataon2009/SiCextrusionsisgiveninTable46.14.5,whichshowstheeffectsofvariationsin
particlecontentandsize,matrixtemperandextrusionratio.
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Table46.145AlMMCs:TypicalroomtemperaturetensilepropertiesofDWA
2009/SiCpextrudedcomposites
Matrix
alloy
SiCp
(vol.
%)
SiCp
d50
Value
(m)
Temper
Extrusion
ratio
Directio
n
YS
(MPa)
UTS
(MP
a)
Elongation
(%)
E
(GPa
)
2009
T4
20:1 (1)
255
358
10.0
71
2009
6.43
T4
496: 1 (2)
400
531
10.0
79
2009
15
6.43
T4
14:1 (3)
LT
348
483
5.2
94
2009
15
6.43
T6
14:1 (3)
383
530
8.5
100
2009
15
6.43
T4
496:1 (2)
424
594
9.8
105
424
608
3.7
20:1
(1)
2009
20
6.43
T4
2009
25
6.43
T4
14:1 (3)
LT
372
496
1.7
112
2009
25
1.92
T4
14:1 (3)
LT
421
545
1.8
114
2009
25
1.92
T4
LT
427
586
1.8
117
2009
25
1.92
T4
448
662
2.4
121
2009
25
6.43
T4
496:1 (2)
462
669
5.1
119
2009
25
1.92
T4
496:1 (2)
483
669
3.2
123
Key:
14:1 +
forge (4)
14:1 +
forge (4)
Suppliersdata.SiCpd50valuemeasuredbyDWAACusingCoulterlaserdiffraction;
Extrudedmaterialssizes:(1)12mmthickrectangularbar;(2)16mmdiameterroundbar;(3)95mm
diameterroundbar;(4)95mmdiameterroundbarforgedto25mmthickrectangularbar
The effects of elevated temperature on tensile andfatigue properties of 2009/SiC with 15%and 25%
particulate loadings are shown in Figure 46.14.1 and Figure 46.14.2 with comparative data for
conventionalaluminiumalloysineachcase.
The higher properties are obtained from composites based on finer (F1500) particulates. These
materials have been used for aerospace applications needing stability and hightemperature
resistance,suchascontrolvalveblocksandnozzleguidevanes.
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Figure46.141AlMMCs:Typicalelevatedtemperaturepropertiesof2009/SiCT4
DRAcomparedwithconventionalwroughtaluminiumalloys
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Figure46.142AlMMCs:Typicalroomandelevatedtemperaturefatigue
propertiesof2009/SiCDRAcomparedwithconventionalwroughtaluminium
alloys
46.14.3 MMCs produced by melt infiltration processes

46.14.3.1 General
Current melt infiltration techniques are capable of producing aluminiummatrix composites with
particulate loadings of up to 70 volume percent. By incorporating reinforcements with high
conductivity and low expansion coefficient, these composites are finding wide use as lightweight
materialsforpackagingofsemiconductordevicesforaerospaceapplications.
In addition, particularly at lower reinforcement loadings, many materials produced this way offer
goodcombinationsofmechanicalandthermalpropertiesandtheabilitytobecasttonearnetshape,
whichmakesthemsuitedtostructuralspaceapplications.
46.14.3.2 CPS AlSic-series materials

AlSic materials, from CPS Ceramic Process Systems, are made using a gas pressure infiltration
technique enabling SiC loadings up to 63 vol.%. The SiC preforms are moulded to near netshape,
which reduces the extent of subsequent machining necessary. Some typical properties for AlSic
materialsaregiveninTable46.14.6.
Whilst both matrix and particulates contribute to the high thermal conductivity, which gradually
increases with SiC content, the low expansion coefficient of SiC results in composites with
significantlylowerthermalexpansionathigherparticulatecontents.
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Table46.146AlMMCs:TypicalpropertiesofCPSAl/SiCpcomposites
Properties
AlSiC9
AlSiC10
AlSiC12
Matrix Alloy A 356.2
37 vol.%
45 vol.%
63 vol.%
Reinforcement SiC (electronic grade)
63 vol.%
55 vol.%
37 vol.%
Strength (MPa) a-bar 4pt-bend
488
450
471
Youngs Modulus (GPa)
188
167
167
Shear Modulus (GPa)
76
67
69
Density (kg/m3)
3010
2960
2890
30C to 100C
9.77
10.9
30C to 150C
8.37
10.16
11.2
30C to 200C
8.75
10.56
11.7
Specific Heat (J/kgK) @ 25C
741
200 typ. /
190 min
20.7
786
200 typ. /
190 min
20.7
808
180 typ. /
170 min
20.7
Thermal Expansion, CTE, (ppm/C):
Thermal Conductivity (W/mK) @25C

Electrical Resistance (ohm.cm)
Suppliersdata.
46.14.3.3 MCX-series Al/SiC materials

ThePrimexpressurelessinfiltrationprocessdevelopedbyLanxideisnowusedbyThermalTransfer
Composites(TTC)toproducearangeofthermalpackagingmaterials.
TheMCXxxxseriesusesnearnetshapeSiCpreformstoproducecomponentswithhighcontentsof
particulatetogivelowthermalexpansioncoupledwithhighthermalconductivity.
TheMCXxxxxseriesusesthePRIMEXCASTprocessinwhichabedofinfiltratedSiCparticulates
isdilutedwithmoltenmatrixalloytoenablethe(lessviscous)compositetobecastusingconventional
techniques.HavinglowerSiCcontents,thesematerialshaveintermediatevaluesofthermalexpansion
coefficient, around half that of the unreinforced matrix alloy but, since they can be cast to near net
shape,theyaresuitedtocontrolledexpansionstructuralapplications.
TypicalpropertiesofanumberofMCXxxxandMCXxxxxmaterialsaregiveninTable46.14.7.
Whilst the actualSiC contents are not stated by thesupplier, they can be estimated from the values
given for density since SiC has a value of about 3.20kg/m3 compared with about 2.70kg/m3 for
aluminiumalloys.
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Table46.147AlMMCs:TypicalroomtemperaturepropertiesofTTCAl/SiCp
composites
1:PRIMEX
Properties
MCX693
MCX686
MCX696
MCX724
MCX947
Flexural strength,
4pt-bend (MPa)
300
480
517
330
530
Young's modulus
(GPa)
Poisson's ratio
255
235
262
235
196
0.24
0.22
0.25
0.23
0.25
Density (kg/m3)
2980
3000
3010
2940
2950
Coefficient of
thermal expansion
(ppm/K)
Specific heat
(J/kg.K)
Thermal
conductivity
(W/mK)
Electrical
resistivity
(ohm.cm)
6.4
6.8
6.9
7.2
9.4
720-760
720-760
720-760
720-760
720-760
180
175
192
165
179
30 - 50
30 - 50
30 - 50
30 - 50
30 - 50
Suppliersdata.
2:PRIMEXCAST
Properties
MCX
1195
MCX1405 MCX1605
Ultimate tensile
strength (MPa)
226
239
295
Young's modulus
(GPa)
Poisson's ratio
151
125
106
0.28
0.29
0.31
Density (kg/m3)
2870
2800
2770
Coefficient of
thermal expansion
(ppm/K)
Specific heat
(J/kg.K)
Thermal
conductivity
(W/mK)
11.9
14
16.2
763
830
890
183
165
132
Suppliersdata.
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46.14.3.4 ASC-xxx Al/SiC series materials

TheLanxideprocessisalsousedbyMCubedTechnologiestoproducearangeofcompositeswithSiC
loadingsfrom30%to70%,byvolume.ThepropertiesoftheseASCxxxmaterialsaregiveninTable
46.14.8 and, as expected from the similar process technology, are similar to those of the MCXxxxx
PRIMEX CAST materials from TTC. These materials are also of interest for both thermal
managementandstructuralapplications.
Table46.148AlMMCs:TypicalpropertiesofcompositesfromMCubed
Technologies
Materialdesignation
Properties
Matrix
Particle
Reinforcement
Content (% vol.)
Matrix (Heat
Treatment)
UTS, (MPa)
Flexural strength,
(MPa)
Modulus, (GPa)
Poissons ratio
Fatigue Limit, 107
cycles:
R = 0.1 (MPa)
R = 1 (MPa)
Fracture
Toughness
(MPam)
Density, (kg/m3)
CTE, 25C to100C,
(ppm/K)
Thermal
Conductivity
(W/mK)
Specific heat (J/kg
K)
Knoop hardness,
500g load (kg/mm2)
Key:
ASC
301(1)
ASC
303
ASC
401(1)
ASC
551(1)
Al
SiC
SiC
ASC
701(1)
HSC
702E(2)
Al-Si
SiC
30
30
40
Al-10SiAl-10SiAl
1Mg
1Mg
AA359
(T6)
(T6)
370
300
370
SiC
SiC
SiC
55
Al-SiMg
(F)
340
70
Al-SiMg
(F)
230
75
Al70Si
-
270
125
0.29
120
0.29
150
0.28
200
0.24
270
0.22
345
0.19
15
11
10
5.5
2780
2780
2870
2950
3010
3040
14
15
12
10
6.2
4.1
160
146
170
180
170
210
820
750
730
700
165
343
647
1609
190
130
Suppliersdata.
(1)ASCmaterialsproducedunderLanxidelicenses;
(2)reactiveinfiltrationtechniqueofpreform
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The material designated HSC702E is produced using a reactive infiltration technique in which a
preformofSiCcontainingfreecarbonisinfiltratedwithanAlSialloy.
TheSifromthemeltreactswiththefreecarbontoproduceadditionalSiC,assistingthebondingofthe
finalmaterial,whichcanbeconsideredasanaluminiumtoughenedSiCratherthananAl/SiCMMC.
However,itisincludedintheTable,forcomparison,wherethehigherhardnessandlowerexpansion
coefficientareapparent.
46.14.3.5 METSIC Al/SiC

Metal Matrix Cast Composites Inc (MMCC) has adapted rapid prototyping technology to the
preparation of complex shaped reinforcement preforms directly from CAD files. These are then
infiltratedwithmoltenaluminiumalloyusingaproprietarypressureinvestmentcastingprocess.
TheprocessisaimedatstructuralapplicationsandtypicalpropertiesofanAl/SiC/40pcompositeare
giveninTable46.14.9,togetherwith6061aluminiumalloyand1010steelforcomparisonpurposes.
Table46.149AlMMCs:TypicalpropertiesofMMCCMETSICAl/SiCp
compositecomparedwithaluminiumandsteel
Material
Properties
METSIC
Al6061T6
1010Steel
Matrix
Al
Reinforcement (%)
Ultimate tensile strength
(MPa)
40 SiC
300-400
310
365
150
69
205
Density (kg/m3)
3000
3000
8000
Thermal expansion (ppm/K)

(W/m.K)
10-12
23.6
12.2
185
167
49
Suppliersdata.
46.14.3.6 Carolite Al/SiB6 materials

As an alternative to SiC reinforcements, Millenium Materials has published limited information on
Al/SiB6reinforcedcomposites.Itisclaimedthatwhilstthisreinforcementofferssimilarstrengthand
stiffness enhancements to that obtained with SiC, its lower density makes it easier to disperse, and
remain suspended, in molten aluminium alloys. This is said to make casting, using conventional
techniques,morepracticableandalsoenablethematerialtoberecycled,soreducingcosts.However,
the low thermal conductivity of SiB6 means the composites incorporating this material are aimed
primarilyatcaststructuralcomponents.
Preliminary data for Carolite composites is given in Table 46.14.10. Most of the data presented is
calculated using the rule of mixtures for Al/SiC composites. Only the property values with grey
backgroundareactualdata
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Table46.1410AlMMCs:TypicalpropertiesofMilleniumMaterialsCarolite
SiB6particulatereinforcedcomposites
Hexon
SiB6
(vol.%)
Ultimate
tensile
strength(2)
(MPa)
0
10
15
20
30
40
50
60
70
228
259
345
352
372
386
407
427
448
165
221
310
324
345
359
379
400
421
MatrixalloyA356A356
62
69
131
97
138
103
145
117
159
145
172
154
186
193
200
214
207
241
151
146
120
110
100
95
85
75
65
21.5
15.5
14.9
14.3
12
9.7
8.9
8
7.1
0
10
15
20
30
40
50
60
70
310
352
469
476
503
524
552
579
607
276
317
434
441
469
490
517
545
572
Matrixalloy6061T6
62
69
131
97
138
103
145
117
159
145
172
165
186
193
200
214
207
241
201
194
160
146
133
126
113
100
86
23.5
16.9
16.2
15.6
13.1
10.6
9.7
8.7
7.7
Key
Yield
Fatigue
Elastic
(2)
(2)
stress strength modulus(3
)(GPa)
(MPa)
(MPa)
Thermal
Thermal
(3)
conductivity expansion(3
)(ppm/K)
(W/mK)
Suppliersdata.
(1)Valueswithgreybackgroundareactualdata;
(2)StrengthdataestimatedfromdatainliteratureforMMCscontainingSiC.Duetothesimilarity
ofHexonSiB6andSiC,similarreinforcementeffectsareexpected;
(3)Estimatedfromruleofmixturesorafittoactualdata.
46.14.3.7 MetGraf Al/Cf

In addition to high tensile strength and modulus, some grades of graphitised pitchbased carbon
fibres have extremely high thermal conductivity (around 500 W/mK to 1000W/mK) in the axial
direction. This is coupled with low density and low coefficient of thermal expansion, which in the
transverse direction can be negative, although transverse thermal conductivity is low (around 2.4
W/mK).
By incorporating chopped fibres, randomly oriented in a felted preform, Metal Matrix Cast
Composites (MMCC) have produced aluminiummatrix composites with high thermal conductivity
coupledwithlowexpansioncoefficientinthexydirectionsandthermalpropertiesreflectingthoseof
thematrixmaterialinthezdirection;asshowninTable46.14.11.
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Table46.1411AlMMCs:TypicalroomtemperaturepropertiesofMMCC
MetGrafAl/Cfcomposites
MetGraf
MetGraf
4230
7200
Al/Si
Al/Si
103
93
Ultimate compressive strength (MPa)
203
203
Flexural strength (MPa)
186
159
Yield stress, compression (MPa)
110
110
98
89
2400
2500
24
24
230
200
120
125
Electrical resistivity (.ohm.cm)
6.89
Hardness (Rockwell E)
60-80
Properties
Matrix alloy
Ultimate tensile strength (MPa):
In-plane (xy)
Thickness
(z)
Density (kg/m3)
Thermal expansion, average
value of 55C to +125C
(ppm/K):
Thermal conductivity (W/mK):
In-plane (xy)
Thickness
(z)
In-plane (xy)
Thickness
(z)
Suppliers data.
The special feature of these materials of interest for space applications is the very low density
comparedwithconventionallowexpansionthermalpackagingmaterials;giveninTable46.14.12.
The chopped fibre reinforcement also imparts good strength and modulus making these materials
suited to applications needing a combination of good thermal management together with structural
stiffnessanddimensionalstability,suchasspacemirrors.
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Table46.1412AlMMCs:TypicalpropertiesofMMCCMetGrafAl/Cf
compositescomparedwithotherthermalpackagingmaterials
MetGraf MetGraf
7200
4230
Kovar
Al/SiC
CuMo
8020
CuMo
8515
CuW
9010
CuW
8515
Thermal
conductivit
y
(W/mK)
200
230
17
180
160
140
160
175
Thermal
expansion
(ppm/K)
7.5
4.0
5.9
6.7
7.2
6.5
6.1
6.7
Density
(kg/m3)
2460
2400
8300
3200
9800
9900
1770
1630
Suppliersdata.
46.14.4 Spray-formed materials

46.14.4.1 Osprey CE alloys
The sprayforming process, developed by Osprey, was a bulk rapid solidification process for the
manufactureofenhancedconventionalalloys.Theprocesswasexpandedtoenabletheincorporation
of reinforcement particulates. The German licensee, Peak Werkstoff, is understood to be supplying
wearresistantAlMMCstotheautomotiveindustry.
OspreyarenowconcentratingonthemanufactureofAl/Silowexpansionmaterials.Theseareinsitu
composites in that the second phase material (in this case Si) is precipitated in fine form from a
supersaturatedhightemperaturemoltenalloybyrapidsolidification.
Theprocesscanbeusedformaterialscontainingfromzeroto70%Siwhichmeansthelowexpansion
coefficientofsiliconcanbeutilisedtotailorthecompositepropertiestoanyvaluebetweenthatofthe
basealuminiumtoaround8ppm/Kforthe70%Sialloy.
The main advantages of these materials over alternative thermal packaging MMCs is their low
density, because Si has lower density than SiC, and their ability to be machined using conventional
equipment.TypicalpropertiesofthestandardrangeofalloysaregiveninTable46.14.13.
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Table46.1413AlMMCs:PropertiesofOspreyCEAlSiinsitucomposite
alloys
Ospreystandardalloys
Properties
CE7
CE9
CE11
CE13
CE17
CE17M
70
2400
60
2450
50
2500
42
2550
27
2600
27
2600
100
134
138
176
236
380
143
100
129
51
0.26
140
134
124
49
0.25
172
125
121
49
0.25
213
155
107
42
0.27
210
183
92
36
0.28
92
36
0.28
7.6
11.6
25C to 100C
7.4
9.0
11.0
12.8
16.0
16.0
25C to 200C
8.3
9.9
12.7
13.6
17.0
17.0
25C to 300C
8.5
10.5
13.1
14.4
17.7
17.7
25C to 400C
8.2
10.8
13.7
15.0
17.5
17.5
25C to 500C
7.7
10.1
14.4
15.2
16.8
16.8
(W/mK):
100C
180
50C
140
0C
125
25C
120
129
149
160
177
147
100C
110
125
132
200C
100
108
122
151
147
Silicon content (%)

Density (kg/m3)
Ultimate tensile strength
(MPa)
Bend strength (MPa)
Yield stress (MPa)
Shear modulus (GPa)(1)
Poissons ratio
Coefficient of thermal
expansion (ppm/C):
60C to 200C
Key:
Suppliersdata:Osprey(http://www.smt.sandvik.com/)
(1)SupplierquotedRigiditymodulus
46.14.5 Further information

Owingtothemannerinwhichdiscontinuouslyreinforcedmaterialsareproduced,thereisscopefor
varying the properties to suite the specific needs of the user. The suppliers listed therefore tend to
haveadditionalinformation,whichispublishedopenly.
[Seealso:46.12;Table46.12.1forsupplierdetails]
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46.15 Continuously Reinforced Al-Alloy MMC

46.15.1 General
Onlythosecontinuouslyreinforcedaluminiumcompositesproducedbymeltinfiltrationprocessesare
described.
Materials produced mechanically by solid state bonding processes are described separately under
FMLFibreMetalLaminates,[See:Chapter100].
46.15.2 Fibres
46.15.2.1 General
ContinuousreinforcementsstudiedforaluminiumMMCsinclude,[Seealso:42.6].
Aluminafibres,
Aluminosilicatefibres,
Boronfilament,
Carbonfibres,
Siliconcarbidefilamentsandfibres,
Whilst boron and silicon carbide fibres received some attention, mainly for specialised military
applications, these reinforcements have not been developed for wider spread use, so are not
considered of current interest for space applications. Problems associated with these materials were
bothtechnicalandeconomic.
Table 46.15.1 gives typical properties of those continuous reinforcement fibres which are of greatest
interest for use with aluminium matrix alloys. Whilst activity continues on the development carbon
fibrereinforcedmaterials(muchoftheworkiscoveredbyUSmilitaryrestrictions),onlyNextel610
fibreshaveachievedsignificantcommercialstatus,Ref.[4679].
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Table46.151AlMMCs:Typicalpropertiesofcontinuousreinforcingfibres
Al203
Carbon
Carbon
Carbon
Al203:SiO2
HT
IM
HM
Altex
Nextel
610
> 99% C
> 99% C
100% C
15% Si02
99%
Al2O3
1800
1800
1800
2200
3300
3900
4000-5000
Young's modulus (GPa):
5300-6400
1900-4400
1800
3000
290-300
380-930
210
380
15
15
210
380
7.9
Fibre
type(1)/Name
Composition
Density
(kg/m3)
Properties(2):
Strength
(MPa):
L
230-235
15
Thermal expansion (ppm/K):
L
0.1 to 0.4
n.a.
Thermal conductivity (W/mK):
Key:
n.a.
1.2 to
1.5
9.5 to12.5
0.1 to 0.4
9 to 17
32 to 35
69 to 1050
<30
low
low
low
<30
(1)HThightenacity;IMintermediatemodulus;HMhighmodulus
(2)Llongitudinal;Ttransverse
AltexisatradenameofSumitomo;Nextelisatradenameof3M
46.15.2.2 Alumina Nextel 610

Nextel 610 is a continuous alumina fibre, classed as high-tensile high-modulus, from 3M and supplied in a
roving form (fibre bundles). Fibres have a coating (size) that is removed at temperatures above 550C, i.e. at
melt infiltration temperatures. TypicalpropertiesforNextel 610 are summarised in Table 46.15.2.
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Table46.152AlMMCs:Typicalpropertiesof3MNextel610aluminafibre
Nextel610(1)
Properties
Composition, -alumina, Al2O3 (%)
>99
Filament tensile strength, 25mm gauge (MPa)
3100
Filament tensile modulus of elasticity (GPa)
379
Filament:
Roving:
Sizing (%)(1)
Sized denier(2)
2.0
3000
Filament diameter (m)
12
Filament count
750
Filament density (kg/m3)
3.90
Surface area (m2/gm)

Roving tensile breaking load, 150mm gauge (N)
<1
89
Creep rate (69MPa) at temperature:
Key:
1000C
2.0 10-9/s
1100C
1200C
1.8 10-7/s
1.7 10-5/s
Coefficient of thermal expansion (ppm/K)
8.0
Dielectric constant (9375 MHz)
9.0
(1)Suppliersdata.Nextelisatradenameof3M;
(2)Percentagebymassoffibrecoating;
(3)Gramsper9000mofmaterialwithsizing(coating)applied.
46.15.2.3 Carbon fibres

Carbonfibresareavailableinthreemaintypes:
HM high modulus, where fibres are either pitchbased or hightemperature treated PAN
based.
HThightenacity,whicharelowtemperaturetreatedPANbased.
IMintermediatemodulus,whicharePANbased,withaspecificheattreatment.
Althoughthefibresusedforcontinuousreinforcementofaluminiumalloysarethesameasthoseused
forCFRPcomposites,onlyalimitednumberhavebeenevaluatedforMMCs,e.g.ThornelHMtypes
P100,P120andK1100fromCytec.
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46.15.3 Matrix alloys

ManyaluminiumalloyshavebeenconsideredforuseasMMCmatrixphases.Sincevariationsofthe
melt infiltration process are used to incorporate the aluminium matrix, this influences the choice of
alloy.Themainconsiderationsare:
fluidityofthemelt,
fibrematrixinterfacebonding,
preventionofmeltfibreinteractions.
Owing to these factors, the most commonly used matrix material is commercially pure aluminium
(99.85%).OthermatrixmaterialsusedincludeAl2%Cu,3xxcastingalloysand6061wroughtalloy.
Theuseof3xx(Al/Si)castingalloysissaidtoovercometheproblemsofaluminiumcarbideformation,
whichotherwisecausesfibredegradationandpoorfibretomatrixbonding,Ref.[4681].
46.15.4 Characteristics
46.15.4.1 Carbon fibre reinforced composites
Initialworkwithcarbonfibrereinforcedaluminiumcompositeswasunsuccessfulbecauseofproperty
degradation arising from the formation of aluminium carbide at fibrematrix interfaces and surface
tensionproblemsresultinginincompletepenetrationofthefibrebundle.
Suchproblemshavebeenresolvedbyusingsiliconcontainingalloys,whichresultsintheformation
of a barrier layer of SiC at the fibrematrix interface. The solubility of carbon is also because of the
alloy silicon content, Ref. [4681]. A remaining problem with carbon fibre reinforced aluminium,
whichislimitingextendedapplication,isthesusceptibilitytogalvaniccorrosion.
The densities of carbon fibres are around half that of alumina fibres, which makes carbon fibre
reinforcedcompositesofparticularinterestwhereweightsavingisaprimeconsideration.
46.15.4.2 Alumina fibre reinforced composites

The addition of alumina fibres to aluminium is a natural combination because of the chemical
compatibilityandthefreedomfromgalvaniccorrosion;aknownproblemwithcarbonreinforcements.
The most widely used, 3M Nextel 610, fibres have similar strength and modulus to many carbon
fibres,[See:Table46.15.1],andcanalsobeusedaspreformswithcomplexshapesandtightradii.This
makesthemsuitableforshapedcomponentsinadditiontounidirectionalreinforcements.
In addition to useful mechanical properties at elevated temperatures, this group of materials are
perceivedashavingbenefitsoverotherMMCsinsituationswherecorrosioncanbeaproblem.
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46.15.5 Processing
46.15.5.1 General
Processingroutesfallintotwobroadcategories:
continuouslengthsofmaterials(prepregsandshapes).
discreteproducts,usingpreforms.
Bothtypesofproductsareprocessedusingliquidmetalinfiltrationtechniques.
46.15.5.2 Continuous infiltration

TRL Touchstone Research Laboratory (USA) use a process similar to pultrusion of polymer
composites,forthemanufactureoftheirMetPregcontinuouslyreinforcedtapes.Thesearegenerally
basedonNextel610aluminafibresinapurealuminiummatrix,althoughtheuseofglassorcarbon
fibreshasalsobeenstudied,Ref.[4682].
Aswellasabasicthintape,whichisutilisedasaprepregmaterialforlayups,filamentwindingor
other fabrication techniques, the process is also suitable for producing continuous tubes, angles or
channels,[Seealso:46.16typicalproperties].
46.15.5.3 Preform infiltration

Preform infiltration processes used for continuous reinforcements are similar to those used for
discontinuouslyreinforcedcomposites,[See:46.13].
Infiltration is achieved through applied gas pressure, usually with prior evacuation of the mould
cavity.Thepreformscanconsistofloosebundlesoffibres,wovenclothsorfilamentwoundstructures
suitableformanufactureofcylindricalortubularcomponents.
A number of different processes are used, including pressureassisted investment casting and gas
pressureinfiltration.
LPFliquidpressureformingisaprocessdevelopedbyCMT(CompositeMetalTechnologies),which
hassimilaritieswiththelowpressurediecastingprocessusedforaluminiumalloys.
Thepreformisplacedinaheatedmetaldiewhichisevacuatedbeforeliquidaluminiumisintroduced
byatwosteppressurisationprocess.Aftercompletionoftheinfiltration,themeltisconsolidatedbya
higherpressureappliedbyhydraulicpistons.
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46.16 Continuously reinforced Al-alloy MMC:
Properties
46.16.1 Mechanical properties

46.16.1.1 General
Continuously reinforced composites, in particular unidirectionally reinforced materials, tend to be
anisotropicinthatthepropertiesinthelongitudinaldirectionarehighlydependentuponthoseofthe
reinforcement whilst in the transverse direction the properties of the matrix alloy have a greater
influence.
Since the properties of shaped compositesare highly dependentupon the specific orientation of the
reinforcement only data for unidirectionally reinforced materials is given here as guidance to the
propertiesthatcanbeexpected.
Composites with bidirectional reinforcement, either from a woven, layup or filament wound fibre
reinforcement,areavailablebutthereisnopropertydatapublishedopenly.
An estimation of property values can be made using established techniques or by comparison with
thoseforfibrereinforcedpolymers.
Typical room temperature properties of a number of continuously reinforced aluminiummatrix
compositesaregiveninTable46.16.1,Ref.[4679].
46.16.1.2 Alumina fibre reinforced composites

The greatest activity on continuously reinforced aluminiummatrix composites has been in the
developmentofNextel610aluminareinforcedmaterials.
Thefibresarereadilyavailableandthecompositesdonotposetheriskofgalvaniccorrosionwhichis
presentwithcarbonfibrereinforcedaluminium.
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Table46.161AlMMCs:TypicalpropertiesofcontinuouslyreinforcedMMCs
Fibre(1)
Vol
%
Matrix
Process
(2)
Density
(kg/m3)
Direction
(3)
UTS
(MPa)
E
(GPa)
Carbon
(M40,Toray)
60
Al99.8
5
GPI
2200
1500
L
Carbon
(EHMS,
Courtaulds)
Aluminosilicate
Al2O3:SiO2
(Altex)
Aluminosilicate
Al2O3:SiO2
(Altex)
Alumina
Al2O3 (Nextel
610)
Alumina
Al2O3 (Nextel
610)
Alumina
Al2O3 (Nextel
610)
Key:
60
50
50
Al99.8
5
Al99.8
5
AlZnM
g
GPI
GPI
PAIC
CTE(ppm/K)
50C
150C
50C
300C
240
0.2
1000
230
0.6
0.2
100
30
17.0
1050
130
7.5
6.6
130
115
14.0
17.0
1000
135
200
85
18.7
2200
3000
7.3
3000
50
AlZnM
g
PAIC
3200
1200
240
60
Al99.8
5
GPI
3300
2000
260
n. a.
1600
240
120
130
60
Al99.8
5
3M
3400
16
(1)Reinforcementfibre(material,name/code,source);
(2)GPIgaspressureinfiltration;PAICpressureassistedinvestmentcasting;
(3)Llongitudinal;Ttransverse.
46.16.1.3 Infiltrated composites

TypicalroomtemperaturepropertiesofNextel reinforced pure aluminium and Al-2%Cu alloy are given in
Table 46.16.2.
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Table46.162AlMMCs:Typicalpropertiesof3MunidirectionalAlNextel
composites
Matrix
Properties(3)
Fibre reinforcement
Fibre volume (%)
Ultimate tensile strength (MPa):
PureAl
Al2%Cu(1)
Nextel
60
Nextel
60
1600
1500
1700
3400
70
140
140
280
240
240
130
160
48-57
3400
45-56
3400
7
16
9
16
Ultimate compressive strength (MPa):

L
Shear strength, at 2% strain (MPa)
Transverse strength, at 1% strain (MPa):
T
Young's Modulus (GPa):
Shear Modulus
(2)
(GPa)
(kg/m3)
Density
Coefficient of thermal expansion, average
value 25C to 500C (ppm/K):
L
T
Key:
Suppliersdata.
(1)weightpercent;
(2)measuredparallelandacrossfibres;
(3)Llongitudinal;Ttransverse.
The influence of the stronger Al2%Cu matrix can be seen in the transverse, compressive and shear
properties.
Thegoodelevatedtemperatureresistanceofaluminafibresprovidesenhancedelevatedtemperature
tensilepropertiestotheAlNextelcomposites.
Forthecompositebasedonpurealuminiumwith60volume%Nextelfibres,thepropertiesat3000C
are:
Longitudinaltensilestrength:1400MPa(RT1600MPa),
LongitudinalYoungsmodulus:200GPa(RT240GPa).
For many aerospace applications, good axial strength and stiffness coupled with light weight are of
high importance. These properties of alumina fibrereinforced aluminium, together with the good
elevatedtemperatureproperties,havebeenexploitedinpushrodsformotorsportengines.
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Typicalpropertiesofthebasematerialandof226mmlong9.5mmdiameterpushrodsaregivenin
Table46.16.3.Datafor4130steelisincludedforcomparisonpurposes.
Table46.163AlMMCs:Typicalpropertiesof3MMMCpushrods
Material
Properties
Al/Nextel
4130Steel
Stiffness (GPa)
221
205
Ultimate Compressive Strength (MPa)
2400
1500
Application:Pushrods(1);9.5mmdiameter226mmlong
Key:
Properties
Al/Nextel
4130Steel
Bending stiffness (Nm2)
84
74
Compressive failure load (kN)
132
72
Critical buckling load (kN)
16.29
14.28
First bending resonance (Hz)
630 Hz
Suppliersdata.Nextelisatradenameof3MCorp.
(1)Highperformancemotorsportenginecomponent
46.16.1.4 Prepreg-based composites

Composite with unidirectional reinforcement, produced by filament winding or layup can also be
produced from continuously infiltrated prepreg, such as MetPreg Alalumina fibre material, [See:
46.15].
Typicalpropertiesforthebasictapematerial,9.5mmwide0.5mmthick,aregiveninTable46.16.4,
Ref.[4682].
Thepropertiesareclosetothosepublishedby3Mforsimilarmaterials.
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Table46.164AlMMCs:TypicalpropertiesofTRLMetPregAl/Al2O3f
continuousfibrecomposites
MetPregaluminareinforcedaluminiumprepregtape
Characteristics:
Matrix
Pure Al
Reinforcement fibre
Nextel 610
Fibre content (Volume %)
50
Thickness (mm)
0.5
Width (mm)
9.5
Density (kg/m3)
3300
Properties:
Tensile strength, at RT (MPa)
1500
Tensile modulus, at RT (GPa)
215
Compressive strength, at RT (MPa)
2070
Elongation (%)
0.7
Maximum use temperature(1) (C)
400
Thermal expansion (ppm/C)
Thermal conductivity (W/mK)
115
Electrical resistivity (ohm.cm)
Key:
MetPregisatradenameofTRLTouchstoneResearchLaboratory(USA).
Nextelisatradenameof3MCorp.
(1)85%oftheroomtemperaturetensilestrength.
46.16.1.5 Carbon fibre reinforced composites

Since carbon fibre reinforced aluminium is susceptible to galvanic corrosion, there has been less
commercialactivityonthesematerials.
Companies, including MMCCMetal Matrix Cast Composites, have been working in this area, but
publicationoftheresultsisrestrictedunderUSDoDandothersecurityregulations.Throughtheuse
of siliconcontaining alloys, MMCC claim to have overcome the melttofibre interface reaction that
resultedinaluminiumcarbideformation,whichalsoposedproblemsintheconsolidatedcomposites.
This approach has been used for producing discontinuously, chopped carbon fibrereinforced
aluminiumcomposites,Ref[4681].[See:46.14].
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46.16.2 Physical properties

Allthecontinuouslyreinforcedaluminiummatrixcompositeshavelowdensities,withcarbonfibre
reinforced materials offering the greatest potential benefits. These materials also offer high thermal
conductivities and low thermal expansion coefficients, properties of importance for long term
dimensionalstabilityandheatdissipationpropertiesinaerospaceapplications.
Aswiththemechanicalproperties,theenhancedthermalpropertiesresultingfromthereinforcement
arefoundmainlyinthelongitudinaldirection.
Whereavailable,physicalpropertiesaregivenfor:
Thermal expansion: Carbon (Toray M40), aluminosilicate (Altex) and alumina (Nextel)
reinforcedaluminiumalloys,[See:Table46.16.1;Table46.16.2;Table46.16.4].
Electricalpropertiesandthermalconductivity:MetPregaluminareinforcedaluminium,[See:
Table46.16.4].
46.17 Al-alloy MMC: Potential applications

46.17.1 Benefits of Aluminium-matrix composites
Traditionally aluminium alloys are the main group of materials used in aircraft and spacecraft
constructionforoperationaltemperaturesupto150C.
Whilstaluminiumhasbeenreplacedbyadvancedpolymercomposites,e.g.CFRP,andfibrelaminate
materials,e.g.GLARE,advancesinaluminiumbasedMMCshaveresultedinarangeofmaterials
that offer substantial benefits compared with polymer matrix composites for specific applications in
spacecraftandlaunchvehicles.Thesebenefitscanbesummarisedas:
Highspecificstrength,
Highspecificstiffness,
Highthermalconductivity,
Lowthermalexpansion
Goodlongtermdimensionalstability,
Electricalconductivity,
Betterradiationresistance,
Nooutgassing,
Betterresistancetofuelsandsolvents
Reducedflammabilityrisk.
AsanexampleofthegoodspecificpropertiesofAlMMCs,Figure46.17.1showsapropertymapof
continuouslyreinforcedaluminafibrealuminiummatrixcompositestogetherwiththepropertiesfor
competitivematerials.
Someexamplesofapplicationsbasedusesincludethosedemanding:
Highspecificstrengthandtemperatureresistance.
Highspecificstiffnessandgoodthermalproperties.
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Highconductivitywithlowthermalexpansion.
Highspecificstiffnessanddimensionalstability.
Highspecificstrengthandchemicalresistance.
Figure46.171AlMMCs:ComparisonbetweenAlcontinuouslyreinforced
aluminafibrecompositesandothermaterials
Someexamplesofcasehistoriesarealsoavailablefrom:
Supplierswebsites,[See:Table46.12.1],
MMCAssess,Ref.[4675].
Anextensivereviewofthecurrentandpotentialspaceapplicationsforaluminiummatrixcomposites
isgiveninRef.[4676].
46.17.2 High specific strength and temperature resistance

Discontinuously reinforced Al/SiCp composites are being used for hydraulic control block for
helicopters and nozzle guide vanes for gas turbine engines. This indicates potential applications for
highdutyapplicationsinlaunchers.
46.17.3 High specific stiffness and good thermal properties

The antenna waveguide for the Hubble Space Telescope was initially made from carbon fibre
infiltrated with 6061 alloy. This was eventually replaced by discontinuously reinforced AlMMC at
lower cost, whilst still maintaining high stiffness combined with good heat dissipation and good
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dimensionalstabilityresultingfromthelowthermalexpansioncoefficient.Thesepropertieshavealso
beenexploitedinthermalradiatorpanelsonotherspacecraft.
46.17.4 High conductivity with low thermal expansion

Al/SiCp discontinuously reinforced composites and Al/Si CE alloys are being used for thermal
management of semiconductor devices. The electrical conductivity of AlMMCs also offer electronic
andradiationshieldingforsensitivecomponentstogetherwithasignificantweightsavingcompared
withtraditionalelectronicspackagingmaterials.
46.17.5 High specific stiffness and dimensional stability

AluminiumbasedMMCsarebeingevaluatedassubstratesandcarriersforspacemirrors.Inaddition
to light weight, this application needs high stiffness and excellent, uniform dimensional stability;
propertieswhicharefacilitatedbythelowthermalexpansionandhighthermalconductivityoffered
bydiscontinuouslyreinforcedaluminiummatrixcomposites.
46.17.6 High specific strength and chemical resistance

Propellant tanks are often made from aluminium alloys, but continuously reinforced aluminium
compositesofferfurtherpotentialforweightreductionasaresultofthehigherspecificstrength.
Suchcomponentsarecandidatesforfilamentwoundorlayupmethodsofconstructionusingeither
liquidinfiltrationoraluminiumprepregmaterials.
46.18 References
46.18.1 General
[461]
ALFEDAluminiumFederation,Birmingham,UK
ThePropertiesofAluminiumanditsAlloys
9thEdition,August1993
[462]
PropertiesandSelection:NonferrousAlloysandSpecialPurpose
Materials.MetalsHandbook,10thEdition,Volume2
ASMInternational.ISBN0871703785(V.2),1990
[463]
MILHDBK5F:MetallicMaterialsandElementsforAerospace
VehicleStructures.November1990
NOTE
ReplacedbyMMPDS01,Ref.[4671]
[464]
J.T.Staley
AdvancedAluminiumAlloysandAluminiumPolymerComposite.
AAS86381,33rdAnnualMeetingAerospace
[465]
M.Hamiuddin
HighStrengthAluminiumLithiumSiCP/MCompositesAReview.
PowderMetallurgyInternational,Vol.19,No.5,1987
114
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[466]
B.OBrien:BHPLaboratoriesLtd,Eire
ApplicationofAluminiumLithiumBasedAlloys
ESAContract7807/88/NL/PH.FinalReport,September1991.
[467]
W.R.Mohn&D.Vubobratovich:AdvancedCompositeMaterials
Corporation,USA
RecentApplicationsofMetalMatrixCompositesinPrecision
InstrumentsandOpticalSystems
JournalofMaterialsEngineering.Vol.10.No3.p224235,1988
[468]
E.Hellum&M.J.Luton
OxideDispersionStrengthenedAluminiumPropertiesandUse.
ESASP303,SpaceApplicationsofAdvancedStructuralMaterials.21
23March,1990
[469]
E.Hellum:RaufossA/S,Norway
StudyonAdvancedMetallicSystemsODSAlloys
ESTECContract7090/87/NL/PPWorkOrderNo14
[4610]
I.B.MacCormacketal:BNFMetalsTechnologyCentre,UK
AdvancedP/MLightAlloysandtheAssociatedPowderTechnology.
BNFReport.R579/11,April1989
[4611]
G.J.Hildemanetal
MicrostructuralMechanicalPropertyandCorrosionEvaluationsof
7XXXP/MAlloyCW67
HighStrengthPowderMetallurgicalAluminiumAlloysII
G.J.HildemanandM.J.Koczak(eds.),TMS1986,p2543
[4612]
J.R.Pickens&L.Christodoulou
TheStressCorrosionBehaviourofHighStrengthAluminiumPowder
MetallurgyAlloys
Metall.Trans.A,Vol.18A,Jan.1987,p135149
[4613]
ALCOA
AlloysCU78andCZ42forElevatedTemperatureApplications.
WroughtP/MAlloys
[4614]
H.Cherian:MBBERNO,D
MaterialDataforAluminiumLithiumAlloy8090Extrusions
MBBERNOTechnicalNoteTNOT217035/91.January1992
[4615]
R.M.vandeBerg:StorkProductEngineering,NL
LiteratureStudyfortheApplicationofAluminiumLithiumAlloyfor
StructuralPartsofaSatelliteThrustCylinder
StorkProductEngineeringReport.October1992
[4616]
R.J.H.Wanhill:NLR,NL
StatusandProspectsforAluminiumLithiumAlloysinAircraft
Structures.NLRTechnicalReportTP92193L,1992
115
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[4617]
E.A.StarkJnr&W.E.Quist
TheMicrostructureandPropertiesofAluminiumLithiumAlloys.
AGARDLectureSeriesNo.174,NewLightAlloys,1990
[4618]
L.Schra&J.A.M.Boogers:NLR,NL
CorrosionPropertiesofAlLiCuMgZrSheetMaterial
NLRTechnicalReportTR88047L,1988
[4619]
C.J.Peel
TheDevelopmentofAluminiumLithiumAlloys:AnOverview.
AGARDLectureSeriesNo.174,NewLightAlloys,1990
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ESASP336(October1992),p119124
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AGuidetoMetalMatrixCompositeTechnologyanditsPotentialfor
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MILHDBK5F(Chapter7.5),ChangeNotice2,15Dec.1992
116
ECSSEHB3220Part5A
20March2011
NOTE
[4628]
C.A.J.R.Vermeeren:T.U.Delft,NL
ApplicationofCarbonFibresinARALLLaminates
T.U.Delft,ReportLR658,September1991
[4629]
H.F.Wuetal
APilotStudyofMetalFractionApproachforFibreMetalLaminates.
ALCOATechnicalCenter,ATCreport579217
SLCreportSL020B,December1992
[4630]
C.A.J.R.Vermeerenetal
NewDevelopmentsinFibreMetalLaminates
ProceedingsofSymposiumSpaceApplicationsofAdvanced
StructuralMaterials,ESTEC,Noordwijk,2123March1990
ESASP303,p313318
[4631]
H.F.Wu&J.F.Dalton
EffectofElevatedandCryogenicTemperaturesontheTensile
PropertiesofARALLLaminates
36thSAMPESymposiumandExhibition,SanDiego,1991
[4632]
H.F.Wu
EffectofTemperatureandStrainRateonTensileMechanical
PropertiesofARALL1Laminates
JournalofMaterialsScience,Vol.26(1991)37213729
[4633]
J.W.Gunnink
DesignStudiesofPrimaryAircraftStructuresinARALLLaminates
JournalofAircraft,Vol.25,No.11,November1988
[4634]
J.Cook&M.Donnellan
FlexuralFatigueBehaviourofARALLLaminates
N.A.D.C.ReportNADC9007360,August1990
[4635]
AKZO:TechnicalInformationonGLARE,1993
AdvancedStructuralMaterialsfortheAerospaceIndustry
StructuralLaminatesCompany,leaflet1993
[4636]
G.C.Salivar&C.A.Gardini
TheInfluenceofStressRatioandTemperatureontheFatigueCrack
GrowthRateBehaviourofARALL
J.ofCompositesTechnology&Research,vol.15,no.1,1993
[4637]
L.Mueller:ALCOA
ARALLAnUpdate
ALCOAAerospaceEngineering,December1987,p.3340
[4638]
A.Vlot&R.S.Fredell
ImpactDamageResistanceandDamageToleranceofFibreMetal
Laminates.ProceedingsofICCM9,Madrid,1993
117
ECSSEHB3220Part5A
20March2011
[4639]
R.S.Long
StaticStrengthofAdhesivelyBondedARALL1Joints
JournalofCompositeMaterials,vol.25,April1991
[4640]
H.F.Wu&W.J.Slagter:ALCOA
ParametricStudiesofBearingStrengthforFibreMetalLaminates.
ALCOATechnicalCenter,ATCreport579216
SLCreportSL019E,November1992
[4641]
W.J.Slagter
OntheBearingStrengthofFibreMetalLaminates
JournalofCompositeMaterials,Vol.26,No.17/1992
[4642]
J.Sinke:T.U.Delft,NL
ManufacturingofComponentsofFibreMetalLaminates:An
Overview.T.U.Delft,Dept.Aerospace,reportLR670
[4643]
A.I.Pendusetal.
DesignEvaluationofGLARELaminateLayups
Symposium.AdvancedMaterialsforLightweightStructuresESTEC,
Noordwijk,2527March1992
ESASP336,p301306
[4644]
C.A.J.R.Vermeerenetal.
HybridMaterialsforUseatElevatedTemperatures
Symposium.AdvancedMaterialsforLightweightStructuresESTEC,
Noordwijk,2527March1992
ESASP336,p7178
[4645]
J.L.Verolme:T.U.Delft,NL
TheCompressivePropertiesofGLARE
T.U.Delft,reportLR666,November1991
[4646]
StorkProductEngineering,NL
PossibilitiesforFMLApplicationsinSpaceVehicles
ESTECContract7090/87/NL/PPWorkOrderNo.27
[4647]
B.Hussey&J.Wilson:RJTechnicalConsultants,UK
LightAlloysDirectory&Databook
Chapman&Hall(1998).ISBN0412804107
[4648]
N.Waterman&M.Ashby(Editors)
TheMaterialsSelector
Chapman&Hall(2ndedition1997)
ISBN0412615509(3volumes)
[4649]
R.K.Birdetal:NASALangley,USA/VIAM,Moscow
AlLialloy1441forFuselageApplications
MaterialsScienceForumVols.331337(2000),p907912
[4650]
B.N.Bhatetal(Editors)
AluminiumLithiumAlloysforAerospaceApplicationsWorkshop
118
ECSSEHB3220Part5A
20March2011
NASACR3287(December1994)
[4651]
A.Choetal:ReynoldsMetalsCompany,USA
AlLiDevelopmentatReynoldsMetalsCompanyforAerospace
Applications
NASACR3287(December1994),p1722.
[4652]
E.A.Starkeetal:Uni.Virginia/GeneralElectricCorp.,USA
AluminiumLithiumAlloys
NASACR3287(December1994),p616.
[4653]
MichoudOperations:LockheedMartin,USA
ExternalTankDescription,(January2003)
Website:www.lockheedmartin.com
[4654]
M.NivetLutzetal:AlcatelEspaceIndustries,F
MMCTubesforDimensionallyStableStructures
ProceedingsofEuropeanConferenceonSpacecraftStructures,
Materials&MechanicalTesting.Braunschweig,Germany46
November,1998
ESASP428,p321325
[4655]
W.Radtke&K.Thudt:MANTechnologie,D
BrazeWeldingofDSAluminium
Materials&MechanicalTesting.Noordwijk,NL2729March,1996
ESASP386,p11271135
[4656]
R.K.Bird,D.L.Dicus,J.N.Fridlyander,V.S.Sandler
AlLiAlloy1441forFuselageApplications
Proceedingsof7thInternationalConferenceonAluminiumAlloys,
Charlottesville,VA,April9142000,Pt2,p907912
[4657]
J.N.Fridlyander,V.V.Antipov,T.P.Federenko
ProductPropertiesofHighWorkability1441AlLiAlloy
Proceedingsof9thInternationalConferenceonAluminiumAlloys,
Brisbane,Australia,25August2004,p10511054
[4658]
W.M.Johnston,W.D.PollockandD.S.Dawicke
BiaxialTestingofAluminiumLithiumAlloy2195UsingCruciform
Specimens
NASACR2002211942(October2002).
[4659]
InternationalAlloyDesignationsandChemicalCompositionLimits
forWroughtAluminumandWroughtAluminumAlloys,Teal
SheetsandEnclosure09toAATealSheetsversion2004(April
2004)
TheAluminumAssociationInc.,Washington,DC20006,revisedApril
2004
Website:www.aluminum.org
119
ECSSEHB3220Part5A
20March2011
[4660]
ANSIH35.1AvailablefromTheAluminumAssociation,Washington
DC,ANSISecretariat
Website:www.aluminum.org
[4661]
StandardPracticeforNumberingMetalsandAlloys(UNS)
ASTME527.ASTMInternational,100BarrHarborDrive,POBox
C700,WestConshohocken,PA194282959,UnitedStates
Website:www.astm.org
[4662]
WebsitesforAlLialloysuppliers:
Alcan:www.alcan.comandwww.alcanaerospace.com
Alcoa:www.alcoa.comandwww.millproducts.alcoa.com
AMC:www.amcmmc.co.uk
DolgarrogAluminiumLtd.:www.dolgarrog.com
OttoFuchs:www.ottofuchs.com
VIAM:www.viam.ru
[4663]
E.A.StarkeJr.
NASAUVALightAerospaceAlloyandStructureTechnology
ProgramSupplement:AluminumBasedMaterialsforHighSpeed
Aircraft
NASACR97206248,December1997
[4664]
R.A.Edahletal.
EffectofThermalExposureontheTensilePropertiesofAluminum
AlloysforElevatedTemperatureService
NASA/TP2004212988,February2004
[4665]
M.S.Domacketal
EffectofThermalExposureontheStrengthToughnessBehaviorof
ElevatedTemperatureServiceAluminumAlloys
Proceedingsofthe6thInternationalConferenceonAluminumAlloys
Toyohashi,Japan(1998),pp.10811086
[4666]
RobertA.Hafley,JohnA.Wagner,andMarciaS.Domack
FatigueCrackGrowthRateTestResultsforAlLi2195Parent
Metal,VariablePolarityPlasmaArcWeldsandFrictionStirWelds
NASA/TM2000210098,May2000
[4667]
P.S.ChenandW.P.Stanton
ANewAgingTreatmentforImprovingCryogenicToughness
oftheMainStructuralAlloyoftheSuperLightweightTank
NASATM108524November1996
[4668]
SpaceShuttleSuperLightweightTank(SLWT)
IndependentAssessmentofRiskManagementActivities
NASAOfficeofSafetyandMissionAssurance
December12,1997
http://pbma.nasa.gov/docs/public/pbma/casestudies/SLWT_Independ
ent_Assessment_Report.pdf
120
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[4669]
V.C.Guillaumin:AirbusFrance
BenefitsfromtheUseofExtruded2196andC460AlLiAlloysin
A380FloorBeamApplications
AeroMat2004,Session3:TradeStudiesforAircraftStructures,June
10,2004,Seattle,USA
[4670]
AluminumlithiumalloysinAirbusairframes
Technologyupdate
AerospaceEngineering,May2005,p8.
[4671]
R.C.Riceetal.
MetallicMaterialsPropertiesDevelopmentandStandardization
(MMPDS)
DOT/FAA/ARMMPDS01,January2003
Website:http://www.mmpds.org/
[4672]
J.Jackson&R.Rice
PreliminaryMaterialPropertiesHandbook,Volume2:SIUnits
AFRLMLWPTR20014027,July,2000
[4673]
AMCCalidus350xqDataSheet
Website:www.amcmmc.co.uk
[4674]
CompositeMaterialsHandbookVolume4,MetalMatrix
Composites,MILHDBK174A,17June2002,
ARL/WMRD
Downloadfrom:
http://assist1.daps.dla.mil/quicksearch/basic_profile.cfm?ident_numb
er=206929
[4675]
MMCAssess
AssessmentofMetalMatrixCompositesforInnovations
athematicnetworkwithinBriteEuramIII
Website:http://mmcassess.tuwien.ac.at/
[4676]
D.B.Miracle
MetalMatrixCompositesforSpaceSystems:CurrentUsesand
FutureOpportunities,inAffordableMetalMatrixCompositesfor
HighPerformanceApplications,(eds.A.B.Pandey,K.L.Kendigand
T.W.Watson),
TMS,Warrendale,PA,p.121(2001)
Downloadfrom:
http://www.ml.afrl.af.mil/mcrg/pubs/man07.pdf
[4677]
A.Mortensen,C.SanMarchi,H.P.Degischer
GlossaryoftermsspecifictoMetalMatrixComposites,
MMCASSESSEUNetwork,Topic1:Processing
Downloadfrom:
http://mmcassess.tuwien.ac.at/public/v1_glossary.pdf
121
ECSSEHB3220Part5A
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[4678]
J.D.Lord
IsothermalFatigueTestingofParticulateMetalMatrixComposites,
MATC(MN)05,CentreforMaterialsMeasurementandTechnology
NationalPhysicalLaboratory,Teddington,UK
Downloadfrom:
http://midas.npl.co.uk/midas/content/ma05.html
[4679]
AchimSchoberth:EADSCorporateResearchCenter
Overviewoncontinuousfibrereinforcedlightmetals
MMCVIII,MetallicComposites&Foams,26/27.11.2001,
TheInstituteofMaterials,London,UK
[4680]
3MAluminumMatrixComposites.TypicalPropertiesDataSheet.
AMCPROPNo1Rev3,May1998
Website:www.3m.com/mmc
[4681]
J.ACornieetal
DiscontinuousGraphiteReinforcedAluminium,andCopperAlloys
forHighThermalConductivityThermalExpansionMatchedThermal
ManagementApplications,MMCC,LLC,Nov2003
Downloadfrom:www.mmccinc.com
[4682]
V.Irick&B.Gordon
MetPregMetallicPrepregsfortheCompositesIndustry
SAMPEJournal,March/April2004
Downloadfrom:www.metpreg.com
[4683]
CASmith
DRMMCReinforcements
ASMHandbook,volume21,Composites,
ASMInternational,2001.ISBN:0871707039
[4684]
R.Forster:AirbusSAS,France
AirbusRussiaCooperation:Lightalloys,SessionLAT051.1.
AeroMat2005,Orlando,Florida,June2005
[4685]
CreatingaTitan
FlightInternational(June2005)
Downloadfrom:www.flightinternational.com
[4686]
AnoverviewofsomeRussianAlalloyscontainingSc
Downloadfrom:www.home.no/alsc/
[4687]
P.S.Gilmanetal:AlliedSignal,Inc.
Rapidlysolidifiedaluminumtransitionmetalalloysforaerospace
applications
AIAA19884444:AHS,andASEE,AircraftDesign,Systemsand
OperationsMeeting,Atlanta,GA,Sept.79,(1988)
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46.18.2 Sources
46.18.2.1 Al-Li alloy suppliers
Alcan
Alcoa
www.alcan.com
www.alcan-aerospace.com
www.alcoa.com
www.millproducts.alcoa.com
AMC
www.amc-mmc.co.uk
Dolgarrog Aluminium Ltd
www.dolgarrog.com
Otto Fuchs
www.otto-fuchs.com
VIAM
www.viam.ru
46.18.2.2 Discontinuously reinforced aluminium suppliers

AMT Aerospace Metal
http://www.amc-mmc.co.uk/
Composites (UK)
DWA
http://www.dwa-dra.com/
CPS - Ceramic Process Systems
http://www.alsic.com/
TTC Thermal Transfer

Products
http://www.thermaltc.com/index.html
M Cubed Technologies (USA)
http://www.mmmt.com/
MMCC-Metal Matrix Cast

Composites, (USA)
http://www.mmccinc.com/
Millennium Materials (USA)
http://www.millenmat.com/
Peak Werkstoff (D)
http://www.erbsloeh.de/deutsch/e_werkst
off/
46.18.2.3 Continuously reinforced aluminium suppliers

TRL Touchstone Research
http://www.trl.com/
Laboratory (USA)
MMCC-Metal Matrix Cast
http://www.mmccinc.com/
Composites, (USA)
3M MMC (USA)
http://www.3m.com/market/industrial/m
mc/
CMT Composite Metal

Technologies (UK)
http://www.cmt-plc.com/
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46.18.3 ECSS documents

[See:ECSSwebsite]
ECSSQ7071
ECSSQST7036
ECSSQST7037
Datafortheselectionofspacematerialsand
processes;previouslyESAPSS01701.
Materialselectionforcontrollingstress
corrosioncracking;previouslyESAPSS01
736.
Determinationofthesusceptibilityofmetals
tostresscorrosioncracking;previouslyESA
PSS01737.
46.18.4 ASTM standards

[See:ASTMwebsite]
ASTME527
ASTME1823
ASTMG34
ASTMG44
ASTMG47
StandardPracticeforNumberingMetalsand
Alloys(UNS)
StandardTerminologyrelatingtoFatigueand
FractureTesting:Annex2
<Titlenotstated>
<Titlenotstated>
<Titlenotstated>
46.18.5 Other standards
ANSIH35.1
AmericanNationalStandardAlloyandTemper
DesignationSystemsforAluminum(2004)
MILHDBK174A
CompositeMaterialsHandbookVolume4,Metal
MatrixComposites(June2002)
MMPDS
MetallicMaterialsPropertiesDevelopmentand
Standardization
DOT/FAA/ARMMPDS01(January2003)
NOTE
ReplacesMILHDBK5
PMP
PreliminaryMaterialPropertiesHandbook,
Volume2:SIunits
AFRLMLWPTR20014027(July2000)
NOTE
DestinedforinclusioninMMPDS
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47 Titanium alloys and their composites

47.1 Introduction
Themainfeaturesoftitaniumalloysusedinaerospacestructuresaredescribed.Theeffectsofalloying
andprocessingonthevariousgroupsofalloysarealsodiscussed.
Specificdesigndataonconventionaltitaniumalloysarenotgiveninthehandbook.
Superplasticity and the ability of titanium alloys to reabsorb oxide films at elevated temperatures
havemadethemofinterestforstructureswhichcanbesuperplasticallyformedanddiffusionbonded
inoneprocess(SPF/DB),[See:47.4;Chapter72].
Manufactureoftitaniummatrixcomposites(TialloyMMCs)hasprovedproblematical,owingtothe
reactivityofthealloywhenincontactwiththereinforcementphase.Asaresult:
Very few particulate reinforced composites have been produced with properties exceeding
thoseofthemorerecentplainalloys,[See:47.5].
Suitable continuous reinforcements are limited; all are monofilaments rather than fibres, [See:
47.6].
Processing methods are solidstate, rather than with a molten matrix phase, to limit
reinforcementdegradation.However,useatelevatedtemperaturesalsoresultsindegradation.
Typicalpropertiesaregivenforvariouscomposites,[See:47.7].
Use of titanium alloys in hydrogen environments needs very careful evaluation. They are prone to
hydrogenembrittlementatalltemperatures,exceptinthecryogenicrange,[See:47.8].
In oxygen atmospheres at temperature above 500C, oxidation occurs and, if scuffed or impacted,
ignitionandburningmayresult,[See:47.9].
Coatings are under development to reduce the effects of gaseous environments at operational
temperatures,[See:47.10].
SomepotentialapplicationsfortitaniumalloysandMMCsarediscussedin47.11.
47.2 Conventional alloys

47.2.1
Material selection factors
Theprimaryreasonsforusingtitaniumalloysstemfromthe:
goodcorrosionresistance.
usefulcombinationof:
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lowdensity(4500kg/cm3),
highstrength(0.2%yieldstressesupto1100MPa).
usefulpropertiesupto600C.
[See: ECSSQ7071: Data for the selection of space materials and processes, previously ESA PSS01
701]
47.2.2
Microstructure
47.2.2.1
Ductile-to-brittle transition
Sometitaniumalloys,notablylowinterstitialalpha(-) alloys, do not exhibit a ductile to brittle transition,

making them suitable for cryogenicapplications.
47.2.2.2
Allotropy
Animportantcharacteristicoftitaniumbasedmaterialsisthereversibletransformation(allotropy)of
thecrystalstructurefromanhexagonalclosepacked(hcp)statetoabodycentredcubic(bcc)state
aboveagiventemperature.
Theallotropictransformationdependsonthetypeandamountofalloycontents.Itenablescomplex
variations in microstructure and more diverse strengthening opportunities than those of other non
ferrousalloys,suchascopperoraluminium.
47.2.2.3
Thermo-mechanical processing
The diversity of microstructure and properties depends not only on alloy additions but also on
thermomechanicalprocessing.Byvaryingthermalormechanicalprocessing,orboth,abroadrange
ofpropertiescanbeproduced.
47.2.3
Effect of alloy elements
Theprincipaleffectofanalloyingelementisitsinfluenceonthetransformationtemperature.
Vanadiumisastabiliser,andiscombinedwithAluminiumtogivethe+alloyTi6Al4V.
Aluminiumincreasestensilestrength,creepresistanceandtheelasticmoduli.Limitedto6%,as
abovethislevelembrittlingaluminides(Ti3Al2)willform.
Tinhasextensivesolidsolubilityinbothand phasesandisoftenusedasasolidsolution
strengthenerinconjunctionwithaluminiumtoachievehigherstrengthswithoutembrittlement.
Zirconium forms a continuous solidsolution with titanium and increases strength at low and
intermediatetemperatures.
Molybdenum is an important stabiliser promoting hardenability and short time elevated

temperaturestrength.
Niobiumisanotherstabiliseraddedtoimproveoxidationresistanceathightemperatures.
Iron tends to lower creep strength. The reduced iron content in alloy Ti1100 is a means of
improvingcreepstrength.
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Carbon is an stabiliser that also widens the temperature difference between the and
transus. Typically, stabilisers cause a widening or flattening between the and transus
temperature.TheleancontentofthealloyIMI829givesanearalloywithasteeptransus
approachcurve.Incontrast,analloywithadditionalstabiliser,suchasTi6Al4Vresultsinan
alloy with a flattened approach curve. The use of carbon to flatten the approach curve
whilst stabilising the phase is the basis for the near alloy IMI 843. Alloy IMI 834 is heat
treatedhighintheregiontogiveabout7.5to15vol.%ofprimaryinafinegrain(0.1mm)
matrix of transformed . This combination of equiaxed and transformed provides a good
combinationofcreepandfatigueresistance.
Table47.2.1summarisestheeffectofalloyingelementsonmicrostructure.
Table47.21Titaniumalloys:Effectsofalloyingelementsonmicrostructure
Alloyingelement
Range
(approx.weight.%)
Aluminium (Al)
Tin (Sn)
Vanadium (V)
Molybdenum (Mo)
Chromium (Cr)
2 to 7
2 to 6
2 to 20
2 to 20
2 to 12
Copper (Cu)
2 to 6
Zirconium (Zr)
Silicon (Si)
2 to 8
0.05 to 1
47.2.4
Alloy classes
47.2.4.1
General
Effectonstructure
- stabiliser
- stabiliser
- stabiliser
- stabiliser
- stabiliser
- stabiliser
and strengthener
[See: 47.2]
Improves creep resistance
Titaniumalloysareclassifiedas:
Alpha,canincludenear
AlphaBeta,alsonear,superandlean
Beta.
Titanium alloys are specified by nationallybased, e.g. DIN, NF, etc. and internationallyaccepted
standards, e.g. ASTM, CEN. They are also commonly denoted by their proprietary product name,
e.g.IMIandTimetaldesignations.
AcomparisonofTialloyscoveredbyvariousstandardsandproductdesignationsisprovidedinRef.
[4726].
47.2.4.2
Near-a alloys
Table 47.2.2 shows how processing temperatures of near alloys can be influenced. This
demonstrates the options available for microstructural variations and their relationship to property
improvements.
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Table47.22Titaniumalloys:Influenceofprocessingtemperaturesonnear
alloys
Property
processed
processed
Tensile strength
Creep strength
Fatigue strength
Fracture toughness
Crack growth rate
Grain size
Moderate
Good
Moderate
Good
Good
Large
Good
Poor
Good
Poor
Moderate
Small
47.2.5
Alloys for aerospace use
47.2.5.1
General
Ofthetitaniumalloysappropriatetoaerospaceuse,Ti6Al4V()hasbeenthebaselinematerialfor
manyyears.Theprincipalproductformsofinterestare:
Wroughtformsforairframeuse,and
Forgingsforturbineenginecomponents.
Table47.23summarisesinformationonrelevanttitaniumalloys.
Table47.23Titaniumalloysforaerospaceuse:Characteristics
Alloygroupor
specification
Nominal
composition
(%)
Availableproduct
forms(Country)
Generaldescription
Typicalaerospace
applications
Excellent corrosion
resistance.
Good weldability
Readily fabricated
complex shapes
requiring
intermediate
strength.
Commerciallypure(CP),e.g.Timetal35Ato100A;Code12
All wrought forms

(UK)
Nearalloys
Timetal 6-2-4-2
[Ti-6242S]
Ti-6Al-2Sn4Zr-2Mo0.08Si
[Ti-6Al-4Zr2Mo-0.1Si]
Plate, sheet,
forgings, (UK &
USA)
Silicon imparts
additional creep
resistance
Timetal 685
[IMI 685]
Ti-6Al-5Zr0.5Mo-0.25Si
Rod, bar, billet,

extrusions, forgings
(UK)
Weldable medium
strength alloy.
Timetal 829
[IMI 829]
Ti-5.6Al3.5Sn-3Zr1Nb-0.25Mo0.3Si
Rod, bar, billet,

& sheet (UK)
Timetal 834
[IMI 834]
Ti-5.8Al-4Sn3.5Zr-0.7Nb0.5Mo-0.3Si0.06C
As for IMI 829 (UK)
Weldable medium
strength alloy with good
thermal stability & high
creep resistance to 600C.
Weldable high
temperature alloy with
improved fatigue
performance over
Timetal 829 & 685.
Forgings and flatrolled products in

engines & airframes
needing high
strength &
toughness. Excellent
creep resistance &
stability to 450C
Alloy for elevated
temperature uses up
to ~520C. Weldable.
Elevated
temperature alloy for
service up to
540C. Weldable.
Maximum use
temperature up to
600C. Weldable.
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Alloygroupor
specification
Nominal
composition
(%)
Availableproduct
forms(Country)
Generaldescription
Typicalaerospace
applications
Timetal 1100
[Ti-1100]
Ti-6Al-2.7Sn4Zr-0.4Mo0.45Si
Billet, bar, sheet,

welding wire,
forgings, castings
(USA & Europe)
High combined strength,

creep, fatigue & fracture
toughness.
Maximum use
temperature up to
~600C.
Weldable.
alloys
Timetal 6-4
[IMI 318]
Ti-6Al-4V
Also: ELI
grade 0.1O2
All product forms

(Universal alloy)
Useful creep resistance

up to 300C & excellent
fatigue strength. Fair
weldability.
Aircraft gas turbine

disks & blades.
Airframe structural
components &
fastener stocks (heattreated to give
1100MPa tensile
strength).
Corona -5
Ti-4.5Al-5Mo1.5Cr
Researched for
plate, forgings &
SPF sheet (USA)
Improved fracture
toughness over
Ti-6Al-4V & easier to
work
Not taken up
replacement for Ti6Al-4V
Ti-4Al-4Mo2Sn-0.5Si
Rod, bar, billet,

(UK)
High strength alloy with

Timetal 551 the highest
(4Sn). 550 weldable; 551
not weldable.
For high strength

applications
requiring useful
creep resistance to
400C.
Beta III
Ti-11.5Mo6Zr-4.5Sn
No longer produced
(USA)
Excellent forgeability &

cold workable. Very good
weldability.
Aircraft fasteners,
sheet metal parts.
Timetal 15-3
[Ti-15-3]
Ti-15V-3Al3Cr-3Sn
Sheet, strip, plate

(USA)
Cold formable alloy.

Heat treatable to
1310MPa tensile
strength. Weldable.
Timetal 17
[Ti-17]
Ti-5Al-2Sn2Zr-4Mo-4Cr
Forgings (USA)
Unlike other alloys,

offers good creep strength
up to 430C.
Timetal 21S
[Beta 21S]
Ti-15Mo-3Nb3Al
Sheet, strip, plate,

foil (USA)
High strength, cold

formable.
Timetal 550 & 551

[IMI 550 & 551]
alloys
High strength
aircraft & aerospace
components to 300C.
Matrix alloy for
composites.
Forgings for turbine
engine components
where hardenability,
strength, toughness
& fatigue are
important.
Honeycomb in engine
structures (228 to
593C), hydraulic
tubes. Matrix alloy
for composites.
47.2.5.2
Specifications
Within Europe, AECMA provide specifications for various aerospace titanium alloys and product
forms,Ref.[4726].
Forexample,CENspecification:
EN2517PR
TitaniumalloyTiP63alloy:annealedsheet,strip&plate,
a100mm
AECMAuseadifferentalloyreferencecomparedwithCEN,e.g.TiP63(CEN);TiP64001(AECMA)
fornominalcompositionalloyTi6Al4V.
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47.2.6
Heat treatment
Titaniumalloysareheattreatedwiththeaimsof:
Reducingresidualstressescausedbyfabrication(stressrelieving).
Optimisingcombinationsofductility,machinabilityanddimensionalstability(annealing).
Increasingstrength(solutiontreatingandageing)
Optimisingspecialpropertiessuchasfracturetoughness,fatiguestrengthandhightemperature
creepstrength.
The and near alloys can be stress relieved and annealed. High strength cannot be developed in
thesealloysbyanytypeofheattreatment.Thealloys,withmetastablearestrengthenedbyageing,
astheretaineddecomposes.Thealloyscanbeagehardened,asthestabilityoftheirphasegives
large section hardenability. For alloys, stress relieving and ageing treatments can be combined;
annealingandsolutiontreatmentmaybeidenticaloperations.
Thealloysexhibitheattreatmentcharacteristicsbetweenthatoftheandclasses.Theycanbe
age hardened by the decomposition of beta, but these alloys do not exhibit the same section
hardenabilityasthealloysowingtotheloweramountofretained.Nonetheless,thealloysare
themostversatileinthatcertainmicrostructurescanbeenhancedbyprocessingineithertheor
thephaseregion,asindicatedearlierfornearalloys.
Forcreepstrength,processingofnearalloysisuseful.Nearenablesworkingorheattreatment
in the phase field without loss of room temperature ductility (possible with other alloys). Near
alloyscanbeworkedhighintheforanintermediatemicrostructurewithamixtureofequiaxed
andacicular.
47.2.7
Mechanical properties
47.2.7.1
General
Table47.2.4presentsasummaryofproperties,whichshouldbeviewedinconjunctionwiththeheat
treatmentsapplied,Ref.[474].
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Table47.24Titaniumalloys:Indicativemechanicalproperties
Temp.
UTS
0.2%PS
El
RofA
(C)
RT
480
(MPa)
895
620
(MPa)
825
485
(%)
10
15
(%)
25
30
Forging
Stock
360mm
RT
520
950
610
880
480
6
9
15
20
IMI
829
Forging
Stock
300mm
RT
540
930
570
820
480
9
9
15
25
IMI
834
Forging
Stock
300mm
RT
600
1030
585
910
450
6
9
15
20
Sheet
RT
9601270
900
Plate
<10mm
RT
8951150
825
10
825
25
830
25
1100
940
15
785
10951335
11051240
773
9851245
10301170
22
6-12
Annealed.
Aged.
8-15
20-45
Solution treated &

aged.
Alloy
Form
Ti6242S
Forging
Stock
IMI
685
IMI
318
(Ti6Al4V)
IMI
550
Plate 10100mm
Bar
150mm
Wrought
product
RT
RT
RT
Ti15-3
Wrought
product
RT
Ti-17
Wrought
product
RT
Key:
8951150
9001160
Comments
Solution treated &
aged.
As manufactured,
surface cleaned &
etched. 1050C/
hr/OQ+550C/24hr
/AC.
As manufactured,
surface cleaned &
etched. 1050C/
hr/AC+625C/2hr/
AC.
As manufactured,
surface cleaned &
etched. Solution
Treated & aged.
Annealed.700C/20m
ins/AC. De-scaled.
Annealed.700C/20m
ins/AC. De-scaled &
pickled.
20% R of A for 25100mm plate.
Annealed.700C/hr/2
5mm section/AC.
Solution treated
900C/AC & aged.
Allvalues,exceptwherearangeisgiven,areminimumvaluesstatedbythesuppliers.
OQ:OilQuenched;AC:AirCooled.
47.2.7.2
Elevated temperature
The property data presented emphasises those alloys offering high temperature stability and their
improvementsoverTi6Al4V.ImprovementsinalloydevelopmentareshowninFigure47.2.1,Figure
47.2.2,Figure47.2.3andFigure47.2.4forUTS,creepandfatiguecurves.
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Figure47.21Titaniumalloys:Effectoftemperatureonstiffness
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Figure47.22Titaniumalloys:Effectoftemperatureonstrength
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Figure47.23Titaniumalloys:Creepproperties
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Figure47.24Titaniumalloys:Fatiguestrength
Inseekingtooperatetitaniumalloysclosetotheirmaximum,Dornierhavestudiedthepossibilityof
SPF/DBcomponentsforspaceplanestructuralconfigurations,Ref.[475],[See:47.4].
Figure47.2.5demonstratesthesuperiorityofIMI829andTi1100onstrengthretentionat600C,Ref.
[475]. This exercise established the viability of superplastic forming 0.8mm to 1.5mm sheet and
achieving diffusion bonding simultaneously. For Ti6Al4V, the forming temperature should not
exceed935C,whilstbothhightemperaturealloysneededthebondingtemperaturetobeintherange
950to980C.
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Ti-6Al-4V used as Reference
Figure47.25Titaniumalloys:UTSatelevatedtemperatureforIMI829andTi
1100
47.2.7.3
Fracture properties
[See:Table47.2.5]
47.2.8
Physical properties
[See:Table47.2.5]
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Table47.25Titaniumalloys:Physicalproperties
Alloy
Property
Ti6Al4V
(IMI318)
IMI685
IMI629
IMI634
6242S
Density (kg/m3)
- Transus
(C)
Thermal
Conductivity
(W m-1C-1)
CTE (10-6C-1) :
20 - 100C
20 - 200C
20 - 300C
20 - 400C
20 - 500C
20 - 600C
20 - 800C
20 - 1000C
Suitable Postweld
Treatments
4420
4450
4540
4550
4540
1020
1015
1045
995
6.7
4.2
8.6
9.0
9.2
9.4
9.5
9.7
-
9.8
9.3
9.5
9.8
10.1
10.1
-
9.45
9.77
9.98
10.34
10.39
10.6
10.9
11.0
11.2
11.3
9.9
-
550C/4-8hrs/
AC
625C/2hr/AC
625C/
1hr/AC
44-66
Equiaxed
with 910MPa
YS
68
For 910 MPa
0.2% PS
78
heat
treated
condition
37
Aged: 700C
/2hrs
65-79
- heat
treated &
aged
Fracture
Toughness
(MPa m )
Key:
TypicalRTValues;ACAirCooled
47.3 New alloys

47.3.1
Developments
Newalloydevelopmentshavecentredon:
alloymodificationstoassistfibrematrixcompatibility,and
processingtechniquestoenablecosteffectivefabrication.
47.3.2
Processing techniques
47.3.2.1
General
Fabricationtechniqueswhichhavepotentialcostreducingbenefitsare:
Superplasticforming(SPF),
Rapidsolidification(RS)technology.
Thesetechniquesarealsobeingusedfortitaniummetalmatrixcomposites.
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47.3.2.2
Superplastic forming
[See:47.4andChapter72]
47.3.2.3
Rapid solidification
Rapid solidification (RS) has demonstrated the ability to produce thin foils with fine grain sizes for
combination with reinforcement fibres. The consolidated composite had reduced reactions between
thefibreandmatrixwhichwasattributedtoasuperplasticformingmechanismoperatingduringthe
lowertemperatureconsolidation.
Powdermetallurgytitaniumalloysarealsobelievedtoofferadvantagesoverthefoilformofmatrix
forMMCs.Thishoweveristhesubjectofongoingdevelopment.
47.4 Superplastic forming and diffusion bonding

47.4.1
Superplasticity
Superplasticitycanbeachievedwithmostmetals.Thealloyisheatedtoaround50%ofmeltingand
deformedatlowstrainratesuptomanyhundredpercentstrain.AnessentialcharacteristicofanSPF
materialisafine,uniformgrainsizewithlimitedtexturing.Whilsttheprocessisslow,complex,thin
walled,shapeswithintegralstiffeningarefeasible,whicharenotachievablebyconventionalforming
processes.
47.4.2
Diffusion bonding
47.4.2.1
General
Twoormoremetalcomponentsareplacedintimatelyincontactandtemperature/pressureappliedto
achieveahomogeneousstructure.Theprocessresultsinajointwhichismetallurgicallyundetectable,
i.e.grainboundariesarenotconfinedtotheoriginaljointfaces.Bondstrengthsuptoparentmaterial
propertiesareachievable.
47.4.2.2
Characteristics of titanium alloys
The ability of titanium to absorb its oxide layer at high temperature in an inert atmosphere is a
phenomenon which makes this material readily bondable. These selfcleaning conditions are
obtained at the optimum SPF temperature for titanium alloys, so the SPF/DB process has become a
practicalpropositionfortitaniumcomponentmanufacture.
47.4.3
SPF/DB fabrication
47.4.3.1
General
Combiningsuperplasticforminganddiffusionbondingintoacombinedprocessingroute(SPF/DB)is
anelegantone,offeringasingleshotprocesstogivecomplexconfigurations,including:
Struts,
Cylinders,
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Accesspanels,and
Pressurevessels.
Combinedknowledgeandexpertiseisneededtounderstandthe:
Material,asitisstrained,
Jointing,
NetShapefabrication.
[See:Chapter72forSPF/DBtitaniumdesigns]
47.4.3.2
Cost factors
Cost saving in manufacture is the primary attraction of the SPF/DB process; especially for titanium
alloys,withtheirimportanceinspaceplanedevelopment.
47.4.4
Materials
47.4.4.1
Ti-6Al-4V alloy
Ti6Al4V is by far the most common titanium alloy to which SPF/DB is applied. However, if the
materialhasasuitablemicrostructure,mosttitaniumalloyscanbeprocessedinthisway.
47.4.4.2
IMI 829 and Ti-1100
WorkbyDornier,Ref.[475],hasdemonstratedthatthealloysIMI829andTi1100canbeformedand
bonded, given close control of strain rate in relation to the forming temperature. Figure 47.4.1
providesthemvalues(StrainRateSensitivity)forthreealloys.
WithIMI829andTi1100materials,atemperatureof980Cisneededtoensuretruesuperplasticity,
whilst at 935C plastic deformation and undesirable necking characteristics predominate. Ti6Al4V
showsthismvalueat935C.Aminimummvalueof0.5issoughttodemonstratesuperplasticity.
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IMI 834 has replaced IMI 829, [See: 72.4]
Figure47.41SPF/DBfabrication:Titaniumalloymvaluesasafunctionofstrain
rate
47.5 Discontinuously reinforced Ti-alloys

47.5.1
Difficulties
Initialstudiesofdiscontinuouslyreinforcedtitaniumalloysprovedlargelyunsuccessfulowingtothe
reactivity of the matrix with the reinforcement. For whisker and particulate reinforcement, little
remainedaftertheconsolidationandhencenobenefitinmechanicalperformancewasachieved.
47.5.2
Particulate reinforcements
47.5.2.1
General
Certainparticlescanbeusedasreinforcements,including:
boroncarbide,
titaniumdiboride,
titaniumcarbide.
Theuseoftitaniumcompoundsenablescompatibilitywithtitaniumalloys.Evidenceofgoodmatrix
toparticleadhesionisseenwith10vol.%titaniumcarbideadditionstoTi6Al4V,Ref.[4710].
47.5.2.2
Particulate content
Work with allparticulate MMC materials suggests that reinforcement contents need to be kept
modest(lessthan20vol.%)toavoidlossofductilityandtoughness.
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47.5.3
Processing
Particulate reinforced composites have been made by a powder route, with hot pressing for
consolidation.
47.5.4
Properties
Lowparticulatecontentsareneededtoavoidseriouslossofductility.
Inthecaseof10vol.%TiMMCpmaterial,asmallincreaseinmoduluswouldbeexperiencedwitha
4%reductionindensity.Thisisonlyamarginalimprovementinperformanceconsideringtheprocess
difficulties.
TheadditionofTiCparticlesmayimprovethehightemperaturestabilityandcreepresistanceofTi
6Al4V. However, alloys such as IMI 834 and Beta 21S, with better inherent thermal performance,
renderparticleadditionstoTi6Al4Vunnecessary.
47.5.5
Further development
ParticulateTiMMCmaterialscanbeworthwhileifbasedonthemoreadvancedalloycompositions,
includingtitaniumaluminides,[Seealso:Chapter49IntermetallicMaterials].
Atpresent,nosignificantcommercialdevelopmentsofthistypecanbedescribed.
47.6 Continuous fibre reinforced Ti-alloy MMC

47.6.1
Composite development
47.6.1.1
General
Continuousfibrereinforcementoftitaniumalloysaimstoachieve:
Increasedstiffnessandstrength
Reducedmaterialdensity
Improvedcreepresistance,and
Improvedfatiguelife.
Development of these materials has been driven by the need for efficient titanium composites in
aircraft gas turbine engines and hypersonic spaceplanes, e.g. NASP. The commercial availability of
someTiMMCsisgiveninRef.[4726].
47.6.1.2
Fibres
Initial development work on titanium composites concentrated on development of fibres having

acceptablecompatibilitywiththetitaniummatrix.Thehighreactivityoftitaniumcausesseverefibre
degradation during processing. This led to the introduction of selected fibre coating systems and
reducedtemperatureprocessingtechniques.
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Thehighreactivityoftitaniumexcludestheuseofsmallerdiameter(5mto15m)reinforcingfibres,
suchascarbonorsiliconcarbide.Effortshavethereforebeenconcentratedonmonofilaments.
In work going back twenty years, those studied have been the large diameter filaments (100m to
200m),including:
SiliconCarbide(SiC)
BoronCarbidecoatedBoron(B4C/B)
Borsic(B/SiC)
47.6.1.3
Matrix alloys
EarlyworkconcentratedontheuseofTi6Al4Valloyasthematrixmaterial,presumablybecauseit
was a well understood alloy and readily available. Ti6Al4V proved adequate for studying and
refiningprocesstechniquesbutthecompositehasonlymodestthermalperformance.
Laterworkmovedtonearandalloysasameansofextendingthermalcapabilitiestowards600to
700C.
Thealloyscanalsobecoldrolledtoproducethinfoilswhichareusedtopreparecompositesbyhot
pressing.Developmenthasprogressedfromthesealloystotitaniumaluminidematrices,[See:Chapter
49].
47.6.2
Monofilament reinforcements
47.6.2.1
Availability
With the rationalisation in commercial fibres, there are now only two monofilament options for
titaniummatrixcomposites(TMC):
Textronsiliconcarbide:SCS6(140mdiameter).
BPSIGMA:uncoatedbasefibreSM1040(100mdiameter).
47.6.2.2
Filament Manufacture
Both are made by chemical vapour deposition (CVD) of silicon carbide on to a precursor wire. The
wireistungstenforSIGMAandcarbonforSCS6.
47.6.2.3
Filament coatings
The CVD process has been taken a step further to modify the outer filament surface to a chemical
composition which is more compatible with titanium matrices. These coatings form the interface
between fibre and matrix and ultimately define the level of mechanical properties attainable by the
composite.
Thecoatingsappliedtocommercialfibresare:
SCS6:Thecoatingis3mthickandiscarbonrich.Thesiliconcontentexhibitsamaximumat
theoutersurfaceandat1.5mfromtheoutersurface.
SIGMA:Twovariants,withcoatingsappliedtothebasefibreSM1040:
SM1140+:hasa4.5mcarboncoating.Forusewithaggressivealloys.
SM1240:hasaduplexcoatingof1moverlayedwith1mtitaniumdiboride(TiB2).
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47.6.2.4
Characteristics
Bothfibresexhibitreasonabletensilestrengths,inexcessof3000MPa,butthereisadegreeofscatter.
The manufacturers have improved the consistency of their respective processes to improve the
claimedstandarddeviationfrom500MPato200MPa.Thelargemonofilamentdiametersinfluence
theselectionofcompositeprocesstechniques.
47.6.3
Matrix selection
47.6.3.1
Thermal stability
Toimprovethethermalperformanceoftitaniummatrixcomposites(TMCs),Ti6Al4Vmatriceshave
beenreplacedbynear,e.g.Timetal834(IMI834)andTimetal1100(Ti1100),andsystems.
[Seealso:47.2forconventionalalloys]
IntheUSA,theprogressionseeninalloyshasbeen:
BetaIIITi153Timetal21S(Beta21S)
47.6.3.2
Availability
Matrixselectionisalsoinfluencedbymorepracticalconsiderations,suchastheavailabilityofthinfoil
for stacking and consolidation. The inability to obtain certain alloys in foil form, e.g. Ti6242S, has
excludedtheiruseinTMCmaterialsmadebythisroute.Theselectionofalloyshasbeendrivenby
theirabilitytobereadilycoldworkedintothinfoils,whilstofferinggoodintermediatetemperature
capabilities.Thenearalloyshavehighertemperaturecapabilitiesandareavailableinpowderform;
farlessasfoils.
Theuseofsputtering,Ref.[4715],orpowderroutesforTMCpreparationenablesotheralloymatrices
tobeconsidered.
47.6.3.3
Oxidation
Wherehighoperatingtemperaturesareenvisagedforprolongedperiods,oxidationresistanceshould
beconsidered.
Inthisrespect,Beta21SisbetterthanTi153.However,forprolongeduse>450C,allTMCmaterials
requireanadditionalcoatingsystemtoprovideanoxygenbarrier.
47.6.4
Composite process technologies
The handling characteristics of monofilaments are such that they are processed individually rather
thanasbundlesortows,aswithtraditionalfibres.
Each monofilament is encapsulated with matrix and the overall composite consolidated. The matrix
cannotbeworkedintheliquidstateasitistooreactive.
Consolidation is therefore in the solid state, relying on diffusion bonding under pressure at
temperaturesbelow900C.Theacceptedprocessesare:
ConsolidationoffilamentsseparatedbymetalfoillayersusinghotpressingorHIPtechniques.
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Consolidationofpowdercoatedfilamentprepregsbyhotpressing.
Fusion of individually matrixcoated filaments which have been stacked or wound in the
desiredconfiguration,thematrixcoatingnormallybeingappliedbysputtering.
These processes lead to very wide variations in fibre volume fractions from 17% to 80%, with the
range35%to45%beingthemostcommon.Keyprocessingrequirementsaretoobtainanevenfibre
distributionandavoidfibrestouchingeachother.
47.7 Continuous fibre reinforced Ti-alloy MMC: properties

47.7.1
Composite optimisation
Owingtothehighreactivityoftitaniumanditsalloys,detailedoptimisationofthecompositesystem
isalwaysrequiredtogivehightemperaturecapabilitiesintherange450Cto650Candgoodthermo
mechanicalfatigue(TMF)life.
Poor transverse strength in 90 plies and deleterious fibrematrix interactions are the constraining
factors.
47.7.2
Tensile strength and stiffness
47.7.2.1
General
Themajorityofpublisheddataprovidessimpleunidirectionaltensilestiffnessandstrengthvaluesfor
variousfibrematrixcombinations,asshowninTable47.7.1andTable47.7.2,Ref.[4711].
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Table47.71Titaniummatrixcomposites:Typicalroomtemperaturetensileproperties
Matrix Alloy
[See: Notes]
Fibre Type
Fibre Volume
%
Ti-6Al-4V
CP-Ti
None
Borsic
Borsic
Boron
Nil
28
32
28
35-40
Not stated
Not stated
Ti-6Al-4V
Ti-6Al-4V
Ti-6Al-4V
Ti-6Al-4V
Ti-6Al-4V
Ultimate Tensile Strength

Transverse
Longitudinal (MPa)
(MPa)
890
890
860
276
620
324
1000
340
(1630)
(286)
970
>345
895
365
813
324
827
289
Modulus (GPa)
Notes
120
193
204
(201)
190
205
207
200
Commercial Purity
( ) predicted values
Ti-6Al-4V
Borsic
Borsic
Borsic
Borsic
B4C/B
32
1450
>345
Ti-6Al-4V
B4C/B
Not stated
978-1054
303-310
Ti-6Al-4V
B4C/B
38
1550
>345
221
Ti-6Al-4V
B4C/B
Not stated
985-1033
324-351
199-207
Ti-6Al-4V
B4C/B
35-40
1055
310
205
Ti-6Al-4V
B4C/B
Not stated
875-1047
310
203-218
Ti-6Al-4V
B4C/B
Not stated
882-1068
317-344
215-229
214
Range of properties
are from materials
made by different
companies.
(DWA and AVCO in U.S.A.)
Ti-6Al-4V
SiC
35-40
820
380
225
Ti-6Al-4V
SiC
Not stated
779
289
189
Ti-6Al-4V
SiC
Not stated
771
379
196
Ti-6Al-4V
SCS-6
Not stated
1040
338
240
Ti-6Al-4V
SCS-6
35-40
1455
340
240
Ti-6Al-4V
SCS-6
Not stated
909
303
233
Ti-6Al-4V
SCS-6
Not stated
833
365
213
Beta III
Borsic
Not stated
854
Ti-11.5Mo-6Zr-4.5Sn
Ti-10Mo
Borsic
Not stated
730
331
Beta III
Borsic
Not stated
854
Ti-11.5Mo-6Zr-4.5Sn
Ti-10Mo
Borsic
Not stated
730
331
Key: : Borsic, boron and B4C fibres are no longer appropriate for use in titanium composites; : Mill annealed 732C/2 hours/Air cooled; : After fabrication & low temperature
595C/512 hours exposure; : After fabrication and 760C/64 hours exposure; : After fabrication and 900C/5 hours exposure
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Table47.72Titaniummatrixcomposites:TypicalstrengthsofUDSIGMASiC
reinforcedalloys
Alloy
Ti-6Al-4V
Ti-15-3-3-3
Beta 21S
Aluminium 6061
Filament
UTS
Modulus
(Vol.%)
(MPa)
(GPa)
35 - 38
30 - 35
27 - 30
30 - 35
1755
1450
1470
1200
235
230
185
180
Therearewidevariationsinthedata,butsignificantimprovementsinambienttemperaturestrength
arefeasible,althoughtherearetemperaturelimitationsonpropertyretention.
Thetransversestrengthsofunidirectionalmaterialsarelowerthanthebasematrixmaterial.
47.7.2.2
Loading
Unidirectional TMC materials are attractive for applications with a single load direction, e.g. hoop
stress. Multiple loads require more complex layups with correspondingly reduced maximum
strengthcapabilities.
47.7.3
Fatigue
Table47.7.3givesfatiguepropertiesforvariouscomposites,Ref.[4712].
Dataareincludedforcompositesafterahightemperaturetreatment.
[Seealso:Thermomechanicalfatigue(TMF)]
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Table47.73Titaniummatrixcomposites:Fatigueproperties
Fibre
type
Matrixtype
[See:Notes]
Ti-6Al-4V
Ti-6Al-4V
Ti-6Al-4V
Ti-6Al-4V
Ti-6Al-4V
Ti-6Al-4V
Ti-6Al-4V
Ti-6Al-4V
Ti-6Al-4V
Beta III
(Ti-11.5Mo-6Zr4.5Sn)
Ti CP
Ti-10Mo
Fibre
vol.%
Cyclesto
failure
UTS
(MPa)
None
None
Borsic
Borsic
SiC
SCS-6
SCS-6
B4C/B
B4C/B
Nil
Nil
35 to 40
Not stated
35-40
35-40
Not stated
35-40
Not stated
(x104)
6
4 to 6
6
~1
2 to 200*
20
~1
1000
3 to 10
Borsic
Not stated
3 to 6
Borsic
Borsic
Not stated
Not stated
1 to 3
1 to 2
890
895
820
1455
1055
-
Key:
:Millannealed732C/2hours/AC;:Afterfabrication955C/8hour
exposure;:Borsic,boronandB4Cfibresarenolongerappropriate
foruseinTicomposites;*:Poorconsolidationofcomposite.
Testconditions:
Asfabricated4plyunidirectionalspecimens.R=+0.1,max.=515MPa,Room
Temperature.AxialFatigue
47.7.4
Fracture toughness
ThefracturetoughnessofTMCmaterialsisdifficulttoassessbecauseofthedirectionality.Thelevelof
matrixtofibrebondingalsostronglyinfluencesthecrackpropagationcharacteristics.
47.7.5
In preparing TMC materials every attempt is made to minimise deleterious chemical interactions
between matrix and reinforcement, usually by using the lowest effective temperature for
consolidation. Whilst this controls the problem at the processing stage, cumulative degradation can
stilloccurinserviceathightemperatures.
47.7.6
Thermo-mechanical fatigue
47.7.6.1
General
Combinedthermalcyclingandstresscyclingiscalledthermomechanicalfatigue(TMF).Anexample
ofitseffectsisgiveninRef.[4720],[Seealso:Chapter83].
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47.7.6.2
Composite type
AsymmetricalcrossplylaminateofSCS6/Ti153wasprepared,[0/90]2S,consistingof8plieswitha
fibrevolumefractionof38%andanoverallthicknessof1.69mm.ThealloyTi15V3Al3Sn3Crwas
afavouredmatrixmaterialintheUSA.
Simple tensile tests on the laminate indicated that firstply failure (FPF) in the transverse 90 plies
occurred at the applied stress of 450MPa at 427C. Maximum failure strain for the composite were
around0.8%.
47.7.6.3
Test regimes
TwoTMFtestregimeswereused:
Inphase,wherepeakstresscoincidedwithpeaktemperature.
180OutofPhase.
Thethermalcycleoperatedbetween149Cand427Coveraperiodof48seconds.Appliedmaximum
stresslevelsvariedbetween244MPaand612MPa.
47.7.6.4
Effect of thermo-mechanical fatigue
Figure47.7.1showsagraphicalpresentationoftheresultsfromeightspecimens.Althoughviewedas
indicativeonly,itdoesdemonstrateanumberoffeatures,including:
Athighstresses(i.e.abovetheFPFstresslevel),thefatiguelifeforinphaseTMFwaslessthan
foroutofphaseTMFconditions.
BelowtheFPFstress,thelinescrossandthefatiguelifeforinphaseTMFconditionsshowsa
progressiveimprovementovertheoutofphaseconditions.
This is not surprising as the residual stresses within a TMC are highest near ambient temperature
reflecting the accumulated stress in cooling from the consolidation temperature. The FPF stress is
significantlyloweratRTcomparedtothe427Cvalueof450MPa.
47.7.6.5
Damage mechanisms
Theprimaryfatiguedamagemechanismistransversecrackingoriginatingatthefibrematrixinterface
of90fibres.However,thefinaldamagemodesaredependentonthestresslevelandtestconditions.
FortestsaboveFPFlevel(427C),thetransversecracksin90pliespropagatingtowards0fibreswere
deflectedinthelongitudinaldirection,owingtoeitherhighstressesoraweakerinterface.Thiscaused
thetransversecracksinthe90plyofthespecimentobedeflectedandcoalesceonvariouslevelsin
the specimen at failure. It also causeda localised necking or channelling effect of matrix materialat
pointsbetweenfailed0fibresgeneratinglocalstressconcentrationsandlimitedductilefailureinthe
matrixmaterials.
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Ti-6Al-4V used as Reference
Figure47.71Titaniummatrixcomposites:Fatiguelifefrominphaseandoutof
phasethermalmechanicalfatiguetests
47.8 Titanium alloys: Effect of hydrogen

47.8.1
Material degradation mechanisms
Theeffectsofhydrogenontitaniumalloyscanbesummarisedas:
Mostcommercialalloysarehighlysusceptibletodegradation.
Microstructurestronglyinfluencesmechanismsdueto:
variationsinhydrogensolubility.
hydrogentransportmechanisms.
Alloyshavingmainlyphasedegradebyrepeatedhydrideformationandfractureatornear
thegasmetalinterface.
Continuous phase (in + alloys) provides a path for hydrogen to penetrate material and
formhydridesinneighbouringphaseoratinterfaces.
AdvancedTialloysforuseathightemperaturesconsistprimarilyofintermetalliccompounds.
The effect of hydrogen on intermetallics is largely unquantified. Transport and hydride
formationoccursviatheandphasespresent.
[Seealso:Chapter85]
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Table 47.8.1 describes the mechanism of hydrogen embrittlement, and the effects at various
temperaturesandconditions,Ref.[4724],[4725].
Table47.81Titaniumalloys:Effectofhydrogen
Conditions
Hydrogen embrittlement
(HE) mechanism
Cryogenic Temperatures
Ambient to ~400C
>450C
Surface contamination
Characteristics
Absorption of hydrogen at ~90
to 150ppm causes hydride
precipitation.
Resistance to liquid hydrogen.
Erratic behaviour, not easily
predicted. Factors include:
Oxide-free surface
Stress
Acicular microstructure
Increasing temperature
Increasing pressure
Intact oxide films (without
other active factors) reduce
hydrogen penetration below
~450C.
Sensitive to hydrogen
Fe & Fe-Ni surface
contamination prohibits
formation of Ti oxide film.
These are sites for rapid
hydrogen penetration &
embrittlement of the alloy.
Comments
For Ti-10V-2Fe: Linked to phase stabilisation inhibiting
martensite transformation.
Insufficient heat to promote
dissociation at 20K
Turbine blades operating at
350C found to chip in
stressed regions (leading
edge) owing to high hydrogen
contents.
Reduce hydrogen content by
vacuum heat-treatment (700
C for 7 hours, typically).
Ti structures fabricated with

Fe-based tooling require:
Surface pickling to
remove contamination.
Use of Ti brushes for
scratch-brushing
operations.
47.9 Titanium alloys: Effect of oxygen

47.9.1
Oxidation
47.9.1.1
General
Titanium is a reactive material and oxidises, although the reaction is minimised by the oxide film
passivatingthesurface.
47.9.1.2
At high temperatures the passivation is ultimately overcome and excessive oxidation occurs. This
limits titanium alloys to around 500C for continuous operation in air unless advanced alloys or
protectionsystemsareused.
[SeealsoChapter85]
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47.9.2
Ignition and burning
Under certain conditions of oxygen temperature and pressure, if scuffed or impacted then titanium
alloyscanigniteandsustainburning;asshown,forstaticanddynamicoxygenenvironments,inTable
47.9.1,Ref.[4725].
Table47.91Titaniumalloys:Ignitionandburncharacteristics
Conditions
Static
Dynamic
Characteristic
Freshly exposed Ti surface in contact with oxygen causes

ignition.
Reaction is dependent on oxygen content and pressure, the
lower the O2 content, the higher the pressure needed.
Pure O2 static conditions pressure of ~2.5MPa required.
Affected by purity of O2 atmosphere.
At O2 concentrations <~47%, ignition does not occur.
Ignition limits are not influenced by surface to volume ratio or
by temperatures up to ~300C.
Increased possibility of ignition
Limited to oxygen concentration < 35%.
Ignition will not occur in air.
Ignition is not self sustaining in water or aqueous solution.
Ignition may occur in vapour space above solution, if
conditions are favourable.
47.10 Coatings and protection systems

47.10.1 Requirements
Theuseofcurrentlycommerciallyavailablealloysislimitedtoaround500Cduetotheirmechanical
propertydegradationinoxygenandhydrogenenvironments,[Seealso:Chapter85].
However,demandstooptimisetheweightoffuturespacepropulsionsystemscouldresultintitanium
alloysbeingusedinregionsnotexperiencingexcessivetemperatures,primarilyrotationalparts.This
canbeachievedbyeither:
Alloydevelopmentcombinedwithnovelprocessingtechniques.
Withtheaidofcoatings.
47.10.2 Potential coatings

Table47.10.1summarisesongoingstudiesofcoatingsystemsfortitaniumalloys,Ref.[4724],[4725].
[Seealso:74.6]
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Table47.101Titaniumalloys:Potentialcoatingsystems
Coating
Application
composition
method
Ti-6Al-4V
NiCr
Sputtering
TiCP
SiC
(99.5%)
Si3N4
Al
IMI829
Ti-8.5Si
Substrate
Key:
Sputtering
Comments
Coating thickness 1 to 8 m
Natural oxide stripped before
coating
SiC cracked therefore not effective
Thermal shock:
SiC spalled
NiCr & Al did not spall
No metallurgical changes found with
Si3N4 coatings
Coating thickness 50 to 80m
typically
Coating polluted by Al
No significant diffusion between
coating/substrate at 700C
Structural change in coating to Sirich phases
Coating reduced oxygen penetration
from 35 atomic% to 10 atomic%
uniformly
:ActualcompositionTi8.6Si0.48Al.
47.11 Ti-alloys and MMCs: Potential applications

47.11.1 Current use
Titanium alloys have traditionally filled applications operating in the temperature range 200C to
600C, i.e. above aluminium and below superalloys. This has placed titanium in and around power
plants(engines)andforsurfacesexperiencingaerodynamicheating.Thehighermodulusoftitanium
sometimespromotesitsuseinsteadofaluminium.
Alloys such as Timetal 834 and Timetal 1100 assist in progressively increasing the temperature
capabilityoftitanium.
[See:Table47.2.3foraerospacealloys]
47.11.2 Developments
There are two significant developments in titanium technology which influence its use beyond its
currentrole.Theseare:
Superplastic Forming/Diffusion Bonding (SPF/DB): A production technique which allows

complexbutweightefficientconstructionstobemadewiththedesiredtitaniumalloyand,for
certaincomponents,atalowermanufacturingcost.
[Seealso:Chapter72SPF/DBtitaniumdesigns]
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Titanium Matrix Composites (TMCs): The addition of continuous reinforcements, notably

silicon carbide filaments, increases specific strength and thermal capabilities. This can prove
attractive for applications experiencing loading in a single, predominant direction (UD
composite).
[See:Table47.7.1forTMCdevelopment]
The evolution of titanium matrix composites is dependent on controlling the reactive nature of
titanium by material composition and processing. The poor transverse properties severely limit the
useofbidirectionalcomposites.
47.11.3 Aerospace applications

47.11.3.1 General
AreviewofpotentialapplicationsfortitaniumbasedmaterialsingiveninRef.[4727].Thisconcluded
that:
Idealapplicationsarethosesubjectedtohighlydirectionalloadingsathightemperatures.
Successful fibre coating techniques are a prerequisite for optimising TMC characteristics. A
magnetronsputteringtechniqueprovedsuccessful.
Use of orthorhombic titanium aluminides or oxidation resistance coatings enables the service
temperaturestoexceed500C.[See:49.5TitaniumAluminides].
ONERAhaveseveraldevelopmentsprogrammesfortitaniumbasedmaterials.
47.11.3.2 Propulsion systems

Work on TMCs within Europe and the USA has considered improvements in the performance for
turbineenginepropulsionsystems,particularlyforhighlyloadedcomponents.Thisledsubsequently
tothepossibleapplicationofTMCsinpropulsionsystemsforreusablespacevehicles.
47.11.3.3 Hypersonic vehicles

IntheUSA,TMCsarebeingevaluatedforvariousstructuralandpowerplantelementsunderNASP
andsubsequentlyXprogramvehicles.
Detailedinformationonthematerialsevaluatedandtheirintendedapplicationsisrestrictedoutside
theUS,Ref.[4731].
Within Europe, FESTIP considered titaniumbased materials for hot skin applications (mainly
titaniumaluminidesandcompositesthereof),Ref.[4729].
[Seealso:49.5Titaniumaluminides]
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47.12 References
47.12.1 General
[471]
M.J.DonachieJnr.(Editor)
TitaniumandTitaniumAlloySourceBook
AmericanSocietyforMetals,1982,ISBN:0871701405
[472]
J.Wilson&D.P.Bashford:FulmerResearchLtd.,UK
ReviewofEmergingHighTemperatureAdvancedMaterialsfor
SpaceApplications.FulmerResearchLtd.ReportNo.R1176/1/April
1988.ESAContract7090/87/NL/PH
[473]
NOTE
[474]
MetalsHandbook,Volume2,10thEdition
PropertiesandSelection:NonferrousAlloysandSpecialPurpose
Materials
ASMInternational,ISBN0871703785(V.2),1990
[475]
AdvancedMaterialsforSpaceTransportation
DornierGmbHBattelleEuropeFinalReport,June1992ESTEC
Contract8807/90/NL/PP(SC)
[476]
A.K.Green:FulmerResearchLaboratories,UK
GuidelinesfortheUseofSuperplasticFormingofMetalsin
SpacecraftConstruction.
FulmerResearchLaboratories(FRL)
ReportR878/3A/January
1982andsupplementFRLReport
R878/19/July1985.ESAContract5497/83/NL/PB(SC)
[477]
C.R.Parkinson:BAeFilton,UK
ApplicationofSPF/DBtoSpacecraftStructures
BAeFiltonReport,July1985.ESAContractNo.5588/83/NL/PB(SC)
[478]
G.Brodin
SPF/DBAManufacturingTechniqueforLightweightStructures
ESASP336:AdvancedMaterialsforLightweightStructures(October
1992),p149154
[479]
M.H.Mansbridge
TheIntroductionofTitaniumSuperplasticallyFormedandDiffusion
BondedComponentsintoServiceonAirbusAircraft.22nd
InternationalSAMPETechnicalConference,November691990,
p224236
[4710]
D.G.Konitzer&M.H.Loretto
MicrostructuralAssessmentofTi6Al4V/TiCMetalMatrix
Composite.Acto.Metall.Vol.37.No.2,1989,p397406
154
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[4711]
P.R.Smith&F.H.Froes
DevelopmentsinTitaniumMetalMatrixComposites
JournalofMetals,March1984,p1926
[4712]
P.R.Smithetal
CorrelationofFractureCharacteristicsandMechanicalPropertiesfor
TitaniumMatrixComposites
ProceedingsofMechanicalBehaviourofMetalMatrixComposites
111thAIMEAnnualMeeting,Dallas,Texas
February16181982,p143168
[4713]
W.Wei
HighTemperatureLowCycleFatigueofaSiC/TiMatrixComposite.
ECCM4.September1990,p319324.ElsevierSciencePublishing
ISBN1851665625
[4714]
HJDudeketal
SiCFibreReinforcedTitaniumAlloys:Processing,Interfacesand
MechanicalProperties.ECCM4.September1990,p339344.Elsevier
SciencePublishing
ISBN1851665625
[4715]
C.M.WardClose&P.G.Partridge
ProductionandPropertiesofContinuouslyReinforcedTitanium
AlloyMMC.MetalMatrixComposites:PropertyOptimisationand
Applications89November1989,TheInstituteofMetals,London
[4716]
A.Vasseletal
Structural&MechanicalCharacterisationofAVCOSCS6/Ti64
Composite.BRITETiMMCProgramme,ONERAReport5/3684M.
August1988
[4717]
A.Vasseletal
ASinglefibreTestTechniqueforTitaniumMMCs.IOPShort
MeetingSeriesNo.28onTestTechniquesforMetalMatrix
Composites,November1990,p5564.ISBN0854985301
[4718]
N.A.James
SmallCouponTensileTestsforRankingMonofilamentreinforced
TitaniumMMCs.IOPShortMeetingSeriesNo.28onTestTechniques
forMetalMatrixComposites,November1990,p4054.ISBN085498
5301
[4719]
P.Bowenetal
FatigueCrackGrowthinContinuousFibreReinforcedMetalMatrix
Composites.IOPShortMeetingSeriesNo.28onTestTechniquesfor
MetalMatrixComposites,November1990,p4054.ISBN085498530
1
[4720]
J.J.Schubbe&S.Mall
DamageMechanismsinaCrossplyMetalMatrixCompositeunder
ThermalmechanicalCycling.ICCM8,1519July1991,Paper20,
p20B120B9
155
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[4721]
T.P.Gableetal
IsothermalandNonisothermalFatigueBehaviourofaMetalMatrix
Composite.JournalofCompositeMaterials,vol.24,June1990,p667
686
[4722]
M.Mnchen:MTVMotoren&TurbinenUnion,Mnchen,D
HydrogenAbsorptionofTitaniumAlloysDuringDescalingProcess.
DeutscheGesellschaftfrMetalkunde,Adenaurallee21,1985p1275
1281
[4723]
IMITitanium,Birmingham,UK
CorrosionResistanceofTitanium
[4724]
M.Meyer&R.Suchentruck:MBB,D
HighTemperatureOxidationBarriersonTitaniumTheOxidation
BehaviourofThinSputteredNiCrSiCSi3N4andAllayers.
Proceedingsof1stConferenceonIonandPlasmaAssisted
Techniques,IPAT7thGeneva,CH.May31June2,1989,p293298
[4725]
C.Indrigoetal:ONERA,F
HighTemperatureOxidationResistanceofSputterDeposited
TiSiCoatings.ONERATPNo.198454,ProceedingsofIPAT
Meeting,Geneva,CH.May31June21989,p335339
[4726]
B.Hussey&J.Wilson:RJTechnicalConsultants,UK
LightAlloysDirectory&Databook
Chapman&Hall(1998).ISBN0412804107
[4727]
J.Kumpfertetal:DLR,D
AdvancedTMCsforHighlyloadedComponents
Materials&MechanicalTesting.Braunschweig,Germany46
November,1998.ESASP428,p315320
[4728]
J.Sorensen
TitaniumMatrixCompositesNASPMaterials&Structures
AugmentationProgram.AIAA905207,10.90.ExtractfromTimet
website(April2003)
[4729]
H.Kringsetal:MANTechnologie,D
FESTIPTechnologyDevelopmentinMaterials
Materials&MechanicalTesting.Noordwijk,NL2729March,1996.
ESASP386,p10851096
[4730]
T.OConnell:Timet,USA
Timetal1100
ExtractfromASMTitaniumAlloysandMetalPropertiesHandbook,
suppliedbyTimet,USA(April2003)
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[4731]
PrivatecommunicationwithTimet(April2003)
[4732]
R.C.Riceetal.
(MMPDS)

[See:ECSSwebsite].
ECSSQ7071
processes;previouslyESAPSS01701.
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48 Superalloys and their composites

48.1 Introduction
48.1.1
General
The superalloys are established aerospace materials for engines and turbine components;
demonstratingmanyyearsofservice,[See:48.2;48.15forapplicationsforsuperalloys].
[Seealso:ECSSQ7071:Datafortheselectionofspacematerials]
48.1.2
Alloy development
Demands for improved engine performance have led to requirements for higher operating
temperaturesandlongerservicelives.
Toincreasetheirhighthermalstabilityfurther,superalloycompositionsandprocessingmethodshave
developedjointly,suchas:
DirectionalSolidification(DS).
SingleCrystal(SC).
PowderMetallurgy;includingOxideDispersionStrengthening(ODS)alloys.
[See:48.3forthecharacteristicsofthesealloys]
Innovativecomponentdesignshavedeveloped,wherebyalloyanisotropy(likecompositeanisotropy)
isusedtosustaindirectionalloads.
48.1.3
Composites
Developmentofsuperalloymatrixcompositesisrestrictedbytheavailabilityofareinforcementphase
whichcansurvivethehightemperatureprocessingrequiredformoltensuperalloys.
[See:48.4and48.5]
Work has concentrated on tungstenbased continuous reinforcement. These are large diameter
filaments(>100m,typically).
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Compatibilitywiththematrixremainsaproblem,andoftenadiffusionbarriercoatingisneededon
the fibre to prevent excessive damage during prolonged high temperature use. Developments in
Tungsten Fibre Reinforced Superalloys (TFRS) are described, along with mechanical property data,
[See:48.6].Thequantityofdataislimitedforanyparticularcomposite.
48.1.4
Service environment
Superalloyapplicationsgenerallyinvolvehightemperatures,incombustionenvironments.
In aeroengines, oxidation and the possibility of scuffing resulting in ignition should be considered,
[See:48.8].
For space vehicles, both in engines and active cooling systems, hydrogeninduced material
degradationshouldbeconsidered;especiallyforreusable,longlifestructures.Theeffectsofhydrogen
onsuperalloysarediscussed;alongwithdataonthepossiblepropertylosses,[See:48.7].
[Seealso:Chapter85]
48.1.5
Coating systems
Operationinhotandhostileenvironmentsmeansthatsuperalloycomponentsoftenrequireacoating
topreventexcessiveoxidation,corrosionorotherthermallyinduceddamage,[See:74.7].
Coating systems are commercially available, but are being developed further as operational
temperaturesincrease.
The various types of coating system are described along with the factors to be considered for the
designofthecoatedcomponent,[See:48.9,48.10,48.11,48.12,48.13and48.14].
48.2 Conventional alloys

48.2.1
General
This Topic provides an introduction to the superalloy class of materials, in terms of their role and
requirementsforaerospaceapplications.Itdoesnotprovideextensivepropertydata,butservesasa
basisfortheTopicswhichdescribethemorerecentmaterialdevelopments.
DesigndataisavailableinMILHDBK5;replacedbyMMPDS,Ref.[4849]
48.2.2
Alloy groups
48.2.2.1
General
Superalloysaregenerallygroupedbytheirmainalloyconstituent:
Nickelbased.
Ironbased.
Cobaltbased.
Withineachgroupthereisawidevarietyofalloyswhichdifferbothincompositionandassociated
mechanicalandphysicalproperties.
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48.2.2.2
Requirements
Each family of materials has steadily evolved since the 1940s to meet applications which demand
increasinglygoodmechanicalperformanceathighertemperaturescoupledwithgoodoxidationand
corrosionresistance.
Figure 48.2.1 shows a development curve for superalloys with respect to processing improvements,
Ref.[485].
48.2.2.3
Applications
Theapplicationshavetendedtoberelatedtoturbinecomponents,bothforaircraftenginesandland
basedpowergeneratorunits.
Figure48.21Superalloys:DevelopmentCurve
48.2.3
Aircraft engine applications
48.2.3.1
Requirements
The superalloy material development has attempted to keep pace with demands from aeroengine
manufacturerswithexactingrequirementsformaterialstohelpachieveimprovedengineperformance
intermsof,Ref.[482]:
thrusttoweightratio,
fuelconsumption,
increasedservicelife(periodbetweenoverhauls),and
lowercostofownership.
Table 48.2.1 lists the property requirements for aeroengine components met by Conventional
Superalloydesigns,Ref.[482],[484],[486].
Modernaeroenginestypicallycompriseofapproximately30%byweightsuperalloy,Ref.[483].
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Table48.21Superalloys:Propertyrequirementsforenginecomponents
Application
Turbine discs
Turbine blades
Gas turbine engines
Nozzle guide vanes

and combustion
hardware
Key:
Propertyrequirements
Operating temperatures 200 to 700C typ.

Cyclic stress up to 1100 MPa typ.
Oxidising atmosphere
Hot corrosion resistance (1)
Centrifugal loading
Rim temperature 677C typ.
Temperature gradients
High yield stress
Tensile strength to 700C typ.
Creep and creep fatigue resistance
Low and high cycle fatigue resistance (LCF, HCF)
Crack growth resistance
Oxidisation resistance
Hot corrosion resistance
Centrifugal stresses 150 to 200 MPa, typ.
Gas entry temperature 1377C, typ
Gas temperature at incipient melting point (2)
Thermal gradients: Blade tip to root.
Blade temperatures 1047C, typ.
Static and cyclic loading
High temperature creep strength (at 0.8 Tm.) (3)
Fatigue resistance
Density
Thermal emissivity
Thermal expansion
Melting point
Stiffness
Tensile strength
Creep strength
Fatigue strength
Fracture resistance
Impact resistance
Toughness
High temperature properties similar to blades even
though they are static components.
Sheet form: High tensile and creep resistance.
(1)Bysaltsinmarineenvironments&lowgradefuelcontaminants.
(2)Cooledbladeswithinternalchannels.
(3)TmisthemeltingtemperatureinC
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48.2.3.2
Materials
Ofthethreegenericclasses,Nickelbasedmaterialsaremostwidelyusedbecausetheypossesscertain
beneficialmetallurgicalstabilitycharacteristicsathightemperaturesoverIronbasedalloys,Ref.[48
3].
Cobalt superalloys have also been replaced by nickelbased alloys, partly because of an inability to
provide further strengthening through conventional mechanisms, but primarily due to the world
wideshortageofCobaltinthelate1970s.Thisledtoaprogrammeofworktoreassessthelevelsof
cobalt additions in other superalloy families, and reduced them without detriment to the alloy
performance,Ref.[484].
Table48.2.2listssomeofthealloysusedforaeroenginecomponents,Ref.[484],[485],[486],[487].
Thelistisnotexhaustive.
48.2.3.3
Table48.2.3providestypicalmechanicalpropertiesofsomeofthebetterknownsuperalloysatvarious
temperatures,Ref.[489].
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Table48.22Superalloys:Foraeroenginecomponentapplications
Alloydesignation[Manufacturer]
Application
Notes
Nimonic 901 [INCO]

Inconel 718 [INCO]
Rene 41 [TELEDYNE]
Waspalloy [UN.TECH]
Astroloy [-]
Rene 95 [TELEDYNE]
disc
disc
disc
disc + blade
disc
disc
IN 100 [-]
disc + blade
Denoted as Ni-Fe
Denoted as Ni-Fe
Powder Met. Variant
Powder Met. Variant
Powder Met. Variant
also MERL 76 for HIP
Udimet 700 [SPEC. MTLS]

Udimet 710, 720 [-]
PA101 [-]
AF115 [-]
AF2-1DA [-]
MAR-M200 [MARTIN MAR]
MAR-M002
MAR-M247
Nimonic 80A [INCO]
Nimonic 90
Nimonic 105
Nimonic 115
disc + blade
disc
disc
disc
disc
Powder Met. Alloy

Powder Met. Alloy
Powder Met. Alloy
disc
disc
disc
disc
disc
disc
Principle Fe-based
alloys used in USA
Nickelbased:
Ironbased:
Discaloy [WEST. ELEC]

Tinadur
M308
A286
V57
FV537
Cobaltbased:
FSX-414
MAR-M 322
MAR-M 302
IN 102
Key:
Nozzle
diaphragm
casting
INCO:TheInternationalNickelCo.Inc.;
TELEDYNE:TeledyneAllvac;
Weldability
UNTECH:UnitedTechnologiesCorp.;
SPEC.MTLS:SpecialMetalsCorp.;
MARTINMAR:MartinMariettaCorp.;
WESTELEC:WestinghouseElectricalCorp.
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Table48.23Superalloys:Typicalmechanicalproperties
Alloy
Form
sheet
bar
Inconel 600
bar
Inconel 625
bar
Temp.
TS
YS
El
R of A
Notch
TS
DEWSIM
Melting
Range
(C)
(MPa)
(MPa)
(%)
(%)
(GPa)
(MPa)
100h
1000h
(gcm-3)
(C)
-253
1210
910
22
8.42
1354-1415
24
910
885
-257
1280
1210
20
56
220
1530(a)
-253
1250
1100
30
58
-196
1160
1030
26
62
-78
985
910
20
56
24
940
890
15
56
170
1230(a)
21
620
250
47
540
580
195
47
650
450
180
39
760
185
115
46
815
55
39
870
105
62
80
37
24
21
855
490
50
540
745
405
50
650
710
420
35
440(b)
370(b)
760
505
420
42
815
130(b)
93(b)
870
285
475
125
72(b)
48(b)
Stress Rupture
Comments
Hard, cold rolled,

long dir.
Cold drawn, long

dir.
(a) Kt = Not stated
Not stated
8.44
1290-1350
(b) Solution Treated

(ST):1150C
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Alloy
Form
sheet
sheet
Inconel 718
sheet
bar
Inconel 718
bar
Temp.
TS
YS
El
R of A
Notch
TS
Stress Rupture
DEWSIM
Melting
Range
(C)
Comments
(C)
(MPa)
(MPa)
(%)
(%)
(GPa)
(MPa)
100h
1000h
(g/cm3)
-253
1740
1340
16
1550(c)
-196
1730
1310
21
1560
-78
1490
1190
17
1470
24
1330
1090
18
1330
-253
1770
1370
16
1500(c)
+720C/8hr/FC to
-196
1700
1300
21
1500
620C/10hr/AC
-78
1480
1210
12
1450
24
1320
1100
18
1300
21
1280
1050
22
540
1140
945
26
650
1030
870
15
760
675
625
-269
1810
1410
21
20
Longitudinal dir:
-196
1650
1340
21
20
Aged:980C/45
min/AC
24
1410
1170
15
18
+720C/8hr/FC to
620C/10hr/AC
21
1430
1190
21
540
1280
1060
18
951(d)
595
860(d)
760(d)
650
1230
1020
19
690(d)
585(d)
760
950
740
25
870
340
330
88
Longitudinal dir.
Aged:955C/1hr/AC
(c) Kt = 10
transverse dir:
Condition - as
above:
(c) Kt = 10
(d) 730C/2hr.
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Alloy
Form
bar
Inconel X750
Temp.
TS
YS
El
R of A
Notch
TS
Stress Rupture
DEWSIM
Melting
Range
(C)
393-1425
(C)
(MPa)
(MPa)
(%)
(%)
(GPa)
(MPa)
100h
1000h
(g/cm3)
-257
1720
1080
33
46
8.25
-253
1700
1090
33
42
-196
1570
1050
32
45
24
1340
985
25
49
21
1120
635
24
540
965
580
22
827(e)
650
825
565
Longitudinal dir.
Annealed Aged:
700C/20hr/AC
(e) 1150C +
840C/24hr/? +
705C/20hr/?
bar
Rene 41
bar
760
485
455
870
235
165
47
83(e)
45(e)
925
58(e)
21(e)
21
1420
1060
14
540
1400
1010
14
650
1340
1000
14
760
1100
940
11
870
620
550
19
Comments
8.25
1232-1371
Not stated
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Alloy
Waspalloy
MAR-M-246
Form
bar
DS
DEWSIM
Melting
Range
1000h
(g/cm3)
(C)
8.20
1339-1355
35
131
183
Transverse
760
103
Longitudinal
760
149
Transverse
Temp.
TS
YS
El
R of A
Notch
TS
(C)
(MPa)
(MPa)
(%)
(%)
(GPa)
(MPa)
100h
21
1280
795
25
540
1170
725
23
650
1120
690
34
760
795
675
28
870
525
515
21
21
Stress Rupture
Comments
Not stated
Longitudinal
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48.2.3.4
Design
It is widely believed that aeroengine requirements have exceeded the capability of conventional
superalloys and little can be gained by further alloy development alone. That said, there are
innovative component designsin service which cope with over temperature of gasesimpinging on
superalloy blades and discs by incorporation of cooling channel systems. Blades are by their nature
very complex components, as shown in Figure 48.2.2, and there is a possibility of further
improvementswithdesign,Ref.[486].
Figure48.22Superalloys:Cooledturbineblade
48.2.4
Spacecraft engine applications
48.2.4.1
Operational conditions
The operating conditions for some turbines in advanced rocket engines are, in some respects, more
severethantheirairbreathingaeroenginecounterparts.
Table48.2.4comparestheoperatingconditionsofrocketengineandaircraftengineturbines,Ref.[48
8].
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Table48.24Superalloys:Comparisonofrocketengineandaircraftengine
turbineoperation
Servicecondition
Rocketengine
Aircraftengine
Fuel
Oxidiser
Pressure (MPa)
Speed (rpm)
Tip speed (m/s)
Horsepower/blade
Inlet temperature (C)
Heat transfer coeff.
(kW/m2/C)
Thermal transients (C/sec)
Starts
Life (hours)
Hydrogen/Methane
Oxygen
38
36000 to110000
564
630
880 to 1 215
Petroleum distillate
Air
2.8
15000
564
200 to 500
1435
306.6
2.84
17770
55 to 700
7.5 to 100
55
2400
8000
Key:
:SpaceShuttlemainengine(SSME).Highpressureturbopumpturbine
Mostnoticeablearethedifferencescausedbythecombustionofhighpressurehydrogenfuelbetween:
heat transfer coefficients, and
thermal transients.
48.2.4.2
Requirements
For rocket engine turbines, Figure 48.2.3 compares the Space Shuttle and Aero turbine engine
operatingregimes,Ref.[488].
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Figure48.23OperatingregimesforSpaceShuttleandaeroengineturbines
Thecombinationoffatiguebothatlowandhighcycleandhydrogenenvironmenthavemeantthatthe
designaimof7.5hr(55launches)wasnotbeenachievedwithconventionalsuperalloys.
48.2.4.3
Material development
Table48.2.5liststhematerialsystemsunderevaluationforrocketengineapplication,Ref.[488].
Table48.25Superalloys:Potentialbladematerialsunderevaluationforrocket
engineturbinecomponents
Typeofmaterial
Notes
Directionally solidified alloys (DS)

Single crystal superalloys (SC)
Rapid solidification (RS)
Fibre reinforced superalloys
(TFRS)
Monolithic ceramics
MAR-M246 + Hf eutectic alloys

[See: Table 48.2.6]
[See: 48.6]
[See: Chapter 43]
Of these materials Single crystal superalloys (SC) and certain alloys within that group, as shown in
Table48.2.6,areconsideredtohavepotentialforturbinepropulsionsystemsinSpaceShuttle,Ref.[48
8].
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Table48.26Singlecrystalsuperalloys:Potentialuseinrocketengineturbines
Alloy
AF56
N5
PWA 1480
RR 2000
N4
CMSX-4C
SC180
SRR 99
MAR-M246
CMSX 2 0
CMSX 2 CM
Ranking
Best
Worst
Key:
Rankedonhydrogenstrengthratioroomtemperature
notchtensioninhighpressurehydrogen.
48.3 New alloys

48.3.1
Developments
48.3.1.1
Combined alloying and processing
Thedevelopmentswithsuperalloyshaveconcentratedonenhancingpropertiesbyacombinationof
alloymodificationandspecialistprocessingtechniques,suchas:
Directional solidification (DS)
Single crystal (SC)
Powder metallurgy (PM), e.g. directional recrystallisation of extruded powder, Hot isostatic pressing
(HIP)
Oxide dispersion strengthened (ODS)
48.3.1.2
Characteristics
Theprocessingofthefirstthreegroupsleadstomaterialswithdirectionalpropertiesusefulinturbine
blades.TheDSgroupareknownasInsituorNaturalcomposites,wherethestrengtheningphaseis
usuallyinchemicalequilibriumwiththematrix.
Oxide dispersion strengthened (ODS) alloys are not considered to be composites, as the dispersions
areextremelyfine(submicron)andinteractwiththehostalloyatamicroscopiclevelinthesameway
astheprecipitatesformedbyalloying.
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48.3.2
Directional solidification (DS)
48.3.2.1
Composition
InDSalloys,thecompositionisadjustedtoproduceaeutecticuponsolidification.
Table48.3.1listssomeoftheeutecticsystemsunderevaluation,Ref.[4810],[4811].
Table48.31Reinforcingphasesindirectionallysolidified(DS)eutectic
superalloys
Composition
Typeofreinforcement
Co-TaC
Ni-TaC
Ni3Al-Ni3Nb
/
Fibrous. 5 to 12 vol.%, typ.

Fibrous. 5 to 12 vol.%, typ.
Lamella. 30 to 40 vol.%, typ.
-
Key:
:Typicalcontents.
48.3.2.2
Application
The fibrous types of DS alloy are of interest for turbine blade applications, where the fibres can be
alignedalongtheaxisoftheblade.Table48.3.2listssomeDSalloys,Ref.[4813].
Table48.32Directionallysolidified(DS)superalloys
Alloy
Composition(BalanceNickel)
MAR-M
200+Hf
2.2Ti - 4.9Al - 9.5Co - 1Nb - 12W - 1.7Hf - 9.5Cr - 0.14C - 0.015B
Rene 80 H
441
MAR-M 247
4.7Ti - 3.1Al - 9.3Co - 4Mo - 3.8W - 0.72Hf - 13.9Cr - 0.15C 0.015B

5.9Al - 11.7Co - 1.1Mo - 7.1Ta - 5.5W - 1.4Hf - 6.6Cr - 3.1Re 0.06C - 0.02B
10Co - 8.4Cr - 0.6Mo - 10W - 3.3Ta - 5.5Al - 1Ti - 1.4Hf - 0.15C 0.015B - 0.05Zr
48.3.3
Single crystal (SC)
ThesetypesofmaterialsofferbettercreepandfatiguelifethantheDSfamilyandareofinterestfor
turbine blade applications. Their properties are highly anisotropic and are dependent on the
crystallographicorientation.
Table48.3.3listssomeoftheSingleCrystal(SC)alloys.
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Table48.33Singlecrystal(SC)superalloys
Alloy
Composition
NASAIR 100
"Alloy 3''
CMSX-3
PWA 1480
SRR-99
AF 56
RR 2000
N4
CMSX-4C
CMSX 2 0
CMSX 2 CM
BalNi-0Cr-1Mo-10.5W-3.3Ta-5.8Al-1Ti
BalNi-5.1Co-8.7Cr-8Mo-10W-3.2Ta-5.4Al-1.1Ti-0.6Hf
BalNi-4Co-7.5Cr-.5Mo-7.5W-6Ta-5.5Al-.0Ti-.1Hf
BalNi-5Co-10Cr-4W-12Ta-5Al-1.5Ti
BalNi-5Co-8.5Cr-9.5W-2.8Ta-5.5Al-2.2Ti
Other SC alloys investigated for use in N5 Space

Shuttle Main Engine (SSME) Turbine
48.3.4
Powder metallurgy (PM)
Production of superalloy materials by powder techniques became of interest when deficiencies in

conventional processing methods were observed for highly alloyed variants. Compared with
conventionallyproducedsuperalloys,PMsuperalloysarerecognisedasproviding,Ref.[4848]:
improvedstrength,
improvedcreepresistance,
improvedcreepfatigue,
betterlowcyclefatigueproperties.
Thesecharacteristicshavebeenachievedbytwomainprocessrelateddevelopments,Ref.[4848]:
gatorising (Pratt and Whitney) or isothermal forging: to reduce the fracture initiation and
growth of those defects present. this process improves LCF properties compared with as
HIPpedcomponents.Wherecreepstrengthisthesoledesigncriterion,asHIPpedcomponents
areused,butmostengineapplicationsuseisothermalforging.
finerpowder(<106m,often44mmax.):toreducethesizeofnonmetallicdefects.
heattreatment:supersolvustoincreasedgrainsizeanddamagetolerance.ForNibasedalloys,
producingagammaprimephase(upto64%,dependingontheparticularalloycomposition).
PMsuperalloydevelopmentwasaccompaniedbysometechnicalproblems,assummarisedinTable
48.3.4,Ref.[484],[485],[488].
Thesehavelargelybeenovercomeby,Ref.[4848]:
processcontrol:whenstrictlycontrolled,thiscansuccessfullylimitnonmetallicdefectsduring
processingandafteratomisation.
contamination:significantlyreducedbyuseofcleanroomenvironments,oftenwithvacuumor
inertgasscreeningandloading.
fracture mechanics (defect size and crack growth rate): a major design criterion for PM
application.Definingandlimitingdefects(inherentinPMproducts)isessential.
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Table48.34Powdermetallurgyofsuperalloys
Process
Problem
Powder
production
High oxygen levels
Powder forging
Extruded
powder billet
Limited deformation &

recrystallisation
Hot isostatic
pressing (HIP)
Key:
Comments
Process in vacuum & inert

gas. Acceptable levels now
100 ppm.
Improved mechanical
properties.
Fine grain size &
superplasticity.
Alloy modified to fine tune C
content and carbide
stabilisers (Nb, Ta, Hf) for
HIP alloys.
Prior particle boundaries

not eliminated
Exogenous defects
Porosity in SC alloys act as
initiators for fatigue cracks.
Improved if HIPped
-
Potentialcostreductionof35to40%forturbineblades.
Asaresult,afamilyofpowdermetallurgy(PM)superalloysarecommerciallyavailable.Someofthese
arelistedinTable48.3.5,Ref.[484],[4848].
Table48.35Powdermetallurgynickelbasedsuperalloys:Composition
Alloy
AF115
AF2-1DA
Astroloy
IN100
MERL76
N 18
PA101
Rene 88T
Rene 95
Key:
Composition
BalNi-10.5Cr-15Co-2.8Mo-5.9W-1.8Nb-3.8Al-3.9Ti-0.05Zr-0.8Hf0.02B-0.05C
BalNi-12Cr-10Co-3Mo-6W-1.5Ta-4.6Al-3Ti-0.35C
BalNi-15Cr-17Co-5Mo-4Al-3.5Ti-0.25B-0.03C (1)
BalNi-12.4Cr-18.4Co-3.2Mo-5Al-4.3Ti-.8V-0.06Zr-0.02B-0.07C
BalNi-12.4Cr-18.5Co-3.2Mo-1.4Nb-5Al-4.3Ti-0.06Zr-0.4Hf-0.02B0.025C (2)
BalNi-11.5Cr-15.7Co-6.5Mo-4.35Ti-4.35Al-0.02B-0.03Zr-0.02C-0.5Hf
BalNi-12.5Cr-9Co-2Mo-4W-4Ta-3.4Al-4.1Ti-.11Zr-1Hf-0.015B-0.016C
BalNi-16Cr-13Co-4.0Mo-4.0W-3.7Ti-2.0Al-0.015B-0.03Zr-0.03C-0.7Nb
BalNi-13Cr-8Co-3.5Mo-3.6W-3.5Nb-3.5Al-2.5Ti-0.05Zr-0.01B-0.06C
(1)SimilartoUDIMET700,APK1,MTS1024.
(2Powdermetallurgy(PM)modificationofIN100atomisedfordirectHot
IsostaticPressed(HIP)components.
PM processing techniques are also appropriate to the ODS class of superalloys, i.e. materials
strengthenedbyoxidedispersionsorbyothersimilarlyhardparticles.
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48.3.5
Oxide dispersion strengthened (ODS) alloys
Table48.3.6listssomecompositionsofcommercialODSsuperalloys.Yttria(Y2O3)isastableoxideat
hightemperatures.Additionsaremadeduringpowderproduction,Ref.[4813],[4846],[4847].
The resultant materials offer significant mechanical properties up to approximately 0.9 of their
meltingtemperature,Ref.[4813].
Table48.36Oxidedispersionstrengthened(ODS)superalloys:Composition
Alloy
Composition
MA 753
MA 754
MA 758
MA 760
MA 956
BalNi-20Cr-1.5Al-2.5Ti-0.05C-0.007B-0.07Zr-1.3Y2O3
BalNi-1Fe-20Cr-0.3Al-0.5Ti-0.05C-0.6 Y203
BalNi-30Cr-0.3Al-0.5W-0.3Al-0.05C-0.37O (total) + Y2O3
BalNi-19.5Cr-6Al-3.4W-1.2Fe-0.6C-0.3N-0.6O (total) + Y2O3
BalFe-20Cr-4.5Al-0.5Ti-0.05C-0.5Y2O3
BalNi-15Cr-4.5Al-2.5Ti-0.05C-4W-2Mo-2Ta-0.01B-0.15Zr1.1Y2O3
BalNi-9.5Cr-8.5Al-0.05C-6.6W-3.4Mo-0.01B-0.15Zr-1.1Y2O3
BalNi-9.5Cr-7Al-0.05C-8W-2Mo-1Ta-0.15B-1.1Y2O3
BalNi-20Cr-3.0Fe-0.5Ti-0.3Al-0.6Y2O3
MA 6000
Alloy 51
Alloy 69
PM 1000
Certainthermomechanicalandrecrystallisationproceduresenablefurtherpropertyimprovementsin
ODSalloysathightemperatures,Ref.[4813],[4814].
Figure 48.3.1 compares tensile properties of some ODS alloys and two cast alloys at elevated
temperatures,Ref.[4813].
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0.2% Offset.
MAR-M Martin Marietta Corp.
Figure48.31ODSsuperalloys:Comparisonofyieldstrengthwithcasting
superalloys
AcomparisonbetweenthetensileelongationforsomeODSalloysandcastalloysisshowninFigure
48.3.2,Ref.[4813].
AlthoughthemajorityofefforthasbeenplacedonY2O3ODSmaterials,thisstrengtheningmechanism
isappropriateforotherdispersoidshavinghightemperaturestability,e.g.nitrides,Ref.[485].
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MAR-M Martin Marietta Corp.
Figure48.32ODSsuperalloys:Comparisonoftensileelongationwithcasting
superalloys
48.4 Discontinuously reinforced composites

Therearenodiscontinuouslyreinforcedcompositeswithdeliberateadditionsofeither:
Particulates,or
Whiskers.
Thereinforcingmediacannotsurviveprocessingwithmoltensuperalloys,giventheirmeltingranges.
The nearest materials are the directionally solidified (DS) and oxide dispersion strengthened (ODS)
variants,[See:48.3].
[See:Table48.5.1forexamplesofdiscontinuousreinforcementsexaminedforsuperalloys]
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48.5 Continuously reinforced composites

48.5.1
48.5.1.1
General
Continuous reinforcing fibres and filaments which survive processing in molten superalloys are
extremelylimited.
48.5.1.2
Reinforcements
Interesthasfocusedoncombiningrefractorymetalreinforcementphaseswithsuperalloystoincrease
strengthathightemperatures.
Table48.5.1 lists the reinforcement phases considered forsuperalloysand notes on their success. Of
thoselisted,Tungstenandthoriatedtungsten(ThO2)Wwireshavereceivedmostattention.
The typical range of diameters for continuous reinforcements is 100 to 500m. They are
monofilamentsbutarealsodescribedaswiresinsomepublications,fibresorfilamentsinothers.
Table48.51Superalloycomposites:Reinforcementphases
Type
Particulate
Whisker
Continuous
wires
Key:
Material
Comments
HfO
ZrO
SiC
Si3N4
Sapphire
Alumina
Mo
Nb
(ThO2)W
W-Hf-C
W-Hf-ReC
Severe degradation during fabrication or

subsequent thermal soak.
[See: 48.4]
Attacked by Ni during fabrication.
Less affected by matrix.
Newer materials. Higher strengths.
Typicaldiameterrange:100mto500m.
48.5.1.3
Matrix alloys
Table 48.5.2 summarises a number of superalloys that have been considered as the matrix phase
primarilywithtungstenbasedwires.
[Seealso:48.6forTFRSTungstenfibrereinforcedsuperalloys]
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Table48.52Superalloys:Typicalmechanicalpropertiesofmatrixmaterialsfor
composites
Alloyclassification
Units
IN102
MAR-M 322
(c)
MAR-M 302
(c)
Discaloy (d)
FeCrAlY
Density
Thermal
Conductivit
y
Thermal
Expansion
g/cm3
8.22
8.19
8.19
8.55
8.91
9.21
7.95
Wm/
K
9.7
11.2
11.2
10-6
/K
13.8
12.7
13.0
14.0
RT
760
870
RT
760
870
RT
760
358-380
262
179
787
435
255
195
-
621-740
504
262
1235
758
400
-
1056
628
1276
676
200
155
504
386
200
959
441
214
-
RT
760
870
43
37
50
Sheet
Wrough
t
24
20
34
Bar
Wrough
t
22
8
Sheet
Wrough
t
47
110
110
Bar
Wrough
t
690
386
310
932
704
448
227
160
150
nom.
2
8
11
-
730
428
173
1000
483
195
-
870
628
379
345
828
628
552
227
160
150
nom.
3.2
6.5
12
-
Cast
Cast
40
32
33
Wrough
t
0.2% Proof
Stress
MPa
Tensile
Strength
MPa
Young's
Modulus
GPa
Elongation
(C)
Material
Form
Key:
(b)
Property
Inconel 718 (b)
Ironbase
Nimonic 80A
(b)
Cobaltbase
Hastelloy X (a)
Nickelbase
Temp
(a)CabotCorp.(b)TheInternationalNickelCo.Inc.;(c)MartinMariettaCorp.(d)
WestinghouseElectricCorp.
:At20C;:Between20Cand95C;:FeCrAlYalloysareonlyconsideredassuperalloyswith
OxideDispersionStrengthening.
48.6 Tungsten fibre reinforced superalloy (TFRS)

composites
48.6.1
Development
Studiesoftungstenbasedreinforcementsinvarioussuperalloymatriceshaveconsidered:
Refractorywiresandtheirfabrication
Optimisationofthematrixalloycomposition
Fabricationprocesses
Fibrematrixinteraction
Diffusionbarriertechnology
Mechanicalpropertydetermination
Owing to the large number of materialcombinations, data tends to be incomplete onany particular
compositesystem.
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48.6.2
Matrix alloys
48.6.2.1
General
Of the three prime superalloy classes, ironbased superalloys are more compatible with tungsten
based reinforcements, as shown in Table 48.6.1, of which FeCrAlY offers considerable promise, Ref.
[4815].
Table48.61Tungstenfibrereinforcedcomposites:Reinforcementandsuperalloy
matrix
Recrystallisation temperature of W reduced by: Ni, Al & Mn.
Reinforcement
Reaction of W with matrix.
Formation of intermetallic and/or carbide compounds in
Matrix
proximity of fibre, reducing composite integrity.
Lower solubility of W in Fe, compared with Ni.
Iron-based
Less active in promoting W recrystallisation.
superalloys
Fe-W intermetallics are more stable at high temperatures
than W-Ni compounds.
High oxidation resistance
FeCrAlY
High melting point
Compatible with W
48.6.2.2
Diffusion Barrier Coatings
For other TFRS systems, effort has concentrated on developing diffusion barrier coatings to deter
matrixfibreinteraction,Ref.[4815].Thevarioustypesofcoating,orcombinations,beingconsidered
are:
Hafnium compounds: HfN, HfO.
Titanium compounds: TiC, TiN.
Zirconium compounds: ZrC, ZrO2.
Thisisarecognisedmethodofreducinginterdiffusion,butanoptimisedsystemshouldbeusedfor
eachspecificmatrix.
48.6.3
48.6.3.1
General
Dataonmechanicalpropertiesarelargelydrawnfromresearchpublicationsinwhichthenumberof
materialcombinationsarediverse.Datasetstendtobeincompleteonanyparticularmatrixandfibre
combination.
48.6.3.2
Tensile
ThepropertiesshowninTable48.6.2,Table48.6.3andTable48.6.4areanindicationofwhatcanbe
achievedfromthevariousmaterialsystems,Ref.[4815].
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Table48.62Tungstenfibrereinforced,nickelbasedsuperalloys:Tensilepropertiesofdevelopmentcomposites
Filament
Matrix
Ni
W-2%Th02
MAR M 200
MAR M 200
only
HSTW wire
only
Key:
Fibre vol
(%)
40-44
''
''
''
''
''
50-55
''
''
''
''
''
''
''
''
-
Diffusion
barrier
coating
TiC
TiC
TiN
TiN
-
CompositesHIPped1120C,138MPafor2hrs.
Fibre
angle
()
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
10
45
90
0
10
45
90
-
Test
temp
(C)
650
930
650
930
650
930
870
980
980
980
980
1090
1090
1090
1090
870
980
1090
870
980
1090
0.2% YS
(MPa)
UTS
(MPa)
E
(GPa)
Elong.
(%)
R of A
(%)
193
70
121
60
-
270
127
232
117
201
99
1157
839
638
440
449
595
430
147
119
840
523
213
1371
1212
1109
1.67
8.6
2.6
>12.4
9.0
24.5
24.8
29.7
29.4
-
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Table48.63Tungstenfibrereinforced,cobaltbasedsuperalloys:Tensilepropertiesofdevelopmentcomposites
Filament
W-2%Th02
W-2%Th02 only
Matrix
MAR M 332C
''
MAR M 322D
''
''
''
MAR M 322E
''
''
MAR M 332C
only
MAR M 322E
only
-
Fibre vol
(%)
33
35
43
44
40
44
40
38
40
-
Diffusion
barrier coating
-
Fibre
angle ()
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
-
Test temp
(C)
RT
900
980
1093
1150
1315
980
1093
1150
RT
1093
RT
900
980
RT
650
870
1093
0.2% YS
(MPa)
537
488
392
96
537
419
392
710
214
303
276
110
-
UTS
(MPa)
345
590
545
520
420
103
545
434
448
214
448
386
117
2170
1791
1780
1309
E
Elong.
(GPa)
(%)
0.2
4.9
4.7
3.2
4.0
0.5
3.6
9.0
18
-
R of A
(%)
6
30
28
25
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Table48.64Tungstenfibrereinforced,ironbasedsuperalloys:Tensilepropertiesofdevelopmentcomposites
Filament
Matrix
W-1%Th02
AISI 1095
W-2%Th02
304 SS
W-2%Th02
Kovar
W-1%Th02
FeCrAlY
Fibre vol
(%)
20
20
20
20
20
25
25
25
25
35
35
35
35
35
35
25
25
35
35
35
35
35
35
Diffusion
barrier coating
-
Fibre angle
()
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
15
45
90
15
45
Test temp
(C)
RT
RT
RT
380
600
700
980
RT
200
360
500
RT
200
360
500
700
980
RT
600
RT
648
648
648
760
760
0.2% YS
(MPa)
-
UTS
(MPa)
400
938
650
566
470
470
300
540
700
625
560
660
840
710
760
600
470
620
500
620
746
551
185
552
169
E
Elong.
(GPa)
(%)
297
293
179
19
29
3.4
13
24
R of A
(%)
-
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Filament
Matrix
W-1%Th02
FeCrAlY
W-Hf-C
FeCrAlY
Key:
Fibre vol
(%)
35
35
35
35
30
30
50
<38
42
44
Diffusion
barrier coating
-
Fibre angle
()
90
90
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Test temp
(C)
760
RT
648
648
982
1093
982
982
1093
1093
0.2% YS
(MPa)
615
665
428
540
UTS
(MPa)
111
654
737
768
460
381
684
724
>548
607
E
Elong.
(GPa)
(%)
6.5
179
3
2.9
0.6
0.3
152
3.2
151
2.4
265
>1.6
3
R of A
(%)
-
After heat treating

Composites HIPped 1050 to 1200C & 150 to 250 MPa
Composites hot pressed
As fabricated, after creep testing at: 1037C for 1077 hrs. 1093C for 99 hrs.
Composites hot pressed
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48.6.3.3
Long-term elevated temperature use
WithregardtotheintendeduseofTFRSatelevatedservicetemperatures,limiteddataareavailable
on:
fatigue,
creep,
impact,and
oxidationresistance.
Generally the data have been produced for comparative purposes during studies on fibrematrix
interactionsorprocessingtechnology.Thereforeitisspecifictothematerialandtestconditions.
48.6.3.4
Thermal cycling
Table 48.6.5 provides an indication of thermal cycling resistance for a tungstenreinforced FeCrAlY
composite, Ref. [4816]. The loss of RT tensile strength was attributed to matrix damage due to
different fibre and matrix thermal expansion characteristics and improved fibrematrix bonding
permittingcrackpropagationacrossthebondintothefibres.Nodamagetothefibreswasnoted.
Table48.65Tungstenfibrereinforcedsuperalloy:Roomtemperaturetensile
strengthofthermallycycledcomposite
Maximumcyclictemperature
RTtensilestrength
(C)
(MPa)
Control
850
1000
1090
772
785
655
489
Key:
Replicates
3
3
2
2
Material4ply218CSTungstenfibreinFe22Cr5.5Almatrix.Unidirectional.37%fibre
volume.
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48.6.4
Characteristics
Table48.66providessomegeneralcommentsonTFRSsystems,theiradvantages,andareasrequiring
furtherevaluation,Ref.[4815].
Table48.66Summaryoftungstenfibrereinforcedsuperalloy(TFRS)systems
Advantages
Disadvantages
Futuredevelopment
Perceived operating
temperature 1100C +
RT Tensile properties less

than matrix alone.
W ductile-to-brittle
transition temperature 150
to 370C; flaw sensitivity
in brittle state.
At elevated
temperatures TFRS
have superior
properties:
1.7x at 1090C
WTh02/Ni
3.2x at 980C
WTh02/Co
Development centred on
air-breathing aero engine
requirements.
Effect of rocket
engine environment
with H-based fuels
required.
Improved stress
rupture characteristics.
Some systems susceptible

to thermal fatigue.
FeCrAlY superior to other
systems.
FeCrAlY good
corrosion/oxidation
resistance.
High density.
Considerable
experience in applying
conventional
superalloys to high
temperature
environments.
Offer ~100C improvement

over the conventional and
new superalloys.
Full evaluation
programme for most
appropriate
combination.
Need to establish
long-term
environmental
stability.
48.7 Effect of hydrogen

48.7.1
Degradation mechanisms
Hydrogenisknowntobedetrimentaltotheperformanceofawiderangeofmaterialsbychanging:
ductility(embrittlement)
crackbehaviour
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48.7.2
Hydrogen embrittlement (HE)
Theeffectsofhydrogenembrittlement(HE),dependupon,Ref.[4817]:
magnitudeandextentofhydrogeninteractionwiththematerial,
easeofhydrogentransportfromtheenvironmenttothematerial.
Table48.7.1summarisesseveralphenomenathathavebeendetermined,Ref.[4817].
Theeffectofhydrogenonsuperalloyscanbesummarisedas:
Effectscanbeextensive.
Influencesdeformationbehaviourbyinteractionwithdislocations.
Reducesductilitybydecreasingflowstressandenhancingplanarslip.
Affectslatticebondinteractionsateithergrainboundariesorthroughgrains.
Leadstobrittlehydrideformation,causinglatticeexpansion,stableatandbelowRT
Effectsareactivetotemperatureofapproximately600C
Table48.71Establishedmechanismsofhydrogendegradationinmaterials
Phenomenon
Characteristics
Occurs at high temperature.

Formation of a reaction product between hydrogen &
alloying element, e.g. H2 + C methane, in steels.
Hydrogen attack Both reactants diffuse to an internal interface to combine
& form a cavity.
Continued reaction produces high pressure gas pockets
inside material.
Occurs at RT, or below, plus high temperatures.
Diffusion of protonic hydrogen through material to
interface.
Internal hydrogen
Depends on a supersaturation level.
pressure
Reacts to form high pressure molecular H2 gas pockets
inside material.
Molecular hydrogen is largely immobile.
Wide temperature range.
Dislocation
Does not require super saturation of protonic H.
interaction
Strongly influences plastic behaviour.
Protonic hydrogen levels above saturation.
Reacts to form a brittle metal hydride.
Hydride formation
Hydrides precipitate at selected planes and local regions
of high strain.
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48.7.3
Hydrogen environment embrittlement (HEE)
Inspacepropulsionunits,wherehydrogen(asafuelorcoolant)isindirectcontactwiththematerials,
additionalfactorshavebeenidentified.ThesearedescribedasHydrogenEnvironmentEmbrittlement
(HEE)andoccurwithoutaholdtime;i.e.withoutallowinghydrogenchargingofthematerial,and
areinadditiontothoseeffectsdenotedasHE.
CharacteristiceffectsofHEEareshowninTable48.7.2,Ref.[4818].
For materials under prolonged high temperatures, factors associated with HEE and HE become
important,andcanactinsynergy.
Table48.72Characteristicsofhydrogenenvironmentembrittlement(HEE)
Condition
Characteristics
Occurs without H charging of material.

Environment Degradation of properties compared with
air or inert environment, i.e. He.
Effects thin surface layer which then cracks
Material
when deformed (strain-to-crack initiation).
Relevant to all materials.
Lower tensile ductility.
Tensile plastic deformation causes surface
cracking.
Mechanical
Sub-critical crack growth.
properties
Faster crack growth rates, both under cyclic
and sustained loads.
Reduced notched tensile strength.
Occurs between cryogenic up to ~1144K,
Temperature typically.
Most severe at approx. RT.
Increases with increasing Hydrogen
Pressure and
pressure.
purity
Sensitive to gas purity.
Comments
Elastic
properties and
tensile yield
strength
largely
unchanged
Pure hydrogen
most severe.
48.7.4
Material sensitivity
48.7.4.1
General
Table48.7.3summarisesthesensitivityofcertainalloyswithregardtotheirtensilepropertyretention
ratioinhydrogenandaninertatmosphere,i.e.helium,Ref.[4818].
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Table48.73Sensitivityofsuperalloystohydrogen
AlloySpec.
Waspalloy
IN 625
IN 903
A 286
Haynes 188
Rene 41
Hastalloy X
MAR M 246
MAR M 246
MAR M 246
PWA 1480
CM-SX2 Std
CM-SX2-CM
CM-SX4-C
RR2000
IN 713 LC
IN 718
IN 718
AF 56
N-5
N4
SC180
SR99
Rene N4
Key:
Hydrogen
Pressure
(MPa)
3.45
48.3
48.3
34.5
48.3
34.5
48.3
34.5
34.5
41.4
3.45
3.45
48.3
34.5
51.3
34.5
42.7
48.3
34.5
34.5
48.3
34.5
34.0
34.5
34.5
34.0
34.5
34.5
34.0
34.5
34.0
34.5
34.0
48.3
48.3
34.5
34.5
34.5
34.5
34.5
34.5
34.5
34.5
34.5
34.0
34.0
34.0
34.0
34.0
34.5
34.5
RatioH2:He
Notched
UTS
0.64(a)
0.77(b)
0.98(c)
0.78(b)
1.01(c)
0.98(c)
1.00(c)
0.88(c)
0.98(c)
0.87(c)
0.88(c)
0.33(b)
0.24(b)
0.60(b)
0.18
0.84(b)
0.49(c)
0.49
0.29(b)
0.29(b)
0.17
0.35(c)
0.36
0.54(b)
0.47
0.83(b)
0.54
0.59
0.86
0.7
0.57
0.86
0.71
0.76
0.77
0.84
0.84
0.46
0.30
0.25
0.44(b)
0.46(c)
RatioH2:HeUnnotched
RofA
0.45
0.74
0.48
0.37
0.98
1.15
0.93
0.99
0.60
0.17
1.00
0.55
0.61
0.80
0.40
0.40
0.30
0.69
0.74
0.52
0.17
0.17
0.81
0.38
0.76
0.31
0.37
0.67
0.62
0.54
0.78
0.34
0.39
0.62
0.49
0.48
Comments
Wrought
Wrought
Wrought
Wrought
Wrought
Wrought
Conventionally Cast
Directionally
Solidified
Single Crystal
Cast
Cast
Single Crystal
Cast
Single Crystal
Cast
Single Crystal
Cast
Single Crystal
Conventionally Cast
Cast
Wrought RB
F
P
RB
F
P
RB
F
P
Single Crystal
Single Crystal
Single Crystal
Single Crystal
Single Crystal
Cast
(a)Kt=8.4;(b)Kt=6.3;(c)Kt=8.0.;
SA2:NASAHeatTreatment;[ST:940C+A:718Cto621C];
STA2:NASAHeatTreatment;[ST:940C+A:816Cto649C];
R.B:Rolledbar;F:Forging;P:Plate;
STA1:NASAHeatTreatment;[ST:1052C+A:760Cto649C]usedforSpaceShuttleMainEngine.
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48.7.4.2
Directionally solidified (DS) alloys
Table 48.7.4 compares the effect of hydrogen on directionally solidified MARM246 (DS) with its
conventionallycast(CC)equivalent,forvarioustestandsurfaceconditions,Ref.[4818].
Table48.74EffectofhydrogenonMARM246superalloys
(C)
RatioH2:He
RatioH2:He
Temp
Unnotched
Unnotched
UTS
NotchedUTS
RofA
Comments
ConventionallyCast
RT
0.75
0.89
After 870C/8 hr at 34.5 MPa H2 or

He. Tested in air.
0.71
After 870C/8 hr at 34.5 MPa H2 or

He. Tested in air.
DirectionalSolidification
RT
0.97
-73
0.83 [0.68]
24
0.28 [0.37]
149
0.45 [0.71]
RT
RT
0.76
0.65
[0.47]
0.28
[0.29]
0
[0.17]
0.57
0.20
RT
0.86
0.62
Key:
After 538C/12hr at 34.5 MPa

H2 Tested in H2 (or He).
As ground 32 rms
32 rms + 871C/8h stress relief.
Oxidised stress relief + glass bead
hone.
Tested in 34.5 MPa H2.
ValuesinbracketsarefornoH2precharging,butsametestenvironment.
48.7.4.3
Single crystal (SC) alloys
Table 48.7.5 shows that the performance of single crystal (SC) alloys in hydrogen is influenced by
crystalorientation,Ref.[4819].
Table48.75EffectofcrystalanisotropyonRThydrogenperformanceofPWA
1480singlecrystalalloy
Crystalorientation
<001>
<013>
<012>
<123>
<223>
<110>
<111>
RatioH2:He
NotchedUTS
0.57
0.65
0.73
0.74
0.76
0.79
0.88
Hydrogenpressure34.5MPa.Kt=8.0
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48.7.4.4
DSE and ODS alloys
LimiteddataonDSE,ODSandFRSmaterialsaresummarisedinTable48.7.6,Ref.[4818].
Table48.76Effectofhydrogenondirectionallysolidifiedeutectic(DSE)and
oxidedispersionstrengthened(ODS)superalloys
AlloyComposition
or
Specification
RatioH2:He
RatioH2:He
NotchedUTS
UnnotchedRofA
DirectionallySolidifiedEutectic(DSE)Alloy
Ni-45.5W
0.63
Ni-19.7Nb-6Cr-2.5Al
0.60
0.42
0.08
Ni-21.75Nb-2.5Al
0.05
0.64
OxideDispersionStrengthened(ODS)Alloys
MA957: T
0.34
L
0.58
MA6000:
T
0.92
L
0.86
MA754: T
0.94
L
0.96
Key: T : Transverse. L: Longitudinal
0.13
0
0.5
4
0.27
0.19
Comments
RT in 34.5 MPa H2 or He.

Experience severe degradation.
Extreme levels of secondary
surface cracking plus fibre/matrix
interfaces.
RT in 34.5 MPa H2 or He.
Combined effects of ODS &
precipitation strengthening
reduce HEE susceptibility; but no
significant benefits over current
materials.
48.7.4.5
Composites
Ashortstudyofasuperalloycomposite,Ref.[4818],hasshownthat:
Notched tensile values are largely unaffected at medium H2 pressures and lower notch factors (less
severe).
Matrix shields fibres from H2 degradation.
Fibres act as 'barriers' to transverse, planar crack propagation in matrix.
48.7.5
Creep in hydrogen environments
48.7.5.1
General
To date, available data on creep performance in hydrogen are limited because the relatively short
design lives of current rocket engines largely avoid creep phenomena. Creep characteristics are of
importanceforlonglife,reusablevehicleconcepts.
Preliminarystudiesindicatethat:
Lifereductionsinhighpressurehydrogenaregenerallynotsevere.
Creepductilitycanbeslightlyaffected,butarewithinthescatterbandsforinertenvironment
testing.
Increasedcreepstrainrateresultsinareductioninthetimetorupture.
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48.7.5.2
Creep-rupture
Theeffectofhydrogenonthecreeprupture(LarsonMillertypecurve)behaviourofvariousalloysare
summarisedin,Ref.[4818]:
Figure 48.7.1 and Figure 48.7.2 shows the effect of heat treatment on Inconel 718. STA are
standardheattreatmentsforSpaceShuttleengineparts.
Figure48.7.3forInconel625.
Figure48.7.4forWaspalloy.
TheeffectsofprocessingonMARM246alloyoncreeprupturearesummarisedin,Ref.[4818]:
Figure48.7.5forconventionallycast.
Figure48.7.6fordirectionallysolidified.
Figure48.7.7forsinglecrystal.
Hydrogen pressure: 34.5 MPa.
Figure48.71EffectofhydrogenoncreepruptureofInconel718STA2
192
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Figure48.72EffectofhydrogenoncreepruptureofInconel718STA1
Figure48.73EffectofhydrogenoncreepruptureofInconel625
193
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20March2011
Figure48.74EffectofhydrogenoncreepruptureofWaspalloy
Figure48.75EffectofhydrogenoncreepruptureofMARM246conventionally
cast
194
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20March2011
Figure48.76EffectofhydrogenoncreepruptureofMARM246directionally
solidified
Figure48.77EffectofhydrogenoncreepruptureofMARM246singlecrystal
195
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48.7.6
Fatigue in hydrogen environments
48.7.6.1
Low cycle fatigue (LCF)
Ingeneral,alloysexhibitinglowsensitivitytohighpressurehydrogenintensiletestingshowsimilar
levelsofreductiontoLCFinHEE.
Figure48.7.8showsthemaximumlifereductionoccursat~RTforIN718,Ref.[4818].
Table48.7.7summarisesLCFstudiesonotheralloys,Ref.[4818].
Hydrogen pressure: 34.5 MPa. 2% strain rate.
Figure48.78Lowcyclefatigue(LCF)lifeofInconel718againsttemperature
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Table48.77Lowcyclefatigue(LCF)lifedegradationofsuperalloysinhydrogen
environments
Alloy
Condition
Inconel 718
STA2
Inconel 718
Inconel 625
Hastelloy X
Waspalloy
IN 100
Haynes 188
STA 1
-
A286
DSMAR M
200
DSMAR M
246
CCMAR 246
Testtemperature,(C)
25
677
-162
677
25
25
677
677
677
25
677
677
Strainrange,(%)
2
2
2
1
2
2
1.8
1
1.5
2
2
1
LCFlifeloss,(%)
67
20
-75
5
88
-100
50
69
33
0
0
-400
760
871
750
871(a)
2
2
0.5
0.5
8
-87
14
62
Key:
(a);loadcontrol;H2Pressure34.5(MPa).
STA1&2:NASAHeattreatmentsusedforSpaceShuttleMainEngineparts.
48.7.6.2
High cycle fatigue (HCF)
Todate,studiesonHCFhavebeeninconclusive.Indicationsarethat:
Crack propagation is affected if hydrogen penetrates to the crack tip.
High mean stress fatigueismoststronglyaffected.
48.7.7
Fracture characteristics
Hydrogenenvironmentinfluencesthefracturecharacteristics,including:
Threshold stress intensity.
Crack propagation rate.
Figure48.7.9showstheeffectofstressintensityoncrackgrowthratesofIN718invarioushydrogen
environments,Ref.[4818].
In Figure 48.7.10 the crack growth rates of IN718 are related to cycle rates in various hydrogen
environments,Ref.[4818].
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Conditions
Helium
Hydrogen
Pressure (MPa)
34.5
0.69
34.5
68.9
Temperature
RT
Figure48.79Superalloys:CrackgrowthrateofIN718undervariousstress
intensitiesandhydrogenenvironments
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Conditions
Stress Intensity
Hydrogen
Temperature
54.7 (MPa)
68.9 (MPa)
RT
Figure48.710Superalloys:CrackgrowthrateofIN718asafunctionofcyclic
ratesandhydrogenenvironments
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48.8 Effect of oxygen

48.8.1
Material selection factors
Factorsassociatedwithmaterialselectioninclude:
oxidationresistance,
effectofoxygendiffusionintothematerial,
ignitionandburnresistance.
[Seealso:Chapter85]
48.8.2
Oxidation
Theprimeconcernsofoxidationarethatit:
reducesthecomponentloadbearingcrosssectionalarea,and
introducessourcesofstressconcentrations,detrimentaltofatigueresistance.
Themechanismsinvolvedare:
surfacescaling
internaloxidation
oxidespalling
oxidevaporisation
Oxidationresistanceislargelydictatedby:
materialcomposition,and
the ability to form an adherent, stable, oxide layer throughout its range of operating
temperaturesandenvironments,e.g.oxidative,reducing.
48.8.3
48.8.3.1
Conventional alloys
TheoxidationresistanceisprovidedbytheCrandAlpresent,plusTaforNiandCobasedalloys,at
temperaturesupto~900C,bytheformationofadenseCr2O3layer.
At temperatures above 1000C, the oxide morphology changes to the more volatile CrO3 with an
accompanyinglossofprotection,andalsocausingpreferentialoxidationatcarbidelines.
For high temperatures, the formation of Al2O3 gives added resistance, but this has poor adherence
unlessY,HforZrispresentinthebasealloycomposition,Ref.[489].
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48.8.3.2
High temperature alloys
Forthosealloysparticularlydevelopedtoenhancemechanicalperformance(creepresistance)atvery
hightemperatures,i.e.to~1200C,thelevelsofCrandAlpresentincompositionsaregenerallytoo
low to provide sufficient oxidation resistance alone. Under these conditions the use of a protective
coatingisadvisable.
[See:48.9;Chapter74]
48.8.4
Ignition and burn
48.8.4.1
General
Undercertainconditionsofoxygentemperatureandpressure,mostmaterialsifimpactedorscuffed
can ignite and sustain burning. This characteristic is most important in applications involving
rotationalmachineryinwarmgaseousO2environments,oftenatveryhighO2pressures,e.g.oxygen
turbopumps.
48.8.4.2
Ignition hazards
Ignitionhazardscanbeclassifiedas,Ref.[4820]:
Mechanical rubbing (e.g. turbine tips, bearings), caused by:
Thermalexpansionandcreep
Enginestartupandshutdowntransients
Tribologyofdifferentmaterials
Debris impact of foreign materials
48.8.4.3
Material sensitivity
Nickel and copper offer the best impact and burn resistance, as shown in Table 48.8.1, which ranks
materials on their calculated Burn Factor. This ranking has been confirmed by experiment under
highpressureoxygen,Ref.[4820].
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Table48.81Ignitionandburncharacteristicsofmaterialsinoxygen
environments
Material
Ranking
Zirconium Copper
Nickel 200
Silicon Carbide
Monel 400
K Monel 500
Inconel 600
316 Stainless Steel
Invar 36
Hastelloy X
Best
Worst
Key: Calculated Burn Factor, BF:

where:
0
BF H f
heat of oxidation
thermal diffusivity
48.9 Coatings and protection systems

48.9.1
Requirements
Oftenhighmechanicalperformancecannotbeachievedathightemperatures,becausesuperalloysdo
not have sufficient levels of Al or Cr in their chemical compositions to form and maintain a stable
oxidescale,[See:48.8].
For applications such as firststage blades and vanes in gas turbine engines, a coating is normally
appliedtoimprovetheiroxidationandcorrosionresistance,Ref.[4824].
Theobjectiveofsuchcoatingsistoprovideabarrierbetweentheenvironmentandthecomponent,in
termsof:
longterm stability with respect to the oxidation and corrosion environment, but also against
interdiffusionwiththesubstratealloy.
resistancetothermalcyclingandthermalshock.
loadbearingcapability.
[Seealso:Chapter74]
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48.9.2
Types of coatings
Numerous types of coatings have been developed to combat aggressive environments. The work
continues as demands for improved engine efficiency through higher operating temperatures, and
higherthrustaremade.Ingeneralcoatingscanbedescribedaseither:
Metallic: alloys capable of forming and maintaining stable oxide scales (usually Al2O3) under
serviceconditions
Ceramics:oxidesormixturesofstableoxides.
Themethodsofapplyingcoatingsalsodescribespecificcoatingtypesandaregroupedaseither:
Diffusion,wherealloysurfacecompositionsareenrichedinAl,CrorSiorwherenativeoxides
aremanipulatedthroughthermodynamicprinciplestoformmorestabletypes;[See:48.10].
Overlay, where either a metallic or ceramic layer is deposited onto the component surfaces,
[See:48.11].
In regions where components experience high heat fluxes or intense gas wash, the application of a
ceramiclayer(havinglowthermalconductivityandhighmeltingpoint)canpreventoverheatingand
erosion.ThesearecalledThermalbarriercoatings(TBCs),andareessentiallythickerceramicoverlay
coatings,[See:48.12].
48.9.3
Coating systems
Variouscoatingsystemshavebeendevelopedtocombatoxidationandcorrosionorhighheatfluxes.
Manyarecommercialproductsandhavedemonstratedtheirperformanceinaircraftengines.
48.9.4
Coated components
Acoatedcomponentbecomesacomplexmaterialsystem:
Coating+Interface+Substrate
It requires knowledge of mechanical performance and chemical effects (such as diffusion kinetics)
whenexposedtothermalcyclingforextendedperiods.
If a component is to be coated, the design has to fully consider the effect the coating has on the
substratematerialproperties;inboththelongandshortterm,[See:48.13].
48.9.5
Hydrogen fuel
Forspaceenginesusinghydrogenfuel,itisgenerallyperceivedthatcoatingswhichpreventhydrogen
transport into the material are of benefit in reducing (or avoiding) the effects of hydrogen
embrittlement.Suchcoatingsareeither:
Barrier,topreventhydrogentransport,or
Catalytic,todiscouragedissociationandencourageassociation.
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However,owingtothekineticsofhydrogendiffusion,bothtypesofcoatingsneedtobecontinuousat
all times. With one imperfection, hydrogen can enter the material substrate and then is prevented
fromdiffusingoutbyregionsofintactcoating.Consequentlymoredamagecanresultbytheuseofa
coating,especiallyascoatingintegrityisdifficulttoinspect,Ref.[4817].
48.10 Diffusion coatings

48.10.1 Types of coatings
Somedifferenttypesofdiffusioncoatingscanbeobtainedby:
Chromising
Aluminising
PlatinumAluminide
SelectiveOxidation
Silicide
ModifiedNativeOxides
Theirselectiondependson:
substratealloys,and
serviceconditions
Table48.10.1summarisesthevarioustypesofdiffusioncoatingsalongwiththeirusesandlimitations,
Ref. [4825], [4826], [4827]. All have been developed to enhance the oxidation and corrosion
resistanceofsuperalloys(notablyNibased)forgasturbineapplications.
CommerciallyavailabletypesaregiveninTable48.10.2,Ref.[4825].
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Table48.101Diffusioncoatingsforsuperalloys:Varioustypesanduse
Coating
Chromising
Diffusion of Cr into substrate
forming chromium oxide on
exposure.
Application
Low alloy steels in
industrial & marine gas
turbines.
Selective oxidation
Controlled oxidation of
substrate to form more stable
oxides.
Limitations
Comments
Resistance to low
temperature sulphidation
corrosion.
Temperature range 973 to
1023K.
Chromia scales worse than

alumina scales at >1123K in high
velocity gas-streams.
Owing to volatility of
chromium oxide.
Inexpensive.
Easy to apply and strip
during overhaul.
Proprietary coating media
'Packs' available.
Ability to form & replenish
Al203 scale.
Used where metal

temperatures/environment not
severe.
Brittle.
In exacting conditions, coating
may crack due to rapid thermal
cycling & allow substrate
corrosion.
Poor thermal fatigue.
Extensively used
satisfying ~90% of
applications.
High DuctileBrittle
transition temperature.
Coating thickness 50m
typ.
As above.
Proprietary coating media

'Packs' available.
Extensive aero-engine
service.
Good high temperature hot
corrosion (Type I) resistance.
Susceptible to low temperature hot

corrosion. (Type II)
Platinum deposited prior

to aluminising.
Superalloys with
sufficient levels of Cr &
Al.
Controlled oxidation of
substrate.
No second phase added to
surface.
Modest oxidation-corrosion
resistance.
Poor Adhesion.
Seldom solely Al2O3 formed (due
to substrate).
Not appropriate for high

temperature applications
(oxide stability).
Aluminising : Low and high activity pack

Diffusion of Al into substrate
Ni-based & Co-based
forming NiAl coat (Ni-based
super-alloys in aerosubstrate) or CoAl coat (Coengines (industrial/
based substrate). Forming
marine gas turbines).
Al2O3 on exposure.
Platinum aluminide
Diffusion as above of Pt into
coating & substrate.
Exact coat composition depends
on proprietary process.
Benefits
Silicide
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Coating
Diffusion of Si into substrate
forming Al-Si, Ni-Cr-Si, Ni-CrAl-Si compounds forming SiO2
on exposure.
Amorphous SiO2 layer (<10
m).
Modified native oxides
See: Selective oxidation
Application
Benefits
Limitations
Comments
Industrial & Marine Gas

Turbine blades.
Ni- & Co-based
superalloys.
Ni-based superalloy.
Resistant to vanadiumcontaining fuels.

Decay to Al2O3 stable oxide.
Brittle.
Low melting point.
Low thermal shock resistance.
Rapid diffusion between coat &
substrate.
Experimental study (in static air).
Not appropriate for high

temperature
applications.
Need further study for
in-service environment.
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Table48.102Diffusioncoatings:Commerciallyavailabletypes
Coatingtype
Aluminide
PlatinumAluminide
Key:
Designation
Supplier
Codep B
RPS320
PWA273
LDC-2
Rolls Royce plc

Pratt & Witney Aircraft Co
Deutch Edelstahlwerke
Akteingesellschaft
Chromalloy
Howmet Thermatech Div.
Johnson Matthey
RT22
LDC-2E
JML1
USAsource.
48.11 Overlay coatings

48.11.1 Development
48.11.1.1 General
Metalliccoatingsystemsweredevelopedtoimproveoxidationandcorrosionresistanceofsuperalloys
at high temperatures to generally overcome the brittleness of diffusion type coatings. Their
developmentisstronglylinkedtomethodsenablingeffectivedepositionofalloys.
48.11.1.2 Metallic coatings

ThemetalliccoatingsarebasedontheMCrAlYformulation,where:
M = Nickel and/or Cobalt and/or Fe.
Chromium: >20 wt% typ. for corrosion resistance.
Aluminium: >6 wt% typ. high temp oxidation resistance.
Yttrium: <1 wt% typ. to promoteoxideadherence.
Ironbasedcoatingsarenotappropriateforgasturbineuse.
48.11.1.3 Coating formulation

Theprecisecoatingformulationcanbeadjustedwithrespectto:
Substratealloycomposition.
Operatingthermalregimes.
Operatingcorrosivespecies.
As a consequence, a wide variety of formulations have been developed and are commercially
available,asshowninTable48.11.1,Ref.[4828].
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Table48.111CommerciallyavailableMCrAlYoverlaycoatings
CoatingComposition
(wt.%)
Co-18Cr-8Al-0.5Y
Co-18Cr-11Al-O.3Y
Co-19Cr-10Al-0.5Y
Co-23Cr-12Al-0.3Y
Co-23Cr-13Al-0.6Y
Co-30Cr-5Al-0.5Y
Co-32Ni-21Cr-7.5Al-0.5Y
Co-32Ni-21Cr-8Al-o.5Y
Co-23Ni-30Cr-3Al-0.5Y
Co-10Ni-25Cr-7Al-0.6Y-5Ta
Ni-17Cr-6Al-0.5Y
Ni-22Cr-10Al-1.0Y
Ni-25Cr-12Al-0.3Y
Ni-25Cr-5Al-0.4Y
Ni-38Cr-11Al-0.3Y
Ni-22Co-18Cr-12Al-0.3Y
Ni-22Co-21Cr-7.5Al-0.5Y
Ni-23Co-20Cr-8.5Al-0.6Y-4Ta
Ni-0.5Co-20Cr-11Al-0.5Y0.5Mo
Fe-24Cr-8Al-0.4Y
Fe-24Cr-11Al-0.6Y
Designation
Company
Application
Method
LCO29
ATD5
LOC5
ATD2
LCO7
ATD14
LCO22
Amdry 995
LCO37
Amdry 996
Amdry 961
Amdry 962
ATD16
Amdry 963
ATD1
ATD7
ATD9
LN21
Amdry 997
LN34
Union Carbide
Airco Temescal
Union Carbide
Airco Temescal
Union Carbide
Airco Temescal
Union Carbide
Alloy Metal
Union Carbide
Alloy Metals
Alloy Metals
Alloy Metals
Airco Temescal
Alloy Metals
Airco Temescal
Airco Temescal
Airco Temescal
Union Carbide
Alloy Metals
Union Carbide
PS(argon)
EB-PVD
PS(argon)
EB-PVD
PS(argon)
EB-PVD
PS(argon)
LPPS
PS(argon)
LPPS
LPPS
LPPS
EB-PVD
LPPS
EB-PVD
EB-PVD
EB-PVD
PS(argon)
LPPS
PS(argon)
Amdry 970
ATD8
Alloy Metals
Airco Temescal
LPPS
EB-PVD
Key:
PS(argon)PlasmaSpray,underargon.
EBPVDElectronBeamPhysicalVapourDeposition.
LPPSLowPressurePlasmaSpray.
Later work has concentrated on additions of Tantalum and Hafnium to further enhance coating
performanceonsuperalloys;asshowninTable48.11.2alongwithcoatingrecipeandsubstratealloy.
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Table48.112Overlaycoatings:LaterstudieswithMCrAlYtypecoatingsand
superalloyssubstrates
CoatingComposition(wt.%)
Ni-l7Cr-12Al-O.4Y
CoCrAlY + 4.5 or 3Ta
NiCoCrAlYTa
NiCoCrAlTa
U700
IN 100
MAR M 002
CMSX2
Application
Method
PVD
LPPS
LPPS
PS
LPPS
Ref. [48-31]
MA 6000
LPPS
Ref. [48-31]
CMSX2
LPPS
Ref. [48-32]
Ref. [48-32]
Bond coat for TBC, Ref.
Substrate
B1900 + Hf
Ni-23Co-20Cr-8.5Al-4Ta-0.6Y
Co-10Ni-25Cr-7Al-5Ta-0.6Y
IN 100
LPPS
Hastelloy X
ED
NiCoCrAlYTa
CMSX2
Cotac 784
LPPS
PS(Vac)
NiCrAlY
IN713LC
PS(p.p)
X40
PS(p.p)
NiCoCrAlY
(PWA276)
PWA 1480
LPPS
PWA286
Alloy 185
NiCrAlHf
Rene 80
Laser(RS)
NiCrAlYTa
NiCoCrAlYTa
Comments
Ref. [48-29]
Ref. [48-30]
[48-33]
Ref. [48-34]
Ref. [48-35]
Ref. [48-36]
Ref. [48-36]
Pratt & Whitney

Aircraft Co.
designations
Ref. [48-37]
Increased Hf content in
solid solution. Ref.
[48-38]
Key:
PVD:PhysicalVapourDeposition
PS(vac):PlasmaSpray,undervacuum
LPPS:LowPressurePlasmaSpray
PS(p.p.):PlasmaSpray,partialpressure
PS:PlasmaSpray
Laser(RS):Laser(RapidSolidification)
ED:ElectrophoreticDeposition
TBC:ThermalBarrierCoating
48.12 Thermal barrier coatings (TBC)

48.12.1 Function
The objective of thermal barrier coatings (TBCs) is to provide protection to selected regions of
componentsexperiencinghighheatfluxesorintensegaswash,suchas:
combustionchambers
nozzleguidevanes
rotorblades.
Allovercoatingsarepronetocrackingandspalling.
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48.12.2 Coating construction

TBCsnormallycompriseofthreelayers,asshowninFigure48.12.1.
Ceramic
Bond coat
~0.4 mm thick, typically

usually MCrAlY-type metallic Overlay coating
Substrate superalloy
Figure48.121Thermalbarriercoating:Typicalconstructionmaterials
Table48.12.1summarisesthetypesofmaterialsystems,includingtheirattributesandproblems,Ref.
[4825],[4839].
The development is ongoing, so Table 48.12.2 presents a summary of later work which is aimed at
optimisingtheirperformance.
Table48.121Thermalbarriercoatings:Materialsystems
Ceramiclayer
Zirconia, commonly with Magnesia

and Yttria additions to partially
stabilise,
Zirconia has a high melting point and
low thermal conductivity.
Porous, hence permeable to oxygen
and corrosive species,
As-deposited coatings have uneven
stress state. Annealing heat
treatment,
Key:
Bondcoatlayer
To accommodate thermal strains

between substrate and ceramic
layer,
Act as mechanical key for ceramic
layer,
Act as impermeable layer between
porous ceramic and substrate.
Oxidation corrosion of bond coat
due to permeable ceramic layer.
FullystabilisedZirconiahaspoorthermalshockperformance.
Averyroughceramic/bondcoatinterfacemaycauseahigherstressstateintheceramic
leadingtoprematurefailurebycrackingadjacenttotheinterface.
AnnealingmaycauseaslightincreaseinThermalConductivity,dependingonceramic
composition.
DifferencesinCTEbetweenthebondcoatandceramictendtocausecrackingadjacenttotheir
interface.
Crackingallowsaccommodationofthermalfatiguestresses.
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Table48.122Thermalbarriercoatingtechnology:Laterstudies
Ceramiclayer
composition
Bondcoat
composition
[Application
method]
[Application
method]
Substrate
alloy
ZrO2+8Y2O3
[PS]
NiCrAlYTa
[EP + Aluminising]
Hastalloy
X
ZrO2+CaO,
MgO,Y2O3
additions
[PS]
NiCrAl
[PS]
IN 100
ZrO2-6Y2O3
[-]
NiCrAl
[-]
Superalloy
NiCrAlYb
ZrO2-6Y2O3
[PS]
CoCrAlYb
CoCrAlY
FeCrAlYb
FeCrAlY
[PS]
MAR M
200+Hf
MAR M
509
Fe-22Cr5.8Al0.5Co
Comments
Bond coat is cellular.
Improved thermal shock.
Cells act as crack stoppers.
Carbide layer at Bond Coat/ Substrate
interface due to C-content of Hastelloy.
Bond coat: 200m.
Ceramic: 300m, Ref. [48-33].
Bond coat: 0.1mm.
Ceramic: 0.4mm.
ZrO2+7Y2O3 gave best thermal cycling
resistance, Ref. [48-39].
Finite Element Modelling of coating
mechanical performance.
Stress State Model, Ref. [48-40].
Effect of Yb additions on diffusion
mechanisms on bond coat.
Morphology of oxide(s) on bond coat.
Thermal cycling resistance, Ref. [4841].
Key:PSPlasmaspraying;EPElectrophoreticdeposition
48.13 Coating influence on design

48.13.1 Factors
48.13.1.1 General
Inrecommendingtheuseofacoating,thereareasignificantnumberoffactorstobeevaluatedwith
respect to the particular material system, i.e. coating(s) and substrate alloy, for a given service
environment.
Many coatingsubstrate alloy systems have been the subject of intense metallurgical examination.
Althoughfundamentaltotheunderstandingofhowvarioussystemsinteract,detailedinformationis
notgivenhere.
48.13.1.2 Technical
Table48.13.1summarisesthefactorsassociatedforcoatingsystemsofferingoxidationandcorrosion
resistance,Ref.[4834].
Table48.13.2comparestechnicalaspectsofdiffusionandoverlaycoatings.
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Table48.131Coatingdesign:Factorsassociatedwithcoatingsystemsfor
oxidationandcorrosionresistance
Coating
property
Location
Requirements
Operating environment is known:

- temperature(s)
- corrosive species
- erosive species
- design life
Oxidation/ Low rates of scale formation
Corrosion Uniform surface attack
resistance Stable surface oxide
(thermodynamically)
Ductile surface scales
Adherent surface scales
High concentration of scale forming
elements in coating (self-repairing)
Low rate of diffusion across
interface at service temperatures
Interface
Limited compositional changes
stability
across interface
Avoidance of brittle phase
formation in service
Matched coating to substrate
properties to reduce stresses at
interface
Good
Optimised surface condition prior to
adhesion
coating
Minimise stress during coating
process
Coatings should withstand service
loading:
- creep
- fatigue
- impact
Mechanical - thermally induced
Well matched coefficient of thermal
strength
expansion
Coating does not adversely affect
component performance
Coating heat treatments does not
affect component heat-treatments
Key:
Coating
surface
Coating
bulk
C:S
Interface
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
CCoating;SSubstrate.
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Table48.132Coatingdesign:Comparisonoftechnicalfactorsfordiffusionand
overlaycoatings
Diffusioncoatings
Environmentalresistance
Chromising:
Forming Cr oxide surface. Corrosion
resistance to sulphates at temperatures
<1123K (high velocity gas streams).
Aluminising:
Formation of NiAl or CoAl in Ni-base & Cobase superalloy respectively. Forming
Al2O3 surface scales. Temperatures
<1100C; not too corrosive. Prone to
thermal fatigue cracking.
Modified aluminides:
>1100C. Improved thermal fatigue.
Overlaycoatings(MCrAlYTypes)
Contain ~7wt% Al to form Al2O3.
Increase Cr content to combat hot corrosion
(sulphate contamination).
Too high Cr or Si content (used to combat
Type II hot corrosion) may affect diffusional
stability of C:S interface at high
temperatures.
Cr oxide provides oxidation resistance up to
~900C.
Al oxide provides oxidation resistance up to
~1200C.
Al oxide-scales are not adherent when
thermally cycled. add Y.
Presence of Cr to combat acid or basic fluxing
mechanisms (Type I & Type II hot corrosion).
Chemicalcompatibility(Interfacestability/Adhesion)
Interdiffusion effects between coating/
Interdiffusion across interface Al
substrate lowers oxidation resistance of
Substrate; Ni Coating, depending on
coating, notably Ti.
alloy composition.
Diffusionally stable systems are: NiCrAlY on
Ni-base or Fe-base substrates, CoCrAY on Febase.
Unstable systems are: CoCrAlY on Ni-base,
FeCrAlY on Ni-base or Fe-base.
Mechanical strength
Aluminide CTE < substrate at high temps
Ductile Brittle transition temperature >
600C typical.
Complex structure, difficult to determine
intrinsic properties.
Carbide interface forming for MCrAlY on Cobase (less for CoCrAlY) (preferential oxidation
path &/or spalling of coating).
CTE difference should not exceed 2 x 10-4 /K.
DuctileBrittle transition temp increases
with increasing Al content (100 to 600C).
Some compositions exhibit superplasticity.
48.13.1.3 Economic
Inadditiontotechnicalfactors,theeconomicfactorstobeconsideredinclude:
availabilityandcostofcoatingmaterials.
availability and cost of coating equipment, including temperaturetime (energy) demands per
batchsize.
subsequentheattreatments:
densificationofcoating,
recoveryofsubstratealloymechanicalproperties.
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48.13.2 Effect of coatings on mechanical properties

The combination of a coating and a substrate alloy becomes a complex material with each part
optimisedforaparticularfunction:
Coating:environmentalresistance,
Interface:maintaincoatingadherenceandminimiseinterdiffusioneffects,
Substrate:hightemperaturemechanicalperformance.
Consequentlyeachpartpossessesdifferent:
chemicalcompositions,
metallurgicalstructures,
bulkproperties,suchas:
stiffness
strength
creepresistance
fatigueresistance
thermalproperties,e.g.CTE,thermalconductivity.
The mismatch in properties causes coatingsubstrate interactions which can influence the overall
properties of the component. Operation at high temperatures causes compositional changes
(diffusion)whichinturncausestheinitialpropertiestochangethroughouttheservicelife.Coatings
andsubstratealloysshouldbeevaluatedtogether,notasindependentquantities.
Theoverallmechanicalperformanceofthecoatedmaterialsystemisaffectedby:
environmentalconditionsexperienced(duringtestingorinservice)and,
coatingapplicationmethod.
48.13.3 Chemical interaction

48.13.3.1 Oxidation
Oxidation reduces the Al content of coatings due to the formation of Al2O3 surface scales. This can
increasetheductilityofthecoatingwithincreasingtimeinservice.
48.13.3.2 Diffusion
Higher chromium and aluminium contents (in hot corrosion resistant coatings) than the substrate
alloy results in increasing Al and Cr in the interdiffusion zone, causing the formation of brittle
phases. Diffusion can also lead to Kirkendall voids, giving porosity near the coatingtosubstrate
interface.Theseporescanactascrackinitiationsitesandgiverisetodebondingofthecoating.
In uncooled components, the interdiffusion zone can be small compared with the overall material
thickness.Increasingtemperatureincreasestheinterdiffusionzone.
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Inacooledcomponent,thethinwallsofsubstratealloycanbecometheentireinterdiffusionzone,i.e.
thewholematerialcompositionischanged,hencemechanicalpropertiesarealtered.
Temperature gradients reduce diffusion penetration depths. This effect is summarised in Figure
48.13.1,Ref.[4844].
Atgrainboundariesdiffusionofcoatingelementscanbesignificantlyenhanced;penetrationisgreater
thanexpectedfrombulkdiffusioncalculations.
Diffusion of Al in a Ni-based alloy.

Surface temperature: 1400K
D0 = 1.0 cm 2/s
Diffusion time: 30 000 hours
E = 250 kJ/mol
Figure48.131Coatingdesign:Effectoftemperaturegradientsondiffusion
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48.13.4 Residual strains

48.13.4.1 Property mismatch
Mismatch of physical or mechanical properties between coating and substrate causes residual or
additional strains which promote premature cracking and spalling of the coating; causing a loss of
protection.
Coatingcracksalsoactasinitiationandpropagationsitesforsubstratecracksduringfatigueorcreep
loading.Therelevantpropertiesare,Ref.[4844]:
Modulus(E)
Coefficientofthermalexpansion(CTE)
Thermalconductivity
Yieldstress
Fracturestrainandtoughness
Creepandrelaxationbehaviour.
TheinitialstressstatecanbeapproximatedbyEandCTEdifferencesincoatingandsubstrateduring
processing,basedontheprocessingtemperature.Ahypotheticaltemperaturecanbedeterminedfora
stressfreestate.
Itisassumedthat:
Diffusion or Annealing
Heat Treatment Temperature
<
Deposition
Temperature
<
Service
Temperature
Residualstrainsandstressescanbecalculatedby:
Erc T
[48.131]
rc
Ec XT
1
[48.132]
48.13.4.2 Thermal expansion

Residual strain is at a maximum near the coatingsubstrate interface. If differences in CTE are too
large,coatingscancrackduringcoolingafterdeposition.Theseeffectscanbereducedbyminimising
CTEdifferencesto~2x106/K.
Where CTE (coat) < CTE(substrate), such as TBC ceramics, the coating has residual compressive
stressesandstrains.
PartiallystabilisingZrO2(usingMgO,CaO,Y2O3)reduces:
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volumetricphasetransformations,and
minimisesresidualstresses.
Theprocessingtemperatureischosentobeaslowaspossible.
Internalstressescanreachfrom200MPato450MPaowingtoCTEmismatch,causingdebondingof
coatingswhichinturnarelocalhotspots.
48.13.4.3 Processing
Nonisothermal(spray)processesincreaseresidualstressesby:
Contractionofdropletsonsurfaces
Phasetransformations
Tocounteracttheseeffects,adjustthecoatingcoolingprocessesorpreheatthesubstrate.
Themoduluscanbeanisotropicduetoprocessparameters.Forbrittlecoatings,ductilityisdependent
oncoatingthickness.
Compressivestressescanbegeneratedasaresultoflateralgrowthofthecoating.
48.13.4.4 Ductile Brittle transition temperature

The strains need considering with respect to the ductile brittle transition temperatures (DBTT) of
coatings.Ifacoatingexperiencestoohigherstrainwhilstitisbrittle,cracksresultwhereasstrainscan
beaccommodatedwithoutfracturewhencoatingsareabovetheirDBTT.
48.13.5 Tensile behaviour

48.13.5.1 General
Coated components can be treated like composite materials; using the Rule of Mixtures, an
approximation of modulus and strength of the material system (coat and substrate) can be made.
Becausecoatingthicknessesareusuallysmallcomparedwiththatofthesubstrate,e.g.0.1to0.3mm
coatingcomparedwith1to5mmblade;thecoatingsdonothavemuchinfluence,otherthanreducing
theoverallcrosssectionalareaofthesubstratealloy,Ref.[4844].
Loadistransferredfromthesubstratealloytothecoatingbyshearstressesattheinterface:
Shearstressexceedsbondstrength:Thecoatingdetaches.
Bond strength exceeds shear stress: The coating follows the extension of the substrate alloy
until:
HighE,brittlecoating:CrackingoccursbeforetheUTSof thesubstrate.
LowE,ductilecoating:deformsuptoUTSofthesubstrate.
48.13.5.2 Residual stress

Residual stresses or strains affect this behaviour and are added (if tensile) or subtracted (if
compressive).Tensionresultsinprematurecrackformation,theconverseistrueforcompression.
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Table48.13.3providestypicaltensilepropertiesofcoatedCMSX2(SC)andCotac784(DS)alloys,Ref.
[4834].
Table48.133Coatingdesign:Tensilepropertiesofcoatedmaterialsystems
Materialssystem
Coating
[Thickness,m]
None
[-]
Aluminide
(High Activity)
[75m]
Ni-23Co-20Cr8.5Al-4Ta-0.6Y (3)
[100m]
[None]
Ni-23Co-20Cr8.5Al-4Ta-0.6Y
[100m]
Substrat
e(1)
CMSX-2
(SC)
CMSX-2
(SC)
Test
Thermal
history(2)
temp.
(C)
ST:1315C/30
Mins/ACA:10
50C/
16h/AC+
850C/24h/AC
ST + A.
Coat:
700C/7h/?+
diffusion HT
(as for alloy)
CMSX-2
(SC)
ST + A Coat:
PS(vacuum)+
diffusion HT
(1st alloy
ageing
treatment)
Cotac 784
(DS)
ST:1250C/90
min
1180C/AC
A:1050C/16h
r/AC+
850C/24h/AC
Cotac 784
(DS)
ST + A Coat:
PS(vacuum)+
diffusion HT
(lst alloy
ageing
treatment)
RT
850
1050
RT
850
1050
RT
850
1050
Mechanicalproperties
UTS
YS
(MPa)
(MPa)
Elon
g
Comments
(%)
1157
1019
483
1021
860
415
13
-
1049
1044
492
1043
953
417
0.8
25
30
1071
1068
474
1061
967
396
13
26
29
844
366
707
342
8.7
7.7
1228
823
344
786
690
324
9.8
9
10
RT: Coat
fractured at 0.5%
and failed at c:s
interface. At high
temps., no cracks
seen prior to
rupture of test
piece.
-
900
1100
RT
900
1100
RT: Coat
fractured at 0.5%
and failed at c:s
interface. At high
temps., no crack
seen prior to
rupture of test
piece.
Key:(1) SC:Singlecrystal;DSDirectionallysolidified.[001]direction.
(2) ST:Solutiontreatment;A:Ageing;AC:Aircool;PS(vacuum):Plasmasprayundervacuum.
(3) Coatingcomposition+applicationmethodproducessuperplasticity>800C.
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48.13.6 Fatigue resistance

48.13.6.1 General
Forcrackedcoatings,fracturemechanicsdeterminewhetherthecrackdepthissignificanttostimulate
brittlefractureorsubcriticalcrackgrowthduetofatigueorcreepconditions,asshownby:
K1 > K1c instability

K1 >K1.th fatigue
Given certain conditions, the reaction of a substrate alloy to crack depth (coating thickness) can be
determinedfromfailurediagrams;anexampleisshowninFigure48.13.2,Ref.[4844].
Boundaryconditions:850Cfor~200hrandRT.
Figure48.132Coatingdesign:ExampleoffailurediagramforIN738LC
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Table48.13.4showstypicalfatiguepropertiesofcoatedRene80andCMSX2(SC)alloys,Ref.[4835],
[4845].
Table48.134Coatingdesign:Fatiguepropertiesofcoatedmaterialsystems
Materialsystem
Coating
Substrate
Thermalhistory
Test
temp.
Fatiguelife,Nf
Comments
(x103cycles)
(C)
900
286 103
ST + A: not stated
1068C/6h/?
(simulated coat
H.T.)
ST:1315C/30
mins/AC
A:1050C/16hr/AC
+
850/24 hr/AC
Coat: 700C/7 hr/?
900
764 261
870
ST + A as above
Coat: PS
(vacuum) +
diffusion (1st
alloy ageing
temp)
870
Significantly
lowers HCF
resistance. At 107
cycles stress
reduced by 100
MPa. Similar
effect as for
aluminide/CMSX2 combination.
Cracks initiate at
coating-tosubstrate
interface. Cracks
also observed on
surface of
coating. Change
in mechanism
from uncoated,
where cracks
initiate from
internal
micropores of
alloy.
Codep B
(Low
activity
aluminide)
Rene 80
ST + A: not stated
Coat: 1068C/6h/?
Fatigue Test:
90 Hz; R = 0.1
Coating HT
changes microstructure of
substrate
alloy; crack
initiates in
coating,
change in c.s.a.
Rene 80
Aluminide
(high
activity)
[75m]
CMSX-2
(SC)
Ni-23Co20Cr8.5Al-4Ta0.6Y
[100m]
CMSX-2
(SC)
Key:
HT:Heattreatment;c.s.a:Crosssectionalarea;ST:Solutiontreatment;A:Aged;SC:Single
crystal;PS(Vacuum):Plasmasprayinvacuum.
Fatigue Test:
70 Hz;
Load ratio R =
0.95
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48.13.6.2 High cycle fatigue

HCFbehaviourisstronglyinfluencedbycrackinitiationconditions.Factorsinclude,Ref.[4844]:
Fatiguelimitofcoating,
Modulus,
Particlesizewithincoating,
Coatingresidualstress/strains,
Surfaceroughness.
Fatigueinitiationsitesinclude:
Cracks,
Internalporesinsubstrate(notablycastalloys),
Interfacedefects(porosity,brittleprecipitates).
Figure48.13.3showstheeffectofHCFonCoatedCMSX2alloy,Ref.[4834].
Temperature: 870C.
Figure48.133Coatingdesign:HighcyclefatiguecharacteristicsofcoatedCMSX2
48.13.6.3 Low cycle fatigue

LCF behaviour is largely unaffected by coatings, and tends to be similar to the thermal fatigue
response.
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48.13.6.4 Thermal fatigue

Thermalfatigueperformanceislargelydependentupon:
Coating thickness
Ductile Brittletransitiontemperature
CTE mismatch
CoatingswithoptimumthicknessandCTEmismatchabovetheDBTTdonotsignificantlyinfluence
thermalfatiguecharacteristics.
48.13.7 Creep and relaxation

Creepbehaviourofacoatedsystemiscomparedwiththatofthesubstratealloyandseparatecoating
materialinFigure48.13.4andFigure48.13.5,Ref.[4844].
Figure48.134Coatingdesign:Schematiccreepcurvesforsubstratemetaland
coating
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Figure48.135Coatingdesign:Schematiccreepcurvesforcoatedsystem
CoatingswithhighDBTTaremorecreepresistantwithlowercreepductility.However,whensteady
statecreepconditionsareachieved(afterinitialloadattemperature)themorecreepresistantpartis
forcedtocreepfasterthannormal,provokingahigherdamagerate.
Coatingswithfinegrainedstructuresareoftenlesscreepresistantthanthesubstratealloy.Hencethe
alloy creep behaviour predominates. Failure is dictated by the creep ductility of each part of the
materialsystem.
Inpractice,creepbehaviourissensitiveto:
coatingprocess,
heattreatmentduetocoatingprocess,
residualstresses,
crackinitiation(surfaceofcoatsubstrateinterface),
diffusionofcoatintosubstrateespeciallyatgrainboundaries,
reducingeffectivecrosssectionalareaofsubstrate.
differentcreepbehavioursofsubstrateandcoat,especiallyatlowstrains.
Creep rupture characteristics for CMSX2 alloys with various coatings are shown in Figure 48.13.6,
Ref.[4834].
TheeffectofcoatingsonCotac784alloyisshowninFigure48.13.7,Ref.[4834].
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Figure48.136Coatingdesign:Effectofcoatingsonstressrupturepropertiesof
CSMX2alloy
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Figure48.137Coatingdesign:Effectofplasmasprayedcoatingonstressrupture
propertiesofCotac784alloy
Table48.13.5showstypicalcreeppropertiesofRene80,CMSX2(SC)andCotac784(DS)alloys,Ref.
[4835],[4845].
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Table48.135Coatingdesign:Creeppropertiesofcoatedmaterialsystems
Materialsystem
Coating
Codep (low
activity
aluminide)
None
Substrate
Rene 80
Ni-23Co20Cr-8.5Al4Ta + 0.6Y
[100m]
CMSX-2
(SC)
Ni-23Co20Cr-8.5Al4Ta + 0.6Y
[100m]
Cotac 784
(DS)
Rene 80
Thermalhistory
Testtemp.
(C)
Creeprupture
life
Mincreeprate,
(h1)
ST+A: not stated

Coat: 1068C/6hr
900
38.6
6.5
99
14
ST+A: not stated +

1068C/6hr
(simulated coating HT)
ST:1315C/30 mins/
AC
A:1050C/16hr/AC +
850C/24hr/AC +
Coat:PS (vacuum) +
Diffusion (Ist alloy
ageing temperature)
ST: 1250C/90 mins
1180C/AC
A: 1050C/16hrs/AC +
850C/24 hr/AC
Coat: PS (Vacuum) +
Diffusion (as for alloy)
900
43.2
4.5
119
43
850
Negligible effect on rupture stress.

Creep deformation is dictated by
the alloy metallurgical structure.
Coating procedures matched to
alloy heat treatment. Limited
interdiffusion between coat &
substrate.
Coating lowers creep strength. Life
reduced by 20 to 30% at 900C &
50% at 1100C. Large deformations.
Interdiffusion disrupted the
metallurgical structure responsible
for inferring creep resistance to the
alloy.
1050
900
1100
Key:
Coating:heattreatmentchangesmicrostructureofalloy:changeinc.s.a;cracksinitiateincoating.
HT:Heattreatment;SC:Singlecrystal;A:Aged;ST:Solutiontreatment;c.s.a:Crosssectionalarea;
PS(Vacuum):Plasmasprayinvacuum
48.13.8 Creep fatigue

For a temperature gradient, cyclic temperature changes and loading all act together and each cycle
requiresanalysis;asthefatiguecycledictatestheloadonthenextcreepperiod,andviceversa.
Figure48.13.8showsatypicalstresstimeresponseforacooledgasturbineblade,Ref.[4844].
Factorsinfluencingcreepfatigueinclude:
Coatingapplicationmethod,
Thermalhistory,i.e.heattreatments,
Testmethod,
Environment,and
Temperature(s).
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Figure48.138Coatingdesign:Typicalcreepfatigueeffectsforcooledgasturbine
blades
48.14 Coatings: Future developments

48.14.1 Materials
Theworkislikelytoconcentrateonoptimising:
coatingsystemsforsinglecrystal(SC),directionallysolidified(DS)andotherhighperformance
alloys,
bondcoatformulationsforTBCsystems(bothforceramicandsubstrate),
ceramiclayercompositionswithrespecttobondcoat.
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The modification of substrate alloys is not viewed as an available option. Changes in alloy
compositionsresultinchangedpropertiesandprocessingparameters.
48.14.2 Service temperature

Allthefactorsrequireoptimisationforeveryincreaseinoperatingtemperature;whichimposesmore
severethermalcycling,andthermomechanicalstrainregimesforincreasingservicetimes.
48.14.3 Hydrogen environments

Hydrogen fuel environments impose higher thermal transients and heat flux effects than those of
carbonbasedfuels.TheintentiontousehydrogeninactivecoolingsystemsofThermalManagement
SystemsinSingleStagetoOrbit(SSTO)vehiclesleadstothedevelopmentofcoatingstocombatthe
knowndetrimentaleffectsofhydrogenonmaterials,[See:48.7].Twophilosophiesexisttocombatthis
problem:
Designcomponentsonthebasisofknownandprovenmaterialperformancedatainhydrogen
environments.
Developprotectivecoatings.
Withregardtocoatingdevelopment,Ref.[4817]:
Barriercoatingsaredeemedunreliableastheirbenefitisnegatedbythesmallestdefectwhich
enableshydrogentoenterthematerialandthentrapsitbeneaththeregionsofintactcoating.
Catalyticcoatingscouldprovemoreeffectiveprovidedthattheircompositionsareoptimisedto
belightweight,effective,easytoapplyandcanbeguaranteedtogivecompletecoverage.
48.15 Superalloys: Potential applications

48.15.1 Conventional alloys
48.15.1.1 Resum
Themainfeaturesofconventionalsuperalloyscanbesummarisedas:
Superalloysareusedforhightemperatureapplicationsusuallyintherange700Cto1200C.
Forspaceuse,theirhighdensityisasignificantdrawback.
The huge pool of knowledge relating to gasturbine engine and their use in other high
temperature, aggressive industrial environments, means that superalloys can be used in the
foreseeablefuturefor:
Engines: PM alloys are used by European and US manufacturers, e.g. 1.4kg cooling
plates;640kgcompressordisk,Ref.[4848].
Propulsionunits.
Thermalprotectionsystemsforspacecraft.
228
ECSSEHB3220Part5A
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Proven materials, e.g: superalloys, have considerable attractions over newer systems, such as
ceramicmatrixcomposites.
Othermaterials,whenproven,arelikelytoerodetheiruseratherthansuperalloyconsumption
increasing,e.g.titaniumaluminidesinenginecomponents.[See:Chapter49].
48.15.1.2 Applications
Otherthanwithinenginesandpowerplants,reusablespaceplaneconceptshaveprovidedtheimpetus
forfurthersuperalloydevelopments.HoneycombpanelsfortheexternalhotstructuresoftheVenture
StarspaceplanehavebeenproducedfromfoilsofPM1000(NibasedODS)withPM2000(Febased
ODS)superalloy,Ref.[4846].Thecharacteristicsofthesematerialswhichmakethemsuitableforthis
applicationsinclude,Ref.[4846]:
NibasedPM1000:
excellentcreepstrengthathightemperatures,
hotgascorrosionresistantupto1100C,
superiorlowcyclefatiguepropertiesupto1300C,
optimisedemissivitypropertiesforspaceapplicationsupto1300C.
FebasedPM2000:
extraordinarycreepresistanceupto1300C,
highhotstrength,
excellentoxidationresistance,
highstabilityagainsthighspeedgasflowsattemperaturesupto1100C.
Thehoneycombpanels,showninFigure48.15.1,areassembledbybrazing,Ref.[4846].
Brazed PM 1000 (Ni-based) / PM 2000 (Fe-based) honeycomb panels
Figure48.151Superalloys:SpaceapplicationsHotstructure
Theadvantagesprovidedbythesemetallicexternalpanelsonspaceplanesinclude,Ref.[4846]:
costefficientmaintenance,
easyoperability,
selfhealingoxidelayerwithhighemmissivity.
229
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48.16 References
48.16.1 General
[481]
NOTE
[482]
M.J.Weaver
MechanicalPropertyRequirementsforAeroGasTurbineMaterials
MaterialScience&Technology.Vol3.September1987p695700
[483]
J.E.King
FatigueCrackPropagationinNibasedSuperalloyseffectof
Microstructure,LoadRatioandTemperature
MaterialScience&Technology.Vol3.September1987,p750764
[484]
F.Sczerzenie&G.E.Maurer
DevelopmentsinDiscMaterials
MaterialScience&Technology.Vol3.September1987,p733742
[485]
G.S.Hoppin&W.P.Danesi
FutureofSuperalloys
Chapter20ofSuperalloysII.JohnWileypublication1986
[486]
G.A.Webster
HighTemperatureFatigueCrackGrowthinSuperalloyblade
Materials
MaterialsScience&Technology.Vol3.September1987,p716725
[487]
A.Grellieretal
FabricationetpropritsdelalliageUDIMET720destinaudomaine
desmoteursaronautiques
MatriauxetTechniques
[488]
R.L.Dresfieldetal
ApplicationofSingleCrystalSuperalloysforEarthtoOrbit
PropulsionSystems
AIAAPaper871976.JointPropulsionConference,1987
[489]
E.F.Bradley(Ed)
SuperalloysTechnicalGuide
ASMInternational,ISBN087170327
[4810]
A.K.Green&D.P.Bashford:FulmerResearchLtd,(UK)
AGuidetoMetalMatrixCompositeTechnologyanditsPotentialfor
SpacecraftConstruction
FulmerResearchLtd.ReportNo.R878/6A/January1983
ESAContract4389/80/NL/AK(SC)
230
ECSSEHB3220Part5A
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[4811]
J.Wilson&D.P.Bashford:FulmerResearchLtd(UK)
ReviewofEmergingHighTemperatureAdvancedMaterialsfor
SpaceApplications
FulmerResearchLtd.ReportNoR1176/1/April1988
ESAContract7090/87/NL/PH
[4812]
HIPDiffusionBondingofPMAlloysforCompositeLandBasedGas
TurbineBuckets
MetalPowdersReport.October1986.p729738
[4813]
R.C.Benn
MicrostructureandPropertyRelationshipsinOxideDispersion
StrengthenedAlloys
[4814]
K.Mino&K.Asakawa
AnOxideDispersionStrengthened(ODS)NickelbaseSuperalloy
withExcellentHighTemperatureStrength
Trans.IronSteelInst.Japan.October
[4815]
M.V.Islametal.
ArtificialCompositesforHighTemperatureApplications:AReview.
NationalResearchCouncil,Canada.
DME007,NRCNo27323,1987/01
[4816]
R.C.Wetherhold,L.J.Westfall
ThermalCyclingofTFRSComposites
JournalofMaterialsScience23(1988),p713717
[4817]
H.G.Nelson:NASAAmesResearchCenter,(USA)
HydrogenandAdvancedAerospaceMaterials
SAMPEQuarterly,October1988,p2023
[4818]
L.G.Fritzemeier&W.T.Chandler:RockwellInt.,(USA)
HydrogenEmbrittlementRocketEngineApplication
Superalloys,SuperCompositesandSuperceramics
ISBNO12690845,AcademicPress,1989p491524
[4819]
R.L.Dreshfield&R.A.Parr
NASALewisResearchCenterNASA
[4820]
L.Schoenman:AerojetTechSystemsCo.(USA)
SelectionofBurnResistantMaterialsforOxygenDrivenTurbo
Pumps
AerojetTechnology,Vol.3.,pt.1,1986p1524
[4821]
J.Wilson&D.P.Bashford:FulmerResearchLtd.,(UK)
HighTemperatureMetalsandMetalMatrixComposites
ReportNo.R1176/D6/December1989(Draft)forESTEC.
[4822]
W.Betteridge&S.W.K.Shaw:InternationalNickelLtd./Inco
EngineeredProductsLtd.,(UK)
DevelopmentofSuperalloys
231
ECSSEHB3220Part5A
20March2011
MaterialsScience&Technology,Sept.1987,Vol.3.p682694
[4823]
JMdeMonicault:SEP,Vernon,(F)
Besoin,CoordinationdesActionsOrganisationMiseenPlace
Actes1erColloqueMateriauxVULCAIN,12fevrier1990,
VernonFrance
[4824]
C.Duretetal
ONERA/SNECMA/UniversitedeNancy,(F)
UsersGuidetoMaterialsforGasTurbineCorrosionResistance
HighTemperatureAlloysforGasTurbine&OtherApplications
Comm.Eur.Communities,1986.EUR10567,p405410
[4825]
J.E.Restall:RoyalAerospaceEstablishment,(UK)
CoatingsforProtectingHighTemperatureComponentsinMarine
GasTurbines
RAETechnicalMemoP1137,19May1988,HMSOLondon1988
[4826]
S.R.J.Saunders&J.R.Nicholls:NPL/CranfieldInstituteof
Technology,(UK)
CoatingsandSurfaceTreatmentsforHighTemperatureOxidation
Resistance
MaterialsScience&Technology,August1989,Vol5.p780798
[4827]
M.J.Bennetetal:HarwellLaboratory,(UK)
OxidationProtectionofAlloyIN738LCbyPlasmaassistedvapour
depositedsilicacoating
MaterialsScience&Technology,August1989,Vol.5,p841852
[4828]
R.Merveletal:ONERA/SNECMA,(F)
MCrAlYCoatings
ONERATPNo.198913;Proc.oflstInt.CongressonHigh
TechMaterialsandFinishing,Berlin1214March1989
[4829]
R.R.Biedermanetal:WorcesterPolytechnicInstitute,(USA)
CharacterizationofHighTemperatureOxidationResistantCoatings
onSuperalloys
MicrostructuralScience.Vol.16,p363378
[4830]
P.Fox&G.J.Tatlock:UniversityofLiverpool,(UK)
EffectofTaAdditionsonOxidationofOverlayCoatedSuperalloys
MaterialsScience&Technology,August1989,Vol..5,p816827
[4831]
M.Francesetal:UniversitedeNancy,(F)
HotCorrosionofNiCoCrAlYTaCoatings
Paper6.49.Proc.of10thICMC,Madras,India,Nov.1987
KeyEng.Mater.2028(2),p14191427,1988
[4832]
A.M.Huntzetal:UniversitedeParisSud,(F)
ImprovementoftheOxidationResistanceofSuperalloysbyLPPS
MCrAlYTaCoatings
OxidationofMetals,Vol.30,Nos.3/4,1988p141183
232
ECSSEHB3220Part5A
20March2011
[4833]
D.Fayeulleetal:EcoleNational&SuperieuredesMines/SNECMA;
(F)
ThermalBarrierBondcoatObtainedbyElectrophoreticDepositionof
MCrAlYPowdersonNibasedSuperalloys
Paper39.1;PMAerospaceMaterials87,Lucerne
Switzerland.Nov.1987
[4834]
J.MVerus:ONERA,(F)
InfluenceofProtectiveCoatingsontheMechanicalPropertiesof
Cotac784
MaterialsScience&Engineering88(1987)p253260
[4835]
J.M.Veysetal:ONERA,(F)
InfluenceofProtectiveCoatingsontheMechanicalPropertiesof
Cotac784andCMSX2
ONERATPNo.198673,Proc.ofColloqueInternationalesurla
corrosionHauteTemperature,Marseille,711juillet1986
[4836]
P.Mazarsetal:Ste.Heurechrome,(F)
DegradationofMCrAlYCoatingsbyInterdiffusion
Paper87GT58,ASME,Proc.of32ndInt.GasTurbineConf.&Exhib.
Anaheim,U.S.A.May31June41987
[4837]
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HighTemperatureConstitutive&CrackInitiationModellingof
CoatedSingleCrystalSuperalloys
NASALewisResearchCenterTurbineEngineHotSection
Technology,1987,p401412
[4838]
C.Ribandoetal:UniversityofIllinois,(USA)
LaserCladNi70,Al20,Cr9,Hf3AlloyswithExtendedSolidSolution
ofHfPartII:OxidationBehaviour
MetallurgicalTransactionsA,Vol.20A,Nov.1989,p24892497
[4839]
G.Johneretal:MTU.MotorenundTurbinenUnionMnchen
GmbH,(D)
ThermalBarrierCoatingsforJetEngineImprovement
ThinSolidFilms119(1984)p301315
[4840]
G.C.Changetal:ClevelandStateUniversity/NASALewisResearch
Center,(USA)
AStudyonThermalBarrierCoatingsincludingThermalExpansion
Mismatch&BondCoatOxidation
N8912919;NASAESUCooperativeResearchAgreement
No.NCC327p415434
[4841]
S.Stecura:NASALewisResearchCenter,(USA)
AdvancedThermalBarrierSystemBondCoatingsforUseonNi,Co
&FeBasedAlloySubstrates
NASATech.Memo87062,July1985
233
ECSSEHB3220Part5A
20March2011
[4842]
L.Peichletal:MTUMotorenundTurbinenUnionMnchenGmbH,
(D)
HighTemperatureBehaviourofDifferentCoatingsin
HighPerformanceGasTurbinesandinLaboratoryTests
JournalofVacuumScienceTechnologyA4(6)
Nov/Dec1986p25832592
[4843]
R.Merveletal:ONERA/STPA,MinisteredelaDefense,(F)
EffectofProtectiveCoatingsonMechanicalPropertiesofSuperalloys
Paper9,NATO/AGARD68thMeetingOttowa,Canada
April23281989
[4844]
H.W.Grnlingetal:BrownBoverindCieAG.,(D)
MechanicalPropertiesofCoatedSystems
MaterialsScience&Engineering,88(1987)p177189
[4845]
H.J.Kolkman:NationalAerospaceLaboratory,(NL)
Creep,Fatigue&theirInteractioninCoated&UncoatedRene80
MaterialsScience&Engineering89(1987)p8191
[4846]
ExtractfromPlanseeGmbHwebsite:www.plansee.com
(April2003)
[4847]
H.K.D.H.Bhadeshia:CambridgeUniversity,(UK)
DirectionalRecrystallisation&itsExploitationinMechanically
AlloyedMetals
Proceedingsof21stRisoInternationalSymposiumonMaterials
Science,Denmark(2000),p1528
[4848]
Dr.WilliamEisenetal:
PowderMetallurgySuperalloys
MaterialsWorld,Vol.4,(1996),p2224
[4849]
R.C.Riceetal.
(MMPDS)

[See:ECSSwebsite]
ECSSQ7071
processes;previouslyESAPSS01701
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49 Intermetallic materials
49.1 Introduction
49.1.1
Types of intermetallic compounds
An intermetallic compound is a chemical compound havinga fixed (stoichiometric) composition. In

alloys,intermetalliccompoundsformfromthealloyconstituentsinthesolidsolution.Theyareoften
usedasstrengtheningmechanisms.
Interesthasfocusedoncertainofthealuminiumcontainingcompounds[See:49.2],including:
Nickel,[See:49.3].
Titanium,[See:49.5].
Ironbased,[See:49.7].
AllthesearewidelypublicisedasAluminides.Aluminideisageneralterm.Eachofthecompounds
hascertaincharacteristicswhichcanbeviewedaseitheradvantagesordisadvantagesdependingon
theintendedapplication.
49.2 Aluminide development

49.2.1
Features
Table 49.02.1 summarises features of various aluminides, Ref. [493]. Their high aluminium content
meansthat,ingeneral,aluminidesoffergoodhightemperatureoxidationresistance.
Table49.21Intermetalliccompounds:Comparisonofaluminidegroups
Type
Titanium
Aluminide
[See: 49.5]
Nickel Aluminide
[See: 49.3]
Iron Aluminide
[See: 49.7]
Chemicalcompound
Meltingpoint(C)
Density(kg/m3)
Ti3Al
TiAl
1600
1460
4200
3900
Ni3Al
NiAl
Fe3Al
FeAl
1390
1640
1540
1330
7500
5900
6700
5600
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Effort has been put into developing the aluminide intermetallic compounds as they offer certain
inherentstrengthandstiffnessbenefitsasaresultoftheir:
crystallography,combinedwith
lowerdensitiesthanthesuperalloyfamily,but
similarmeltingpoints.
Therearetwosignificantdeficiencieswhichhaltedinitialstudiesintothesematerials:
Brittlenessatambienttemperatures.
Lackofadequatecreepresistanceathightemperatures.
Renewedinterestresultedfromimprovementsinductilityandcreepresistance(achievedbydoping
ormicroalloying),andadvancesinanalyticalandmaterialsprocessingtechniques.
49.2.2
Applications
49.2.2.1
Aeroengines
Theaimofdevelopingthealuminidematerialsisto,Ref.[491],[4920],[4922]:
replacecertainaeroenginepartstoenableoperationathighergasorcomponenttemperatures
toimprovetheirefficiencyandsavefuel.
decrease engine weight and operating stresses, primarily for rotating or moving parts, to
improveservicelifeofdiscs,shaftsandassociatedbearingmechanisms.
Demonstrator parts for certain engine components (blades and compressor rotors) have been
fabricatedandevaluated,Ref.[491],[492],[4920];mainlytitaniumaluminides,[See:49.5].
49.2.2.2
Space
TheEuropeanFESTIPprogrammeinvestigatedintermetallicmaterialsforseveralspaceapplications.
Withinthefamilyofintermetallics,titaniumaluminideswereconsideredmoreadvancedthantheNi
andFebasedmaterialsorrefractorymetalsilicides(MoSi2,NbSi2),Ref.[4923].
Potentialapplicationsincluded:
structuralhotskinsandinthermalprotectionsystems(TPS)forspaceplanes,Ref.[4921],[49
23].
matrixphasesforintermetallicmatrixcomposites(IMC),Ref.[4919],[4923].
protective coatings for conventional Tialloys, Tibased composites (TMC) and Tialuminides,
Ref.[4919].
Titaniumaluminideintermetallicmatrixcomposites(IMC)arealsodescribedinliteratureastitanium
matrixcomposites(TMC),Ref.[4919].
[See:49.5Titaniumaluminides]
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49.2.3
Property data
Data presented for materials under development are limited and largely taken from laboratory
research publications. For the commercially more advanced intermetallics, data are mainly single
sourceorproprietary.
Somealuminidesystems,notablytitaniumbased,[See:49.5]areundergoingafullmethodical
mechanicalandenvironmentalevaluationfor:
aeroenginecomponents,Ref.[4919],[4920].
spaceapplications,Ref.[4921].
Materialsprocessingtechniquesareoptimisedforcertainapplicationsandadvancedforothers,
[See:49.8].
Joiningtechniquesareunderdevelopment,[See:49.8].
Inspection is under development: methods are likely to be similar to those applied to more
conventional metals used in aerospace; including those specifically developed for powder
metallurgy(PM)superalloys.
49.2.4
Availability
Initially, licensing arrangements were offered by Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL), who
conductedmostofthepioneeringworkonintermetallics.
Of the most promising of these materials, titaniumbased compositions are now commercially
availableinEuropeandfindingapplications,Ref.[4921].
[See:49.5Titaniumaluminides;49.11Potentialapplications]
49.3 Nickel aluminides

49.3.1
Characteristics
49.3.1.1
General
The nickelaluminides are based on either the NiAl or Ni3Al compounds. Table 49.3.1 compares the
characteristicsofthebasicnickelaluminidesystemsunderdevelopment,Ref.[494].
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Table49.31Nickelaluminides:CharacteristicsofNiAlandNi3Alintermetallic
compounds
Compound
Advantages
Disadvantages
NiAl
Density.
High melting point.
Excellent cyclic
oxidation resistance to
1300C.
Good creep resistance.
Brittle.
Ni3Al
Ductility.
Usable strength to
~800C.
Processable.
High density.
Melting point.
Oxygen
embrittled.
Notes
DuctileBrittle
transition
temperature:
300 to 600C, typ.
Aided by adding rare
earth elements.
Comparable to
superalloys.
Ductility by B doping.
In oxidising
atmospheres at
intermediate
temperatures.
Improved by Cr
additions.
49.3.1.2
Effect of micro-alloying or doping
Thelack,sofar,ofasignificantimprovementintheductilityofNiAlwithoutseriouslycompromising
themeltingpoint,servicetemperatureandoxidationresistance,hasprovedastumblingblocktoits
furtherdevelopment.
BorondopingofNi3Alinducessomeductility.Interesthasfocusedonthismaterial,primarilyatOak
RidgeNationalLaboratory(ORNL),USA.
Additions of other elements, at the ppm level, have been shown to improve certain inherent
characteristics of the base compound. Table 49.3.2 details the compositional ranges of two types of
Ni3Al systems and the effects of doping with certain elements,Ref. [495]. Consequentlya family of
doped or microalloyed Ni3Albased materials is under development. Table 49.3.3 lists the
compositionofthevariousmaterials,Ref.[495],[496],[497],[498].
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Table49.32Nickelaluminides:Compositions(basedonNi3Al)under
development
Typicalcompositionrange
(atomic%)
Effectofdopingormicroalloyingelements
Cr
Ni-base; Al 182; Cr 82; Zr
(or Hf)1.00.8; B 0.150.1
Zr or Hf
B
Ni-base; Al 18.51.5; Fe
13.52.5;
Cr 5.52.5; Zr (or Hf) 0.250.15;
B 0.10.04
Fe
C & Ce
Reduces dynamic embrittlement

in oxidising atmospheres at high
temperatures.
Improves high temperature
strength by solid solution
hardening.
Improves grain boundary strength
& ductility at ambient
temperatures.
Improves hot working ability.
Small additions to control grain
size & improve hot ductility.
Table49.33Nickelaluminides:Composition,materialdesignationandsources
Composition
Key:
Materialdesignation
[Company]
BalNi-11.3Al-0.6Zr-0.02B(wt%)
IC50 [ORNL]
BalNi-8.5Al-7.8Cr-0.8Zr-0.02B(wt%)
IC218 [ORNL]
BalNi-8.5Al-7.8Cr-1.7Zr-0.02B(wt%)
IC221 [ORNL]
BalNi-16.6Al-8Cr-1.0Zr-0.1B(wt%)
IC264 [ORNL]
BalNi-23Al-1.0Hf-0.2B(at%)
IC72 [ORNL]
BalNi-21.5Al-0.5Hf-0.18B(at%)
IC145 [ORNL]
77Ni-22.5Al-0.5Hf + 0.1B(at%)
IC137 [ORNL]
66Ni-24Al-10Co + 0.25B(at%)
Research Alloy [GE]
66Ni-24Al-10Co + 0.75B(at%)
Research Alloy [GE]
76.4Ni-23.1Al-0.5Hf + 0.10B(at%)
Research Alloy [GE]
BalBalance;at%Atomicpercent;wt%Weightpercent
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49.4 Nickel aluminides: Properties

49.4.1
General
The data for the Ni3Al systems given here are indications of the range of properties which can be
offeredbythesematerials.
49.4.2
49.4.2.1
Tensile strength (Yield and UTS)
Ni3AlshowsanincreaseinYieldStrengthwithincreasingtemperatureuptoapproximately500Cto
600Candthendecreases,Ref.[495],[499].Theexacttemperaturevarieswiththecompositionofthe
material.
As with all engineering metals, the strengths attainable are dependent on both composition and
condition.
Table49.4.1presentstypicalpropertiesfortheORNLIC50alloyatelevatedtemperaturesforvarious
thermomechanicalorcoldworkconditioning;including,forcomparativepurposes,basicdataonthe
IC218 and IC221 materials, Ref. [496]. These have yet not been subjected to such a detailed
investigationasIC50.
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Table49.41Nickelaluminides:Mechanicalpropertiesatelevatedtemperatures
withvariousconditioning
Temp
YS
UTS
Elong
RofA
(C)
(MPa)
(MPa)
(%)
(%)
25
400
600
800
1000
25
400
600
800
1000
25
400
600
800
1000
RT
200
400
600
800
1000
RT
200
400
600
800
1000
RT
200
400
600
800
1000
RT
200
400
600
800
1000
337
393
447
468
527
610
494
136
1260-1430
1150
920-940
555
165
432
452
467
606
583
223
1355
118
786
696
234
1454
1306
629
168
1685
1597
1143
689
141
587
487
452
455
181
1307
1049
688
549
159
1514-1592
1253
923-998
603
188
1205
1081
858
735
612
265
1498
1276
803
729
325
1560
1373
876
631
700
169
1179
1678
1441
1310
775
190
RT
427
649
760
871
982
586
724
793
758
586
310
1310
1241
965
931
690
379
IC50[ORNL]
13.1
16.8
4.3
9.5
6.2
12.2
2.7
0.8
4.0
0.0
41.8
48.4
26.8
20.4
5.6
7.8
2.7
4.4
63.5
46.6
3.0-10.0
4.4-18.7
2.4
5.6
1.4
0.5-2.7
1.4
0.5
7.0
14.3
32.13
23.25
21.52
16.90
12.38
10.71
3.64
6.18
3.25
3.81
11.62
8.73
5.75
7.35
2.46
5.03
5.17
1.37
2.41
1.13
6.50
7.78
3.33
7.31
3.31
2.83
1.07
1.33
1.70
0.85
1.65
3.60
0.72
1.25
0.25
2.81
1.69
4.13
4.05
0.39
5.77
4.50
8.78
6.83
33.58
38.73
IC218/221
20
17
15
15
15
10
18
15
15
17
17
17
Condition
Direct cast bar.

As-cast condition.
Direct cast bar annealed
after casting
60% swaging + anneal +
60% -swaging + annealed
at 1100C.
Direct cast bar. 60%
swaged + 1100C anneal +
60% swaged +
1100C anneal + 20% cold
reduction.
Annealed 1100C/1 hour.
10% Cold work.
20% Cold work.
40% Cold work.
Not stated.
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49.4.2.2
Modulus
Table49.4.2showstheeffectoftemperatureonthemodulusoftheORNLICmaterials,Ref.[496].The
retentionofstiffnessatelevatedtemperatures,suchasat600C,isviewedasoneoftheiradvantages.
Table49.42Nickelaluminides:Modulusatelevatedtemperature
Alloy
IC50
IC218
IC221
Temperature
Modulus
(C)
(GPa)
25
400
600
800
1000
1075
1097
25
400
600
800
1000
1075
1097
25
400
600
800
1000
1075
1097
171
150
148
118
93
53
226
167
171
80
216
-
49.4.2.3
Ductility
ForNi3Alborondopedmaterials,theductilitydecreasessubstantiallywithincreasingtemperature.A
pronouncedminimumisobservedbetween600Cto850Cfortestsconductedinair.Thiseffecthas
beenattributedtoembrittlementbygaseousoxygen.Itisimprovedwithchromiumadditionswhich
promoteformationofachromiumoxidefilmwhichactsasabarriertooxygen.
Ductility is affected by the processing route used. This too is linked with the presence of oxygen,
usuallyretainedinpowders.
49.4.2.4
Fatigue
Dataarelimitedonfatigueperformanceofthenickelaluminides.Table49.4.3givessomepreliminary
datafortheIC218andIC221materials,Ref.[496].
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Table49.43Nickelaluminides:PreliminaryfatiguetestdataforIC218andIC221
Fatiguedata
Alloy
IC218
Nf
(MPa)
(cycles)
605
641
690
793
862
690
741
793
862
910
>10-7
1.6 x 10-6
3.9 x 10-5
6.7 x 10-4
1.1 x 10-4
9.8 x 10-6
2.0 x 10-6
4.5 x 10-5
1.23 x 10-5
Condition
Hot extruded, cast billet.

Cold swage at RT.
+ 1050C/1 hour anneal
+ 800C/1 day
IC221
Testconditions:
1.5 x 10 4
Temperature600Cvacuum.
Triangularwavefunction,frequency20Hz.
R=min/max=1
49.4.2.5
Creep
Firstindicationsarethatnickelaluminidesinthecastconditionofferahighercreepresistance(700C
to900C)thanwroughtWaspalloy,butonlyamoderateimprovementinthewroughtcondition.This
observationrequiressubstantiationduringafulltestingprogramme.
49.4.3
The ability of Nickel aluminide materials to produce an alumina (Al2O3) film at 100C to 1100C
provides resistance to oxidation. However, nonchromiumcontaining alloys are sensitive to
embrittlement by gaseous oxygen causing a significant loss in ductility. The Crcontaining alloys
produceamixedAl2O3Cr2O3protectivecoatingtohelpresistembrittlement.
49.4.4
Aqueous corrosion
Nickelaluminides,notableNi3Aloffergoodresistancetothemajorityofcorrosivemedia.
49.4.5
Coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE)
Table49.4.4givessometypicalvaluesofCTEmeasuredforaNi3Albasedmaterial,Ref.[494],[496].
Themeasurementsweremadeaspartofaresearchprogrammeandarethereforeforguidanceonly.
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Table49.44Nickelaluminides:Coefficientofthermalexpansion
Alloy
Temperaturerange
CTE
(C)
(106/C)
27-327
427-727
727-1027
27-327
427-727
727-1027
Not stated
12.5
14.8
16.8
12.5
14.8
16.8
14.5
76%Ni-24%Al
75%Ni-25%Al
NiAl
49.5 Titanium aluminides

49.5.1
General
Thetitaniumaluminidematerialsarebasedoncompoundsof:
TiAl:titaniumaluminides(orderedfacecentredtetragonalL10structure)
Ti3Al:or2titaniumaluminides(orderedhexagonalD019structure).
Initialworkconcentratedonsinglephaseintermetallics,whicharedescribedinliteraturebytheirbase
compound,e.g.Ti3Al,orbytheirmetallurgicalstructure,e.g.2Ti3Al.
Furtherworkhasconsideredtwophaseintermetallicsinwhichthelimitationsofonecompoundcan
in theory be offset by the other. These tend to be described as titanium aluminides and are
technicallyadvancedandcommerciallyavailable.
[Seealso:49.9fororthorhombictitaniumaluminides]
49.5.2
Characteristics
Table49.5.1comparesthecharacteristicsofthetitaniumaluminidesystems,Ref.[494],[4924].
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Table49.51Titaniumaluminides:Comparisonofcharacteristics
Compound
Singlephase
-TiAl
Advantages Disadvantages
Density
Singlephase
-Ti3Al
Density
Two-phase
-TiAl
Density
Notes
Brittle
Oxidation
tolerance.
-
Additions of Nb to achieve
ductility but increase density.
For applications >700C, coating
advised.
Contains both TiAl and Ti3Al
compounds giving a controlled
amount of each phase, i.e. and 2
in the resulting microstructure.
Forspaceapplications,otherimportantcharacteristicsinclude,Ref.[4924],[4925]:
highelasticmodulus,
lowdensity,
highresistancetohydrogenabsorption,
goodoxidationresistance,
burnresistance(noselfignition).
Subsequent alloy developments (TiAl) have improved creep resistance and specific strengths such
thattheirpotentialservicetemperaturecanbeconsideredintherangeof700Cto950C,Ref.[4924].
49.5.3
Effect of micro-alloying or doping
49.5.3.1
General
Both the basic TiAl or Ti3Al compounds are inherently brittle from room temperatures up to
approximately600C.
Small additions of niobium, tungsten and vanadium (typically 0.5 to 10.0 atomic percent) doped or
microalloyedwiththebasecompoundsinducemoreusableductilities.
Table49.5.2liststhevarioustitaniumaluminidematerialsunderexamination,Ref.[4924].
49.5.3.2
Experimental alloys
Ofthese,theTi3Al+Nbserieswerethemostprominent.Althoughtheniobiumadditionsalsoassisted
inoxidationandcreepresistance,interestinthevarioustypematerialshasdiminishedinfavourof
theseries,Ref.[4922].
The molybdenum and vanadium additions assist rapid solidification by retaining certain
metallurgicalphases.Someofthesealloyshaveadditionsofrareearthelements.Theseareaddedto
enhancestrengthbydispersionhardening.
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Table49.52Titaniumaluminides:Typicalcompositions
Status
Experime
ntal
[1]
Nominalcomposition
Company/Organisation
Ti3Al-5Nb-1W(at%)
Ti3Al-15Nb(at%)
TiAl-2W(at%)
Ti3Al-1V(at%)
Ti-(17 to 37)Al-1Ru(at%)
Ti-(20.5 to 23.7)Al-(5 to 15)Nb3Zr + (0.3 to 0.9)Er2O3
Imperial College, UK.

Marko Materials Inc.
Wright-Patterson
AFB/Calspan
Wright-Patterson
AFB/Calspan
Wright-Patterson
AFB/Calspan
FESTIP (protective
coatings)
FESTIP (protective
coatings)
Ti-24Al-4Nb-4Mo-4V-0.45O
Ti-24Al-4Nb-4Mo-4V-0.2Er0.2Ce-0.20S-0.2Y-0.45O
Ti-24Al-4Nb-4Mo-4V-0.3Er0.3Ce-0.30S-0.2Y-0.45O
Ti-47Al-2Cr-0.2Si
Ti-47Al-2Cr-2Nb
Two-phase Ti - 45 to 48 Al - 0 to 3 (Cr, Mn,
V) - 0 to 5 (Nb, W, Ta) - 0 to 1
-TiAl
(Si, B)
[2]
Ti-48Al-2Cr
Typical Composition
Range (at%)
GE Alloy: Ti-48Al-2Cr-2Nb
Plansee GmbH
Developed by General
Electric, USA. [3]
Plansee GmbH
Key:[1] Underinvestigationinthe1980s.FESTIPevaluationcontinuedinthemidlate1990s.
[2] Technicallyadvancedandcommerciallyavailable.
[3] AsecondgenerationalloyforGE90aircraftenginepartsforBoeing777.
49.5.3.3
Two-phase alloys
Twophase TiAl based alloys contain both the TiAl phase and the 2Ti3Al phase. Their
metallurgicalcompositioncharacteristicscanbesummarisedas,Ref.[4924],[4925]:
The2Ti3Alphasescavengesoxygen,soincreasesthepurityhenceductilityofthephase.
Theamountof2phaseiscontrolledbytheAlcontentandadditionalelements.
AdditionsofCr,MnandVincreaseroomtemperatureductility.
AdditionsofNb,Wand,toalesserextentTa,improveoxidationresistanceandenhancecreep
propertiesbysignificantsubstitutionalsolidsolutionstrengthening.
AdditionsofB,SiandCprovideeffectivedispersionorprecipitationhardeningeffects.
IfBorSiexceedcertainlevels,boridesorsilicidesarepresent.
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Interstitial elements, such as O, N, C and B reduce ductility if levels exceed ~1000 ppm (by
weight).
Thecharacteristicsofthesealloysaredeterminedbytheirchemicalcompositionandmicrostructure.
[See:49.6].
49.6 Titanium aluminides: Properties

49.6.1
General
Dataarepresentedfor:
Experimental alloys (pre1990): Extracted from various research publications; mainly of US

origin.Theseshowthebasiccharacteristicsoftitaniumaluminidesandprovideabackground
tothefurtherdevelopments.
Twophase alloys (post1990): These compositions developed from the most promising
experimentalalloysandaresubjecttomoredetailedinvestigationsforaerospaceapplications.
Dependingonthecompositionandcondition,theinfluenceofthemicrostructureonproperties
canbesummarisedas,Ref.[4925]:
Coarsegrained, fullylamella: relatively good fracture toughness, excellent creep

resistancebutpoortensileductilityandstrengthespeciallyatRT.
Finegrained, near and duplex (low volume fractions of lamella grains): low fracture
toughness and creep resistance, but moderate tensile ductility and strength at RT and
elevated temperatures. An optimised finegrained lamella microstructure can provide
acceptablemechanicalperformance.
Orthorhombic phase alloys: Mainly under investigation as matrix phases for intermetallic matrix
composites(IMC),[See:49.10].
49.6.2
49.6.2.1
Tensile strength (Yield and UTS)
Table49.6.1givesexperimentalalloydatafromvariousresearchpublicationsontitaniumaluminides,
Ref.[491],[4910],[4911],[4912],[4913],[4924].
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Table49.61Titaniumaluminides:Mechanicalpropertiesformaterialsprocessedbydifferenttechniques
Temp
(C)
YS
(MPa)
UTS
(MPa)
Modulus
(GPa)
Elong
(%)
R of A
(%)
TiAl
335*
450
0.9
Ref. [49-10]
TiAl
176
L10 crystal structure,Ref. [49-1]
TiAl
176
Ti3Al
145
DO19 crystal structure, Ref. [49-1]
Ti3Al
145-110
Ref. [49-13]
Ref. [49-10]
Alloy composition
Notes
[Reference]
Condition
Experimental alloys
Ti3Al
Ti-14.2Al-21.5Nb(wt%)
TRW/PWA
Ti3Al Niobium Modified.

Crucible Materials Corp.
USA
550
20
709
743
1.4
0.7
"
696
759
1.5
1.6
"
689
791
1.6
2.4
204
578
748
3.9
4.0
"
588
731
3.0
3.2
"
601
695
2.0
2.8
649
429
686
18.4
23.3
"
426
683
18.8
27.2
"
444
650
19.1
17.5
20
608
722
1.3
1.6
"
608
728
1.2
4.3
649
385
601
13.0
21.5
"
385
576
16.0
24.8
RT(a)
510
606
RT(c)
530
592
<1
RT(d)
661
772
760(d)
303
558
14
20
425(b)
344
572
11
12
Powder Consolidation by HIP:

927C/207 MPa/2 hour 1177C/1
hr/Fan Cool. 760C/1 hr/Air Cool.
Precision Cast Part Corp. Ref. [49-12]
Cast + isoforged at 1068C +

1093C/0.5 hr/ Cool 260C/minute
760C/1 hr/Air Cool.
Exact composition not stated.

Data used for comparison with Powder Met
TRW experimental, Ref. [49-12]
1175C/0.5 hr/Air Cool +760C/1 hr/AC Powder Production by Plasma Rotating

+595C/8 hr/Vac Cool.
Electrode Process (PREP) consolidated by
HIP @ 1065C, Ref. [49-1]
1205C/0.5 hr/Fan Air Cool +760C.
Different Cooling Rates from Solution
Treatment Temperature:
1205C/0.5 hr/AC +760C/1 hr/ Vac
Cool.
(a) 50C/min
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Temp
(C)
YS
(MPa)
UTS
(MPa)
Modulus
(GPa)
Elong
(%)
R of A
(%)
540(b)
324
517
12
15
650(b)
282
468
13
20
760(b)
248
400
18
22
760(d)
241
386
14
15
Ti3Al-5Nb-1W
796*
920
0.4
Ti3Al-15Nb
4.9
TiAl-2W
642*
790
0.8
TiAl-1V
400
2.2
Ti-23.75Al-5Nb (at%)
650
270*
587
8.3
10.3
Alloy composition
Ti-21.25Al-15Nb (at%)
650
449
840
1.8
5.2
Ti-20.50Al-15Nb-3Zr
650
518
962
1.6
3.5
Ti-21.24Al-15Nb-0.3Er2O3
650
321
651
1.8
3.9
Ti-21.10Al-15Nb-0.6Er2O3
650
456
795
4.7
8.7
Ti-21.03Al-15Nb-0.9Er2O3
650
388
702
9.1
13.8
-196
577
172
Notes
[Reference]
Condition
1205C/0.5 hr/Oil Q + 760C/1 hr/Vac

Cool.
Not stated.
As-extruded.
(b) 60C/min
(c) 120C/min
(d) >280C/min
(e) >17000C/min
Ref. [49-10]
Melt Spun Ribbon-Pulverised-Hot Extruded,

Ref. [49-11]
Two-phase -TiAl alloys
Ti-48Al-2Cr
Ti-48Al-2Cr
Ti-48Al-2Cr
25
421*
432
109
600
323*
457
128
700
322*
512
115
31
700V
350*
562
56
800
292*
357
97
93
-196
559
160
25
407
162
0.4
600
376*
540
145
700
363*
524
112
54
700V
336*
508
66
800
313*
339
105
65
-196
625*
622
149
0.2
Ingot metallurgy.
Near- microstructure.
Ingot metallurgy.
Annealed: 700C/100hrs.
Ingot metallurgy.
Sheet test specimens,Ref. [49-24]
Sheet test specimens, Ref. [49-24]
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Alloy composition
Temp
(C)
YS
(MPa)
UTS
(MPa)
Modulus
(GPa)
Elong
(%)
R of A
(%)
25
440*
457
150
600
371*
567
136
700
366*
512
120
100
700V
394*
640
65
800
295*
327
104
89
-196
561
173
25
450*
453
146
600
345*
546
129
700
368*
487
100
112
700V
388*
509
65
800
281*
318
90
91
-196
617
171
25
451*
455
128
600
339*
499
119
700
356*
553
122
15
Ti-48Al-2Cr
Ti-48Al-2Cr-2Nb
700V
375*
620
19
800
337*
406
95
58
-196
526
170
153
600
338*
435
120
700
341*
498
93
10
359*
466
94
71
-196
625
169
25
518*
528
101
0.3
600
439*
632
92
700
392*
558
85
98
25
Ti-48Al-2Cr-2Nb
424*
426
700V
800
Ti-48Al-2Cr-2Nb
308*
370
Notes
[Reference]
Condition
PA - Primary annealed (after sheet

rolling):
1000C/2 hrs/vacuum.
Ingot metallurgy.
rolling):
1000C/2 hrs/vacuum.
Powder metallurgy.
Powder metallurgy.
Powder metallurgy.
rolling):
1000C/2 hrs/vacuum.
Ref. [4924]
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Alloy composition
Temp
(C)
YS
(MPa)
UTS
(MPa)
Modulus
(GPa)
Elong
(%)
R of A
(%)
Condition
Notes
[Reference]
700V
800
Ti-48Al-2Cr-2Nb
Key: * : 0.2% Yield Stress
420*
693
67
315*
418
79
80
-196
510
149
25
464*
466
119
600
443*
570
122
700
379*
543
102
89
700V
400*
550
66
800
357*
404
81
83
: Specimen failed near gauge clamp.
Powder metallurgy.
rolling):
1000C/2 hrs/vacuum.
V: Test temp., in vacuum.
At room temperature, the base TiAl and Ti3Al compounds are

brittle.
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ThedatafortwophasealloysaremeanvaluestakenfromaEuropeanmaterialcharacterisationstudy
forpotentialspaceapplications,Ref.[4924],[4925].Keyfeaturesinclude:
Ultimate tensile strength is temperature dependent. It reduces from 196C to RT, and then
surprisingly increases up to ~600C to 700C. Above this temperature, UTS reduces; as seen
withconventionalmetallicmaterials.
Yieldstressdecreasesby~28%betweenRTand~800CThissofteningbehaviourisdifferentto
thatofconventionalmetals.
49.6.2.2
Modulus
Forthebasicintermetalliccompounds,TiAlhasahighermodulusthanTi3Al,[See:Table49.6.1].For
twophasealloys,Ref.[4924],[4925]:
Asexpected,themodulusishighestat196C.
Stiffness generally decreases as temperature increases, as shown in Figure 49.6.1, Ref. [4924].
Thistrendwasdeterminedbymechanicaltesting(takingintoaccountscatteroriginatingfrom
strainmeasurements)andconfirmedbysonicmeasurements.
Mean values for PM and IM two-phase -Ti Al alloys, all conditions
Figure49.61Titaniumaluminides:EffectoftemperatureonYoungsmodulus
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49.6.2.3
Ductility
TheexperimentalalloyshavelowductilitiesatRTandintermediatetemperatures,[See:Table49.6.1].
Twophasealloysshowaductiletobrittletransition(DBTT)atabout700C,asshowninFigure49.6.2,
Ref.[4924].
Figure49.62Titaniumaluminides:TwophasealloysDuctilityversus
temperature
BelowtheDBTT,bothtwophasealloyshavelowductilities.AbovetheDBTT,plasticflowoccursthat
canresultinelongationsof120%ormore.
Ductilityisalsoinfluencedbytheprocessingroute(ingotorpowdermetallurgy)andmicrostructure
(conditionheattreatments),e.g.theneargammamicrostructureofPMTi48Al2Cr2Nbisgenerally
lower than for the primary annealed condition. Likewise the elongation behaviour of the near
structureandprimaryannealedconditiondifferbetween600Cand800C.
Nosignificantdifferenceinductilitywasseenwhentestedinairorinvacuum.
A typical elongation value of 1% to 2% at RT and 4% to 6% at 600C are intrinsic of intermetallic
materialsandshouldbetakenintoaccountinthedesign,Ref.[4924].
49.6.2.4
Fatigue
Limiteddatahavebeenpublishedonthefatiguebehaviouroftitaniumaluminidematerials.
A study on an experimental alloy (Ti16Al10Nb wt.%) showed that the fatigue crack growth
behaviourat650Cwasindependentofthemicrostructure.Anapparentthresholdof6.5MPamwas
determined. When compared with Rene 95 superalloy, as shown in Figure 49.6.1, the shapes of the
curvesaresimilarbutthecrackgrowthwasanorderofmagnitudehigherforthealuminide,Ref.[49
9].
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Figure49.63Titaniumaluminides:Comparisonoffatiguecharacteristicswith
Rene95superalloy
For-TiAlmaterialsatbothRTandelevatedtemperatures,fatiguecrackgrowthratesareconsiderably
higher than for superalloys. Finegrained materials(near and duplex) have considerably higher fatigue
crack growth rates (constant amplitude loading) than coarsegrained lamella structures, Ref. [4925]. [See
also:Fracturetoughness].
49.6.2.5
Fracture toughness
TheTiAlmaterialsexhibitaninverserelationshipbetweentensileductilityandfractureresistance.
Consequently,improvedductilitydoesnotconferimprovementsinfracturetoughness,Ref.[4925].
ForTiAlmaterials,fracturetoughnessisstronglylinkedtothemicrostructureand,inparticular,the
volumefractionoflamellagrainspresent.
For sheet materials, the relationship between fracture toughness and microstructure can be
summarisedasRef.[4925]:
Near-(0%lamella):12MPam
Duplex (20% lamella): 15MPam
Lamella(95%lamella):22MPam
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49.6.2.6
Creep
Table49.6.2indicatesthecreepperformanceofanexperimentalTi3Al+Nballoy,Ref.[492]andatitanium aluminide (Ti-48Al-2Cr) withanear microstructure, Ref. [49-25].
Table49.62Titaniumaluminides:Indicationofcreepproperties
Experimental alloy
Alloy
Condition
Ti3Al + Nb
PREP Powder HIP @

1065C+1205C/hr/A
gC 760C/1 hr/Vac.C
Key:
Plasticdeformation(%)
Stress
(MPa) 23hour 50hour 165hour
138
0.95
1.53
3.55
AgC:Argoncool.Testtemperature:760C.Vac.C:Vacuumcool
Two-phase -TiAl alloy

Max.stress(MPa)
Alloy
Ti-48Al-2Cr
Ti 1100
(0.2%creep/10hrs)
Condition
Near- microstructure
Sheet specimen
Conventional Ti-alloy
[For comparison]
700C
800C
~245
~140
~40
49.6.3
Ingeneral,thebasetitaniumaluminidecompoundsoffergoodoxidationresistancetoapproximately
650C. To enhance oxidation resistance of Ti3Al base experimental alloys, the creation of a TiAl3
surfacecoatingwassuggested.
Forlongtermexposureinanoxidisingenvironmentatabove700C,themechanicalperformanceof
twophasealloysislikelytodeteriorate.
ThetypesofoxidationresistantcoatingsconsideredwithinFESTIPare,Ref.[4923]:
preoxidation(SiO2pack).
silicide(SiCrB)bypackcementation.
aluminising(AlCrNb)byslurrydeposition.
coating(CoCrAlY)byplasmaspraying.
Coatings reduced the oxidation rate (by about 2 orders of magnitude) compared with the uncoated
alloy.
Modifiedaluminidecoatingsshowedgoodresistanceundercyclicoxidationtests.
[Seealso:Chapter74Protectivecoatings]
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49.6.4
Thermophysical properties
49.6.4.1
General
Thermal characteristics have been evaluated with respect to the potential application of titanium
aluminides on the external surfaces of spacecraft. Their high thermal conductivity enables higher
coolingefficienciesandlowerthermalstresses,whichisconsideredanimportantbenefitoverceramic
basedmaterialsforsimilarapplications,Ref.[4923],[4924].
[Seealso:Chapter82]
49.6.4.2
Thermal diffusivity
Figure 49.6.4 compares the thermal diffusivity of twophase titanium aluminide alloys from RT to
1200C;meanvaluesmeasuredbylaserflashmethod,Ref.[4924].
BetweenRTand~900C,theNbcontainingcompositionshowsa5to8%lowerthermaldiffusivity.
Temp.
[C]
40
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000
1100
1200
Ti48A12Cr (IIVI)
Near Gamma
6.93
7.36
7.72
7.99
8.20
8.52
8.70
8.77
8.81
8.73
7.79
7.16
6.72
Ti48Al2Cr2Nb (PM)
Primary Annealed
Near Gamma
6.51
6.21
6.71
6.50
7.06
6.85
7.46
7.24
7.68
7.49
7.93
7.70
8.16
7.90
8.22
8.02
8.29
8.02
8.26
8.15
7.33
7.30
6.88
6.87
6.44
6.40
Thermal Diffusivity a[cm 2/sec]*100
9
8
6
Ti48A12Cr (IIVI) Near Gamma
5
Ti48Al2Cr2Nb (PM) Primary Annealed

Ti48Al2Cr2Nb (PM) Near Gamma
4
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
Temperature [C]
Figure49.64Titaniumaluminides:TwophasealloysThermaldiffusivity
versustemperature
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49.6.4.3
Specific heat
Figure 49.6.5 compares the specific heat of twophase titanium aluminide alloys from RT to 1200C;
mean values measured by Differential scanning calorimeter (DSC), Ref. [4924]. No significant
differenceinspecificheatpropertiesisseenforthetwocompositions.
Temp.
[C]
50
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000
1100
1200
Ti48A12Cr (IM)
Near Gamma
0.619
0.640
0.669
0.689
0.704
0.719
0.735
0.779
0.803
0.847
0.901
0.963
1.109
Ti48Al2Cr2Nb (PM)
Primary Annealed
Near Gamma
0.598
0.609
0.631
0.634
0.655
0.657
0.672
0.673
0.688
0.688
0.701
0.7
0.714
0.713
0.766
0.769
0.791
0.792
0.832
0.829
0.892
0.884
0.958
0.945
1.12
1.072
1.3
1.2
Specific Heat cp [J/g K]
1.1
1
0.9
0.8
0.7
Ti48A12Cr (IM) Near Gamma
0.6
0.5
0.4
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
Tempera ture [C]
Figure49.65Titaniumaluminides:TwophasealloysSpecificheatversus
temperature
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49.6.4.4
Figure 49.6.6 compares the specific heat of twophase titanium aluminide alloys from RT to 1200C,
Ref.[4924].
Temp.
[C]
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000
1100
1200
Ti48Al2Cr (IM)
Near Gamma
17.9
19.6
20.8
21.7
23.0
23.9
25.4
26.2
27.3
25.8
25.2
27.1
Ti48Al2Cr2Nb (PM)
Primary Annealed
Near Gamma
16.6
16.1
18.0
17.5
19.5
18.9
20.5
19.9
21.5
20.8
22.4
21.6
24.1
23.6
25.0
24.2
26.1
25.6
24.7
24.4
24.8
24.4
26.9
25.6
30
28
26
24
22
20
18
Ti48Al2Cr (IM) Near Gamma

16
14
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
Thermal Conductivity k
[W/m K] of TiAl (calculated)
Figure49.66Titaniumaluminides:TwophasealloysThermalconductivity
versustemperature
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These values were calculated using the mean measured values for specific heat and density
measurementsatRT.
The small difference seen between the Nbcontaining and the Nbfree composition could be an
accuracyartefact(6%to8%)ratherthanarealeffect.
Changesinthecurveshapeswithincreasingtemperature,especiallythefallat~900Candsubsequent
increase>1100C,isrelatedtomicrostructuralphasechangesoccurringwithinthematerials.
49.6.4.5
Coefficient of thermal expansion
Earlyworkonanexperimentalalloy(Ti3Al+Nb)determinedaCTEof10x106/C.
Figure 49.6.7 compares the coefficient of thermal expansion of twophase titanium aluminide alloys
from RT to 1200C. CTE was measured by dilatometer with samples taken parallel to the rolling
direction,Ref.[4924].
Nosignificantdifferenceisseenbetweenthetwocompositions.
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Temp.
Ti48A12Cr (IM)
Ti48Al2Cr2Nb (PM)
[ C ]
Near Gamma
Primary Annealed
Near Gamma
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000
1100
1200
10.67
10.98
11.25
11.51
11.75
12.00
12.27
12.57
12.90
13.29
13.74
14.27
10.49
10.80
11.06
11.29
11.52
11.75
12.01
12.31
12.68
13.12
13.66
14.31
10.57
10.78
11.00
11.23
11.47
11.73
12.01
12.31
12.65
13.02
13.42
13.87
15
Thermal linear expansion

CTE [1/K x 10 -6]
14
13
12
Ti48A12Cr (IM) Near Gamma
11

10
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
Temperature [C]
Figure49.67Titaniumaluminides:TwophasealloysCoefficientofthermal
expansionversustemperature
49.7 Iron aluminides

49.7.1
Characteristics
49.7.1.1
General
InterestintheironaluminideslargelyfocusedontheFeAlcompound.Workonthismaterialandits
derivativeshasbeencoordinatedbyNASA,Ref.[494].
The FeAl system has a number of beneficial characteristics, notably the level of ductility at room
temperature.
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Table 49.7.1 compares the advantages and disadvantages of FeAl, Ref. [494]. Initial studies
concentratedontheFe40Al(atomicpercent)materials.
Table49.71Ironaluminides:Characteristics
Advantage
Ductility: 3 to 5% at RT
Cyclic oxidation resistance at 1000C.
Not susceptible to oxygen embrittlement at
intermediate temperatures.
Key:
Disadvantage
Melting point: 1340C
Density
Strength and creep resistance decreases
significantly at >700C
:Fe40Al(atomic%)isoneofthefewaluminidecompoundswithmeasurableductilityatRT.
Table 49.7.2 lists some of the alloys undergoing investigation, Ref. [494], [4914]. In general, iron
aluminidesareconsideredapossiblereplacementforsomestainlesssteelcomponents,perhapsalso,
innonaerospaceapplications.
Table49.72Ironaluminides:Compositionofdevelopmentmaterials
Composition
Fe-40Al (at.%)
Company
-
Fe-40Al-0.1Zr-0.2B (at%)
Case Western
Uni/NASA-Lewis
Notes
Zr (or Hf):
B:
Fe-40Al-0.1Zr-0.2B +
1vol%Y2O3
Key:
Case Western
Uni/NASA-Lewis
Y2O3:
Increase strength to
700C, typ. & maintain
ductility.
Aid low temperature
ductility.
Improve high
temperature strength by
ODS, but maintain
ductility.
at.%Atomicpercent;
vol%Volumepercent;
ODSOxidedispersionstrengthened.
49.7.1.2
Material properties
Figure49.7.1showstheroomtemperaturebehaviourofFe40Al(atomicpercent)withboronadditions
andindifferentconditions,Ref.[493].
Forcomparativepurposes,Figure49.7.2showstheeffectofconditioningandelevatedtemperatureon
thestrengthofY2O3oxidedispersionhardenedalloysystems,Ref.[4914].
Attempting to enhance mechanical properties above 700C by further alloy modifications can
seriouslyaffecttheotherbeneficialpropertiesoftheFeAlsystem.
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Figure49.71Ironaluminides:RoomtemperaturebehaviourofFe40Al(at.%)+
boronadditionsindifferentconditions
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Figure49.72Ironaluminides:Effectofconditioningandelevatedtemperatureon
strengthofYttriaODSalloysystem
49.8 Processing
49.8.1
Development
Thedevelopmentofintermetallicmaterialshasbeencoupledwithasignificanteffortdevotedtotheir
processing technology. This has partly been in an effort to find a method which did not cause a
deleteriouseffectonthepropertiesachievedbydopingormicroalloying,andpartlywiththeaimof
findingacosteffectivemethodofprocessingmaterialswithhighmeltingpoints.
Experience of processing conventional hightemperature materials, such as superalloys, has been
appliedtointermetallics.
49.8.2
Material processing
49.8.2.1
General
Manytechniqueshavebeenconsidered,including:
conventionalmetalprocessingmethods.
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ECSSEHB3220Part5A
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standardpowdermetallurgytechniques.
rapidsolidification.
Table 49.8.1 shows general guidelines as to the material processing methods applicable to the
aluminides, plus any obvious problems encountered, Ref. [491], [497], [4915], [4916], [4924], [49
25]. Each method has its own pros and cons. Most of the processing routes investigated require
optimising,e.g.temperaturesandtimes,coupledwithafullevaluationofthemechanicalproperties
attainedfromamaterialprocessedinaparticularway.ProcessingofTiAlmaterialshasundergone
significantlevelsofevaluation,Ref.[4925].
Table49.81Aluminides:Summaryofmanufactureandconsolidationtechniques
Manufacture
Consolidation
Notes
Nickelaluminides
Ingot by conventional
casting in air, vacuum &
argon.
Melt spinning for rapid
solidification ribbons.
Spray or plasma deposition
for near-net shapes.
Conventional powder
metallurgy processes.
Reactive sintering.
Hot extrusion, if
canned.
HIP.
Difficult to hot work
due to low ductility at
high temperatures +
oxygen embrittlement.
Cold work + anneal.
Materials produced by
rapid solidification/powder
routes tend to have
significant levels of oxygen
(surface:volume effect)
compared with those
produced by conventional
casting. Material
embrittlement by residual
oxygen has been noted.
Rapidly work hardens.
Titaniumaluminides
Conventional casting (to
815kg ingot).
Conventional powder
metallurgy processes.
PREP powder route.
Melt spinning for rapidly
solidified ribbons.
Hot extrusion, if
canned.
HIP.
Hot pressing.
Wrought material
processing (rolling to thin
sheet and foil).
Sheet forming:
conventional &
superplastic forming.
Ironaluminides
Conventional casting.
Powder metallurgy (also
ODS alloys).
Hot workable.
Hot extrusion.
These materials are

usually easier to fabricate.
49.8.2.2
Conventional techniques
TheTiAlmaterialscanbeprocessedby,Ref.[4925]:
Ingot metallurgy: using techniques that provide ingots with low interstitial impurity concentrations, such
as skull melting, vacuum arc melting, plasma melting.
Casting: ingots, investment casting, permanent die moulding casting(gravityorcentrifugalmethods)

to produce demonstrator nearnet shape components, such as compressor or turbine blades,
turbochargers, automobile exhaust valves. Porosity in castings is often consolidated by hot
isostaticpressing(HIP).
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Hot working:eitherassingleor,morerecently,multistepprocesses:
forging:gatorising,isothermalorquasiisothermal.
extrusion.
dieforging.
Hot working of cast products to provide wrought materials and semiproducts is usually
carriedoutbetween1100Cand1300Ctogiveafinegrainstructurethatcanthenbeoptimised
byfurtherheattreatment.
Heat treatment: used to create a variety of microstructures and therefore mechanical properties, [See also:
49.6].
Rolling:
sheet(<2mmthick)
foils(~100mthick).
Optimisingrollingprocessesisimperativeinordertoproducesheetandfoilofadequatesizes
and quality (crackfree, reliable mechanical performance) for the intended structural
componentsforhotsurfacesofspacevehicles.
49.8.2.3
Powder metallurgy (PM) techniques
Production of TiAl materials by PM techniques is an attractive alternative to the ingot route,

providedthatthelevelsofinterstitialelements(O,N,C,H)isstrictlycontrolled.Thishasmeantthe
useofcleanroomtypefacilitiesandimprovedconsolidationtechniques.Thestartingmaterialscanbe
either,Ref.[4925]:
Prealloyedpowders:producedby:
PREP(PlasmaRotatingElectrodeProcess).
TGA(TiGasAtomisationProcess).
Blendedelementalpowders.
Processingtechniquesusedtoproduceintermetallicphasesare,Ref.[4925]:
Reactivesintering:priortotheconsolidationprocess.
Reactivehotisostaticpressing(HIP):duringtheconsolidationprocess.
HotworkingprocessesusedforingotmetallurgyarealsoappliedtoHIPpedprealloyedpowders.
49.8.2.4
Sheet forming
Conventional metal forming techniques can be applied to TiAl materials, provided that their
deformationcharacteristicsarefullyconsidered.Onestepsheetbendingoperationshavebeenusedto
produce500mmlonghatstiffenercomponentsinTi48Al2Cr(near)alloy,Ref.[4925].
Dependingontheircomposition,grainsizeandstrainrate,TiAlmaterialsexhibitsuperplasticityin
thetemperaturerange800Cto1300C.InvestigationofTi48Al2Cralloysheetshasshownthatitcan
be superplastically formed (SPF) at temperatures <1000C. This means that SPF facilities used for
conventionaltitaniumalloyscanalsobeusedforcertainTiAlmaterials,Ref.[4925].
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49.8.3
Joining
49.8.3.1
General
Sincetheintermetallicsareintendedforhightemperatureservice,joiningtechniquessuchaswelding
ordiffusionbondingaremoreappropriatethanadhesivebonding.Significanteffortisbeingapplied
todevelopingtechniquesthatcanproducereliable,acceptablequality,durablejoints.Thisisseenkey
tothesematerial,especiallyaluminides,findingapplications.
[Seealso:Chapter58forjoiningofhightemperaturematerials]
49.8.3.2
Welding
For TiAl materials, methods that provide reliable joints exhibiting good mechanical performance,
especially below the ductiletobrittle transistion temperature (DBTT) have been evaluated, Ref. [49
25].
Owing to the relatively low ductility of the alloys, methods that minimise heat input, and therefore
residualstressesareappropriate,suchasCO2LaserWelding.Preheatingtheworkpiecetoabovethe
DBTT is also required to obtain sufficient material ductility to accommodate thermal loads without
crackingoncooling.
Other possible welding techniques that could prove suitable for TiAl are electronbeam (EB) and
frictionwelding.
49.8.3.3
Brazing
Hightemperature brazing can be an appropriate joining technique provided that the ductility of TiAl materials is taken into account in the selection of a suitable processing temperature, Ref. [49-25].
49.8.3.4
Diffusion bonding
TheabilitytodiffusionbondmaterialsduringSPFisasimportantforintermetallicsasitisforallother
materials.A-TiAl alloy (Ti-47Al-2Cr-0.2Si) has been successfully diffusion bonded at its SPF temperature,
Ref. [49-25].
49.9 Further developments

49.9.1
Intermetallic compounds
49.9.1.1
General
Table49.9.1summarisessomeotherintermetalliccompounds,Ref.[4914].Refractorymetalsilicides
(MoSi2,NbSi2)werenotconsideredundertheFESTIPprogrammeduetotheirlimiteddevelopment,
Ref.[4923].
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Table49.91Furtherdevelopment:Intermetalliccompounds
Group
Compound
Advantages
Nb3Al
Melting point
NbAl3
Aluminide
TiAl3
Ti2AlNb *
Silicide
Berylide
Melting point
Density
Density
Oxidation (1)
Creep (1)
Ductility (2)
MoAl3
Melting point
Ti5Si3
Density
Nb5Si3
Melting point
Nb2Be17
Melting point
ZrBe13
Melting point
Key:
Oxidationindicatesmodestresistancetooxygen.
*Orthorhombicphase
(1)comparedwithconventionalneartitaniumalloys.
(2)comparedwithTiAl.
Disadvantages
Brittle
Oxidation
Brittle
Oxidation
Brittle
[Not stated]
Brittle
Oxidation
Brittle
Brittle
Oxidation
Brittle
Oxidation
Brittle
Oxidation
49.9.1.2
Titanium aluminides
Of the aluminides, titaniumbased compositions are undergoing significant further developments in

chemicalcomposition,processingandpropertycharacterisation,Ref.[4923].
The main disadvantage of intermetallics is their brittleness. The orthorhombic titanium aluminides
(based on the Ti2AlNb compound) offer improved ductility at ambient temperatures, e.g. ~16%,
dependingontheirmicrostructure,Ref.[4919].
Oxidation resistance remains an important characteristic for the applications currently under
consideration for intermetallics, i.e. in engines and spaceplanes. Those materials having modest
oxidationresistancerequiredevelopmentofsuitableprotectivecoatingsiftheyaretobeused.
49.9.2
Intermetallic matrix composites (IMC)
Mainlyowingtotheirductilityatambienttemperatures,orthorhombictitaniumaluminides,basedon
Ti2AlNb,arebeingconsideredforthematrixphaseofSiCreinforcedcompositematerials,Ref.[4919].
[See:49.10IntermetallicMatrixComposites]
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49.9.3
Protective coatings
Multilayertitaniumaluminidecoatingsareunderdevelopmentfortitaniumbasedmaterials.Theaim
is to improve the oxidation resistance of either conventional alloys or titanium matrix composites
(TMC), Ref. [4919]. These multilayer coatings are applied by a magnetron sputtering technique,
developedbyDLR.Theyconsistof,Ref.[4919]:
singlelayers:sequenceofTi3Al,TiAlandTiAl3,
gradient coatings: continuously increasing Alcontent towards the coatingenvironment

interface.
Multilayercoatingshavedemonstratedtheireffectivenessasoxidationprotectionforshorttermhigh
temperaturesandlongtermapplicationsattemperaturesupto600C,Ref.[4919].
For high temperature applications (between 600C and ~900C), coatings based on phase
(Ti25Al67Cr8) and twophase TiAl+Laves phase compositions were investigated. Of these, the
chromiumcontainingcoatingsareundergoingfurtherevaluation,Ref.[4919].
49.10 Intermetallic matrix composites

49.10.1 General
The IMC materials could provide opportunities to save weight on components destined for high
temperatureapplications.Theirpotentialroleis:
replacingconventionalmetals,whichtendtobecomparativelydense,suchsuperalloys.
extendingtheoperationalservicetemperatures,e.g.titaniumbasedmaterials.
Thereareongoingresearchanddevelopmentstudiesaimedatestablishingwhetheritistechnically
andeconomicallyviable.
49.10.2 Development
Higherspecificpropertiescanbeobtainedfromintermetalliccompoundsiftheyarecombinedwitha
reinforcementtoproduceanintermetallicmatrixcomposite(IMC).
Table 49.10.1 summarises the reinforcements and matrix material combinations, Ref. [494], [4917],
[4918],[4919],[4926].
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Table49.101Intermetallicmatrixcomposites:Summaryofcompoundsand
reinforcements
Matrix
Nickel aluminides:
[1]
Reinforcements
NiAl
Ni3Al
TiAl
Ti3Al
SiC
TiB2
TiC
C
Al2O3
Titaniumaluminides:
[2,3]
Ti2AlNb
SiC[SCS6]
[4]
SiC[SigmaSM1140+]
Iron aluminides:
FeAl
Niobium aluminides:
Nb3Al
NbAl3
Key: [1]
IC221/TiC particulate reinforcement. IC221/Al2O3 fibre reinforcement,

Ref. [49-17].
[2] Ti3Al + Nb/Al2O3 fibre reinforcement. These materials have comparable
CTE values of 10x10-6, typically. Ref. [49-4].
[3] Ti3Al + Nb/SiC fibre reinforcement, Ref. [49-18].
[4] Orthorhombic phase: Composition Ti-22Al-25Nb, Ref. [49-19] or Ti25Al-25Nb, Ref. [49-26].
Ofthese,titaniumaluminidesareconsideredthemostpromisingoptions.InitialstudiescoveredTiAl
andTi3Alcompoundswhichsufferedfromanumberofproblems,including,Ref.[4926]:
lowductilityandtoughnessatRT.
lackofductilityatthefibrematrixinterface.
embrittlementwhenexposedtoairatelevatedtemperatures.
More recent European work has concentrated on the Ti2AlNb compound which offers improved
propertycombinationsatRTandelevatedtemperatures,Ref.[4919],[4926].
Table49.10.2liststheperceivedrequirementsofareinforcementforIMCmaterials,Ref.[494],[4917].
These are very exacting, e.g. CTE matching between fibre and matrix, and it is likely that a
compromiseisneededtobereachedindevelopingsuchfibres.
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Table49.102Intermetallicmatrixcomposites:Requirementsforareinforcement
fibre
Mechanical
Physical
Other
High stiffness.
High temperature.
High melting point.
Low density.
CTE to match matrix.
Chemical compatibility.
Good oxidation resistance.
Ease of handling (spoolability).
Capable of mass production.
49.10.3 High temperature Ti-based IMC

49.10.3.1 General
Longtermoperationattemperatures>500Ccannotbeachievedbyconventionalnearalphatitanium
alloyMMC.Fortemperaturesupto700C(longterm)or1000C(shortterm)thekeycharacteristics
are,Ref.[4919]:
matrixhightemperatureproperties,
fibrematrixinterfacestability,
creepresistanceofthematrix.
Additionally,thematrixrequiresalevelofductilityatambienttemperaturesinordertheexploitthe
potential reinforcement strength. A brittle matrix phase, or brittle surface layers, drastically reduces
thecompositetensileproperties,Ref.[4919].
49.10.3.2 Matrix
In general terms, TiAl and Ti3Al compounds exhibit a high modulus, ductilities <3% at ambient
temperaturesandhighCTE.Thecompositesproducedwiththesematriceshavehighresidualstresses
thatnegatethebenefitofthematrixoxidationresistance,Ref.[4919].
Dependingonthemicrostructure,orthorhombicphaseTi2AlNbcompoundscanprovideductilitiesof
up to 16% at RT, i.e. comparable with conventional near titanium alloys, but with improved
oxidationandcreepresistance,asshowninFigure49.10.1,Ref.[4919].
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Figure49.101Intermetallicmatrixcomposites:Characteristicsoforthorhombic
phasetitaniumaluminidematrix
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49.10.3.3 Reinforcement fibre

The development of orthorhombic TiAl matrix IMC has used SiC monofilaments, mainly because
thesehavebetterchemicalcompatibilityforTibasedintermetallicmatrices:
standard grade SCS6 silicon carbide monofilament (140m dia.). This fibre has also been
evaluatedinconventionaltitaniumalloymatrixcomposites(TMC),Ref.[4919].
carboncoated(4.5mthick)SigmaSM1140+SiCmonofilament(100mdia.),Ref.[4926].
Theinclusionofthereinforcementgenerallyreducesthematrixductility.Thiseffecthasbeenseento
be more severe for high monofilament diameters. The monofilament protective coating can be
consumedduringprocessing.Useofathickercoatingisseentoprotectthefibrewithoutstrengthloss,
Ref.[4926].
49.10.3.4 Processing
Amagnetronsputteringmethod,developedasafibrecoatingtechniquebyDLR,wasusedtodeposit
thematrix.Theasprocessedmatrixcontainsthreeorderedphases(2,andorthorhombic),Ref.[49
19].
A foilfibrefoil technique, developed by Insamet, was used to produce layups with 5 matrix foils
(125mthick)and4unidirectionalreinforcementplies.Thesewerethenconsolidatedbyhotpressing
undervacuum.
Figure49.10.2summarisesthevariousmanufacturingsteps,Ref.[4926].Theconsolidatedcomposite
containedthreematrixphases(2,0andorthorhombic),plussomeunwantedcarbidesattributedto
incompletebinderremoval.
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Monofilament winding
Filament wound onto a mandrel.
Winding pitch to give 35% volume fraction (taking into

account foil thickness & monofilament diameter).
Spray-applied polystyrene-based.
Used to maintain monofilament spacing during ply cutting

and lay-up stages.
Binder
Binder removed before consolidation, by typical heat-treatment:

400C for 2 hrs.
Lay-up
Matrix foils cleaned and degreased.
Chemical pickling (Krolls reagent) to promote bonding.
4-ply
[0] 4 SM1140+/Ti-25Al-25Nb (35% volume
fraction).
Alternate plies of reinforcement and matrix foils:
Reinforcemnt direction corresponds to rolling direction of matrix

foil.
Consolidation
Graphite mould (lower cost, easily machined & less

reactive with matrix than Ni-, Cr- or Co-based hightemperature mould materials).
Thin boron nitride layer applied to mould surface (to

prevent chemical reaction between matrix and mould).
Typical processing conditions for acceptable

composite: 1050C, 100MPa, 2 hrs.
Post-consolidation slow cooling (5C/min) to 650C

to relax residual stresses forming at the
reinforcement/matrix interface.
Acceptable composite: fully densified, good bonding with <0.5m

matrix/reinforcement reaction zone.
Figure49.102Intermetallicmatrixcomposites:TiAl/SiCcompositeInsamet
foilfibrefoilprocessingsteps
The effect of processing parameters (temperature, pressure, time) on composite consolidation were
investigatedandcanbesummarisedas,Ref.[4926]:
Temperature: Between 1000 to 1100C (under transus) was selected to be high enough to
produce acceptable matrix flow, but as low as possible to limit oxygen contamination and
deleteriouschemicalreactions.
A reaction zone 1m can seriously affect mechanical performance, whereas >0.5m can be
beneficial.Highlyreactivematrixphasescouldrequirelowerthicknessreactionzones.
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Pressure: 100MPa is high enough to enable acceptable matrix flow, but low enough to limit
reinforcementdamageandmovementofthereinforcement.
A gradual pressure increase was used to prevent damage to the reinforcement or graphite
mould.
Time:Between1to4hrs,relatedtotemperatureandpressureincludinga2hrisothermal(400C
or 500C) binder removal step. Postconsolidation slow cooling enables relaxation of residual
stresses(atthefilamentmatrixinterface).
Properbinderremovalisessentialtoavoidincorrectcompositeconsolidationorformationofbrittle
phasesatreinforcementmatrixinterfaces.
49.10.3.5 Composite properties

A tensile strength at RT of up to 2080MPa gives a broad indication of the mechanical performance
possibleforSCS6/Ti22Al25Nbcomposite,producedbythesputteringmethod,Ref.[4919].
For 4ply [0]4 SM1140+/Ti25Al25Nb composites (35% volume fraction), threepoint bend tests
providedsomepreliminaryvaluesfromtheprocessingstudy,Ref.[4926]:
Flexuralmodulus:120GPa
Maximumstress:1700MPa
Theflexuralmoduluswasconsideredtobelowerthanexpectedduetotheincompletebinderremoval
causingformationofcarbidesandreducingloadtransferfromthematrixtothereinforcement.
Publishedmechanicalpropertydataislimited.
49.11 Intermetallics: Potential applications

49.11.1 General
Oftheoriginalgroupsofintermetallics(Ni,FeandTibased),titaniumaluminidesareapproaching
thepositionwheretheycancompetewithsuperalloysbyofferingweightreductions,andtitaniumfor
elevatedtemperatureapplications.
ThetemperaturerangesinwhichTibasedintermetallicscancompetewithconventionalmaterialson
specificstrengthisshowninFigure49.11.1,Ref.[4919].
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CFRP
h
t
g
n
e
rt
S
cif Ti-based Intermetallic
i
Comp osite
c
e
p
S
High Temperature
Ti-based Intermetallic
Composite
Alp ha -Beta
Near-Alp
ha
Tita nium Allo
ys
Titan
ium
Alum
ini d
es
Ni-based Alloys
RT
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
Temperature [C]
Figure49.111Intermetallics:PotentialapplicationsElevatedtemperature
specificstrengthsofmaterials
ThespecificstrengthadvantagesofTiAlcouldreplacesomesuperalloysincompressorcomponents,
andtheirhightemperaturepropertiescouldhavesimilarresultsinotherengineparts.Forexample,
Ref.[4922]:
A demonstrator centrifugal compressor diffuser made of Ti48Al2Nb2Cr to replace IN718

provideda45%weightsaving.
TheUSJointTechnologyAdvancedGasGenerator(JTAGG)includedaTiAldiffuser.
InotherUSprogrammes,atarget80%increaseinpowertoweightratioanda30%reductionin
specificfuelconsumption,impliestheuseoftitaniumaluminidesifthisistobeachieved
Theincreasetheoperatingspeedandtemperatureofturbinedisksatboththerimandthebore
continues. The major US and European engine manufacturers are conducting independent
assessmentsoftitaniumaluminidesforsuchuses,Ref.[4920].
Orthorhombictitaniumaluminidecouldprovetobeasignificantmaterialfortheseapplications.
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49.11.2 Spaceplanes
Initially, the majority of intermetallic developments were in the USA. This largely used NASP
development programmes to progress the technology of these materials. Work continues under the
variousXprogrammevehicles.
InEurope,internationalandnationalbasedspaceplanedevelopmentstudies,includingFESTIP,have
also concentrated on the group of titanium aluminides for high temperature applications. For
example:
TiAl Alloys: for outer skin structures(up to800C). Demonstrator components,asshownin

Figure49.11.2havebeenmanufacturedbyPlansee(Austria),Ref.[4921].
TiAlmatrixcomposites:SiCfilamentreinforcedorthorhombictitaniumaluminide,Ref.[4919],
[4925].
MultilayerTiAlprotectivecoatings:onconventionaltitaniumalloysandTMCs,Ref.[4919].
Figure49.112Intermetallics:PotentialapplicationsOuterskinstructuresfor
spaceapplications
49.12 References
49.12.1 General
[491]
H.A.Lipsitt
TitaniumAluminidesFutureTurbineMaterials
WrightPattersonAirForceBase.AdvancedHightemperaturealloys:
ProcessingandProperties.ProceedingsoftheN.J.GrantSymposium,
June1985,p157164.ASMpublication
[492]
C.F.Yoltonetal
PowderMetallurgyofTitaniumAluminideComponents
TitaniumRapidSolidificationTechnology.EditedbyF.H.Froes&D.
Eylon1986TMSAIMEAnnualMeeting
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[493]
PowderMetallurgyofAluminideIntermetallics
MetalPowderReport,February1987,p8489
[494]
J.R.Stephens&M.V.Nathal
StatusandPrognosisforAlternativeEngineMaterials
NASALewisResearchCentre.TechnicalMemorandum108903
September1988
[495]
C.T.Liu
DevelopmentofNiandNiFeAluminidesforElevatedTemperature
StructuralUse
MiCon86:OptimisationofProcessing,PropertiesandService
PerformanceThroughMicrostructuralControl.ASTMSTP979,p222
237,1988
[496]
NickelAluminidesOakRidgeNationalLaboratoryLiterature,1988
[497]
A.I.Taubetal
EffectsofTestingEnvironmentontheElevatedTemperature
DuctilityofBorondopedNi3Al
[498]
C.T.Liu&V.K.Sikka
NickelAluminidesforStructuralUse
JournalofMetals,May1986,p1921
[499]
M.A.Stucke&H.A.Lipsitt
TheEffectofHeatTreatmentontheFatigueCrackGrowthBehaviour
ofTi3Al+Nb
TitaniumRapidSolidificationTechnology.MetallurgicalSociety
Conference,1986,p255262
[4910]
A.Khateeetal
NewTitaniumAluminiumXAlloysforAerospaceApplications
Journal,MaterialsEngineering,Vol.10,No.1,1988p3744
[4911]
S.C.Jhaetal
MicrostructureofTi3Al+NbProducedviaRapidSolidification
Processing
MaterialsScienceandEngineering,98(1988)p395397
[4912]
PowderMetallurgyofAluminideIntermetallics
MetalPowderReport,February1988,p8890
[4913]
J.Subrahmanyam
CyclicOxidationofAluminizedTi14Al24NbAlloy
[4914]
S.Strothers&K.Vendula
HotExtrusionofB2IronAluminidePowders
MetalPowderIndustriesFederationandAmericanPowder
ProcessingInstituteConference1987,p597610
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[4915]
D.M.Simsetal
ReactiveSinteringofNickelAluminide
1987AnnualPowderMetallurgyConference,Dallas,Texas
May1720,1987.p575596
[4916]
A.I.Taub&KMChang
ElevatedtemperatureEmbrittlementofRapidlySolidifiedNickel
baseAlloysinOxygen
ProcessingofStructuralMaterialsbyRapidSolidificationProceedings
oftheSymposiumonEnhancedPropertiesofStructuralMetalsby
RapidSolidification,Orlando,Florida
Oct.69,1985.p437444.ASMPublication
[4917]
G.E.Fuchs&W.H.Kao
DevelopmentofIntermetallicMatrixCompositesforElevated
TemperatureService
ModernDevelopmentsinPowderMetallurgy.Proceedingsofthe
InternationalPowderMetallurgyConference,Orlando,FloridaJune5
10,1988.Volume20,p531542
[4918]
P.K.Brundley
DevelopmentofaNewGenerationofHighTemperatureComposite
Materials
Aeropropulsion87.Session1AeropropulsionMaterialsResearch.
p7387.ConferenceatNASALewisResearchCenterClevelandOhio.
November1719,1987
[4919]
J.Kumpfertetal:DLRCologne,(D)
AdvancedTMCsforHighlyLoadedComponents
Materials&MechanicalTesting.Braunschweig,Germany.46
November1998.ESASP428,p315320
[4920]
ExtractfromONERA(F)website:www.onera.fr(April2003)
[4921]
ExtractfromPlanseewebsite:www.plansee.com(April2003)
[4922]
Dr.W.Eisenetal:
PowderMetallurgySuperalloys
MaterialsWorld,Vol.4,(1996),p2224
[4923]
H.Kringsetal:MANTechnologie,(D)
FESTIP:TechnologyDevelopmentinMaterails
ProceedingsofConferenceonSpacecraftStructures,Materials&
MechanicalTesting,Noordwijk(NL).2729March1996.ESASP386
(June1996),p10851096
[4924]
G.Korbetal:Seiberdorf/Plansee,(A)
Characterisationoftitaniumaluminideintermetallics
ESTECContractARCS/SNo.8198/89/NL/PB(WONo.34)
ESAMetallurgyReportNo.2317(December1996)
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[4925]
H.Clemensetal:PlanseeAktiengescellschaft,(A)
IntermetallicGammaTitaniumAluminidesPotentialCandidates
forSpacecraftStructures
ProceedingsofConferenceonSpacecraftStructures,Materials&
MechanicalTesting,Noordwijk(NL).2729March1996.ESASP386
(June1996),p12971304
[4926]
J.Coletoetal:Insamet,(E)
DevelopmentofnewOrthorhombic(Ti25Al25Nb)/SiCIntermetallic
CompositesforAdvancedSpaceApplications
Materials&MechanicalTesting.Braunschweig,Germany.46
November1998.ESASP428,p301308
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50 Refractory and precious metals

50.1 Introduction
This chapter provides a basic description of the Refractory Metals and Precious Metal Group
(PMG). They all have high melting points (1800C to 3500C) and are of primary interest for
propulsionsystemsandthinfilmprotectivecoatings.
[Seealso:Chapter74forprotectivecoatings]
50.2 Materials
50.2.1
General
Thekeymaterialsare:
Platinum
Rhodium
Iridium
Rhenium
Molybdenum
Tungsten
Tantalum
Niobium
50.2.2
Characteristics
Thematerialsareofinterestforsuchcharacteristicsas:
veryhighthermalstability.
inertness.
oxidationresistance.
corrosionresistance.
Thematerialslistedhavethesecharacteristicstovaryingdegrees,withsomebeingbetterthanothers.
Theyallhavehighdensities.Table50.2.1identifiestheirmainfeatures.
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Table50.21Refractoryandpreciousmetals:Attributesanddisadvantages
Metal
Niobium (Nb)
Molybdenum
(Mo)
Tantalum (Ta)
Rhenium (Re)
Tungsten (W)
Platinum (Pt)
Rhodium (Rh)
Iridium (Ir)
Attributes
Disadvantages
Ductile
High melting point
Ductile
High melting point
Ductile
Very high melting point
Good thermal conductivity
Ductile
High strength
Ductile
High thermal conductivity
High strength
Ductile
Very oxidation resistant
High thermal conductivity
High strength
Very oxidation resistant
Ductile
High strength
High melting point
Modest oxidation
resistance
Modest oxidation
resistance
Modest oxidation
resistance
Modest oxidation
resistance
High density
Brittle below 400C
High density
Expensive
High density
Very expensive
Expensive
High density
50.2.3
Basic properties
Table50.2.2liststhebasicpropertiesoftherefractoryandpreciousmetalsgroup.PtRhcompositions
areusedforthermocouples.
Table50.22Refractoryandpreciousmetals:Basicphysicalproperties
Metal
Niobium (Nb)
Molybdenum
(Mo)
Tantalum (Ta)
Rhenium (Re)
Tungsten (W)
Platinum (Pt)
Rhodium (Rh)
Iridium (Ir)
Key
Density
MeltingPoint
CTE
ThermalConductivity
(kgm3)
(C)
(106C1)
(Wm1C1)
8570
2468
7.2
53.7
10220
2617
5.1
138
16600
21000
19300
21450
12400
22400
2996
3180
3410
1772
1965
2410
6.5
6.6
4.5
9.0
8.5
6.8
57.4
48.0
173
71.6
150
147
:Indicativepropertiesatroomtemperature.
:PreciousMetalsGroup
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50.2.4
Alloys
Themetalsareusedinalloyform.CommonexamplesareshowninTable50.2.3.
Table50.23Refractorymetalalloys:Examples
Composition
Alloy
Nb-10Hf-1Ti
Nb-10W-10Hf-0.1Y
Mo-0.5Ti-0.02C
Mo-1Ti-0.3Zr
Mo-0.5Ti-0.1Zr
Ta-2.5W
Ta-7.5W
Ta-10W
C-103 for Thrusters

C-129Y
Alloy 362
TZC
TZM
Tantaloy 63
Tantaloy 61
Tantaloy 60
50.3 Applications
Forspaceapplications,refractoryandpreciousmetalsareprincipallyusedfor:
Propulsionsystemitems(hotgasenvironment),and
Thinfilms,i.e.protectiveandinertcoatings.
The combination of good thermal conductivity and very high temperature stability continues to
dictate the use of these materials in close proximity to hot gas streams within propulsion systems.
Theirveryhighdensitiesremainarestrictingfactorandsoprecludesthemfromstructures.
[See:Chapter48forcoatingsappliedtosuperalloys;Chapter74forprotectivecoatings]
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51 Beryllium
51.1 Introduction
As a structural material, beryllium has a number of highly desirable characteristics. These are,
however, offset by some significant disadvantages. This has left beryllium as an underutilised
materialrequiringspecialistexpertiseandfacilities.
Thischapterdescribesthecharacteristicsofthevariousberylliumgrades,alongwithtypicalproperty
data.Theeffectoftemperatureonbothmechanicalandphysicalpropertiesisgiven.
Comments on the safety aspects of working with beryllium are summarised, along with a list of
Europeanorganisationswithexpertiseinthefabricationofberylliumstructures.
Fordesigndata,refertoMILHDBK5,Ref.[514].
51.2 Characteristics
51.2.1
Features
Table51.2.1summarisestheadvantagesandproblemsassociatedwithusingberyllium.
Table51.21Beryllium:Characteristics
Attributes
Limitations
3
Low density: 1860 kg/m

Exceptional strength & stiffness: E = 303 GPa.
High temperature stability
Excellent electrical & thermal conductivity
Low coefficient of thermal expansion
Brittleness
Notch sensitivity
Modest fracture toughness
Toxicity of beryllium oxide
51.2.2
Applications
Theattributesindicatesuitabilityforapplicationsrequiring:
dimensionalstability,
rigidity,and
thermalresistance.
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Thelimitationsimply:
damageintolerance,
joiningproblems,and
uncertaintyonstructuralintegrity.
Successfulapplicationsshowthatthesedisadvantagescanbeovercome.Thetoxicityissueisresolved
byusingdedicatedmachiningfacilities.
51.3 Products and facilities

51.3.1
Source
Allberylliummaterialproductsoriginatefromasinglesource:BrushWellmanInc.,USA.
51.3.2
Materials
51.3.2.1
Processes
Hotpressedpowders:Themajorityofgradescanbesubsequentlyworked.
Castingfrommeltsisalsofeasible.
Metalworking,toachievetherequiredfinalproductform,e.g.:
rolling,
extrusion,
forging,
forming,or
machining.
51.3.3
Grades
Table51.3.1showsavailableberylliumgrades,optimisedforspecificapplications.
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Table51.31Beryllium:Grades
Grade
S-200-E
S-200-F
S-200-FH
SR-200-E
S-65
O-50
I-70
I-220
I-400
PF-10
PF-60
B-26-D
SP-200F
SP-65
IP-70
Beryl-coat
Quality
Standard
Sheet
Structural (ductility)
Optical (isotropic)
Instrument (stability)
Foil (purity)
Foil
Casting
Structural
High purity
Optical
Corrosion resistance
Production
Hot pressed
Vacuum hot pressed (VHP)
Hot isostatic pressed (HIP)
VHP & Hot rolled
Hot pressed
HIP (high density)
Hot pressed
Hot pressed
Hot pressed
Hot pressed & rolled to <3mm
Hot pressed & rolled to <3mm
Vacuum melted
Impact grinding
Coating of Be
Key Powder
Certainpropertiescanbeselectivelyenhanced,e.g.:
ductility,
isotropy,
stiffness,
purity,
thermalordimensionalstability.
51.3.4
Fabrication
51.3.4.1
General
Variouspointscanbemadetoclarifyaspectsofberylliumtechnology:
The properties of powderbased beryllium are influenced by particle size, oxide content and
impurities.
Vacuumhotpressingistheprincipalformofpowderconsolidationwithhotisostaticpressing
(HIP)usedforhighpuritygradestominimiseporosity.
Machiningofberylliumrequiresprecisionandsharpcuttingtoolstoavoidsurfacedamage.
Machiningisundertakeninacleanenvironmenttoavoidmaterialcontaminationandtorestrict
thetoxicmaterial.
Toavoidmechanicaldamage,electricaldischargemachining(EDM)orelectrochemicalmilling
(ECM)canbeusedforcutting.
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Machined beryllium is always etched to remove a surface layer (0.1 to 0.25 mm) to eliminate
surfacedefects.
Beryllium can be worked by hot forming, preferably by bending and rolling, which utilise
compressiveratherthantensilestresses.
Brazing is an accepted form of joining, with aluminium as the principal braze material. Zinc
andsilvercanalsobeused.
Acompletedberylliumassemblycanbecoated(Berylcoat)toprovidecorrosionprotectionand
sealthesurfaceoxide.
Asizerestrictionof1.2m2existsonmaterialobtainableinhotpressedform.
Berylliumproductsaresensitivetomachininginducedsurfacedamage,i.e.possiblesourcesof
fractureinitiation.
51.3.4.2
Facilities
In the USA, the major source is Brush Wellman. Within Europe, organisations with expertise in
Berylliumare:
W.C.Heraeus(D):
SAGEM(F):
51.3.4.3
Joining
Mechanical fastening can be used for joining despite the weaknesses that machined holes induce in
thematerial.Brazingandadhesivebondinghavebeensuccessfullyapplied.
51.4 Properties
51.4.1
Influence of microstructure
Thepropertiesofberylliumgradesareprincipallydeterminedbythemicrostructure,inparticular:
grainsize,
oxidecontent
Twoparametersdominate:
Yieldstrengthandelongation(ductility)increaseasgrainsizediminishes,withdependenceon
(grainsize)
Increaseddispersedoxidecontentimprovesthemicroyieldstrength,i.e.thestressrequiredto
producethefirstpermanentstrainof1x106or1x104%.
51.4.2
Grades
Therearethreebasicgradesofberyllium:
Structural.
Optical.
Instrument.
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51.4.3
Table51.4.1providesmechanicaldataonarangeofberylliumgrades.
Structuralgrades:S200E,S200FandS65arewidelyused.SheetgradeSR200Eexhibitshigh
strengthsandductility.
Instrument grades: Use both fine grain and highly dispersed oxide content to ensure high
microyieldstrengths.I220andI400arethemostrecognisedgrades.
Optical grades: e.g. I70, are a high purity composition and hot pressed to give an isotropic
material.
Table51.41Berylliumgrades:Compositionandtensileproperties
Composition
Grade
TensileProperties
Be
(min)
BeO
(max)
UTS
(MPa)
YS
(MPa)
Elong
(%)
Note
Bal.
S-200-E
98.0
2.0
<0.2
276
207
S-200-F
98.5
1.5
<0.2
325
242
S-65
99.0
1.0
<0.1
290
207
I-70
99.0
0.7
<0.2
242
173
I-220
98.0
2.2
<0.2
380
276
I-400
94.0
4.3
<0.3
346
Standard
Quality
High
ductility
High purity
High
stability
Regular or
selected
grade
SR-200E
98.0
2.0
<0.2
484
346
10
Sheet 7mm
51.4.4
Effect of temperature
51.4.4.1
General
Berylliumhasameltingpointof1285C,whichisnotparticularlyhigh,butdespitethisitisusedin
hightemperature(to760C)applicationsforitsexcellentthermalconductivityandheatcapacity.
51.4.4.2
For hightemperature applications, the residual mechanical properties of beryllium should be

established.Aswithallmetals,propertiesarealsodependentonthethermalandmechanicalworking
history. Table 51.4.2 and Figure 51.4.1, Figure 51.4.2 and Figure 51.4.3 indicate mechanical property
changesoverthetemperaturerange200Cto+800C.
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Table51.42BerylliumgradesS200FandSR200E:Mechanicalpropertiesat
varioustemperatures
Temp
YS
TS
(C)
(MPa)
(MPa)
(%)
0.2%/3min
0.5%/3min
1.0%/3min
240
[345]
240
[345]
240
[345]
240
[345]
240
[345]
240
[345]
237
[-]
230
[310]
208
[-]
178
[240]
142
[-]
124
[-]
102
[140]
80
[-]
58
[-]
30
[-]
<10
[-]
324
[483]
324
[483]
324
[483]
324
[483]
324
[483]
324
[483]
308
[-]
290
[420]
248
[-]
210
[305]
168
[-]
144
[-]
115
[170]
95
[-]
60
[-]
30
[-]
<10
[-]
0.5
[0.5]
1.2
[1.2]
2
[2]
2
[5]
2
[5]
2
[10]
[-]
[-]
[-]
[-]
[-]
[-]
[-]
[-]
[-]
[-]
[-]
[-]
[-]
[-]
[-]
[-]
[-]
[-]
[-]
[-]
[-]
[-]
[-]
40
[-]
30
[-]
16
[-]
8
[-]
[-]
[-]
[-]
[-]
[-]
[-]
[-]
[-]
[-]
[-]
[-]
[-]
[-]
55
[-]
38
[-]
22
[-]
10
[-]
[-]
[-]
[-]
[-]
[-]
[-]
[-]
[-]
[-]
[-]
[-]
160
[-]
105
[-]
80
[-]
50
[-]
32
[-]
18
[-]
5
[-]
-200
-150
-100
-50
0
RT
100
200
300
400
500
550
600
650
700
750
800
Key
CreepStrength(MPa)
YS:YieldStrength;TS:TensileStrength;D:Ductility
DataforSR200F;[DataforSR200E]
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Figure51.41BerylliumS200grades:Effectoftemperatureon0.2%yieldstrength
Figure51.42BerylliumS200grades:Effectoftemperatureonultimatetensile
strength
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Figure51.43BerylliumS200grades:Effectoftemperatureonelongation
51.4.4.3
Physical properties
Table 51.4.3, Figure 51.4.4, Figure 51.4.5, Figure 51.4.6 and Figure 51.4.7 show how the physical
propertiesvarywithtemperature,whichareimportantforthermalmanagement.
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Table51.43Beryllium:Effectoftemperatureonmodulusandphysicalproperties
Property
Temp
(C)
CTE (10-6/C)
Specific Heat
(J/kg/C)
Thermal
Conductivity
(W/m/C)
Thermal
Diffusivity
(m2/s)
Tensile Modulus
(GPa)
Differential
Linear
-200
0.2
5089
293
1500
300
-150
1.9
7.32
419
830
300
-100
4.5
7.74
1004
480
300
-50
7.5
8.98
1298
310
300
10.0
9.95
1694
240
300
RT
10.2
2009
200
300
100
11.6
2135
163
0.15
297
200
12.75
2386
141
0.12
291
300
13.6
2553
127
0.10
283
400
14.3
2679
116
0.09
268
500
14.8
2763
107
0.08
242
600
15.25
2846
98
0.07
180
700
15.55
2930
89
0.06
(80)
800
15.8
3014
80
0.05
(40)
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Figure51.44Beryllium:Effectoftemperatureonthermalconductivity
Figure51.45Beryllium:Effectoftemperatureondiffusivity
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Figure51.46Beryllium:Effectoftemperatureonexpansion
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Figure51.47Beryllium:Effectoftemperatureonspecificheatcapacity
51.4.4.4
Corrosion
Finished beryllium components are normally varnished to seal the surface. This provides corrosion
protectionandamoisturebarrier.
51.5 Health and safety

51.5.1
Facilities
The machining and handling of beryllium needs to be undertaken in dedicated facilities and with
protectionforpersonnelagainstberylliumoxide,whichisahazardous,toxicmaterial.
51.5.2
Health aspects
Longterm exposure increases the risk of contracting `berylliosis. Inhalation of beryllium and
beryllium oxide dust is the most hazardous form of contact. Handling beryllium parts is safe,
providingdirectcontactwiththeskinisavoidedthroughtheuseofgloves.
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51.5.3
Extraction
Machineshopsrequireseparateventilationandfilteringsystemswithlocalisedextractiontocapture
aerosols and fumes. Machining is generally performed under wet conditions, to minimise powder
particles entering the air. Regulatory exposure limits are defined for operatives working with
beryllium.
51.6 Potential applications

51.6.1
Resum
Berylliumisunderutiliseddespiteitsobviousstiffnesstoweightadvantageoverothermaterials.The
necessityfordedicatedmanufacturingcapabilitiestocontaintheperceivedhealthhazardremainsan
inhibitingfactor.However,theexpandinguseofsocalledbrittlematerialscanhelpinovercomingits
traditionallyperceivedweaknessofbeingadamageintolerantengineeringmaterial.
51.7 References
51.7.1
General
[511]
D.P.Bashford
GuidelinesfortheUseofBerylliuminSpacecraftApplications
FulmerResearchReportR878/4A/January1982
ESTECContract4389/80/NL/AK(SC)
[512]
Interatom
BerylliumThermalProtectionTechnology(TPT)
FinalReport.May1991.ESTECContract8824/90/NL/PP
[513]
T.E.H.Leman&W.R.Newell
AStudyontheStructuralApplicationsofBeryllium
BritishAircraftCorporation,1974
ESROContractorReportCR209.ESTECContractNo.1553/71
[514]
VehicleStructures
Vol.1&2.November1990
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52 Ceramic matrix composites

52.1 Introduction
Ceramicmatrixcompositesformtwomaingroups:
Continuousfibrereinforcements.
Whiskerreinforced.
Various combinations of reinforcement and matrix have been assessed, and continue to be studied.
Thischaptersummarisesthematerialsunderdevelopment,alongwithadiscussionoftheproperties
andhowtheseareinfluencedbythehightemperature,oftenoxidising,operationalconditions.
The manufacturing processes used arepresented because they influence the material characteristics.
Whilst silicon carbide fibre reinforced silicon carbide composite (SiCSiC) were the first group to
becomecommerciallyavailable,interesthasmovedtocarbonfibrereinforcedsiliconcarbide(CSiC)
composites.Thisislargelyduetotheirpotentialapplicationsforthehotstructuresofreuseablelaunch
vehicles (RLVs) in areas where the temperature exceeds 1200C, i.e. with carboncarbon (CC)
materials,[See:Chapter54].SiCSiCremainsanoptionforlowertemperatures,Ref.[5261].
Thecharacteristicsofdevelopmentmaterialsarelikelytochange.
52.2 Continuous fibre composites

52.2.1
Matrix groups
52.2.1.1
General
Theprospectivematricesaredescribedbygenericgroupswhichdefinetheprincipalconstituent,but
donottakeintoaccountanymodifyingelementsorcompounds.Themainoptionsare:
carbides.
nitrides.
oxides.
Oxidesappeartobepreferableforuseinoxidisingenvironments.
[Seealso:Chapter54forcarbonfibrereinforcedcarbonmatrix(CC)composites]
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52.2.1.2
Silicon carbide
SiC is attractive for the thermal stability offered and is, in theory, capable of operating to 1650C
whilstretainingstrength.Thecarbideformsathinprotectiveoxidelayerinoxidisingenvironmentsto
preventfurthergrossoxidation.Itisveryhard,andhasexcellenterosionandcorrosionresistance.Its
thermalconductivityisgreaterthanthatofSi3N4orAl2O3.
Technology studies have examined the technical feasibility and cost effectiveness of various
processingmethodscomparedwithpreviouslyusedCVItechnique.
Themainprocessingmethodscanbegroupedas,Ref.[5261]:
gasphaseinfiltration.
liquidphaseinfiltration(prepregtechnology).
liquidsiliconimpregnation.
solidstateprocessing(sintering).
[See:52.3]
52.2.1.3
Silicon nitride
Si3N4 possesses marginally poorer thermal stability than SiC. However, unreinforced powderbased
Si3N4 shows greater strength and toughness than its powderbased SiC counterpart. In addition, its
thermal shock resistance is better than that of SiC, not least because the coefficient of thermal
expansionislower.Thatsaid,theissueissomewhatconfusedinthecaseofcomposites,ascontinuous
reinforcedSi3N4hasbeenmadebythreeroutes.Theseare:
PressurelessReactionBonded(RBSN)
HotPressedPowder(Si3N4,withsinteringaids)
CVI/CVD
TheRSBNcanbeformedat1450Cbynitridingsiliconpowder,whilstthehotpressedSi3N4requires
1750C. The RSBN tends to pose problems with excessive porosity if fibres are present, and the hot
pressedpowdergivespoorerthermalstabilityassinteringaidsareadded.ThisleavesSi3N4prepared
bychemicalvapourreactionsasofferingamatrixwithreasonablestabilityprovidedbycompositional
control.
52.2.1.4
Alumina
Alumina is promoted on the grounds that it is an oxide with good thermal stability. The main
drawback of alumina as a matrix is brittleness and the difficulties in toughening the material with
reinforcements,suchthatthermalshockdoesnotresultincatastrophicfailure.Thetendencyhasbeen
to include additional compounds, such as silica, to provide better fracture characteristics but which
reducethermalcapabilities.Todate,aluminamatriceswithcontinuousfibreshavebeenpreparedby
CVIandSolGeltechnology.Theamountofworkdoneontheserouteshasbeenmodest.
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52.2.1.5
Zirconia
OnlyamodestamountofworkhasbeendevotedtocompositespreparedbySolGelandHotPressing
routes. In the powderbased monolithic form, zirconia is noted for its toughness in the partially
stabilised(PSZ)andtransformationtoughened(TTZ)forms.Thetoughnessismodestattemperatures
upto1000C.Thisisamatrixwithpotential,ratherthanproven,capabilitiesbeyond1000C.
52.2.1.6
Other nitrides and carbides
BN, TiC, B4C and AlN have been tried as matrices, but not developed. They may have supporting
rolesas:
BN:Softceramicfibrecoatings
TiCandB4C:Veryhardceramicswithgoodabrasionanderosionresistance.
AlN: Hard ceramic with good thermal conductivity and the ability to form a stable surface
oxide.
52.2.2
ThedevelopmentofcontinuousfibreCeramicMatrixComposites(CMC)hascentredonthegroups
showninFigure52.2.1.
Silicon Carbide (SiC)

Principal matrices studied
Silicon Nitride (Si 3N 4)

Alumina (Al 2O 3)
Zirconia (ZrO2)
Boron Nitride (BN)

Limited evaluation for matrices
Titanium Carbide (TiC)

Boron Carbide (B4C)
Aluminium Nitride (AlN)
Figure52.21CMCcompositedevelopment
Asaresumoftheworkundertakenoncontinuousfibrecomposites,Table52.2.1identifiesthemain
fibre/matrixcombinationsandthoseorganisationsundertakingthework.
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Table52.21Ceramicmatrixcomposites:Fibreandmatrixcombinationswithsourcesofdevelopment/investigation
Reinforcement
Carbon fibres
SiC fibres
Matrix
SiC
SiC (Nicalon yarns)
SiC
Carbon, Nicalon,
Alumina fibres (Saffil)
SiC
Carbon, Nicalon,
Nextel 312
SiC
Nextel 312
SiC
SiC monofilament
Si3N4 or RSBN
SiC monofilament
RSBN
SiC monofilament
Si3N4 direct from

powder
SiC (Nicalon yarn fabric)
Si3N4
Source [Ref.]
Comments
SEP, France.
Ref. 52 [1 to 10]
C-SiC & SiC-SiC traded as SEPCARBINOX & CERASEP. Produced by CVI

techniques. SEP has the most advanced production capability in the world.
Their ceramic matrix composites are applied to a wide range of propulsion
units & thermal protection systems for space vehicles. Reasonable property
data available. Technology licensed to DuPont.
ORNL, USA.
Ref. 52 [11 to 20]
CVI techniques for infiltrating SiC into Nicalon fabrics. Work has
concentrated on reducing processing times. Limited mechanical property
data available. Pyrolytic graphite coating on fibres prevalent. There is a
commercial link with Babcock & Wilcox. Proposed uses in heat exchangers,
turbine engines & Space Power Systems (SDI).
RECOMP-201 for the C-SiC version. Nicalon fabrics form the principle SiC
Refractory Composites
reinforcement. Published papers by RCI are scarce. Work supported by
Inc., USA. Ref. 52 [21,22]
USA Department of Energy.
Thermo Electron Corp.,
USA. Ref. 52 [23,24]
A range of composites prepared by CVI/CVD, including SICONEX 3M,

with Nextel fibres. Intended use in a combustion environment at 1450C.
Tungsten coating included.
3M Co & Amercom, USA. SICONEX composite produced by CVI/CVD. Amercom have interests in
Ref. 52 [25]
Thermal Protection Systems for space vehicles.
AVCO SCS-6 derivative fibre used. Composites formed by reaction bonding
NASA-Lewis Research
(nitriding) silicon powder/fibre compacts; giving composites of high porosity
Center, USA. Ref. 52 [26]
(30 to 40% of matrix). Fibre volume fractions up to 40% possible.
Norton Co., USA.
Ref. 52 [27]
AVCO SCS-2 & SCS-6 monofilaments used. SCS-6 with the thicker carbonrich SiC outer coating gave the highest strength. Processed at 1450C.
Battelle Columbus, USA. Commercial grade Si3N4 powder with 8wt.% Y2O3 & 4wt.% Al2O3 as
sintering aids. Slurry coating & filament winding used followed by hot
Ref. 52 [28]
pressing at 1750C, under vacuum.
ORNL, USA. Ref. 52 [14] Initial work on CVI processing.
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Reinforcement
Matrix
Alumina-based fibres:
AB-312 [3M], Saffil [ICI],
FP [DuPont], -Al2O3
Alumina (Al2O3)
Nicalon fabric
Alumina (Saffil)
Zirconia fibres (ZrO2)
Al2O3
Alumina (FP), Nicalon
Al2O3
SiC monofilament [AVCO]
Zirconia (ZrO2)
Nicalon
Al2O3
Source [Ref.]
CVI processing route. -Al2O3 fibres gave the best results. Brittleness
SEP, France. Ref. 52 [29] proved a problem, owing to good fibre:matrix bonding. Interface
modifications needed to improve toughness.
University of Florida,
Preliminary processing by Sol-Gel route with high temperature
Ceramics Division, USA.
densification at 1200C.
Ref. 52 [30]
Aerospatiale Aquitaine,
France. Ref. 52 [31]
ONERA, France.
Ref. 52 [32]
Zirconia:
Nicalon fibres, with &
without BN coatings
Carbon fibres
ZrO2 + 50mol%SiO2
(Zircon)
ZrO2 + 50mol%TiO2
(Titanate)
Boron Nitride(BN)
Titanium Carbide (TiC)
Boron Carbide(B4C)
Carbon fibres
SiC
Comments
Naval Research Labs,

USA. Ref. 52 [33]
SEP, France.
Ref. 52 [4,5,34]
University of Bordeaux,
France. Ref. 52 [35]
MAN Technologie,
Germany. Ref. 52 [60]
DASA, Germany.
DLR, Germany.
Preliminary processing by Sol-Gel route. Problems noted with fibre wetting,

fibre degradation & matrix cracking on cooling.
Composites achieved by colloidal infiltration & pressureless sintering at
1235C. Theoretical densities of 70% achieved with 20% by volume of fibre.
Initial work noted problems in thermal expansion mis-match between pure
Zirconia matrix & fibre. Processing by vacuum hot-pressing & nitrogen hot
pressing at 1200 to 1600C. Significant improvements noted with coated
fibres and Zircon & Titanate matrices.
Porous preforms of 2-D Carbon-Carbon densified by CVI. The preforms
consisted of carbon fibre fabric held together with a small quantity of
carbon (pyrolysed methane). The three matrices were evaluated, along with
SiC; the last became the eventual choice.
European FESTIP study: Material and technology development for
reusable launch vehicle (RLV) hot structures. Comparison of materials
produced by different processing routes. Includes internal oxidation
protection methods for applications >500C in oxidising atmospheres,
Ref.52 [61].
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52.2.3
Technology status
Figure52.2.2summarisesthetechnologyandrelatedcommercialdevelopmentsofvariouscomposites.
Of these, complex hot structural components have been produced in CSiC composites. Developed
andmanufacturedinEurope,theseitemshaveundergoneextensiveevaluationandqualificationfor
theXprogrammevehicles,i.e.X38andCRV,Ref.[5262],[5263].
Primary systems
Matrix
Fibre
SiC
Carbon
SiC
SiC
Secondary developments
Matrix
Fibre
Si3 N4
SiC
Al2O3
SiC
ZrO2
SiC
Figure52.22CMCcompositedevelopment:Materialcombinations
52.2.4
Characteristics
Table52.2.2summarisesthetypicalpropertiesofanumberofcomposites.
[See:53.3forcharacteristicsofCSiCmaterialsevaluatedunderFESTIP]
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Table52.22Developmentcontinuousfibrereinforcedceramicmatrix
composites:Typicalproperties
Fibre
Matrix
[Source]
[Process]
FibreVol.%
[Type]
SiC
[N]
SiC
[CVI]
45
[U]
SiC
[N]
SiC
[CVI]
40
[B]
SiC
[N]
SiC
[CVI]
40
[B]
SiC
[A]
SiC
[A]
Si3N4
[RSBN]
Si3N4
[RSBN]
40
[U]
50-60
[U]
SiC
[A]
Si3N4
[HP]
44
[U]
Al2O3
[FP]
SiC
[N]
Carbon
[-]
Al2O3
[CVI]
ZrO2
[HP]
SiC
[Various]
40
[U]
[-]
Key
MechanicalProperties
[Reference]
flex @ RT: 500MPa

flex @ 1000C: 280MPa. Ref. [52-11],
[52-16]
flex @ RT: 310MPa
flex @ 1000C: 140MPa (in air)
tens @ RT: 230MPa
tens: 0.75%. Ref. [52-12]
flex @ RT: 350MPa
Fracture Toughness (max): 10MPam.
Ref. [52-22]
flex @ RT: 900MPa
tens @ RT: 530MPa
flex @ RT: 750MPa
Ref. [52-27]
flex @ RT: 900MPa
flex @ RT: 400MPa Ref. [52-28]
Fracture Toughness: 7MPam
(unchanged)
flex @ RT: 250MPa
flex @ 1200C: 100MPa. Ref. [52-29]
flex @ RT: <700MPa
Ref. [52-33]
[See: 52.3]
N:Nicalon.
HP:HotPressed.
A:AVCO(SCS6).
FP:FibreFP,DuPont.
CVI:ChemicalVapourInfiltration.
U:Unidirectionalcomposite.
RSBN:ReactionBondedSiliconNitride.
B:Bidirectional(fabric)composite.
52.3 Carbon fibre reinforced silicon carbide

52.3.1
General
52.3.1.1
Characteristics
CSiC aims to provide a strong composite with better oxidation resistance than an allcarbon
composite.[Seealso:Chapter54forcarboncarbon].CSiCcompositesareanaturalprogressionfrom
carboncarbon (CC) for hot structures and thermal protection systems, [See also: Chapter 70 and
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Chapter71].ThelowdensitycombinedwithacontrolledCTEhavemadeCSiCofinterestforhigh
precisionopticalstructures,Ref.[5264],[Seealso:52.7forapplicationexamples]
52.3.1.2
Product sources
ThecompositeismarketedbySEP(France)asSEPCARBINOXforuseinoxidisingenvironmentsto
1500C.
InGermany,MANTechnologie,DASA(whichbecamepartofEADS)andDLRhaveexpertiseinthe
designdevelopment and manufacture of CSiC complex hot structure components. These
technologies also form the basis for the development of dimensionally stable CSiC materials for
opticalstructures.ThematerialsproducedinGermanyusedifferentprocessingmethods.
52.3.2
Fibres
52.3.2.1
General
The advantage of carbon fibres over all others is their capability to retain good tensile strength at
temperatures approaching 1200C. This strength retention is conferred to the composite to a higher
levelthanispossiblewith,forexample,siliconcarbidefibres.
52.3.2.2
Preforms and near net-shapes
Carbonfibrescanbeconvertedtopreformstoproducecompositesinlarge,complexshapeseitherby:
fabric,
braiding,
3D,
filamentwinding.
Nearnet shape components are feasible. Unlike CC composites, machining of finished CSiC
compositesneedscarefulconsiderationowingtothehardnessofthematrix.
52.3.3
Matrix
52.3.3.1
Processing
Inadditiontochemicalvapourinfiltration(CVI),otherprocessingmethodsdevelopedinclude:
infiltrationandpyrolysisofsiliconpolymersprocess,alsodescribedasPPPpolymerpyrolysis
process,developedbyDaimlerBenzAerospace/DASA,Ref.[5259],[5271].
LPI liquid polymer impregnation, developed by DASA Dornier (now part of EADS ST), Ref.
[5260],[5271].
GradientCVI,developedbyMANTechnologie,Ref.[5260].
CombinedLPI/CVImethod,Ref.[5261].
LSIliquidsiliconinfiltration,developedbyDLR,Ref.[5261].
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[Seealso:88.21and88.22fordescriptionsofCVDandCVI]
The processing route selected is largely dependent on the requirements of the part to be produced,
includingRef.[5261]:
mechanicalperformance,
environmentalconditions,
maximumtemperature,
partcomplexity,
reusability,
serviceintervals.
52.3.3.2
Porosity
CSiCproducedbyCVIhasresidualporosityof~10%.Thisisnotconsideredunacceptablebecausethe
composite possesses sufficient integrity. It can be argued that pores act as crack stoppers, so
controlling the fracture characteristics. A higher porosity level leads to a loss of composite integrity
throughalackofsupportbythematrix.Italsoallowsaccessbytheexternalenvironmentandattack
byoxygenofthefibresandfibre/matrixinterface,[See:Oxidation].
52.3.4
Characteristics
52.3.4.1
Properties
Figure52.3.1showsloaddisplacementcurvesforaCSiCcompositeatRTandat1600C,Ref.[5263].
These illustrate the composites progressive failure characteristic. At high temperature, the material
remainselasticatloadsexceedingthemaximumseenatRT,Ref.[5263].CSiCcompositedeveloped
fortheX38bodyflapbyMANTechnologie,Germany,[Seealso52.7].
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C-SiC composite developed for the X-38 body flap by MAN Technologie, Germany.
Single edge notched beam tests. Crack length to width = 0.45
Figure52.31Ceramicmatrixcomposites:CSiCloadversusdisplacementcurves
atRTand1600C
Theprocessingrouteselectedtocreatethecompositeinfluencestheproperties.Table52.3.1compares
thecharacteristicsofCSiCcompositesproducedbydifferentprocessingroutes,Ref.[5259],[5260],
[5264].
Table52.31Ceramicmatrixcomposites:TypicalpropertiesofCSiCcomposites
producedbydifferentprocessingmethods
SiCMatrixprocessingmethod
Property
LPI
Fibre volume fraction

Porosity
Density
Tensile strength
Rupture strain
Flexural strength
Compression strength
Shear strength
Youngs modulus
Vol.%
Vol.%
g/cm3
MPa
%
MPa
MPa
MPa
GPa
40
23
1.8
260
1.2
365
365
30
55
CTE
10-6 /K
2.3
CTE
10-6 /K
Gradient
CVI
LSI
42 - 47
10 - 15
2.1 2.2
270 330
0.6 0.9
450 - 500
450 - 570
45 - 55
90 - 100
3
3.5 (open)
1.9
160
28
60
-1.0 / 2.5
2.5 / 6.5
PPP
RT
1.8
270
530 *
370
20
60 - 80
-
1500C
1.8
320
610 *
470
20
60 - 80
-
(1)
(1)
Key
LPI:LiquidPolymerImpregnation;CVI:ChemicalVapourInfiltration;LSI:LiquidSilicon
Infiltration;PPP:PolymerPyrolysisProcess.
:longitudinal;:transverse;:[0/90]layup;:ILSS;*:4pointbend;(1):CTE100C/1500C
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52.3.4.2
Oxidation
The inherent weakness of CSiC lies with poor oxidation performance of the carbon fibre. The SiC
matrixprovidesadegreeofencapsulationwhichinhibitsoxidationifexcessivematrixmicrocracking
is avoided. This can be difficult, as the matrix is brittle and prone to cracking. The difference in
thermalexpansionbetweenfibreandmatrixhindersthesituationunderconditionsofthermalcycling
andshock.
Consequently,CSiCcompositesrequireoxidationprotectivecoatingsforapplicationsattemperatures
above 500C, Ref. [5260], [5261], [5263]. Adequate oxidation protection was investigated within
FESTIPandhypersonicvehicleprogrammes.Aneffectivemulticomponentprotectionsystemwith
selfhealingcapabilitieswasdevelopedforLPIandCVIprocessedCSiCcomposites,Ref.[5260],[52
61],[5263].
52.3.5
C/SiC LPI liquid polymer infiltration process
52.3.5.1
Description
The material, processing and properties described here are for a grade of LPI C/SiC with T800 6k
fibres,whichwasqualifiedfortheX38programandappliedfortheC/SiCNoseSkirtsdeliveredby
EADSST(formerlyDASAAstrium),Ref.[5266].
C/SiCmaterialpropertiesdifferinthermalandthermomechanicalpropertiesdependingonthetype
ofcarbonfibreandthecoatingappliedtothecarbonfibre.Ingeneral,mosttypesofcarbonfibrescan
beusedforLPIprepregproduction.
The density of the SiC matrix can be modified by the number of liquid infiltration cycles and
subsequentpyrolysisafterthefirstpyrolysisofthegreenbodycomponent.
52.3.5.2
Manufacturing and inspection
TheLPIroutereliestoaconsiderableextentonconventionalCFRPprocesses.Consequently,specific
investmentandtoolscostsarereducedbecauseexperienceandtechnologiesfromtheCFRPfieldcan
betransferredtoCMCs.
The manufacturing process for continuous fibrereinforced C/SiC material produced by the LPI
technique uses a computercontrolled production system. The LPI manufacturing cycle is
accompaniedbyqualityassurance,inspectionandtests;asshowninFigure52.03.2anddescribedin
Table52.3.2.Therefore,nonconformancescanbeidentifiedateachstageofproduction,e.g.possible
delaminationscanbeidentifiedveryearlyinthegreenstateoftheprocessbyultrasonicinspection
afterautoclavecuring.
The fabrication steps performed by computercontrolled facilities are also accompanied by quality
controlactivities,e.g.FC9.
TheactualstrengthpropertiesofthemanufacturedC/SiCpartsarecomparedwithreferencecoupons
(witnesssamples)toprovideconfidenceintheC/SiCcomponents.
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F 17
Q 17
Q5
Q1
F1
Q3
F3
Q2
F2
Q4
FC 3
F5
F6
Q7
FC 5
FC 4
Q7
F 10
F7
Q8
F 16
F 15
Q 15
Q6
FC 4
Q8
F8
FC 7
F9
FC 9
F 11
FC10
Q 13
F4
Q8
FC11
F 13
F 14
FC13
FC14
Q 16
Key: F Fabrication step; Q Inspection step,

[See: Table 52.3.2]
Figure52.32C/SiCLPI(EADSST):Manufacturingandinspectionflowchart
Table52.32C/SiCLPI(EADSST):Fabricationandinspectionsteps
Fabrication steps
Inspection steps
[See: Figure 52.3.2]

F1
F2
F3
F4
F5
F6
preparing a pre-ceramic slurry

consisting of a solvent polymer and a
ceramic powder
coating of the T 800 fibres with one or
two pyrolytic thin C-layer
manufacturing of the prepregs,
simultaneously with the infiltration of the
continuous carbon fibre rovings with the
polymer slurry, prepared under F1
manufacturing of the laminates in
accordance with the stipulated prepreg
layer-lay-up, shaping the laminates and
joining on the mould tool to form the
integral structure
vacuum bagging of laminates on mould
tool and curing in autoclave to cross-link
the polymer and to form a consolidated
fibre-reinforced, powder-filled polymer
matrix composite green body
preliminary shaping to required outer
dimensions
Q1
inspection of incoming raw materials for

pre- ceramic slurry
Q2
inspection of incoming T 800 fibres
Q3
inspection of slurry, prepared under F1
Q4
inspection of fibre coating
Q5
inspection of prepreg quality, fibre

content
Q6
F7
pyrolysis in inert gas to convert the

polymer into ceramic matrix material
Q7
F8
liquid infiltration and re-infiltration of the

porous CMC via the polymer route
Q8
inspection of lay-up of all layers, vacuum

bagging of laminates on mould tool
inspection of curing in autoclave data
and dimension control and NDI on
green body
inspection of CMC parts after first
pyrolysis, test of witness coupons
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Fabrication steps
F9
F10
F11
F12
F13
F14
F15
F16
Inspection steps
[See: Figure 52.3.2]
pyrolysis of the re-infiltrated structure,
inspection of re-infiltrated CMC parts
Q9
typically 4-6 times, according to density
after last pyrolysis, test of witness
requirements
coupons
final machining of structural part to
inspection of CMC parts after final
required dimensions taking into account Q10
machining, NDI
the coating thickness
application of fundamental layer
oxidation protection coating by means
of Chemical Vapour Deposition (CVD).
visual inspection after CVD coating and
For re-use and multi mission
Q11
weight measurement
applications, the coating is improved
with multi-layer self healing OPS and
final CVD coating (F12-F14)
preparation of slurry for multi-layer
Q12 inspection of OPS coating slurry
coating
application of multi-layer coating and
visual inspection after OPS coating and
Q13
final erosion resistant layer
final CVD coating, weight control
heat treatment for oxidation protective
inspection of transportation container for
Q15
multi-layer coating for each layer
coated CMC parts
manufacture of transportation boxes
and handling fixtures prior first
inspection of pre-assembled and final
transportation of structural part (green
Q16 assembled CMC parts, acceptance for
state)
delivery
assembling if necessary, packing and
transportation
52.3.5.3
Material characteristics
The material properties of C/SiC differ depending on the application, the type of carbon fibre used
and the number of reinfiltration cycles. The material data presented are based on the C/SiC LPI
material applied to the X38 Nose Skirt, which was manufactured by EADS ST (formerly Astrium),
Ref.[5266].
ThecompositewasconstructedinquasiisotropiclayerswithT8006kfibres.Eachunidirectionallayer
hasathicknessofabout0.2mm;theanglebetweenthelayerswas,asfaraspossible,45.
52.3.5.4
Density
ThedensityoftheC/SiCcomponentswas1790kg/m.Thisvaluewasmeasuredonmaterialinafinal
pyrolysedconditionwithouttheCVDcoating.
52.3.5.5
Mechanical properties at different temperatures
The values used for linear static analysis margin calculations over the complete temperature range
fromRTto1600CareshowninTable52.3.3.
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Table52.33C/SiCLPI(EADSST):Mechanicalpropertiesatdifferent
temperatures
E11=E22=47GPa
XT=YT=157MPa
12=0.25
XC=YC=291MPa
G12=19.5GPa
S12=109MPa
=1.83E9Ns2/mm4
S13=S13(T)2MPa
11=22=CTE(T)1
Key:
:DASAC/SiCtestedvaluesfor11=22
:DASAC/SiCtestedvaluesforS13
TemperaturedependentCTEofDASAC/SiC:
T(C)
11= 22
(10-6/K)
20
100
1000
1500
0.08
1.45
2.28
DASA-C/SiC test
values
TemperaturedependentILSallowableofDASAC/SiC:
S13 (MPa)
12
17.74
DASA-C/SiC test
values
52.3.5.6
Specific heat capacity of C/SiC LPI material
Figure52.3.3showsthemeasurementsofspecificheatcapacityoftheEADSSTC/SiCLPImaterialfor
thetemperaturerange100Cto1500C.
specific heat capacity [J/(kg K)]
1800
1600
1400
specific heat capacity

1200
1000
800
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000
1100
1200
1300
1400
1500
temperature [C]
Figure52.33C/SiCLPI(EADSST):Specificheatcapacity
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52.3.5.7
Thermal conductivity of C/SiC LPI material
Figure52.3.4showsthemeasurementsofthermalconductivityoftheEADSSTC/SiCLPImaterialfor
the temperature range 100C to 1500C. Values for both inplane and perpendicular to the fibre are
given.
10
9,5
thermal conductivity [W/(m K)]
9
8,5
8
thermal conductivity in-plane [W/(m K)]
7,5
thermal conductivity perpendicular to fiber [W/(m K)]
7
6,5
6
5,5
5
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500
temperature [C]
Figure52.34C/SiCLPI(EADSST):Thermalconductivity
52.3.5.8
Catalycity, plasma erosion and oxidation protection
To avoid plasma erosion and oxidation of the carbon fibres, the C/SiCpanels are covered with an
oxidation protection layer system designed for the appropriate temperature regime. Since the outer
surface of the C/SiC panels is in contact with the hot boundary layer and since its temperature
depends approximately on the difference between convective heat loads and emitted radiation, the
characteristicpropertiesofinterestarethethermoopticalpropertiesandcatalycity.
52.3.5.9
Emissivity
The surface coating is produced by one or more SiC layers applied by CVD chemical vapour
deposition. If a multilayer OPS oxidation protection system is applied, the surface emittance is the
samebecausethetoplayeroftheOPSisthesameastheCVDSiClayer.Themeasuredtemperature
dependentvaluesofthesurfaceemittanceoftheantioxidationcoatingsystemusedbyEADSSTare
showninFigure52.3.5forthetemperaturerange0Cto1200C.Fortemperaturesabovethemeasured
range,theemittancevaluefor1200Chasbeenassumed.
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0,85
surface emittance [-]
0,8
0,75
emittance [-]
0,7
0,65
0,6
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
temperature [C]
Figure52.35C/SiCLPI(EADSST):Surfaceemittance,withantioxidation
coating
52.3.5.10 OPS oxidation protection system development for reusable
applications
ThefirstquestioniswhyuseanOPSoxidationprotectionsystemforCMCmaterialsdestinedforTPSand
thermostructuralapplications,ratherthannonoxidisingCMCmaterials,suchasSiC/SiCorNextel/Mullite?
The main reason is that investigations into CMC over the past ten years have shown that C/SiC
components with high strength carbon fibres, e.g. T800, offer the best strength and stiffness at high
temperaturesupto2000C.
ForfuturereusablesystemslikeRLVorCTV,theC/SiCTPSandthermostructuralcomponentsneed
anOPStopreventthecarbonfibrereinforcementoxidising.Oxidationoccurswithexposuretooxygen
atalltemperaturesabove450C,sotheOPSfunctionsinallappliedtemperatureregimesforreusable
C/SiCstructuresupto1600C.
A selfhealing, multilayer OPS, previously developed by EADS, was tested successfully in several
investigations, i.e. TPS shingle and panel plasma tests; thermomechanical cycles. The main
drawbacksofthemultilayerfunctionalcoatingwere:
highly complex and expensive manufacturing route. Each single OPS layer is pyrolysed
separately.
thermalgradientsbetweenthemultilayercoatings,whichcausethermalstresses
TheOPShasacomplexcoatingarchitecture.Thesimplestofwhichconsistsof3to5CVDSiClayers
withaSiO2glasssealingontop.However,itprovedunreliableduringlongtermexposureinairand
notresistantthroughoutthewholetemperaturerangefrom500Cto1600C.Complexsystemshave
bond layers to adjust the thermal expansion coefficient or the chemical compatibility between the
substrateandthecoating.Evenmorecomplexsystemsconsistofmorethanthreelayerswithdifferent
functionssothatthesystemworksfrom500Cto1600C.SelfhealingOPSconsistsofvariouslayers
with different functions: a bonding layer, an intermediate functional layer system with selfhealing
capability and an erosion protection layer. Multilayer oxidation protection coatings are applied to
C/SiCcompositeseitherbyaslurrytechniqueorbyCVD.
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Figure52.3.6summarisesacurrentarchitectureforamultilayer,multifunctional,selfhealingcoating
fromEADSST.
2 CVD Erosion Protection Layers
1 to 3 different functional layers with self-healing properties through
thermo-viscous flow processes for different temperature regions for
each layer
2 CVD Bonding Layers
C/SiC substrate
Figure52.36C/SiCLPI(EADSST):Architectureofmultilayer,selfhealingOPS
ThefunctionofthedifferentlayerssummarisedinFigure52.3.7canbedescribedas:
Erosionprotectionlayer,whichpreventsoxygendiffusiontothefunctionallayerandreduces
the evaporation of the second viscous layer as well as minimising erosion of the coating.
ErosionprotectionlayerslikeSiCreactwithoxygentoformsilicaasanoxygenbarrierduetoits
verylowoxygendiffusioncoefficient.
Functional layer with selfhealing capability, which is an intermediate layer that seals cracks
and prevents oxygen diffusion into the substrate. Best results have been achieved by using
combinations of several boron and silicon phases. The boron containing systems are able to
reactwithdiffusingoxygenandformlowermeltingpointboronglasseswhichcansealcracks
withintherigidlayersbyviscousflowprocesses.
Bondinglayer,whichhasthemaintaskofaccomodatingthedifferencesinthermalcoefficients
betweenthefibrereinforcedSiCmatrixandthesecondlayer.Thebondinglayeralsoprevents
carbonfromdiffusingoutofthesubstrate.NormallythislayerconsistsofSiCappliedbyCVD.
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Crack
Top layers
Functional layer with

self-healing capability
Formation of B2O3 -SiO2 -Glasses

which act as self-healing systems
Figure52.37C/SiCLPI(EADSST):FunctionoflayersinOPS
52.3.5.11 WEPROT and OLCHOS studies on OPS systems

Recent experience in testing of different OPS systems have been gained within the ESA studies
WEPROT, Ref. [5267], [5268], [5276], and OLCHOS, Ref. [5269]. Both studies investigated
differentOPSinanextensivelifecycletestprogramme.TheWEPROTprogramalsoinvestigatedthe
lifetimebehaviouroftheOPSwithrespecttoimpactsanderosioncausedbylowspeedimpact,rain
droperosionandhailimpacts.WithintheOLCHOSprogramme,theOPSsystemsappliedbyEADS
STaregiveninTable52.3.4.
Table52.34C/SiCLPI(EADSST):OPSusedinOLCHOSprogramme
OPS
Reference
E 1.2
E 2.2
E 3.2
Architecture
2 CVD layers, one multifunctional layer, 2 CVD layers

2 CVD layers, two different multifunctional layers, 2 CVD
layers
2 CVD layers, three different multifunctional layers, 2
CVD layers
Total
layers
5
6
7
All three systems survived up to 100 reentry cycles during the test program. The best result of the
threesystemswasobtainedfromtheOPSwiththelowestcomplexity(E1.2),withthecombinedself
healinglayer.
Within the WEPROT study, the system E2.2 has been applied with excellent results even with OPS
samplespredamagedbylowspeedimpactorrainerosion.
The test results from OLCHOS and WEPROT revealed that at the lower temperature range (about
800C to 900C), the selfhealing capacity of the OPS could be improved, whereas at higher
temperatures(1200Cto1500C)theOPSfunctionallayerperformancewasoptimal.
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52.3.6
C/C-SiC LSI liquid silicon infiltration process
52.3.6.1
There are 3 main types of C/CSiC materials produced by DLR. All of which comprise carbon fibre
bundles in surrounding SiClayers. The manufacturing process parameters and fibre conditioning
definethemechanicalproperties.TheLSI(liquidsiliconinfiltration)processinvolvesmakingaCFRP
part using a special resin with a high carbon content. After pyrolysis at 900C, the resulting porous
C/Cpreformisinfiltratedbyliquidsiliconatabout1600C.Thesiliconpartiallyreactswiththecarbon
toformSiC.
52.3.6.2
Table52.3.5summarisesthemechanicalpropertiesoftwogradesofDLRC/CSiCLSImaterial.These
are used for manufacturing TPS and hot structures, e.g. X38 Nose Cap assembly under the TETRA
programme,[Seealso:70.24].
DLRLSImaterialshavealsobeeninvestigatedaspartofanESAfundedstudyonfailurecriteria,Ref.
[5270],[Seealso:64.5]
Table52.35C/CSiCLSI(DLR):Mechanicalpropertiesfordifferentgrades
Materialgrade
Ex=Ey
(MPa)
C/C-SiC XB
60000
C/C-SiC XT
60000
(1)
C/C-SiC XT
60000
Key:
Gxy
xy
(MPa)
15000 0.05
15000 0.05
15000 0.05
(g/cm )
(1/K)
1.9
1.9
1.9
110-6
110-6
110-6
Sx,t=Sy,t
Sx,c=Sy,c
Sxy
72
150
150
225
205
250
54
60
60
(1)inplanebending
Figure 52.3.8 shows mechanical properties for tests on XB and XT grades of DLR C/CSiC LSI
materials.Theaveragevaluesarefor5samplescutfromoneplate,Ref.[5270].
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4 Pkt Biegung
Shear
300
70
60
250
50
200
Schubspannung [MPa]
I 258
I 498-1
MPa
I 498-2
I-498-3
ph609
150
Ph 597
Ph 596
100
40
I258
I498- 1
Ph 596
30
20
10
50
0
0
I 258
I 258
I 498-1
I 498-2
I-498-3
ph609
Ph 597
I 498-1
Ph 596
Ph 596
Platte
Average shear strength
Average bending strength

Zug
Druck
0
180
I 498-1
I 498-2
I-498-3
ph609
Ph 597
Ph 596
160
-50
140
-100
120
I 498-1
I 498-1
I 498-2
100
-150
ph609
80
Ph 597
I 498-2
I-498-3
MPa
MPa
I-498-3
Ph 596
ph609
Ph 597
-200
Ph 596
60
-250
40
-300
20
0
I 498-1
I 498-2
I-498-3
ph609
Ph 597
Ph 596
-350
Average compressive strength
Average tensile strength
Key:
XT grade
XB grade
XT grade (in-plane shear)
XT grade (in-plane bending)
Figure52.38C/CSiCLSI(DLR):MechanicalpropertiesforXTandXBgrades
52.4 Silicon carbide fibre reinforced silicon carbide

52.4.1
Technology status
SiCSiCisbyfarthemostdevelopedoftheoxidationresistantceramicmatrixcomposites.CVIisthe
preferredmanufacturingroute.
Thekeyparticipantsare:
Socit Europene de Propulsion (SEP), France; in collaboration with the French government
andauthoritativeuniversities.AlicencefortheirSiCSiCCVIproductiontechnologyhasbeen
sold to DuPont with the production capability in the USA (1989/1990). SEPs trade name is
CERASEP.
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Oak Ridge National Laboratory, USA; in collaboration with Babcock and Wilcox (USA). The
latter is aiming to use the technology of the former for commercial products. The work is
supportedbytheUSDepartmentofEnergy.
NipponCarbonCo;themanufactureofNicalonfibreisofferingSiCSiCproducedbypolymer
pyrolysis.Thismaterialhasinsulativecharacteristicsbutindifferentmechanicalstrength.
RefractoryCompositesInc.,USA.
ThermoElectronCorp.,USA.
52.4.2
Applications
TheintendedcommercialusesforSiCSiCcompositesinclude:
Rocketandpropulsionunits,Ref.[5236].
Gasturbineenginecomponents,Ref.[5237].
Heatexchangers,Ref.[5238].
Thermalprotectionsystems,Ref.[5239].
Refractoryfurnacelinings,Ref.[5240].
52.4.3
Characteristics
52.4.3.1
Fibres
ThemostnoticeabledisadvantageofSiCSiCcompositesisthelackofafibrewhichisthermallystable
above 1300C, where progressive degradation occurs to present fibres. Nicalon and Tyranno are, at
present,theonlypracticableoptions.
52.4.4
Manufacturing of SiC-SiC
Themainchemicalreactionusedisthatwithmethyltrichlorosilane(MTS):
CH3SiCl3+xH2SiC+3HCl+xH2,@1200C
Excess hydrogen is used as a carrier gas. Deposition times can vary between 30 hrs and 150 hrs,
typically.Workhasmainlyconcentratedonproducingcompositesfromplainandsatinweavefabrics.
ThereisnolimitationonthesizeofSiCSiCcomponentsthatcanbeproduced,butveryfewfacilities
existfordimensionsbetween1mand3m.
All deposition occurs within a closed vessel under controlled gas flow conditions and at an evenly
distributedtemperature.PriortodepositingtheSiCmatrix,theSiCfibresareprecoatedusuallywith
carbonorpyrolyticgraphitetoathicknessof<1m.
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52.5 SiC-SiC composite: Properties

52.5.1
General
SiCSiCcompositesarethemostdevelopedoftheCMCs,sopublishedinformationincludesthe:
Stressstrainprofileofthecomposites,withrespecttoprogressivefailure.
Attainableflexuralandtensilestrengthsatroomtemperature.
Degreesofstrengthretentionathightemperaturesunderextremeenvironments.
Measuredfracturetoughness.
52.5.2
52.5.2.1
General
ThemechanicalpropertiesofSiCSiCcompositesaredependenton:
fibreorientations,and
volumefraction.
Figure52.5.1givesstrengthsforsomeoftheSiCcompositionsreported.Itisnoticeablethatthehigher
valuesarefortheSiCfilamentreinforcedSiCandunreinforcedhotpressedceramic.
Filamentreinforcedmaterialsarenotappropriateforstructuraluses,neitherareunreinforcedbrittle
materials.Toughenedcompositeswithfibreshave600MPaasverymuchtheupperlimit.
Figure52.51SiCSiCcomposites:Hightemperatureflexuralstrengthofvarious
compositions
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52.5.2.2
Effect of environment
Testingattemperatureunderinertatmospheresgivesgreaterstrengthvaluesthansimilarcomposites
testedinoxidativeorcorrosiveenvironments,orafterthermalcycling.
52.5.2.3
Effect of fibre coating
Thefibrecoatinganditsfunctionastheinterfacebetweenfibreandmatrixdeterminesthecomposite
behaviour and properties. The insitu fibre strength dictates the ultimate strength of the composite
andthefracturecharacteristics.
The fibre size is removed by either solvent or pyrolysis. The coating is then applied, often by the
organisationundertakingthematrixCVI.Asyetthereisnooneacceptedcoating.Usuallyacarbonor
pyrolyticgraphitecoatingisused;thicknessesbetween0.01mand0.1m.Pyrolyticboronnitridehas
alsobeenpromotedasthecoating,butwithlessprominence.
52.5.2.4
Stress-strain response
Figure 52.5.2shows a representative stressstrain profile for a bidirectional fabric SiCSiC composite
withNicalonreinforcement,Ref.[527].
Figure52.52SiCSiCcomposite(bidirectional):Typicaltensilestressstraincurve
Threezonescanbeseeninthestressstraincurve:
Zone 1: The behaviour of the composite is elastic to a strain of 0.035%, with fibre and matrix
actinginunison.
Zone 2: The matrix is microcracking and there is a gradual transfer of load to the fibres. This
explainsthefallinmodulusfromtheoriginal210GPa.
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Zone 3: The load is entirely sustained by the fibres to 0.6% strain. The 190MPa failure stress
should be viewed in the light of the composite being based on bidirectional fabric. This
strengthlevelisindicative,andhasbeenimprovedupon.
In using SiCSiC composites which possess a very restricted linear elastic response, the mechanical
stressing caused by either direct load or thermal shock should not reach such levels as to promote
progressive microcracking. The design limits, therefore, are more modest than the maximum
attainablestrengths,suggestingvaluesof100MPaforabidirectionalfabriccomposite.
52.5.2.5
Effects of temperature
ThemainadvantageofSiCSiCisthestrengthretentionto1200C,asshowninFigure52.5.3,Ref.[52
2].Thesestrengthswereattainedinanatmosphereofargonandhydrogen.Thehigherinsitustrength
ofcarbonfibrewithrespecttothatofNicalonisalsoevident.
Figure52.53SiCSiCcomposites:Typicalbendingstrengthversustemperature
profilescomparedwithCSiCcomposite
The results shown in Figure 52.5.4 and Table 52.5.1 show SiCSiC capable of sustaining its strength
andfracturetoughnessdespitethermalshockandrepeatedthermalcycling,Ref.[522].Hence,theuse
ofSiCSiCcanbeconsideredforthermalprotectionsystemswherethemodestmechanicalstrengths
canbeaccommodated.
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Figure52.54SiCSiCcomposites:Representativethroughthicknessfracture
toughnessversustemperaturecomparedwithCSiC
Table52.51SiCSiCcomposites:Indicativeproperties,asmeasuredbySEP
(France)
Temperature(C)
Property
RT
-1
Thermal conductivity (Wm C ):

Parallel to fibres
Perpendicular
Thermal diffusivity (10-6m2s-1):
Parallel
Perpendicular
CTE (10-6C-1)
Bending strength (MPa)
Key:
1000 1200 1400 1600 2000
-1
25
6
18
5
18
5
12
4.5
5
300
4.5
2.2
350
2.2
390
3.5
2.2
200
150
50
Material:2DlaminateswithNicalonfabric&10%porosity.
Nostrengthloss@1000Cinairupto500hours.
Thermocycling&ThermalShockto1200Ccausedlittleornochangetostrength
characteristics.
FractureToughnessof25MPamconstantto1300C.
Nocatastrophicfailurecharacteristics.
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52.5.3
Environment
52.5.3.1
Oxidation
Whilst silicon carbide is an oxidationresistant material, SiCSiC composites degrade significantly

underprolongeduse,e.g.ingasturbineapplications.
To combat oxygen attack, SEP provide a grade of SiCSiC which has an applied glaze (glass) to the
outersurfacetoprovideadditionalprotection.
52.6 Whisker reinforced composites

52.6.1
Development
52.6.1.1
Reinforcements
Theadvantagesthatwhiskershaveoverfibresare:
highpurity,and
hightensilestrength.
Table 52.6.1 indicates very high strengths and moduli. The purity provides a high level of thermal
stability.
Table52.61Ceramicmatrixcomposites:Ceramicwhiskers
Whisker
Tradename
type
[Source]
-SiC
-SiC
-SiC
-SiC
-SiC
-Si3N4
Al2O3
Al2O3
Silar SC-9
[Arco, USA]
Silar SC-10
[Arco, USA]
Tokamax
[Tokai Carbon, Japan]
Tateho SCW
[Tateho, Japan]
XPW2
[JM Huber, USA]
VLS
[Los Alamos]
Tateho
[Japan]
Emcor 66
[Engelhard, USA]
[Thermokinetics, USA]
Properties
Density
Size
UTS
Modulus
(kg/m )
(m)
(GPa)
(GPa)
3200
0.6
6.9
689
3200
3190
0.1-1
3-14
400-700
3180
0.1-0.5
20.6
483
3-10
15.9
580
3180
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52.6.1.2
Composites
Whiskersaddedtoceramicsdonotretaintheirveryhighmechanicalpropertiesbecauseitisdifficult
to:
achievebondingbetweenwhiskerandmatrix(tousethewhiskerstrength),
minimisewhiskerdegradationbychemicalinteraction.
Table52.6.2showswhiskerandmatrixcombinationswhichhavebeenassessed.Themainmotivation
forstudyingthesematerialsisforuseininternalcombustionengines.
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Table52.62Ceramicmatrixcomposites:Developmentwhiskerandmatrixcombinations
Whisker
Reinforcement
Matrix
SiC (ARCO)
Si3N4 with Y2O3 & CeO2

sintering aids. Al2O3
-SiC
Si3N4 with Y2O3 & La2O3

sintering aids.
SiC (Tokamax)
Si3N4 with Y2O3 & Al2O3

sintering aids.
SiC (VLS grade)

SiC (Silar SC-9,
ARCO)
Si3N4 with MgO

sintering aid.
Si3N4 with Y2O3 & Al2O3
sintering aids.
SiC (SC-9, ARCO)
Al2O3
Mullite
SiC (SC-9, ARCO)
Al2O3
SiC (SC-9, ARCO)
Al2O3
SiC (SC-9, ARCO)
Al2O3
SiC
Al2O3 (WG300)
SiC (Silar SC-9,

SCW-1)
SiC (SCW-1,
Tateho):
Also Al2O3 & Si3N4
SiC whiskers (VLS
grade)
Mullite
(3Al2O3 :2SiO2)
Al2O3 Corderite
Mullite
ZrO2
Molybdenum disilicide
(MoSi2)
Source
[Reference]
GTE Laboratories, USA.
Ref. [52-41]
Comments
20 wt% whisker content. Powder route. Al2O3 hot pressed @ 1850C & Si3N4 @
1725C.
Hot pressing @ 1800C. Up to 50% whisker content. Whiskers modified strength
Japanese Government Industrial
of monolithic ceramic by very small amount to 650 MPa, fracture toughness
Research Institute. Ref. [52-42]
improved slightly.
Cold isostatically pressed. Nitrided @ 1350C and then Pressureless Sintered @
Swedish Institute for Silicate
1850C. Neither the flexural strength or the fracture toughness of Si3N4
Research. Ref. [52-43], [52-44]
improved. The whisker:matrix bond judged to be too good, causing brittle failure.
Los Alamos National Laboratory, Whisker volume fractions of 40%. Hot pressing @ 1850C. Toughness increased by
USA. Ref. [52-45]
50% to 10.5 MPa m-1/2.
Hot pressed @ 1800C. For 30 vol.% whiskers, fracture toughness increased by
GTE Laboratories, USA.
Ref. [52-46]
40% to 6.4 MPa m-1/2 & flexural strength by 25% to 950 MPa.
Hot pressed @ 1850C for alumina matrix. Fracture toughness of both matrices
ORNL, USA.
improved two-fold. Al2O3 with 20 vol.% whiskers, flexural strength of 805 MPa @
Ref. [52-47], [52-48], [52-49]
RT & 520 MPa @1200C obtained.
30
vol.%
whiskers.
Hot
pressed to 1950C. Flexural strength of 650 MPa;
University of Illinois, USA.
Ref. [52-50]
Fracture toughness 9.5 MPa m-1/2.
15 wt.% whiskers. Hot pressed to 1500C. Flexural strength of 650 MPa; Fracture
Rockwell Corp., USA.
Ref. [52-51]
toughness 4.6 MPa m-1/2.
15 wt.% whiskers. Composite supplied by ARCO. Creep data acquired in air @
University of Southern
1500C, where creep is appreciable even at stresses of 48 MPa.
California, USA. Ref. [52-52]
Fracture
Toughness & Fatigue Crack Growth study. 60% increase in toughness,
Brown University, USA.
K1C values increase by 70 to 150%.
Ref. [52-53]
Up to 40 wt.% whiskers. Hot pressed @ 1700C. Flexural strength: 386 MPa;
General Electric Co., USA.
Ref. [52-54]
Fracture Toughness 3.52 MPa m-1/2. Failure strain: <0.15%.
University of Hamburg/MaxHot pressing of various matrix:whisker combinations. Thermal expansion
Plank Institute, G.
mismatch between whiskers & matrix strongly influence strength levels.
Ref. [52-55], [52-56]
Fracture Toughness of all ceramics increased.
Los Alamos National Laboratory,
20 vol.% whiskers. Hot pressed @ 1640C. 100% increase in flexural strength;
USA. Ref. [52-57], [52-58]
50% increase in Fracture Toughness.
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52.6.1.3
Material processing
Apowderprocessingrouteisusedwithwhiskeradditionsbetween20%and50%byvolume.
Consolidationbyhotpressingoccursatpressuresof~25MPa(3500psi).Thetemperaturesarehigher
than for CVD/CVI; between 1600C and 1950C, depending on the matrix. The composites obtained
showlowporosity.
52.6.2
Properties
52.6.2.1
Composites
Publishedinformation indicates that the strength and fracture toughness of the composites are only
marginally better than those of the base monolithic ceramics. The base ceramics have flexural
strengthsbetween500MPaand900MPa,withfailurestrainsto0.3%.
52.6.3
Applications
For spaceplane structures, continuous fibre composites are likely to be more appropriate than
whiskerbasedsystemsonthegroundsofpseudoplasticorbenignfailurecharacteristics.

52.7.1
Resum
CMCmaterialsweredevelopedforhightemperatureapplicationswheretheirlowdensity,compared
withmetals,andfracturecharacteristics,comparedwithmonolithicceramics,madethemofinterest
forreusableandhypervelocityvehicleprojects.Variousinternationalandnationalbasedprogrammes
have progressed CMC technology such that some materials have been fully characterised for use in
specificthermostructuralapplications.
The demands for improved data rates and lower power consumption in satellite communications
systemsmeansthatopticalbasedsystemshaveadvantagesoverthoseusingradiowaves.CMCsare
of interest for such applications which need materials with a longterm, very high dimensional
stabilityinthespaceenvironment.
52.7.2
High temperature applications
52.7.2.1
General
CMCsweredevelopedforuseattemperatures>1000C.Withtheonsetofdegradationat1200C,their
application is largely dictated by the timedependent retention of residual properties. At higher
temperatures,e.g.1650C,oxidationprotectionofthecarbonfibrereinforcementisnecessarybecause
potentialapplicationsaregenerallyinoxidisingenvironments.ThemainfeaturesofCMCsaretheir
thermalcharacteristics,includingtheabilitytowithstandthermalshockandthermalcycling,coupled
withadequatemechanicalperformance.
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52.7.2.2
Thermo-structural systems
VariousRLVconceptvehiclesperceivedtheuseofCMCsfortheprotective,aerodynamicsurfacesof
spaceplanes, [See: Chapter 70]. Some examples include, Ref. [5262], [5263], [5265], [5266], [5271],
[5273],[5274],[5275]:
X38bodyflaps,nosecapassembly,[Seealso:70.XX]
X33elevon,Ref.[5273].
Hopperelevon,Ref.[5273].
OPSX37elevon,Ref.[5273].
52.7.2.3
TPS thermal protection systems
VariousRLVconceptvehiclesperceivedtheuseoftilesandshinglesinfortheTPS,[See:Chapter71].
52.7.2.4
Deployable hot structures
FOLDHOSTisaconceptforadeployabledecelerator;asshowninFigure52.7.1,Ref.[5273],[5277].
ThisisbasedontherequirementsfortheMarsMissionISRUinsituresourceunit.Thedeceleratoris
completely folded inside the payload container for launch. During ejection the decelerator deploys
automaticallybyaspringloadeddeploymentmechanism,[Seealso:70.25].
ThebenefitsofconsideringCMC(C/SiC)forthisapplicationcanbesummarisedas,Ref.[5273]:
Allotherhotstructuresmadeofmetallicmaterials,e.g.InconelorhightemperatureODS,are
limitedintemperaturecomparedwithC/SiCandarealsomuchheavier.
C/SiC material is a suitable hot structural material because of its strength (about 200 MPa),
stiffnesscomparabletoaluminumbutwithalowerdensitythanaluminium.
C/SiC can support higher loads at about 1600C compared with room temperature
performance.
Inotherconcepts,adeployabledeceleratorwithcoldstructuralpanelsandadditionalTPS,e.g.
ablator,amounttoaboutdoublethemasscomparedwithaC/SiCdecelerator.
325
ECSSEHB3220Part5A
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Figure52.71Ceramicmatrixcomposites:FOLDHOSTconceptfordeployable
decelerator
52.7.2.5
Propulsion systems
Withinenginesandpropulsionsystems,CMCsareconsideredforsomestaticcomponentsinorderto
avoiddynamicmechanicalloads.
52.7.2.6
Heat exchangers
CMCsareconsideredforextremehightemperatureheatexchangers.
52.7.2.7
X-38 body flaps
TheX38testvehicledesignincludestwopairsofmoveableflightcontrolsurfaces(ruddersandbody
flaps)fortheintendedautonomous,controlledreentryandparafoilassistedlanding.
Each body flap can be moved independently for roll and pitch manoeuvres. For the NASA X38
experimentalvehicleV201,thedimensionsofeachflapwere1.6mlong;1.6mwide,Ref.[5263].
AnumberofcomprehensivestudieswereundertakenontheapplicationofCMCforthebodyflapsin
ordertomeettheexactingconditionsexperiencedduringreentry(V201flightconditions;combined
thermal, pressure, mechanical loading; 4 reentry cycles). The studies have resulted in the design,
manufacture, testing and flight qualification of CSiC composite body flaps by MAN Technologie.
TheseareshowninFigure52.7.2,whichalsohighlightstheassociateddesigndevelopmentsnecessary
tomakeafullyfunctional,complexallCMCstructure,Ref.[5263].
Each flap contains about 100 different parts. These are made from a 2D C/SiC composite. A
modification to the basic processing method (carbon fibre fabric preforms infiltrated with SiC) was
applieddependingonthesizeandshapeofthecomponentparttobeprocessing.Thisresultedintwo
materialTypeshavingslightlydifferentdensities,tensilestrengthandstraintofailure,Ref.[5265].
[Seealso:70.23]
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Figure52.72Ceramicmatrixcomposites:ApplicationsX38bodyflaps
52.7.3
High precision optical structures
The development of spacebased laser communication optical systems need lightweight materials
with longterm thermal and dimensional stability. In addition to material selection, design and
manufacturing aspects, such as number of components, production costs for a series of parts,
machining and preparation of highprecision optical surfaces and assembly (with provision for
accuratealignment)arealsokeydemands,Ref.[5264].
Foropticalsystems,e.g.CassegrainorOffaxisTelescopeconcepts,C/CSiCCMCswereinvestigated
fortheTelescopeTubeandUpperSpidercomponents,asshowninFigure52.7.3,Ref.[5264].
To achieve the dimensional stability, the thermal behaviour of the component parts needs to be
known and controlled, i.e. mismatch in thermal expansion between different materials, such as the
supportstructureandthemirror.Inthiscase,withaZerodurmirror,anearzeroCTEwasnecessary
forthecompositeparts.
327
ECSSEHB3220Part5A
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Figure52.73Ceramicmatrixcomposites:ApplicationsOpticalcommunications
systems
ThecharacterisationofthethermalbehaviourofC/CSiCcompositesshowedthat,Ref.[5264]:
Inplane(fibreaxis)compositethermalexpansionisaffectedbythe:
veCTEC/C:(35C)=0.7x106K1;(+50C)=0.5x106K1.
larger,+veCTEoftheSiCmatrix:CTESiC:=<4x106K1.
Varyingthephasecontentofthecomposite,byadjustingtheSiCcontentbetween30wt.%and
50wt.%,affectedthecompositeCTE,e.g.measuredinplaneCTEsatRT:
lowSiC0.2x106K1
highSiC+0.8x106K1
OthermeansofcontrollingtheCTEofthesematerialsincludedthechoiceofreinforcementfibre
(HT,HM,IM)andthefibrearchitecture.
The standard LSI C/CSiC compositeuses HT carbon fibres in a woven fabric, an XP60 highyield
carbonaceous precursor, resulting in a composite containing ~75%C/C, ~25% SiC, with ~5 wt.%
unreactedsilicon.
[See:Table52.3.1fortypicalstandardLSImaterialproperties]
Prototypes components have been manufactured using the LSI (Liquid Silicon Infiltration) process,
developedbyDLRforspacecraftthermalprotection,Ref.[5264].
328
ECSSEHB3220Part5A
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52.8 References
52.8.1
General
[521]
M.Gominaetal
ApplicabilityofFractureMechanicstoFibreReinforcedCVD
CeramicComposites
FractureMechanicsofCeramics,Vol.7,p1732
[522]
M.Daucheretal
PropertiesofSiliconCarbidebasedCeramicMatrixComposites
Proceedingsof30thNationalSAMPESymposium
1921March,1985
[523]
P.J.Lamicqetal
SiCSiCCompositeCeramics
Am.Ceram.Soc.Bull65[2],p336338(1986)
[524]
R.Naslainetal
AnAnalysisofthePropertiesofsomeCeramicCeramicComposite
MaterialsobtainedbyCVIdensificationof2DCCPreforms
ProceedingsofICCMV,August1985,p.499514
[525]
J.Y.Rossignoletal
MechanicalBehaviourinCompressionloadingof2DComposite
MaterialsmadeofCarbonfabricsandaCeramicMatrix
Proceedingsof30thNationalSAMPESymposium
1921March1985,p.15191525
[526]
J.L.Chermantetal
MorphologicalandMechanicalCharacterisationofCeramic
CompositeMaterials
TailoringMultiphaseandCeramicComposites
Vol.20p615629,1985
[527]
R.Naslain&F.Langlais
CVDProcessingofCeramicCeramicCompositeMaterials
Vol.20,p145163,1985
[528]
P.Donguy&J.Broca
HighTemperatureCompositeMaterialsforRocketPropulsion
AGARDCP449:ApplicationofAdvancedMaterialfor
Turbomachinery&RocketPropulsion.35October1988
Paper23.
[529]
A.Melchoiretal
ThermostructuralCompositeMaterialsforLiquidPropellantRocket
Engines
AIAA872119,AIAA/SAE/ASME/ASEE23rdJointPropulsion
Conference,June29July2,1987,SanDiego,California
329
ECSSEHB3220Part5A
20March2011
[5210]
A.Lancombe
CeramicMatrixCompositesMaterialsforAerospacePlaneThermal
Structures
ESAWPP004October1988
[5211]
D.P.Stintonetal
ImprovedFibrereinforcedSiCCompositesFabricatedbyChemical
Deposition
Ceram.Eng.SciProc.Vol.7,part78,1986,p.983989
[5212]
A.J.Caputoetal
FibrereinforcedSiCCompositeswithImprovedMechanical
Properties
Am.Ceram.Soc.Bull.66[2],p.368372,1987
[5213]
A.J.Caputoetal:OakRidgeNationalLaboratory,USA
ImprovementsintheFabricationofCeramicFibreCeramicMatrix
CompositesbyChemicalVapourInfiltration
ORNL/TM9651;DE85015971;June1985
[5214]
D.P.Stintonetal
SynthesisofFibrereinforcedSiCCompositesbyCVI
Am.Ceram.Soc.Bull65[2],p.347350,1986
[5215]
A.J.Caputo&W.J.Lackey
FabricationofFibrereinforcedCeramicCompositesbyCVI
Proceedingsof8thAnnualConferenceonComposites&Advanced
CeramicMaterials,p.654667.1984
[5216]
H.H.Moelleretal
SiCFibrereinforcedSiCCompositesusingCVI
SAMPEQuarterly,Vol.17,No.3,p.14.April1986
[5217]
A.J.Caputoetal
Developmentofanew,fasterProcessfortheFabricationofCeramic
FibrereinforcedCeramicCompositesbyCVI
Proceedingsof9thAnnualConferenceonCompositesandAdvanced
CeramicMaterials,p.694705,1985.ACSPublication
[5218]
H.H.Moelleretal
FibrereinforcedCeramicComposites
Ceram.Eng.Sci.Proc.8[78],p.979984,1987
[5219]
D.P.Stintonetal
AdvancedCeramicbyCVITechniques
CeramicBulletin,Vol.67,No.2,p.350355,1988
[5220]
R.A.Lowden&D.P.Stinton
InterfaceModificationsinNicalonSiCComposites
Ceram.Eng.Sci.Proc.9[78],p.708722.1988
330
ECSSEHB3220Part5A
20March2011
[5221]
J.W.Warren
FibreandGrainreinforcedCVISiliconCarbideMatrixComposites
Proceedingsof9thAnnualConferenceofComposites&Advanced
[5222]
Y.M.Panetal
ToughnessAnisotropyofaSiCSiC/LaminarComposite
TailoringMultiphaseandCompositeCeramics
Vol.20,p.615629.1985
[5223]
P.Reaganetal
CVDSiliconCarbideComponents
[5224]
P.Reaganetal
SiliconCarbideCompositeComponents
[5225]
J.S.Copes&R.G.Smith
MicrostructuralCharacterisationofThermallyagedSiconexOxide
FibreSiCCompositeMaterials
NASATechnicalMemorandum87085,USAAVSCOM85C1421st
UniversityConferenceonCeramicScience,PennsylvaniaJuly1985
[5226]
R.T.Bhatt
MechanicalPropertiesofSiCFibrereinforcedReactionBondedSi3N4
Vol.20,p.675686,1985
[5227]
N.D.Corbinetal
Microstructure/PropertyRelationshipsforSiCFilamentReinforced
RBSN
Proceedings10thConferenceonCompositesandAdvancedCeramic
Materials,p.958968,1986.ACMPublication
[5228]
D.K.Shettyetal
SiCMonofilamentreinforcedSi3N4MatrixComposites
Proceedings9thAnnualConferenceonCompositesandAdvanced
[5229]
R.Coulmetetal
AluminaFibre/AluminaMatrixCompositesPreparedbyCVI
AdvancedCeramicMaterials,1[2],p.185191,1986
[5230]
J.J.Lanutti&D.E.Clark
LongfibreReinforcedSolGelderivedAl2O3Composites
ProceedingsofMat.Res.SocietySymposium
Vol.32,p375381,1984
[5231]
A.C.Pierreetal
CeramicCompositesmadebySolGelProcessing
Rev.Int.HautesTemper.Refract.FR,23,p.2935.1986
331
ECSSEHB3220Part5A
20March2011
[5232]
T.W.Coyleetal
MechanicalBehaviourofaMicrocrackedCeramicComposite
Proceedingsof10thConferenceonCompositesandAdvanced
CeramicMaterials,CocoaBeach,p.947957,1986
ACSPublication
[5233]
B.Benderetal
EffectofFibreCoatingsandCompositeProcessingonPropertiesof
ZirconiabasedMatrixSiCFibreComposites
CeramicsBulletinVol.65,No.2,p.363369,1986
[5234]
H.Hannacheetal
CompositeMaterialsmadefromPorous2DCarbonCarbonPreform
DensifiedwithBNbyCVI
[5235]
J.Y.Rossignoletal
MechanicalBehaviourof2DCC/TiC
Composites.Vol.18,No.2,p135144,April1987
[5236]
R.Kochendorfer
MonolithicandFibreCeramicComponentsforTurboenginesand
Rockets
AGARDCP449.ApplicationofAdvancedMaterialfor
Turbomachinery&RocketPropulsion.Paper2.35October1988
[5237]
D.E.Tripp
ContinuousFibreCeramicMatrixCompositesforHeatEngines
NASALewisResearchCenter,LewisStructureTechnology
Vol.3:StructuralFatigue&Fracture,p4161.1988
[5238]
W.E.Coleetal
CeramicCompositeHeatExchanger
Ceram.Eng.Sci.Proc.8[78],p968975.1987
[5239]
R.E.Fischeretal
CeramicCompositeThermalProtectionSystems
Proceedingsof9thAnnualConferenceonCompositesandAdvanced
CeramicMaterials,p806820,1985.ACSPublication
[5240]
W.W.Liang&M.E.Schreiner
AdvancedMaterialsDevelopmentforRadiantTubeApplications
IndustrialCombustionTechnologies,Chicago,USA
p305311,1986.ASMPublication
[5241]
V.K.Sarin&M.Ruhle
MicrostructuralStudiesofCeramicMatrixComposites
Composites,Vol.18,No.2,April1987
[5242]
R.Hayamietal
Si3N4:SiCWhiskerCompositeMaterials
TailoringMultiphaseandCompositeMaterials
Vol.20,p663674,1985
332
ECSSEHB3220Part5A
20March2011
[5243]
R.Lundbergetal
SiCWhiskerreinforcedSi3N4Composites
Am.Ceram.Soc.Bull66[2],p330333,1987
[5244]
SiCWhiskerreinforcedCeramics
Composites,Vol.18,No.2,April1987
[5245]
P.D.Shaleketal
HotPressedSiCwhisker/Si3N4MatrixComposites
Am.Ceram.Soc.Bull65[2],p351356.1986
[5246]
S.T.Buljanetal
Si3N4:SiCComposites
[5247]
P.F.Becheretal
TougheningofCeramicsbyWhiskerReinforcement
OakRidgeNationalLaboratory,CONF85061283;DE0163711985
[5248]
G.Wei&P.G.Becher
DevelopmentofSiCwhiskerreinforcedCeramics
[5249]
T.N.Teigs&P.G.Becher
WhiskerReinforcedCeramicComposites
Vol.20,p639647.1985
[5250]
J.Homenyetal
ProcessingandMechanicalPropertiesofSiCwhisker:Al2O3matrix
Composites
Am.CeramSoc.Bull.67[2]p343347.1987
[5251]
J.R.Porteretal
Processing&CreepPerformanceofSiCwhiskerreinforcedAl2O3
[5252]
A.H.Chokshi&J.R.Porter
CreepdeformationofanAluminaMatrixCompositeReinforcedwith
SiCWhiskers
JournalAm.Ceram.Soc.68[6]C141145.1985
[5253]
A.A.Morroneetal
FractureToughnessandFatiguecrackGrowthbehaviourofan
Al2O3:SiCComposite
JournalofMaterialScience23,p32063213.1988
[5254]
S.C.Samanta&S.Musikant
SiCwhiskerreinforcedCeramicMatrixComposites
Proceedingsof9thAnnualConferenceonCompositeAndAdvanced
CeramicMaterials,p663672,1985.ACSPublication
333
ECSSEHB3220Part5A
20March2011
[5255]
N.Claussen&G.Petzow
WhiskerreinforcedOxideCeramics
JournaldePhysique,ColloqueCISupplementauNo.2,Tome47,
p693702,fevrier1986
[5256]
N.Claussen&G.Petzow
WhiskerreinforcedZirconiatoughenedCeramics
Vol.20,p647662.1985
[5257]
F.D.Gacs&J.J.Petrovic
FeasibilityofaCompositeofSiCwhiskerinaMoSi2Matrix
JournalAm.Ceram.Soc.68[8]C200201.1985
[5258]
W.S.Gibbsetal
SiCWhisker:MoSi2MatrixComposites
Ceram.Eng.Sci.Proc.8[78],p643648,1987
[5259]
Dr.A.Rittwegeretal:DaimlerAerospace/DASA,Bremen(D)
ThermoelasticAnalysisofaCeramicCompositeElevon
ProceedingsoftheEuropeanConferenceonSpacecraftStructures,
Materials&MechanicalTesting,Braunschweig,Germany.46th
November,1998.ESASP428,p351358
[5260]
M.Dogiglietal:MANTechnologie,Karlsfeld(D)
HypersonicAirIntakeRampaComplexHotCMCStructure
Materials&MechanicalTesting,Noordwijk,NL.2729thMarch,
1996.ESASP386,p10651076
[5261]
H.Kringsetal:MANTechnologie,(D)
FESTIPTechnologyDevelopmentsinMaterials
Materials&MechanicalTesting,Noordwijk,NL.2729thMarch,
1996.ESASP386,p10851096
[5262]
D.Sygullaetal:MANTechnologie/DLR(D)
TheUSEuropeanCooperationintheX38andCRVprograms
Abstractfromwebsite:www.iafastro.com(April2003)
[5263]
M.Dogiglietal:MANTechnologie(D)
AdvancedKeyTechnologiesForHotControlSurfacesInSpaceRe
EntryVehicles
Proceedingsof53rdInternationalAstronauticalCongress,10th19th
October,2002.Houston,Texas,USA.PaperNo.IAC02I.3.02.
Abstract:www.iafastro.com(April2003)
[5264]
A.Schppachetal:CarlZeiss/DLR(D)
UseofCeramicMatrixCompositeinHighPrecisionLaser
CommunicationOptics
334
ECSSEHB3220Part5A
20March2011
Materials&MechanicalTesting,Noordwijk,NL.29thNovember1st
December,2000.ESASP468,p141145.
[5265]
A.Muhlratzer&H.Pfeiffer:MANTechnologieAG,(D)
AllCeramicBodyFlapsforReentrySpacecraft
SAMPEJournalVol.38,No.4(July/August2002),p2229
[5266]
U.Trabandt&W.P.P.Fischer:AstriumSIBremen
X38NoseSkirtPanelsResultsofQualificationTesting
ICESConference2001012343
[5267]
U.Trabandtetal:EADSST(Bremen)/DLRCologne/Universityof
Bremen/ESAHQ(Paris)
CeramicMatrixCompositesLifeCycleTestingUnderReusable
LauncherEnvironmentalConditions
Int.J.Appl.Ceram.Technol.,2[2]150161(2005)
[5268]
Bremen/ESAHQ(Paris)
RLVTPSandHotStructuresOperationalCostEvaluationafterLife
CycleTestingwithRain,HailandLowSpeedImpacts
4thInternationalReentrySymposium,Archachon2005
[5269]
V.Liedke,U.Trabandt&M.Dogigli:
OxidationLifetimeImprovementofCMCbasedHotStructures
(OLCHOS)
ESAContractReportNo.6713/02/NL/CP;DocumentNumber:OLC
ARCS2000
[5270]
C.Kaiser&H.Weihs:HPS/DLR(D)
FailureCriteriaforNonmetallicMaterials:CMCFailureCriteria
Guidelines
ContractorReportNo.FAILDLRTN001(Issue1),March2005
ESTECContractNo.16162/02/NL/CP
[5271]
U.Trabandtetal:Astrium,Bremen
CMCStructuresforHotControlSurfacesofRLV
[5272]
U.Trabandtetal:EADSST(Bremen)
WeatherProofingofReusableTPSagainstTerrestrialandOrbital
EnvironmentsRain,HailandImpactTestingonDifferentTPS
ProceedingsofHTCMC5:5thInternationalConferenceonHigh
temperatureCeramicMatrixComposites,Seattle,2004
[5273]
U.Trabandt&E.Monreal:EADSST(Bremen)/EADSDC
LiquidPolymerC/SiCandPotentialApplicationsinSpace
Components
335
ECSSEHB3220Part5A
20March2011
[5274]
CMCandMetallicHotStructureHybridComponentsforRLV:
DesignConceptsforVeryLargeHotStructuralControlSurfaces
Proceedingsof54thInternationalAstronauticalCongress,Bremen,
Germany,2003
[5275]
U.Trabandtetal:AstriumSpaceInfrastructure,Bremen
CMCLightweightTPSandHotStructuresKeytechnologyforRLV
temperatureCeramicMatrixComposites,2001
[5276]
U.Trabandtetal:Astrium(Bremen)/Plansee
SurveyofmajorterrestrialandorbitalenvironmentsforRVandRLV
WEPROTWP1100:SurveyReportWEPROTTN001ASTR(January
2003)
[5277]
U.Trabandtetal:Astrium(Bremen&Friedrichshafen,D)
DeployableCMCHotStructureDeceleratorforAerobrake
Proceedingsof17thADSConference,May2003
336
ECSSEHB3220Part5A
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53 Glass and glass-ceramic matrix

composites
53.1 Introduction
The chemical stability and environmental resistance of glassbased materials made them a possible
matrix material for temperatures in the range 600C to 1300C. Interest has focused on carbon and
silicon carbide continuous reinforcements. The matrix can be chemically tailored to be more
compatiblewiththefibre.ThemostdevelopedmaterialsaredescribedinthisChapter.
Compositesaremanufacturedwiththeglassinaviscousphase,hencelimitingthehightemperature
fibredegradation.
For structural use, the mechanical properties determined from development materials are
encouraging,butasyetappeartobedifficulttoreproduce.Themechanicalcharacteristicsofthemost
advancedcompositesaregiven.
For aggressive environments, where metals and polymer composites degrade, the glass and glass
ceramiccompositescanbeattractive.
53.2 Continuous fibre composites

53.2.1
Characteristics
Glassesandglassceramicsoffer:
thermalstability,intherange600Cto1300C,
erosionresistance,
chemicalstability.
Without modification by reinforcement, they lack combined strength and fracture toughness for
structuraluse.
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53.2.2
53.2.2.1
Matrix
Work began with glasses such as borosilicates, having thermal capabilities around 600C. With
modifications to the glass constituents, by gradually introducing a higher ceramic content, thermal
stabilitybeyond1000Cispossible.
Importantattributesare:
Glasses can be created with a broad range of chemistry to control fibrematrix chemical
interaction.
Glassescanbeproducedwithawiderangeofthermalexpansioncharacteristicswhichcanbe
tailoredtonearlymatchthoseofreinforcingfibres.
Themodestelasticmoduliofglasses(50GPato90GPa),andglassceramics(80GPato110GPa)
enablehighmodulusfibrestoprovidetruereinforcement.
Theabilitytocontroltheviscosityofglassesandthenflowthemeasilyunderpressureenables
thephysicaldensificationofcompositeswithoutmechanicaldamagetothefibres.
Thecompositedensificationprocesscanberapid,sinceglassmatrixflowisallthatisneeded.In
thisrespect,thematrixcanbetreatedasathermoformablematerialwhichcanbemelted.
Table 53.2.1 shows the progression of the matrices used. Whilst these are mainly related to
developments at United Technology Research Center (UTRC) and Corning Glass (USA), the
informationisindicativeofthegroupofcompositesasawhole,Ref.[532],[533].
Table53.21Glassandglassceramicmatrices
Matrix
Major
Minor
Type
Constituents
Constituents
Max.Use
Temp
(C)
Glasses
7740 Boro-silicate
1723 Aluminosilicate
7930 High Silica
B2O3, SiO2
Na2O, Al2O3
600
Al2O3, MgO, CaO, SiO2
B2O3, BaO
700
SiO2
B2O3
1150
Glassceramics
LAS-I
Li2O, Al2O3, MgO, SiO2
LAS-II
LAS-III
MAS
BMAS
CAS
Ternary Mullite
Hexacelsian

Al2O3, MgO, SiO2
BaO, Al2O3, MgO, SiO2
CaO, Al2O3, SiO2
BaO, Al2O3, SiO2
BaO, Al2O3
Key:
ZnO, ZrO2,
BaO
ZnO, ZrO2,
BaO
ZrO2
BaO
-
100
1100
1200
1200
1250
~1500
~1700
:Incompositeform.
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53.2.2.2
Reinforcements
AnumberofreinforcementshavebeenconsideredforGMCs,including:
Continuousfibresandfilaments:
SiliconCarbide(SiC)
Boron
Carbon
Alumina
Glass
Whiskers.
By far the greatest effort has centred on fibre yarns of carbon, alumina, and SiC. Composites with
carbon fibres came first and exhibited significant strength and stiffness coupled with good fracture
toughness and low density (~2000kg/m3). For potential space use, there is the added benefit of
dimensional stability conferred to the composite by the carbon fibres. This can be exploited in
applicationsnotrequiringhightemperatureperformance.Themajordisadvantageofcarbonfibresas
areinforcementathightemperaturesisthattheyreadilyoxidiseinair.
Thealuminafibresystemshaveundergonemodestdevelopment.Whilstthesehavebeenshowntobe
unaffected by exposure to temperatures up to 1000C, the overall levels of toughness and strength
werelowerthanforcarbonandSiCreinforcements,Ref.[531].
SiCyarnreinforcedcompositesarenowthemainfocalpointfordevelopmentsinmatrixcomposition
togiveimprovedcomposites.
53.2.3
Manufacture
53.2.3.1
General
In comparison with other ceramic candidates, the glassy matrix composites offer considerable
potentialbecauseoftheir:
easeofcompositedensification,
lowcost,and
performancecharacteristics.
Whilst process technology was originally developed with glasses, they can be used with glass
ceramics. The key is that composite densification takes place whilst the matrix is in a substantially
glassy and viscous form. After full densification, the glassceramic can be heat treated to achieve a
matrixwithsuperiortoughnessandhightemperaturestrength.
Twofabricationtechniquesdominateforthesecomposites:
HotPressing,and
MatrixTransferMoulding.
Both methods exploit the good flow characteristics of glasses at high temperatures and are
appropriateforcontinuousfibrereinforcements.
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53.2.3.2
Hot pressing
Unidirectionalmonolayertapesaremadebywindingslurryimpregnatedyarnsontoamandrel.The
slurryconsistsofwater,awatersolubleresinbinderandaglasspowder.Thesetapesarecuttomake
plies,whicharedensifiedbyhotpressing.Forproperdensificationtooccur,pressingiscarriedoutat
atemperaturewheretheglassviscosityislowenoughtopermittheglasstoflowintotheinterstices
betweenindividualfibresoftheyarnbundles.Pressureisappliedonlyafterthemouldtemperature
reaches the softening point of the matrix. The resulting composites are generally >98% theoretical
density. Multidirectional composites made from tapes are possible, as are variants using fabric
reinforcements.
53.2.3.3
Matrix transfer moulding
Hot pressing of tapes and woven fabric layups is less suitable for complex external and internal
geometrycomponents.Inthesesituationscarefullyengineeredfabricpreformscanbeused.Theseare
arrangedinsideamouldcavity,thenafluidglassmatrixistransferredathightemperatureintothe
mouldcavitytofullyimpregnatethepreform.Whilstthinwallandcomplexshapescanbeproduced,
the desired fluidity of the glasses can only be achieved by using a substantially higher processing
temperature than for hot pressing. This, in turn, can result in excessive fibrematrix interaction and
consequentembrittlementofthecomposite.
53.3 Carbon fibre reinforced composites

53.3.1
Material
Developments in these materials have centred on borosilicate glass for the matrix. UTRC have used
T300,GY70,P100andHMUfibresandAerospatialeXASandIM6,Ref.[534].
53.3.2
53.3.2.1
Tension
Table53.3.1andTable53.3.2summarisemechanicalpropertiesachievedbythecomposites,Ref.[53
8].Themechanicalpropertiesarerespectableforthisclassofmaterial.Manyoftheglassmatricesare
PYREXfromCorningGlassWorks(USA),Ref.[538].
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Table53.31Carbonfibre/borosilicateunidirectionalcomposites:Mechanical
properties
CarbonFibre
Fibre(Vol%)
T300
39
GY-70
58
P-100
54
Properties
UTS
E
UTS
E
UTS
E
flex
XAS
65
E
ILSS
flex
IM6
68
E
ILSS
Key:
Unidirectionalcomposite
RT
RT
RT
RT
500C
RT
500C
RT
500C
RT
500C
RT
500C
RT
500C
(MPa)
(GPa)
(MPa)
(GPa)
(MPa)
(GPa)
(MPa)
(MPa)
(GPa)
(GPa)
(MPa)
(MPa)
(MPa)
(MPa)
(GPa)
(GPa)
(MPa)
(MPa)
710
127
680
322
680
322
1240
1237
158
154
38
36
1030
970
160
160
30
30
InertArgonenvironment
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Table53.32UnidirectionalandangleplytensiledataforHerculesHMUcarbon
fibrereinforced7740borosilicateglasscomposite
UnidirectionalTensileData
Composite
0
Mean value
10
Mean value
30
Mean value
60
Mean value
PL
(GPa)
165
170
173
169
120
146
144
140
72
70
68
70
35
38
33
35
(MPa)
299
266
304
290
139
128
153
140
29
41
39
37
11
16
19
15
UTS(MPa)
787
856
711
785
170
175
168
171
50
50
41
47
18
18
24
23
0.170
0.195
0.183
0.183
0.184
0.198
0.179
0.187
0.169
0.197
0.187
0.184
0.112
0.134
0.086
0.111
UTS(MPa)
429
469
424
441
179
193
189
187
44
40
48
44
25
25
22
24
252
317
331
300
0.286
0.269
0.295
0.283
0.887
0.834
0.972
0.898
0.696
0.687
0.633
0.672
0.287
0.313
0.248
0.283
0.022
0.005
0.025
0.017
f
(%)
0.618
0.657
0.531
0.602
0.123
0.121
0.111
0.118
0.078
0.073
0.060
0.070
0.054
0.075
0.077
0.069
AnglePlyTestData
Composite
[10]s
Mean value
[30]s
Mean value
[45]s
Mean value
[60]s
Mean value
[0/90]
Mean value
Key
PL
(GPa)
158
161
163
161
81
70
77
76
42
35
36
38
24
24
20
23
81
80
86
82
(MPa)
170
160
224
185
12
19
14
15
5.6
5.6
6.6
5.9
3.0
2.8
4.5
3.4
39
52
39
43
f
(%)
0.420
0.418
0.319
0.410
0.399
0.524
0.594
0.506
0.384
0.249
0.512
0.382
0.655
0.408
0.459
0.507
0.403
0.500
0.527
0.477
PLindicatesproportionallimit,astheinitialdeviationfromlinearityof/curve.
FibreVolumeFraction:40to43.6%,exceptfor60UDwhereVf=30%.
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53.3.2.2
Notched
ThenotchsensitivityofHMUcarbonfibrereinforcedCode7740borosilicateglassisshowninTable
53.3.3,Ref.[536].The0/90compositesarereasonablynotchinsensitive,Ref.[536].
Table53.33Mechanicaltestdatafornotched0/90reinforcedHMU/7740
composites
HoleDia.
(mm)
Unnotch
ed
1.6
3.1
6.4
d/b
Fibre
Vol.%
0
0
0
0.110
0.113
0.112
0.202
0.431
0.429
39
38
40
39
38
40
39
38
40
Actual
UTS
Normalised
ActualUTS
(MPa)
(MPa)
309
320
341
324
334
330
296
297
306
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.05
1.04
0.97
0.96
0.93
0.90
Key
:Ratioofnotched/unnotchedtensilestrength.
d/b:Ratioofholediametertospecimenwidth.
(MPa)
Ultimate
Extensometer
Strain(%)
43
81
76
121
37
77
16
20
31
0.48
0.56
0.57
0.92
1.05
0.97
1.08
1.42
1.52
PL
This is in agreement with fracture theory which predicts this response from composites with low
values of interfacial (fibre to matrix) shear resistance and high values of insitu fibre strength. The
desirablebenignandfibrepulloutcharacteristicsofthisglassmatrixceramicarethesameasforall
brittlematrixcomposites.
53.3.2.3
Environment
Owingtotheinertnessofglassmatrixcompositeswithrespecttovacuum,thereisinterestintheUSA
forthesematerialsinstructuralapplications.Materialcharacterisationisproceeding,Ref.[536].
53.3.2.4
Thermal expansion
Ascarbonfibreshaveahighlynegativeaxialcoefficientofthermalexpansion(CTE),itispossibleto
achieveacompositewithaCTEclosetozero.
53.3.3
Applications
The incorporation of highmodulus carbon fibres, e.g. GY70 and P100, into glasses has been
exploitedinspacerelatedmirrorsandreflectors.
OnesuchapplicationisinthermallystableinfraredmirrorsusingUTRCThermallyStableComposites
(TSC). A 300mm diameter frit bonded composite mirror in the form of an eggcrate sandwich
constructionhasbeendeveloped,Ref.[537].Anaddedadvantageofusingthesematerialsisintheir
abilitytobemachined,replicatedandfiguredusingconventionalpolishingtechniques.
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53.4 Silicon carbide fibre reinforced composites

53.4.1
53.4.1.1
Matrix
In moving from carbon to SiCfibre reinforcementsin search of oxidation resistance, it became clear
thatborosilicateglassescouldnotexploitthefullpotentialofSiCfibres,suchasNicalon,Ref.[539].
It was therefore necessary to move to glassceramics, such as lithium aluminosilicate (LAS) with
various modifications. There is a further group of matrices, such as magnesium aluminosilicate
(MAS),Ref.[5310],andBariummagnesiumaluminosilicate(BMAS),Ref.[5311],whichofferhigher
thermalstabilitythanLAS.Thesecouldbeexploitedinthefuture.Thematrixcompositionsnotonly
contributetosuchcompositepropertiesaselasticmodulusandcoefficientofthermalexpansion,but
moreimportantly,matrixcompositionsprovideameansofcontrollingfibrematrixreactionsduring
composite densification. This reactivity, or lack thereof, determines the nature of the fibrematrix
interface.
53.4.1.2
Fracture
Animportantfeatureofthesecompositesistheirfracturecharacteristics,whicharefibrousinnature,
providing high crack growth resistance and hence toughness. The term fibrous implies significant
fibrepulloutratherthanacleanfracturethroughfibreandmatrix.InthesuccessfulLASmatrix/SiC
yarnsystems,thefibrematrixinterfacehascharacteristicswhichprovideexcellentfracturetoughness,
Ref.[5310].Amongthesearetheformationofniobiumcarbide(NbC)particlesaroundthefibresand
averythincarbonrichlayerbetweenthefibreandNbCparticle.TheNbCresultsfromthereaction
betweenNb2O5fromtheLASmatrixandtheSiCfibres.
53.4.1.3
Thermal stability and toughness
The thermal stability and toughness of glassceramics are achieved through microstructural
modifications obtained by heat treatments. For the LASII/SiC system, the aspressed matrix is
primarilyglassywithsmallamountsofMullite(3Al2O3.2SiO2)andquartzsilicasolidsolutionLAS
crystals, which form on cooling from the fabrication temperature. By heattreatment, a matrix is
achieved which is highly crystalline, primarily spodumene with a small amount (<10 vol. %) of
residualglassyphaseatthegrainboundaries.
Table53.4.1givesthepropertiesofvariousaspressedandceramicSiC/LAScomposites.
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Table53.41SiCreinforcedglassceramiccomposites:ComparisonofRT
unidirectional(0)propertieswithSiCfibrereinforcedepoxy
Matrix
Property
Matrix state
Fibre Vol.%
Epoxy
LASI
LASI
LASII
LASII
P
46
C
46
P
44
C
44
Tension
Strength (MPa)
Elastic modulus
(GPa)
Failure strain (%)
875
455
670
680
106
133
128
136
0.84
0.33
0.90
1.03
Flexural
Strength (MPa)
Ratio flexural to
tensile strengths
ILSS (MPa)
Key
1240
755
758
1380
1050
1042
1.67
2.06
1.54
87
34.4
P:Aspressed;C:Ceramed
53.4.1.4
Stress-strain and fracture
The stressstrain and fracture characteristics of glassceramic matrix composites are different from
thoseofthermosettingresincomposites.Thishasimportantconsequenceswhendesigningwiththese
newmaterials.
Thestressstrainresponseofunidirectional(0)LASII/SiCcompositesisnotlinear(Hookean)
tofailure.
At fairly modest strains of around 0.4%, the matrix starts to crack locally as this reflects the
straincapacityofthematrix.Theprogressofthecracksisinhibitedatthefibrematrixinterface,
duetodecouplingbetweenthetwo.
Anetworkofmicrocracksdevelopsasthestrainincreases.Thismicrocrackinghastheeffectof
loweringtheelasticmodulus,uptothemaximumstresswhichoccursataround1%strain.
Unlikepolymermatrices,theglassceramicmatricesmakeasignificantcontributiontostiffness
astheirmoduliareintherange60GPato100GPa,whereasthoseofpolymersare2GPato3GPa.
Progressivematrixcrackingthereforedeprivesthecompositeofsomeofitsstiffness.
When the highest stress is reached, catastrophic failure is not inevitable because progressive
fibrepulloutcanoccur.
The maximum stress achieved by the composite is very much determined by the retained in
situstrengthoftheSiCfibres.
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53.4.2
Effect of in-situ fibre strength
Theimportanceofinsitufibrestrengthappliestoallhightemperaturecompositesbecausethereisa
riskoffibredegradationbythermallyinducedchemicalandmicrostructuralmodifications.
As an indication of the strength degradation which can occur solely through high temperature
processing,SiCfibreshavebeenextractedfromcompositeswheretheirstrengthhasfallenfromthe
original2070MPato1450MPa,i.e.a30%loss.
53.4.3
Effect of fibre-matrix bonding
Modest fibretomatrix bonding ensures the desired strength and toughness characteristics. This has
implicationsfortheoffaxiscompositeresponse,suchas90plystraintofailure.
For 0/90 constructions, the 90 ply strain to failure is low at around 0.05%; a consideration for
designingcomponentswiththesematerials.Thereforefabricsandmultidirectionalfibrepreformsare
preferable to unidirectional composites by providing increased fibre integration and avoiding weak
matrixdominatedplanes.
53.5 Silicon carbide reinforced composites: properties

53.5.1
LAS matrix composites
53.5.1.1
General
TheLASmatrixversionshaveundergonethegreatestdevelopmentandarethemostappropriateto
concentrate on. The progression from LASI to LASIII improved the overall strength and thermal
stabilityofcomposites.
53.5.1.2
Stress-strain response
Unidirectional LASI composites exhibit Hookean (linear) stressstrain response without

significantlevelsofmicrocrackingpriortotheultimatestrength.
ForLASIIandLASIII,asignificantextensiontothestressstrainresponseoccursbeyondthe
onsetofmatrixmicrocracking.ThiseffectivelygivesaProportionalLimit;seeFigure53.5.1.
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Figure53.51Glassceramiccomposites:Tensilestressstraincurvefor
unidirectional(0)SiC/LASIIatroomtemperature
Theproportionallimitprovidesatenuouscomparisonwiththeresponseofmetalsandisanindicator
of the true strength of the composite in terms of elastic response. All tensile and flexural strength
figures stated relate to the ultimate strength of the composite, i.e. the insitu strength of the fibres,
beyondtheonsetofmicrocracking.
Figure53.5.2providesabetterinsightintothetruestresstostrainresponseofaglassceramicmatrix
composite,Ref.[5311].
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Key: Temperature: 25C, Strain Rate 5 x 10-5 sec-1
Figure53.52Glassceramiccomposites:Flexuralstressstraincurvefor
SiC/BMASIII
53.5.2
53.5.2.1
General
Published literature shows that problems have been encountered in achieving reproducible results
with the development materials; not least in relation to insitu fibre strength. No definitive
explanationhasbeenidentified.
53.5.2.2
Tensile and flexural
Both the tensile and flexural strengths of SiC/LAS composites have been measured and indicative
valuesaregiveninFigure53.5.3,[Seealso:Table53.4.1],Ref.[5313].
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Conditions: Three-point bend in Argon
Figure53.53SiCreinforcedglassceramiccomposite:Flexuralstrengthversus
temperatureforunidirectionalSiC/LAS
Whilst the tensile mode of failure is fairly well understood, the flexural response is slightly more
complex due to the presence of compressive forces within the specimens. This gives rise to a
phenomenonwheretheflexuralstrengthscanactuallyincreaseatintermediatetemperatures(800Cto
1000C) just below temperatures where excessive matrix softening leads to a loss in strength, [See:
Figure53.5.3].
Theincreaseinflexuralstrengthat800Cto1000Cisthoughttoresultfrompartialmatrixsoftening
enablinglocalisedloadredistributionduringthreepointbending.
Flexuralstrengthsarealwayshigherthantensilestrengthforacorrespondinglysimilarmaterial.The
hightemperaturebendstrengthsinFigure53.5.3wereobtainedinaninertatmosphere.
53.5.2.3
Effect of environment
The effect of oxidation is shown in Figure 53.5.4. The bend strengths above 600C show a dramatic
dropandfluctuationindicatingoxidativepenetrationofthecomposite.
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Conditions: Three-point bend, in Argon and Air
Figure53.54SiCreinforcedglassceramiccomposite:Flexuralstrengthversus
temperatureforunidirectionalSiC/LASIII
53.5.2.4
Compression
ThecompressiveresponseofSiC/LAScompositesprovidesafurthercontrastonfailurecharacteristics,
Ref.[5314].Matrixmicrocrackingisagainpresentbeyondcertainstrainlevels,butfibrebucklingand
fibre (bundle or yarn) kinking determines ultimate strain levels. Figure 53.5.5 shows compressive
strengthversusstrainresponsesforLASII/SiCcomposites.
Offaxisplies,suchas45and90,incompositeshavelowfailurestrains.Thisisobservedfortensile
loading, and coupled with matrix microcracking (proportional limit) makes clear that maximum
permissibleoperatingstrains,hencestresses,aremodestforthesecomposites.
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Figure53.55SiCreinforcedglassceramiccomposite:Compressivestressstrain
responseof0,0/90,and45SiC/LASIII,at23C
Figure53.5.6showstheflexuralstressstrainresponseofa0/45/90LASII/SiCcompositeatvarious
temperatures. The response of this multidirectional composite has a proportional limit of around
100MPaforalltesttemperatures.
Figure53.56SiCreinforcedglassceramiccomposite:Flexuralstressstraindata
for0/45/90SiC/LASforawidetemperaturerange
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Figure 53.5.7 and Figure 53.5.8 provide indicative strength data for SiC/LAS composite against the
unreinforcedmonolithicglassceramic,Ref.[5317].
KEY:
c Ultimate Compression Strength
y Yield Strength in Compression
AE Acoustic Emission Threshold in
Compression
Figure53.57SiCreinforcedglassceramiccomposite:Strengthsversus
temperatureformonolithicLAS(Pyroceram)andunidirectionalLAS/SiC
(Compglas)
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Key:
TUltimatetensilestrength
flexUltimateflexuralstrength
Figure53.58SiCreinforcedglassceramiccomposite:Dependenceoffailure
strengthswithtemperatureandloadingmodefor0Compglasandmonolithic
Pyroceram
53.5.2.5
Fatigue
The formation of microcracking at modest stress levels, often well below ultimate strength, has
important implications for repetitive loading, as in fatigue, Ref. [5315], [5316]. Flexural fatigue
testing indicates that the use of peak fatigue stresses greater than the proportional limit have the
effect of inducing further microcracking. This implies a larger network of microcracks providing
greater access for the environment to enter the composite and increase the fibre degradation. The
repetitive increase in microcracking effectively lowers the proportional limit. As a result of high
tensilestressfatiguetheproportionallimitstresscanbereducedbyasmuchas60%.
SomepreliminaryflexuralfatiguedatahasbeenacquiredforUD(0)LASII/SiCcomposite,seeFigure
53.5.9,Figure53.5.10andFigure53.5.11.Themainpointscanbesummarisedas:
At22C(RT)theultimateflexuralstrengthswerebetween700MPaand850MPawithaspread
inproportionallimitof300MPato600MPa.
Peak flexural stresses less than 650MPa were required to ensure that 105 fatigue cycles are
enduredandallowrunout.
The residual strengths of specimens surviving 105 cycles were similar to those of asmade
specimens.
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When the test temperature was raised to 600C, the ultimate bend strength of the asmade
composite increased reaching 1000MPa to 1100 MPa. The proportional limit was however
muchlowerataround380MPa.
Subsequent fatigue tests at this temperature showed that peak fatigue stresses had to be less
than380MPatoachieve105cyclerunout.
Theresidualstrengthofthecompositeexperiencing105cycleswascorrespondinglylow.
Fibre volume fraction: 45 to 50%
Figure53.59SiCreinforcedglassceramiccomposite:Comparisonofflexural
strengthundervariousloadingconditionsfor0SiC/LASat22C
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At the same time stress rupture tests lasting 50 hours were conducted to quantify the continuous
stresslevelthatthecompositecouldwithstandwithoutfailure:
For50hours,thiswasaround380MPa.
At900C,stressesbelow300MPawereneededtoachieve105cyclesrunout;seeFigure53.5.12,
Figure53.5.13andFigure53.5.14,Ref.[5316].
Figure53.512SiCreinforcedglassceramiccomposite:Roomtemperaturefour
pointflexuralfatigueof0SiC/LASII
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Figure53.513SiCreinforcedglassceramiccomposite:Roomtemperaturetensile
fatigueof0SiC/LASIII
Figure53.514SiCreinforcedglassceramiccomposite:Roomtemperature
uniaxialtensilefatigueof0/90SiC/LASIIand0/90SiC/LASIII
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53.5.2.6
Summary of strength data
The conclusion to be drawn from the strength data presented is that the ultimate strengths of these
compositesatroomtemperaturearerespectableataround800MPaforaunidirectionalcompositein
bending.However,theusablestrengthfordesignpurposesisloweredby:
Offaxisplies,
Tensileandcompressiveloadings
Hightemperatures,upto1000C
Fatigueloading
Theinitiationofmicrocracking.
Itissuggestedthat200MPaisarealisticdesignstrengthfigurefor0unidirectionalcompositeand
100MPaforbidirectional.Thetermstrengthisusedloosely,butisapplicabletotensile,compressive
andflexuralmodes.
53.5.2.7
Fracture toughness
The fracture toughness data on glassceramic matrix composites show that LASII and LASIII
composites possess attractive properties compared with monolithic glasses, glassceramics and
ceramics.
The throughthickness fracture toughness of a unidirectional or bidirectional composite are around
30MPam,comparedwith2MPamformonolithicglassceramicmatrix.Thehighestvaluesarefor
throughthicknessandfracturetoughnessbetweenplanesisdistinctlylower.
Bothnotchedthreepointbendtestsandcantileverbeamspecimenshavebeenusedtoderivefracture
toughnessvalues.
Whilst these values are termed K1C by some sources, they are only for comparative purposes. The
knowledgeonfracturemechanicsofthesematerialsisincomplete.
For2Dfabricbasedcomposites,poorinterlaminarandthroughthicknessstrengthsposeproblemsin
some applications. Like many composites the option is available to use 3D fibre preforms (fibre
architecture) to improve these strengths. 3D braided SiC/LASIII have been successfully prepared,
whichgivemoreevenfracturetoughnessvaluesinthroughthicknessorientations,Ref.[5318].

53.6.1
Technology status
53.6.1.1
USA
ThemosthighlydevelopedcompositesarethoseofUTRCunderthetradenameCOMPGLAS.These
include the LAS systems. These materials are being evaluated for the gas turbine engine and
aerospaceapplicationsintheUSA.However,theyarenotofferedascommercialmaterialsonaworld
widebasis.
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53.6.1.2
Europe
Developments in borosilicate matrix composites at Aerospatiale (France) and Harwell Laboratory

(UK)forengineapplicationsattemperaturesof~600Carereported,Ref.[534],[5319].
53.6.1.3
Summary of composite development
Fibre,matrixandinterfacearealltailoredtoachievestrong,toughcomposites.
Lowfibrematrixinterfacialstrengthimplieslowoffaxisstrength.
Nonlinear stressstrain curves and an elastic modulus that decreases with increasing strain
shouldbetakenintoaccountinsuccessfuldesigns.
Flexural tests by themselves are an inadequate means of defining composite stressstrain

behaviourorstrength.
Environmentalstabilityandcompositestructurallifepredictionarethekeyissuesforsuccessful
compositeapplication.
Nonstructural applications, such as tribology and dimensional stability, can provide the first
usageofthesecomposites.
Microindentationtesttechniquesarebeingusedtoassesstheinterfacialshearstrengthbetween
fibreandmatrices,Ref.[5320].
53.6.1.4
Applications resum
There are two main advantages of glass and glassceramic composites over their ceramic matrix
counterparts:
Thematricesarethermoformable,likemetals,givinggreaterfreedomonprocessingandbetter
controlofcomposition.
The consolidation temperatures of 800C to 1300C stay within the stability range of the
inorganic,ceramicandcarbonfibres.
For intermediate temperatures of 500C to 1000C, these composites have weightsaving attractions
overmetals,e.g.titaniumandnickelalloys.Forlongtermapplications,theircreepperformancehas
yettobedetermined.
Inmanyrespects,theirabilitytoachievespecificphysicalratherthanmechanicalpropertiescanbea
drivingforcefortheiruse,e.g.lowCTEmaterials(withcarbonfibres)canbeusefulinapplicationsof
longterm exposure to space environments, such as LEO, where plastics and metals can show
progressivedegradation.
Thesecompositescanalsobeusedforelectronicsubstratesandcarriers.
53.7 References
53.7.1
General
[531]
T.A.Michalske&J.R.Hellman
StrengthandToughnessofContinuousAluminaFiberReinforced
GlassMatrixComposites
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J.Am.Ceram.Soc.71[9],p725731.1988
[532]
K.M.Prewoetal
FibrereinforcedGlassesandGlassCeramicsforHighPerformance
Applications
CeramBulletinVol.65,No.2,p305314.1985
[533]
K.M.Prewo
TheDevelopmentofFiberreinforcedGlassesandGlassceramics
Vol.20,p529547.1985
[534]
A.Moguez
GlassMatrixComposites,ManufactureandPerformanceData
LookingAheadforMaterialsandProcesses.ElsevierScience
Publishers,TheNetherlands.p17.1987
[535]
R.A.Allaireetal
GlassMatrixCompositesforHigherUseTemperatureApplications
SAMPEQuarterly.October1987.p2530
[536]
W.K.Tredway&K.M.Prewo
CarbonFibrereinforcedGlassMatrixCompositesforSpacebased
Applications
ONRReportR879174701
ContractN0001485C0332.ADA184355.August1987
[537]
J.H.Bluegeetal
ThermalStabilityofLightweightGraphiteGlassSandwichReflectors
forInfraredAstronomy
SPIEVol571LargeOpticsTechnology.p254258.1985
[538]
[8]
V.C.Nardone&K.M.Prewo
TensilePerformanceofCarbonFibrereinforcedGlass
JournalofMaterialScience23.p.168180.1988
[539]
K.M.Prewo&J.J.Brennen
SiliconCarbideYarnReinforcedGlassMatrixComposites
JournalofMaterialsScience17,p12011206,1982
[5310]
V.JPowers&C.H.DrummondIII
SiCFiberreinforcedGlassceramicCompositesinthe
Zirconia/MagnesiumAluminosilicateSystem
Proceedingsofthe10thConferenceonCompositesandAdvanced
CeramicMaterials,p969977,1986
[5311]
R.L.Stewartetal
FractureofSiCFiber/GlassceramicCompositesasafunctionof
Temperature
FractureMechanicsofCeramics,Vol.7,p3351
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[5312]
J.J.Brennen
InterfacialCharacteristicsofGlassandGlassceramicMatrix/Nicalon
SiCFiberComposites
Vol.20,p549560.1985
[5313]
K.M.Prewo
TensionandFlexuralStrengthofSiCFibrereinforcedGlassceramics
JournalofMaterialsScience21,p35903600.1986
[5314]
JLankford
Temperaturestrainrate&FibreorientationEffectsinthe
CompressiveFractureofSiCfibrereinforcedGlassmatrix
Composites
Composites,Vol.18,No.2,p145152.April1987
[5315]
K.M.Prewo
FatigueandStressRuptureofSiliconCarbideFibreReinforcedGlass
ceramics
JournalofMaterialsScience22,p26952701.1987
[5316]
E.Minford&K.M.Prewo
FatigueBehaviourofSiCfiberreinforcedLithiumAluminoSilicate
Glassceramics
TailoringMultiphaseandCompositeCeramics,
Vol.20,p561570.1985
[5317]
J.Lankford
StrengthofMonolithicandFibrereinforcedGlassceramicsatHigh
RatesofLoadingandElevatedTemperature
[5318]
F.Koetal
StructuralTougheningofGlassMatrixCompositesby3DFibre
Architecture
[5319]
D.M.Dawsonetal
FabricationandMaterialsEvaluationofHighPerformanceAligned
CeramicFiberreinforcedGlassMatrixComposite
Ceram.Eng.Sci.Proc.8[78]p815821.1987
[5320]
D.H.Grandeetal
Fibre/matrixBondStrengthStudiesofGlass,CeramicandMetal
MatrixComposites
JournalofMaterialScience23,p311328,1988
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54 Carbon-Carbon matrix composites

54.1 Introduction
54.1.1
Applications
TheapplicationsforCarbonCarboncompositescanbebroadlygroupedasthoseaimingto:
exploithightemperaturecapability,or
capitaliseondimensionalstabilitycharacteristics.
54.1.2
High temperature
BasedontheexperienceofusingCCmaterialforshortduration,singleusespaceapplications,their
characteristics appropriate for use in reusable, longlife structures were investigated. The work was
largely conducted in programmes considering space planetype vehicles. The applications included
thermalprotectionthermalshieldsforregionsofthevehicleduringreentry,[Seealso:Chapter71].
Despite their advanced commercial status, mechanical property data is limited. This is a direct
reflectionoftheinfluencematerialprocessinghasonthefinalmaterial.Assuch,anydatastatedare
consideredasindicativeonlyofwhatispossible,[See:54.2].
AnimportantconsiderationistheoxidationofCarbonCarbonattemperaturesabove500C.Various
protectionmethodsaredescribed,[See:54.4].
54.1.3
Dimensional stability
The low thermal expansion characteristics of CC composites make them of interest for applications
demanding very high dimensional stability. The knowledge of materials and processing, developed
initiallyforhightemperatureapplications,hasenabledaCCcompositetoreachqualifiedstatusfor
somestructuralpartsforspacetelescopesorscientificinstruments,[See:54.6].
54.2 Material description

54.2.1
Characteristics
54.2.1.1
General
Interest in carbon matrix composites has centred on materials which combine a carbon fibre
reinforcement with a carbon matrix. These materials are known as carboncarbon (CC) composites.
Therearemanyvariants,asshowninFigure54.2.1,arisingfromthe:
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specificfibreused,
forminwhichthefibreisused,and
methodofcreatingthecarbonmatrixphase.
Theselectionofmaterialsandprocessingrouteuseddeterminethespecificmechanicalpropertiesof
the finished component. A major advantage of multidirectional carboncarbon composites is the
freedomtoorientateselectedfibretypesandamountstoaccommodatethedesignloadsofstructural
components.
54.2.1.2
Fibre architecture
Thearchitectureofthecarbonfibrereinforcementcantakemanyformsincluding,[Seealso:6.31]:
randomshortfibres,
unidirectionalfibres,
braidedstructures,
laminatedfabrics,
orthogonal3Dweaves,ineitherCartesianorcylindricalcoordinates,
multidirectionalstructures,suchas4Dstructures.
54.2.1.3
Properties
GeneralpropertiesofCCcompositesare:
lightweight.
abilitytooperateathightemperaturesowingtotheirrefractorynature.
goodmechanicalpropertiesincludingfractureresistance.
lowthermalexpansion.
Mechanical properties are usually satisfactory in the two dimensions containing the reinforcement,
butthecarbonmatrixisweaksotheperformanceinthethirddirectionisverylow,[See:54.3].
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Figure54.21Carboncarboncomposites:Schematicdiagramofmaterialselection
andprocessingroutes
54.2.1.4
Oxidation
The major hindrance is that the oxidation resistance of CC is poor. Exposure to oxygencontaining
atmospheresattemperaturesabove500Cresultsinsignificantweightlossandpropertydegradation.
To improve oxidation resistance it is necessary to create a barrier to the aggressive environment;
usuallybycoatingthecomposite.
54.2.2
Manufacturing techniques
54.2.2.1
Reinforcement forms
The carbon fibrereinforcement is generally woven into a preform to produce unidirectional or

multidirectional (2D, 3D or 4D) fibre arrangements. Figure 54.2.2 shows the fibre arrangement in
SEPCARB4Dpreform.
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Figure54.22Carboncarboncomposites:4DfibrearchitectureinSEPCARB4D
Figure54.2.3showsexamplesof3Dfibrepreforms.
3-D preform
3-D polar preform
Figure54.23Carboncarboncomposites:3Dfibrepreforms
Theweavingprocessesusedtocreatemultidirectionalnearnetshapepreformshavebeenthetopicof
extensiveoptimisationandautomation,Ref.[541].Producingthefibrepreformremainsasignificant
costcontributor.Thechoiceofwovenpreformislinkedtotheapplication,e.g.throatnozzlesuse3D
and4Dpreforms,someexitconesuse3Dpolarweavepreforms(cylindricalcoordinates)tosustain
the severe thermal stresses. Polar weave preforms are used for cylinders and other shapes of
revolution,e.g.cylindersandcones,convergentordivergentsections,Ref.[5423].3Dcarboncarbon
isalsousedtomanufacturehightemperaturefasteners,e.g.screws,nutsandbolts,Ref.[5422].
Someexamplesofcomplexshaped,multidirectionalfibrepreformsareshowninFigure54.2.4.
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Figure54.24Carboncarboncomposites:Examplesofmultidirectionalfibre
preforms
54.2.2.2
Matrix
Thematrixphaseisintroducedintothepreformbyeither:
Liquid Impregnation: using resins or pitches, which are subsequently carbonised. The use of
pitchneedsatwostageprocess:
partialimpregnationorrigidisationofthefibrepreformandpyrolysis,then
densification.
Chemical Vapour Infiltration (CVI): under the controlled temperatures and pressures of a
reactionvessel,methaneorethaneareconvertedanddepositedaspyrolyticcarbon.
Theliquidresinroutealsoneedsrepetitionoftheimpregnationandpyrolysistreatmentstoachieve
densification of the composite. Repetition of the densification stage is undertaken to achieve the
desireddensityandproperties.
TheCVImethodreliesonthedepositionofthecarbonmatrixonandbetweenfibres.Theprocessing
timescanexceed100hours.
CVIisnormallyusedforthinwalledparts.Liquidinfiltrationmethodsareusedforthickersections.A
combinationofbothtechniqueshasalsobeenused,Ref.[542].
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54.3 C-C composite: Properties

54.3.1
54.3.1.1
General
AlthoughCCcompositesareinadvancedstagesofdevelopmentandapplication,comparedwiththe
othermaterialoptions,verylittledataonmechanicalpropertieshavebeenpublishedopenly.Thisis
primarily due to the significant resources put into their development and evaluation and the
commercial demands of those companies in capitalising on the expertisegained. There arehowever
somegeneralcommentsonthemechanicalpropertiesofCCmaterialswhichcanbepresented.
Table 54.3.1 gives mechanical properties which are indicative of those attainable by different CC
composites,butcautionisneededintheirinterpretation,Ref.[544],[545].
Table54.31Carboncarboncomposites:Indicativemechanicalproperties
CCCompositeType
PropertiesatRT
Density
Tensile Strength
Tensile Modulus
Compressive
Strength
Compressive
Modulus
54.3.1.2
3D
2D
(GPa)
(GPa)
1750 1950
200 - 260
90 - 100
1820 1950
127 - 172
68 - 101
(MPa)
140
214
88 - 170
(GPa)
68
3.2
61 - 73
(kg/m3)
CCwithSiCCoat
1700 - 1800
100 - 140
63 - 67
Multidirectional reinforced composites
Thereinforcementfibrearchitectureinfluencesthecompositeperformance,[See:54.2].Themechanical
propertiesaregenerallysatisfactoryinthetwodirectionscontainingthereinforcement,butthecarbon
matrixisweaksotheperformanceoftheotherdirectionisverylow.Thisproblemiscrucialduring
manufacturing when high internal stresses provoke delamination of the constituent plies or in
applications involving high thermomechanical loading, such as reentry and rocket motors
components,Ref.[5423].
Multidirectional carboncarbon composites provide the freedom to orientate fibres of various types
andamountstoreactthedesignloadsofthestructuralcomponents.Theycanalsobemachinedandto
create small radii. The cost of producing the fibre preforms, even using fullyautomated weaving
machines,isstillsignificant.This,alongwithlowmechanicalperformanceinnonreinforceddirection,
arethemaindisadvantages,Ref.[5423].
Whilst the nose cone and leading edges of the Space Shuttle Orbitor are formed from 2D carbon
fabric,multidirectional(3Dand4D)areusedforstructuresexperiencingseverethermalstresses,e.g.
throatnozzels,exitcones,[See:54.2].Mechanicalfasteners,using3Dreinforcements,shownolossin
strength at high temperatures and demonstrates the superiority of CC compared with metals, Ref.
[5422].
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54.3.1.3
Stiffness
ThemodulusofCCcompositesisdictatedbythemoduliof:
fibre,and
matrix.
Usuallythestiffnessofthematrixinpolymericmatrixcompositesisignored,butforCCmaterialsthe
stiffnesscontributionissignificant.
Figure 54.3.1 shows the stiffness of three CC materials created from different carbon matrix
precursorsthathavereceiveddifferentheattreatmentsat1000Cand2600C.Theresultantstiffnessis
determinedbycalculationofthetheoreticalmoduluswithoutthematrixstiffnesscontribution,hence
valuesgreaterthan1.0arequoted.
Conditions:
Materials produced from different matrix precursors, with two different final heat treatment
temperatures (HTT).
Figure54.31Carboncarboncomposites:Predictedmodulusvaluesfrom
conventionaltheorywithoutamatrixcontribution
54.3.1.4
Strength
Theoretically, three parameters control the strength of a composite consisting of brittle fibres in a
brittlematrix:
modulusoffibres.
straintofractureratioofmatrixtofibre.
fibrevolumefraction.
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In practice, CC composites have exceeded theoretically predicted limiting values of strength and
strain.Thishasbeenattributedto:
compressiveprestressingofthematrix,and
energyconsumingfractureprocessesinthematrixandatthefibrematrixinterface.
Compressive prestressing of the matrix occurs by shrinkage of the matrix phase during processing
and is influenced mainly by the carbon residue of the matrix precursor and fibre surface reactivity,
Ref. [543]. Excessive shrinkage can result in matrix cracking which is deleterious in the extreme to
compositeproperties.
Figure 54.3.2 illustrates the tensile behaviour of 3D carboncarbon composite at RT and at high
temperatures under an inert atmosphere, Ref. [5420], [5421]. The tensile response of 4D carbon
carboncompositeunderthesameconditionsisshowninFigure54.3.3,Ref.[5418],[5419].
A: Room temperature tensile behaviour
Tensile behaviour at 45 which

corresponds to a rotation around
z-direction.
B: High-temperature tensile behaviour (inert atmosphere)
Directions: x, y and z
Figure54.32Carboncarboncomposites:Tensileresponseof3Dcomposite
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A: Room temperature tensile behaviour
X corresponds to a 45 rotation around

z-direction
B: High-temperature tensile behaviour (inert atmosphere)
x-direction
Figure54.33Carboncarboncomposites:Tensileresponseof4Dcomposite
54.3.1.5
Fracture
The internal cracks and porosity are responsible for the apparent pseudoplasticity phenomenon
exhibitedbyCCcomposites.Sealingoftheseimperfectionsimpairspseudoplasticityandpromotesa
brittlefracturemode.
The energy absorption capacity of the composites is linked to the fibrematrix bonding and crack
propagationmechanisms,i.e.:
Weak bonding enables diversion and blunting of the propagating matrix crack at the fibre
matrixinterface,permittingfibrepullout.
Strongbondingreducesthepossibilityofcrackdeviationandenablesthecracktopassthrough
thefibre;limitingbothstrengthandenergyabsorptioncapacity.
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54.4 Oxidation protection systems

54.4.1
Requirements
To be successful, the coating should retain its mechanical and physical integrity throughout all
temperature excursions. This can be in the range of 160C to +1700C during one mission of a
reusablespacecraft.Consequentlythecoatingshouldremainadheredtothecompositeandnotcrack,
whichwouldotherwiseenableoxidativeingress.
54.4.2
Coating development
54.4.2.1
General
Significantefforthasbeenplacedontheinvestigationofcoatings,aswithoutthemtheutilisationofC
Cmaterialsisseverelylimited.
Theparticularcoatinguseddependsonthethermalregimeencountered,e.g.:
SiliconNitride:Si3N4hasdemonstratedprotectionupto1250C.
SiliconCarbide:SiC(mostcommonlyreported)whichcanbeenhancedbyaSiO2basedsurface
layer(TEOS)toprovideprotectiontotemperaturesof1700C,Ref.[546].
54.4.2.2
Coating systems
Protectionsystemscanbeverycomplex(multiplex)andadifferentonespecifieddependingonthelife
expectancyrequiredinathermocyclicoxidationenvironment,Ref.[546]to[5413].
Tosummarise,theprotectionconstituentscaninclude:
inhibitors,intheformofparticulatesaddedtoaresinpyrolysedmatrix.
infiltration of oxidation resistant ceramics into a porous CC substrate. Infiltration can be

achievedbyCVI/CVDandincludeSiC,Si3N4,BN,AlN,TiCandB4C.
conversionofsurfacecarbontosiliconcarbide,togiveadiffusioncoating.
anoverlaycoating,e.g.SiC.
glassyinterlayersandcoatingswhichactasasealingmedium.
Operationabove1700Crequiresmorecomplexcoatingscomposedof,Ref.[542]:
hafniumdiboride,
hafniumoxide,and
iridium.
54.4.3
Matrix modification
Themodificationofthecarbonmatrixbytheincorporationofapreferentiallyoxidisingfillermaterial
(boron carbide)and organometallic materials(which convert to B, Siand Ti during pyrolysis) have
shownsomeincreasedoxidationprotectionattemperaturesbelow1000C,Ref.[547].Thisapproach
differsfromtheprotectivecoatingmethodinthatitprovidesdirectoxidationresistancethroughout
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the composite thickness, whereas coatings rely on surface protection and indirect protection of the
compositethroughthickness.
The modified matrix route avoids problems of nonuniformity of coatings and potential thermal
expansionmismatchwhichcanresultincrackingofthecoatingandasubsequentlossofprotection.
Theeffectofamodifiedcarbonmatrixonmechanicalperformanceofthecompositeisunknown,or
whetherithasanybenefitattemperaturesabove1000C.
54.4.4
Design factors
The design of an oxidation protection system should be closely tailored to the intended application
andenvironment.OneofthebasicproblemsisensuringthatcompletecoverageoftheCCispresent
at all oxidising temperatures in the intended thermal cycle. This is hindered by the low to negative
coefficientofthermalexpansionfortheCCcomparedwiththepositiveexpansionofselectedcoating
materials.Thisusuallyresultsincrackingoftheprimaryprotectivecoatingoncoolingandtheneedto
sealthecracksduringsubsequentheatingcycles.
Eachapplicationimposesitstemperaturespectrumandlifeexpectancyincludingthermalcycles.Two
applications for protected CC are Thermal Protection Systems for spaceplanes, [See also: Chapter
71],andgasturbineenginesforaircraft.Thesehavecontrastingexpectations,assummarisedinTable
54.4.1.
Table54.41Carboncarboncomposites:Requirementsforoxidationprotection
systemsfortwoapplications
Requirement
Max. temperature
(C)
Life expectancy
(hours)
Thermal cycles
SpaceplaneTPS
Gasturbineengine
Nosecone
Exhaustpetals
1700
800 + excursions to
1300
30
300 - 2000
60
2000+
In general, protection systems increase further the complexity and cost of the component. Coating
systems can consist of between five and ten applied layers. In selecting protective materials, the
oxidationresistanceandcoatingimpermeabilitytooxygenshouldbeconsidered.Optionsinclude:
Anouteroxideimpermeablebarrier,e.g.Al2O3,HfO2,ZrO2,withbetterpermeationresistance
thanthesilicaformedonsiliconcarbide.
Anintermediatelayerbetweentheoxideandsiliconcarbidelayer,tobridgethedifferencesin
CTE,e.g.aluminiumnitridewiththealuminaouterlayer,Ref.[5414].
A primary silicon carbide coating deposited in thin layers with a progressive reduction in
depositiontemperaturetofillinthecracksofthepreviouslayer,Ref.[5415].
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54.5.1
Resum
54.5.1.1
Single use components
CarbonCarbon composites have a long history of use in space programmes, particularly for single
cycle,shortdurationthermalexposuresinanonreusableapplication.Theseinclude:
reentryshields.
motorcomponents,enginesandnozzles.
Lookingatthewideruseinaerospaceapplications,CCcompositesareappropriatefor:
highenergybrakingsystems,
hightemperatureseals,and
dimensionallystablestructures.
Inallprobability,CCisthenaturalselectionforhightemperatureapplications(between1200Cand
2000+C)ofshortduration.
54.5.1.2
Reusable components
Forreusablecomponents,suchasthermalprotectionsystems,thecostofoxidationprotectioncanbe
prohibitive and preference can be given to ceramic matrix composites. The reliability of oxidation
protectionsystemsafterrepetitivethermalcyclingcanproveadecidingfactor.
Duringreentry,extremetemperaturesof~1700Careexperiencedbythenoseconeandleadingedges
of a space vehicle. It is to those areas that CC composites have been applied on Space Shuttle as
thermal protection systems, Ref. [5416]. Other applications include nozzles on Pershing II missiles
andotherrocketcomponents.
Adevelopmentprogrammeforaturbinewheelinturbojetenginesdestinedforhypersonicaircraftis
alsoadvanced,Ref.[5417].
The most noticeable attributes of CC composites are thermal stability to 2000C and beyond, plus
goodfracturecharacteristics.
54.5.2
Commercial availability
54.5.2.1
General
OneprimarybenefitofthewidescaleuseofCCcompositesisthattheyaresignificantlyadvancedin
both performance and process characterisation. Those companies active in the application,
manufactureandtestofCCcompositesare:
Aerospatiale(France):materialmarketedasNOVELTEX.
SEP(France),
Dunlop(U.K.),
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Sigri(Germany),and
LTVAerospaceandDefense(USA).
It is the knowledge, expertise and facilities held within these companies that enables a widerscale
exploitationofCCmaterialsinfutureprojects.
54.5.2.2
Further developments
ThereareareaswhichneedevaluationtoimproveconfidenceinCCfurther;suchasestablishingthe
inspectionproceduresandqualificationofCCformorestructuralusage.
Atpresentthemainapplicationareasareinthermalprotectionbarriers.However,theevaluationof
rotating engine components can provide information on material performance under dynamic
loadings.
ConceptualdesignsforthermalprotectionsystemswithintheEuropeanreusablevehicleprogrammes
includedCCcompositesasacandidatefortheHermesnosecone.
[SeealsoChapter71forTPS]
54.6 Dimensionally stable structures

54.6.1
Introduction
Carboncarboncompositespossesnearzerocoefficientsofthermalexpansionanddonotsufferfrom
moistureinduceddistortion.ThesecharacteristicsmakeCCmaterialsofinterestinthemanufacture
ofhighlydimensionallystablestructuresforspacetelescopesorscientificinstruments.
ComponentsmadefromtheCCmaterialbythemanufacturingprocessesdescribedhavebeenspace
qualifiedfor:
GOCEgravityfieldandsteadystatecceancirculationexplorerprogramme.
Pleiadesprogramme.
Thecompositecomprisescontinuoushighstrengthcarbonfibres,intheformofafabric,inacarbon
matrix.Theconsolidatedcompositehasafibrevolumefractionofabout60%.
ThesummaryofthemainfeaturesoftheCCtechnologyincludes:
Veryhighthermoelasticstability:CTEof1.107/Cforaquasiisotropiclayupconfiguration.
Low density with good mechanical properties enabling simple and reliable analyses; as for
conventionalCFRPmaterials.
Moistureinsensitivity.
Notbrittle.
Withstandsveryhightemperature.
Various architectural possibilities, e.g. thin and large size cylinders, plates and honeycomb
sandwiches,whichcanbeadaptedintoefficientstructuralconcepts.
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Manufacturingfacilitiesavailablewithlargesizecapabilities,e.g.upto2.5m.
Industrialmaturity,withfurtherpotentialgrowth.
54.6.2
Material characterisation
Thematerialisqualifiedfordifferentconfigurations,i.e.:
monolithic,e.g.forcylindersorspiderblades.
structuralsandwichpanels.
ThebasicpropertiesaregiveninTable54.6.1foraquasiisotropiclayup,atroomtemperature.
Table54.61Carboncarboncomposites:Basicproperties
Property
Density (kg/m3)
CTE( 10-6 /K)
Tensile strength (MPa)
Short beam shear strength (MPa)
Tensile modulus (GPa)
Typicalvalue
1600
0.1
> 160
> 12
> 60
Intheadditiontothebasicmaterialmanufacturing,anumberofadditionalprocessesweredeveloped
forCCcompositesindimensionallystablestructures,i.e.:
Bondingprocesses,forbothstructuralbondingandforheaterbonding.
PaintingprocessontoCCsubstrate.
Nondestructive inspection procedures, using infrared thermography were also developed and
appliedtoensureintegrity.
54.6.3
Manufacturing process
54.6.3.1
General
The CC manufacturing process described has been qualified by Alcatel Alenia Space at Snecma
Propulsion Solide (Safran group) and Hitco (SGL group) to produce components demanding high
stabilityinspaceapplications.
The overall manufacturing sequence includes the usual steps used for CFRP parts, e.g. layup of
prepreg and cure, plus hightemperature steps needing special furnaces, e.g. for carbonisation and
densification.
Figure54.61showstheequipmentusedduringsomestepsofthemanufacturingprocess.
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Figure54.61Carboncarboncomposites:Manufacturingprocessequipment
54.6.3.2
Process steps
Themanufacturingprocesshasanumberofsequentialsteps:
Heat setting of the fabric, which is a heattreatment that is essential in order to stabilise the
carbonfabricbeforeitissubmittedtoveryhightemperatureslaterintheprocessing.Thefinal
CTEpropertiesalsodependonthetemperatureofthisheattreatment.
Prepregging, which is the same process used for conventional CFRP materials. The carbon
fabricisimpregnatedwitheitheranepoxynovolacorphenolicresin,i.e.highcharresins.The
resin content is chosen with respect to the desired final fibre volume content; taking into
accountanyresinlossbybleedingduringthecure.
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Layup, which is a stateof the art step of the process that has no particular constraints. As
withanyCFRPpart,layupangles,stipulatedinthedesign,needtoberespected.
Curing,aswithanyconventionalprepregCFRPpart.
Carbonisation, which uses hightemperature furnace facilties to convert the organic resin into
carbon. The resulting material is relatively fragile, so special care is taken during handling.
Since no special processes are undertaken after carbonisation, except weighing, the risk of
damagingthepartislimited.
CVIdensification,thefinalprocessstep,iswheretheporousmaterialisdensifiedusingahigh
temperature chemical vapour infiltration (CVI) process. At the end of this step, the part is no
longerfragilebecausethepyrocarbonhaspenetratedthemicrostructure,butthisisalsopresent
onthesurfaces,producingasealcoatafewmicronsthick.
Densifiedpartscanbemachinedeasilywithtoolingsuitedtocarbonbasedmaterials.
54.6.4
Sandwich structures
54.6.4.1
GOCE programme
CCsandwichstructureshavebeenspacequalifiedthroughtheGOCEGravityFieldandSteadyState
Ocean Circulation Explorer programme. GOCE is an ESA programme, which uses a threeaxis
gravitygradiometertodetermineforthefirsttimethestationarygravityfieldwithhighaccuracy.
CC technology has been selected for the construction of the highly stable sandwich panels that
support the accelerometers and electronics, as well as the thermal control unit of the Electrostatic
GravityGradiometerofGOCE;asshowninFigure54.6.2.
Figure54.62Carboncarboncomposites:GOCEgradiometer
54.6.4.2
Qualification programme
ThequalificationprogrammefortheCCtechnologyincluded:
Dimensionalverifications,e.g.masstovolume,panelflatnessandthickness.
Tensileandcompressivetests.
Bendingtest.
Outofplaneandinplanepulltests.
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Inserttests.
Stabilitymeasurements.
Microyieldtest.
Thermoopticalandthermaltests.
54.6.4.3
Sandwich panels
TheCCsandwichconfigurationcomprises:
facesheets:1.5mmand3mmthick,quasiisotropic.
honeycombcore:3/1610pcf,20mmto80mmthick.
Small prototypes and fullscale panels were developed and tested during the qualification phase at
AlcatelAleniaSpace.
ProcedureshavebeenimplementedatHITCO(SGLgroup)forthemanufacturingofCCflightparts.
The CC sandwich structure has been completely qualified to subsystem level, e.g. vibration and
stabilitytesting.Twoflightstructureshavebeensuccessfullymanufactured.
Owingtothehightemperatureconstraints,aspecialprocesswasdevelopedandqualifiedtolocally
strengthenunbondednodesintheCChoneycomb.
54.6.5
Cylinder structures
54.6.5.1
Pleiades programme
CCcylinderstructureshavebeenspacequalifiedthroughthePleiadesprogramme.
PleiadesisaCNES(Frenchspaceagency)Earthobservationprogramme,whichisthesuccessortothe
Spot series. The optical instrument is currently manufactured under the industrial responsibility of
AlcatelAleniaSpace.
The structure is made of a CC cylinder with a carbon/cyanate M2 spider and a Carbon/cyanate
reinforcementringconnectedbytitaniuminserts.
Prior to the Pleiades programme, developments of CC cylinders were conducted at Alcatel Alenia
Space,withadditionalfinancialsupportfromCNESandtheFrenchMinistryofDefense.
54.6.5.2
C-C cylinders
ThefeaturesofallthemanufacturedCCcylindersare:
Monolithic,i.enotasandwichstructure.
Thickness1.6mmto4.8mm.
Length:300mmto2.5m.
Diameter:300mmto800mm;mandrelavailableupto2.5m.
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54.6.5.3
Qualification programme
Thequalificationprogramforcylindersincluded:
Dimensionalverifications,e.g.masstovolume,circularity.
Tensiletests.
Inserttests.
Stabilitymeasurements.
Microyieldtest.
Thermoopticalandthermaltests,e.g.conductivity,emissivity.
The qualification program was performed anddemonstrated on both small and large test cylinders.
Figure54.6.3illustratestherangeoftestcylindersizes.
Figure54.63Carboncarboncomposites:Testcylinders
54.6.5.4
Flight cylinders
Figure54.6.4showsthePleiadesflightcylinder,whichis780mmdiameterand2mlong.
TwoflightcylindersweresuccessfullymanufacturedbySnecmaPropulsionSolide(Safrangroup),a
partnerofAlcatelAleniaSpace.Asof2005,theseareundergoinginstrumentintegration.
Figure54.64Carboncarboncomposites:Pleiadesflightcylinder
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54.7 References
54.7.1
General
[541]
Y.Grenie
CarbonCarbonCompositesandAerospatiale:StateoftheArtand
Prospects
LookingAheadforMaterialsandProcesses.PublishedbyElsevier
Science,TheNetherlands.1987.p377386
[542]
A.J.Klein
CarbonCarbonComposites
AdvancedMaterialsandProcessesincludingMetalProcessing11/86,
p6468
[543]
W.Huttner
CarbonCarbon:AninverseCompositeStructure
Z.Werkstofftech16,p430435,1985
[544]
APradier
AdvancedCompositeMaterials:TheEmergingStructuralMaterials
forHighTemperatureApplications
ESA/ESTECInternalNoteYME/AP/0151,July1987
[545]
J.L.Macret&A.Hordonnead
VeryHighTemperatureMaterialsforMechanicalApplications
ESAWPP004.October1988
[546]
A.Kepling
EvaluationofSiliconCarbideConvertedCarbonComponentsfor
LiquidRocketApplications
AIAA/ASME/SAE/ASEC22ndJointPropulsionConference
June1618,1986.PaperAIAA861429
[547]
I.Jaured&D.C.Nagel
OxidationProtectioninCarbonCarbonComposites
Mat.Res.BullVol.21,p13911395,1986
[548]
S.M.Simetal
SolGelCoatingsonCarbonCarbonComposites
Mat.Res.Soc.SympProceedings,Vol.73,p647652,1986
[549]
Q.D.Quinn&J.J.Stolglich
MechanicalTestingofaCoatedCarbonCarbonCompositeat
ElevatedTemperaturesinAir
U.S.ArmyMaterialsTechnologyLaboratory
Report:MTLTR8615;ADA169355,May1986
[5410]
E.V.Gellhornetal
SiliconCarbideCoatedCarbonCarbon:AnAdvancedMaterialfor
RocketSystems
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AGARDCP449.ApplicationofAdvancedMaterialfor
Turbomachinery&RocketPropulsion,35October1988
Paper19
[5411]
J.R.Style&J.E.Sheeham
CeramicCoatingsforCarbonCarbonComposites
CeramicsBulletinVol.67,No.2,1988,p369374
[5412]
OxidationInhibitingCarbonCarbonComposites
U.S.Patent4.795.677.January1989
[5413]
K.H.Hanetal
RateofOxidationofCarbonFiber/CarbonMatrixCompositeswith
AntioxidationTreatmentatHighTemperature
J.Electrochem.Soc.:SolidstateScienceandTechnology,April1987,
Vol.134,No.4,p10031009
[5414]
O.Franc&J.L.Machet
OxidationResistantCarbonCarbonMaterials
ESASP303,June1990.p8790
[5415]
W.Huettneretal
OxidationInhibitedCarbonCarbon:ACandidateMaterialforHot
Structures
ESASP303,June1990,p9195
[5416]
E.W.Johnsonetal
SpaceShuttleOrbitor;LeadingEdgeStructuralDesign/Analysisand
MaterialAllowables
ProceedingsofAIAAStructuresandStructuralDynamicsand
MaterialsConference.Paper860949,p382393,1986
[5417]
AlcatelAleniaSpace(France)
[5418]
XAubardetal
ModelingofTheMechanicalBehaviorof4DC/CComposite
Materials
JNC12,ENSCachan15thto17November2000
[5419]
XAubardetal
DamageModellingof4Dcarbon/carboncompositeforhigh
temperatureapplication
CeramicsInternational26(2000),p631637
[5420]
CTallaron
Mechanicalbehaviourandmicrostructuralstudyof3DC/C
compositeatveryhightemperature
JNC12,ENSCachan15to17November2000,Vol1,p511
[5421]
J.PDumontetal
DamageMechanicsfor3DComposites
CompositesStructures8(1987)p119141
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[5422]
GSavage
CarbonCarbonComposites
PublishedbyChapman&Hall,UK.
[5423]
AstriumST,formerlyEADSST,Bordeaux(France)
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55 Material availability
55.1 Introduction
This chapter considers available material forms, with emphasis on differentiating between standard
product forms and those in which material and component are created simultaneously; known as
Netshape.
As with all development materials or those with smallvolume specialist uses, the amount of data
availableislimitedandveryapplicationdependent.
Product support and sources of European expertise in material processing of advanced metal and
ceramicbasedmaterialsaregiven.
The factors contributing to the cost of finished components are described, as are indications of the
complexityforeachmaterialgroup.
55.2 Material forms

55.2.1
General
Advancedmetallicandceramicmaterialscanbepreparedorcreatedinmanyforms,inanattemptto
enhance properties. However, this creates a complex picture for designers and engineers seeking
verified design data and manufacturing routes. It is appropriate to differentiate between materials
whichcanbeobtainedas:
Standardproductforms,and
Netshapeprocesses.
55.2.2
Procurement
Procuring new materials can be an evolutionary process, with continual improvements and
modifications being introduced. There are few standard product forms equivalent to, for example,
CFRPprepregsorwroughtmetalsections.
55.2.3
Processing
Manyoftheadvancedmetalandceramiccompositesarefairlydifficultmaterialstoprocesshencethe
preferencefornearnetshapeornetshapemethods.Thisindicatesspecialisedprocessfacilities,which
arenotalwayswidelyavailable.
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55.3 Standard product forms

55.3.1
General
It is assumed that basic raw materials have been converted to a form which can be worked to a
finishedcomponent.Inthisrespect,thematerialisessentiallyfullyformedbut,ifnecessary,canbe:
mechanicallyworked,
machined,or
heattreated.
Suchmaterialscanbeeasilycharacterisedbysupplierandenduseralike.
55.3.2
Wrought metal products
Theseinclude:
Conventionalmetalalloys(includingplateandextrusionproductforms),e.g.:
Mg,
Al,
Ti,and
Cu.
ODSandmechanicallyalloyed(MA)metals:madefromconsolidatedpowders,notably:
Al,and
Cu.
Particulatereinforcedmetalmatrixcomposites(MMC),notablyaluminiumbased..
Machinablecarboncarboncompositesections:CCcompositesarerelativelysoftmaterialsthat
canbemachinedwiththecorrecttooling.2Dcompositescanbeconsideredastandardproduct
whereas complex multidirectional reinforcement (3D, 4D, 5D, 6D, nD) are netshape
components.
55.3.3
Standard materials for net-shape processing
There is a range of standard materials and products which are suitable for applying to netshape
processes,including:
fibres,eitherfor:
winding,
fabrics,or
preforms.
continuousfibreprepregsorfoils,notablyTiorAlMMCs.
ingotsofalloysorparticulatereinforcedMMCs.
castingcompositions.
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powdercompositions,forconsolidation.
55.4 Net-shape components

As materials become more difficult to process, there is a greater desire to achieve netshape
processing; not least to avoid machining of hard brittle materials. Equally, those ceramic materials
which cannot be melted are usually synthesised by vapour deposition or by pyrolysis, whereby the
final material and product forms are created simultaneously. In these cases, the final material
propertiesaretheresponsibilityofthoseconductingthefinalprocessing.
Theenduserhaseithertocharacterisethematerialasmadeorrelyonaspecialistsubcontractor(s)
forbothprocessingandcharacterisation.
Materialsfornearnetshapeornetshapeprocessesinclude:
Metalmatrixcomposites(MMC):
Continuousfibrepreformsinfiltratedwithliquidmetal,usuallyaluminium.
Consolidated foils and prepregs with continuous fibres orfilaments, e.g. Ti/SiC, Al/B,
Al/SiC,andAl/C.
Forgingsandcastingsofparticulatereinforcedmetals,usuallyaluminium.
Hotisostaticallypressed(HIP)powders,includingintermetallics.
Ceramicmatrixcomposites(CMC):
Continuous fibre reinforced ceramics, e.g. SiCSiC and CSiC prepared by vapour
infiltration(CVI)ordeposition(CVD).
CompositeswithfibresorwhiskerspreparedbyresinpyrolysisorSolGeltechniques.
Hot pressed ceramic compositions with powders, whiskers or fibres, usually silicon
nitride(Si3N4)based.
GlassandGlassceramicmatrixcomposites.
CarbonCarboncomposites(CC):
PreparedbyresinpyrolysisorCVIdensificationtogiveeitherablockornearnetshape
component,havingmultidirectionalreinforcement,e.g.3D;nD.
55.5 Data and product support

55.5.1
Material supply
New materials prepared in low volumes always present problems in establishing a supply of
consistentmaterial.Thereasonscaninclude:
Materialsarebeingoptimisedandimproved.
Supplyisinitiallyfrompilotplantproductionfacilities.
Insufficientproductioncapacityexists.
Customerdemandisinitiallyinsufficienttoexpandproductionfacilities.
Singlesourcesupply.
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Commercialorstrategicrestrictionsonsalesordatadissemination.
55.5.2
Property data
55.5.2.1
General
This ECSS handbook contains indicative data on material capabilities for new metallic and ceramic
compositions.
It is impracticable to describe in depth the properties of all materials and grades. An end user or
designer should establish a knowledge base on selected materials with specific end applications in
mind.
In some cases the technology can prove too expensive to warrant inhouse facilities, so specialist
contractorsprovidethenecessaryexpertise.
55.5.2.2
Standard product forms
Wherestandardproductsareused,thereisalargerpoolofknowledgebasedontheexperienceofthe
materialsuppliersandendusers.
55.5.2.3
Net-shape components
Where netshape components also dictate material properties, greater reliance is placed on the
expertiseofthematerialprocessors.
55.6 Data sources

55.6.1
European expertise
Table55.6.1presentsaresumofrecognisedEuropeanexpertiseonthenewermaterials.
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Table55.61Advancedmetalsandceramics:SignificantEuropeansourcesof
expertise
Material
grouping
Developing
technology
Enduser
Magnesium
compositions
Aluminium
compositions
AMS Ltd., UK. (MMC)

Raufoss A/S, Norway
(ODS)
Aerospatiale, F. (All)
MBB, G. (All)
British Aerospace, UK
(All)
Rolls Royce, UK
SNECMA, F.
MTU, G.
British Aerospace, UK
(SPF/DB)
Dornier Luftfahrt, G
(SPF/DB)
Rolls Royce, UK. (All)
SNECMA, F. (All)
MTU, G. (All)
Material/product
supplier
Magnesium
Electron, UK
(MMC)
BP MMC Ltd.,
UK (MMC)
Alcan, UK
(MMC, Al/Li)
Pechiney, F.
(Al/Li)
Titanium
compositions
BP Ltd., UK. (Ti/SiC)
Superalloy
compositions
Intermetallics
(IM)
Beryllium(Be)
Max-Plank Institute,
G. (IM)
ONERA, F. (IM)
Brush Wellman
(Be)
Interatom, G.
(Be)
GEC Alsthom, UK
Rolls Royce, UK
SEP, F.
Dornier, G.
SEP, F.
SEP, F.
Aerospatiale, F.
Dunlop Aviation,
UK
Le Carbone, F.
Aerospatiale, F.
Glass matrix
and Glassceramic
composites
Ceramic matrix
composites
Carbon-Carbon
composites
MBB, G.
IMI,UK
INCO Alloys, UK
Theseareclassedas:
Suppliersofmaterial.
Collaborators.
Specialisedcontractors.
Majorendusers.
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55.7 Costs
55.7.1
Relative comparisons of materials
55.7.1.1
General
Presenting a full breakdown of the costs of using advanced metallic and ceramic materials is very
difficult. Materials in development or produced in low volumes usually have high initial costs
indicativeofimmaturecommercialproducts.SomematerialsrepresentEnablingTechnologies,such
thatprojectsaretotallydependentonthemforsuccess,e.g.veryhightemperaturecomposites.Other
materials can be in a competitive position with each other, e.g. for use at 300C, aluminium MMCs
versusSPF/DBtitaniumalloysversusaluminiumODSalloysversuspolyimidematrixcomposites.
55.7.1.2
Direct material costs
The direct material costs of selected precursor materials and composites are summarised in Table
55.7.1.
55.7.1.3
Production cost control
As the newer materials have significant direct purchase costs, the main means of controlling total
productioncostsareby:
minimumpartcounts.
minimummachining.
netshapeprocessing.
Themaincontributingfactorstohighcostsinclude:
expensivefibresorfilaments.
prolonged processing, such as powder attrition (mechanical alloying); chemical vapour

infiltration(CVI);repeatedresinpyrolysis;complexfibrepreforms.
hightemperaturetooling.
machining,particularlydiamondmachiningofhardmaterials.
inspectionandqualitycontrol.
Someofthesecostsareunavoidableifasolutionisrequiredtomeetaprojectneed.
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Table55.71Advancedmetalsandceramics:Directmaterialcosts
Precursormaterial
perkg
Fibres
Carbon
Silicon carbide fibres
Silicon carbide monofilaments
Alumina fibres
15-300
500-750
400-1500
500
Metals
7XXX series Al alloys (Wrought)

8090 Al/Li alloy (Wrought)
Titanium 6Al-4V alloy (Wrought)
Aluminide powder
6-8
15-18
30
150-1500
Composites
(Flatsheetfortestspecimens)
Silicon carbide fibre reinforced aluminium

SiC-SiC ceramic matrix composite
Carbon-Carbon composite
Date:1992
>750 <1500
>2200 <5000
750-1500
55.7.1.4
Finished product cost comparison
Table 55.7.2 is a comparison of the relative cost of finished products in selected materials. They are
indicative,butreflectthebasictrend.
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Table55.72Advancedmetalsandceramics:Relativecostsofcomponents
Relativecost
offinished
product
Complexity
scale
Multidirectional CFRP
Modest
1 to 2
Wrought Magnesium
Alloys
7XXX series Wrought
Aluminium Alloys
Low to
Modest
1 to 2
Materials
8090 AluminiumLithium Alloy
Low
Modest to
Medium
1 to 3
Aluminium ODS Alloy
Medium
2 to 3
Carbon Fibre
Reinforced Aluminium
Alloy
Medium to
High
2 to 4
Medium
1 to 2
Wrought Titanium
Alloy
Silicon Carbide Monofilament Reinforced
Titanium
Conventional Nickel
Superalloy
Consolidated Titanium
Aluminide
Machined Beryllium
Ceramic Matrix
Composite:
SiC-SiC by CVI
Hot Pressed Glassceramic Matrix
Composite: LAS/SiC
Carbon-Carbon
Composite
High
3 to 5
Medium
Medium to
High
3 to 5
Medium to
High
2 to 3
Very High to
Extremely
High
Very High
High to Very
High
6 to 9
5 to 7
4 to 5
Comments
Well understood technology. Costs
reducing through automation &
lower part counts over aluminium.
Well understood technology. Fewer
applications than aluminium.
Well understood technology applied
to ambient temperature structures.
Technology established for 5 years.
Requires more usage to increase
confidence.
Improves high temperature
capabilities of 7XXX series, but
lacks applications.
Lacks applications. Some
fundamental issues still to be
resolved, e.g. poor transverse
strength & corrosion.
Well established technology for
intermediate temperature (200 to
600C) applications.
Still under development. Seeking
applications principally in gas
turbine engines.
Well established technology
particularly for gas turbine engines.
Still under development. Competing
for gas turbine use.
Specialised high modulus material,
but has established history. Lack in
confidence on low ductility/toxicity
has hindered use.
Recent development for very high
temperature applications.
Processing is specialised & capital
intensive. Lower processing costs
sought.
Easier to achieve than CMC's, but
are restrained to 1000C
Well established technology,
although cost and poor oxidation
performance can limit application.
Key:
Basedoncosttoweight.However,variationsindensityareenormousfrom1740kg/m3
(Magnesium)to9500kg/m3(Superalloys).
Rankingtoreflect:
Technicaldifficulty
Availabilityofknowledge&facilities,and
Materialcost
1=Easilyachieved;10=Extremelydifficult.
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56 General design rules

56.1 Introduction
This chapter describes the different mechanical and fracture characteristics of each material group,
andconsiderationsforthedesignofstructuralcomponents.
Metal and ceramicbasedcompositesare complex,multiphasematerials,inwhich each phase hasa
significantinfluenceonboththepropertiesandstabilityathightemperatures.Defectswhichaffectthe
requiredcharacteristicsarediscussed.
Composites consisting of hard, brittle phases present problems for machining. The use of netshape
processing aims to minimise the need for machining. However, the factors to be considered along
withappropriatetechniquesarepresentedwhenmachiningisnecessary.
56.2 Mechanical response

56.2.1
General
Thenumberofmaterialsystemsnowavailableorunderdevelopmentislarge.Eachisbeingoptimised
with certain operating environments in mind. This can mean enhancing certain properties at the
expenseofothers.Notallmaterialscanbeadequatelycharacterisedbytheirresponsetomechanical
loading,e.g.stressstrain.
56.2.2
56.2.2.1
General
Theevolutionofcompositematerialsbasedonmatrixandreinforcementhasincreasedthecomplexity
not least by introducing anisotropy which renders comparisons with isotropic materials largely
superfluous.
56.2.2.2
High temperatures
A general trend is that as higher temperature capabilities are sought from metals and ceramics, the
ambient modulus increases but strength and strain to failure gradually diminish. This should be
consideredbydesigners,andexpectationsofmaterialductilitylowered.
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56.2.3
56.2.3.1
Fibre reinforced plastics (CFRP)
Anisotropic.
Essentiallyelasticmaterialstofailure.
Lowstraintofailure(<2%),otherthanfordamagetolerant45configurations.
Forlaminates:
Tensilepropertiesarefibredominated.
Compression and shear properties are significantly influenced by matrix support to

fibres.
Weaknesses, principally low interlaminar and transverse strengths; designs need to avoid
delaminationsandinterlaminarfractures.
Goodfatigueperformanceinfibredominateddirections,principallyintension.
56.2.3.2
Metals alloys
Isotropic.
Essentiallyelasticplasticmaterials.
Designsbasedonproofstresses,e.g.0.2%PS.
UTSandelongationtofailure(ductility)areinplasticdeformationzone.
Goodductilityprovidesconfidencefordamagetolerance.
Conformtofracturemechanicspredictions,e.g.fracturetoughness.
Heattreatmentandmechanicalworkedconditionimportant.
56.2.3.3
Particulate reinforced metals
Nearisotropic.
Elasticplasticmaterials,withshortenedelasticregion.
Designmodulusdifficulttoestablishduetosmallelasticregion,buthigherthanunreinforced
metal.
Elongationtofailureusuallyin2%to8%range.
Smallparticles(1mto3m)preferabletolargerparticles(above15m)inretainingmetallic
characteristicsofductilityandfracturetoughness.
Heattreatmentandmechanicallyworkedconditionimportant.
Tensilestrengthsequaltoormarginallybetterthanunreinforcedmetal.
Hardnessandcreepresistanceimproved.
CTElowered.
56.2.3.4
Continuous fibre reinforced metals
Anisotropic.
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Essentiallyelasticmaterialstofailureandfibredominated.
Highermodulusthanunreinforcedmetalalloysinfibredirections.
Longitudinaltensilestrengthdictatedbyinsitufibrestrength.
Transverse and interlaminar strengths should be better than CFRP, but often limited.
Controlled by fibrematrix interface and transverse fibre strength, it can contribute to poor
performance, i.e. low utilisation of matrix capability due to strain incompatibilities and
embrittlement.
Reducedthermalexpansion.
Highinternalstresses,duetoCTEmismatchbetweenmatrixandfibre.
Bettercreepresistancethanmatrixalloy.
56.2.3.5
Advanced metallic systems
(IncludesODS,MA,RSPalloysandintermetallics).
Isotropic.
Refined microstructures usually from powder processing which give improvements in

modulus,creepresistance,hardnessandthermalstability.
56.2.3.6
Monolithic ceramics
Isotropic.
Highmodulusandthermalstability.
Goodstrengths(bestincompression).
Lowstraintofailure,<1%.
Verydefectsensitive,pronetocatastrophicfailure.
56.2.3.7
Ceramic matrix composites
(IncludesGMC,GCMC&CMCwithcontinuousfibres).
Complexanisotropic.
Microstructureinfluencedbymatrix,fibres,matrixtofibreinterface,voidageandpopulationof
microcracks.
Principallythermostructuralmaterials.
Elasticmaterials,butwithtwostraincomponents:
matrix,=0.1%to0.3%,and
fibres,=~1%.
Ultimatetensilestrengthsandstraintofailuredeterminedbyinsitufibrestrength.
Modest strength, but benign fracture characteristics, compared with those of monolithic
ceramics.
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56.2.3.8
Carbon-carbon composites
Complexanisotropic.
SimilarcharacteristicstoCMCs,butlowermodulusandtougher.
Tensile strength gradually increases in temperature range 1000C to 2000C, which is a rare
featureofanymaterial.
56.3 Stress-strain response

56.3.1
Isotropic and anisotropic materials
56.3.1.1
General
Thereisalwaysadesiretocomparematerialseveniftheirmicrostructuresareradicallydifferent.The
greatestcomplicationsariseincomparingisotropicandanisotropicmaterials.Allmaterialshavetheir
attributesanddisadvantages.
Figure56.3.1andFigure56.3.2providerepresentativestressstrainprofilesforadvancedmetallicand
ceramic systems. These curves do not reflect the lower density of the composites over their heavier
metal alloy counterparts. The strain axis in Figure 56.03.2 is modified to reflect the lower strain
capabilityofceramicsystems.
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Figure56.31MetalsandMMCs:StressstrainresponsecomparedwithCFRP
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Figure56.32Metalsandceramicbasedmaterials:Stressstrainresponse
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56.3.1.2
Strain to failure
Asabroadstatement,allanisotropicmaterials(composite)possesslowerstraintofailure(elongation)
than isotropic metals (ceramics excluded). This can be perceived as a weakness or in some cases
unacceptable.
Experiencehas,however,shownthatmassefficientstructurescanbeproducedinlowstraintofailure
(1%to1.5%)composites.
56.3.1.3
High temperatures
Forhighertemperatureapplications,increasingemphasisisplacedoncompositesforsomestructures
seekingmassefficiencyorextendedlifeexpectancy.
56.4 Fracture characteristics

56.4.1
General
Isotropicalloysofmagnesium,aluminium,titanium,nickelandcopperbehavebroadlyinaccordance
withconventionalfracturemechanics.
As materials become progressively more anisotropic, their fracture behaviour becomes less
predictablebytheoreticalmodels.Comparisonsareprovidedforguidance.
56.4.2
Near-isotropic materials with modest ductility
Thisgroupcoversmaterialswith~2%to6%ductilityandincludes:
lowvolumefraction(<20vol.%)particulateMMCs,
pressedpowderderivatives,e.g.ODS,MA,RSPalloys,and
intermetallics,e.g.aluminides.
Theycanbetreatedassimilartoisotropicalloysinthebasicmodesoffracture.
56.4.3
Anisotropic, fibre reinforced MMCs
56.4.3.1
General
Thesematerialscannotbecomparedwithisotropicalloys.Theirbehaviourismorecloselylinkedto
thatoffibrereinforcedplastics.
56.4.3.2
Effect of matrix
The difference between MMCs and FRPs centres on the matrices, which for metals have inherently
highermoduliandstrengthsthanplastics,e.g.epoxy.
TypicallyforMMCs,thematrixmodulusisafactorof20to40timeshigherandthematrixstrength
some6to20timesgreatercomparedwithFRPs.Themetalmatrixcanalsodeformplastically,whereas
epoxiesrarelyexceed1.5%to2%failurestrain.
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56.4.3.3
Tension
For tensile characteristics, a fracture model similar to that of CFRP can be used. However, overall
strength is dictated by the insitu fibre strength. There is no loss in strength through fibre
degradationinCFRP,whichisnotnecessarilytrueforMMCs.
56.4.3.4
Compression and shear
ForcompressiveandshearperformanceofMMCs,theinterfacebetweenfibreandmatrixissignificant
indeterminingpermissiblestrains.
TransversestrengthsofMMCsareconsiderablylowerthanthoseforthemetal(matrix)alone.Thisis
becausethefibreinthetransversedirectionandinterfacecannotsustaintheload.
56.4.4
Anisotropic, fibre reinforced CMCs
56.4.4.1
General
Theceramicmatrixcomposites,suchasSiCSiC,cannotbecomparedwithmonolithicceramics.CMCs
modifythemicrostructureofmonolithicceramicstoimprovethetolerancetomechanicalloadingand
thermalshock.
Standardfracturemechanicprinciplesareinappropriate,asthematerialsarenotsensitivetoasingle,
smallcrackpropagatingtoacriticalsize.
56.4.4.2
Effect of matrix
Byincorporatinghighmodulusfibreswithstraintofailuresof1%to1.5%,thislevelofstraincapacity
isthenconferredtothecomposite,eventhoughthatofthematrixaloneisonlyabout0.2%.Thisgives
afarfromidealengineeringmaterial,whereelasticityisexhibitedto0.2%andthereaftermicroscopic
crackdamagepropagatesandmultiplieswhilstthefibresholdthecompositetogether.
56.4.4.3
Strength
The ultimatecomposite strength is determined by the insitufibre strength. This relies onthe fibre
and matrix being decoupled by an interface material such that the matrix cracks are stopped and
deflected, whilst providing opportunities for fibre pullout. Such a composite possesses excellent
thermalshockresistance;asisalsoseenwithcarboncarboncomposites.However,overallstrengthis
modest compared with other engineering materials. Hence, their use for thermostructural
applications,wherethermalandheatmanagementrequirementsprevail.
Compared with nickelbased superalloys, CMC strengths are low, however their density is
approximately 35% less than these alloys, providing opportunities for using greater sectional
thicknesseswithoutincurringaweight(mass)penalty.
56.4.4.4
Permissible stress
When designing with CMCs, the maximum permissible design stress has to be less than the yield
stress,i.e.onsetofsignificantmicrocracking.
Theremainingstraincapacityisthenthemarginofdamagetoleranceofthecomposite.Thiscouldbe
equatedwiththeductilityshownbymetals.
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56.5 Residual stresses

56.5.1
Isotropic materials
For metals, residual stresses can be reduced by heat treatment processes. Also, the range of
temperaturesseenbytheapplicationisusuallywellwithinthestablerangeofthematerialandfew
microstructuralchangesoccurovertheworkinglifeofthestructure.
56.5.2
Anisotropic materials
56.5.2.1
General
Residualstressesaremorepronouncedinanisotropicmaterialsorwhenjoiningdissimilarmaterials.
56.5.2.2
Effect of temperatures
Iftheintendedrangeofapplicationtemperaturesiswide,thenresidualstressescanalsodeterminethe
integrity of both the material and the structure. Designs should evaluate the effects of residual
stresses.
Where materials are used at high temperatures or for a short duration (life), there is a tendency to
operate a material close to its limits. Often a slow degradation occurs which gradually changes the
characteristicsofthematerial,e.g.microcracking,oxidation,creep,diffusion(chemical)reactions.
56.5.3
Influence on microstructure
Residual stresses can be tensile or compressive and occur when adjacent material phases, e.g. fibre
and matrix, have different moduli (stiffness) and CTE. These can be sustained in material systems
with ductility or significant strain capacity. More susceptible are high modulus, low strain phases
whichcanfracturetorelievestress.
Residualstressesareimportantwithrespectto:
Fibrecoatings:Ifaprotectivecoatingisappliedtoafibreathightemperatures,thenoncooling
toambientthecoatingbecomesstressed.Asmostfibreshavelowaxialexpansivityandarehigh
modulusmaterials,thecoatingexperiencestensilestresses.
Brittlematrices:Whenpreparingceramicmatrixcomposites,thematrixisstressedforthesame
reasons as for fibre coatings. A significant population of matrix microcracks can result from
stressrelieving mechanisms. Whilst this is tolerated, the cracks provide an entry point for
oxidation.Minimisingtheinitialmicrocrackingbylowprocesstemperatureshasadvantages.
Protective coatings: Coatings applied to components should contain low residual stresses to
avoidspalling.Residualstressesdeterminethemaximumpermissiblecoatingthickness.
Reductionintransverse properties: In either MMCsor CMCs, residual stresses are influenced

byprocesstemperaturesusedtoformthecomposite.Ifamatrixisstressedthenitscapacityto
sustain further applied load is limited. This is a contributing factor to the modest transverse
(matrixdominated)strengthsofhightemperaturecomposites.
As with CFRP, the fibre orientations in adjacent lamina can determine the viability of a composite
construction.
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56.5.4
Influence on structures
56.5.4.1
Temperature
Changesinapplicationtemperaturescanhavesignificantimplicationsifresidualstressesexist,some
examplesinclude:
Distortion:Thiscanoccurinunbalancedconstructions,e.g.thinsectionswithasinglesurface
protective coating or joints between dissimilar materials. Outofplane distortion, such as
bendingortwisting,isastressreliefmechanism.
Reducedsectionalstrength:Amaterialcanhaveanacceptablestrengthatambienttemperature,
butcoolingtocryogeniclevelscancompoundresidualstressestounacceptablelevels.
Thermal gradients which can producing throughthickness variations or compound residual

stresses.
56.6 Defects
56.6.1
General
Withawiderangeofmaterialsavailableitisdifficulttostatethesignificanceofdefectsandflawson
theintegrityofthematerial.
56.6.2
Defect sources
Defectscanarisedueto:
manufacturingrouteused.
impactdamage.
mechanicalorthermalfatigue
corrosionorotherenvironmentaldegradation.
56.6.3
Isotropic materials
56.6.3.1
General
Broadly, a single crack or flaw ultimately determines the fracture of isotropic or nearisotropic
materials.
56.6.3.2
Alloys
Fracturemechanicscanbeusedformetalalloystodeterminethesignificanceofacrackatanystage
withinstructurallife.
56.6.3.3
Particulate MMCs
These materials can be treated like alloys, although full densification does not guarantee material
integritywhenloadisapplied.
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Beforeconsideringtheuseofparticulatereinforcedcomposites,evidenceissoughtthatbondingexists
betweenparticlesandmatrix.Withoutaninterfaceforloadtransfer,theparticlecanbeconsideredas
tobeaninclusion,withthematrixrequiredtosustaintheload.
Intheeventofpoorbondingordebonding,theinterfacebetweentheparticleandmatrixbecomesa
sourceforcrackinitiationandpropagation.
56.6.4
Anisotropic materials
56.6.4.1
General
Foranisotropiccomposites,thefinalfractureislargelyaresultofmanycracksaccumulatingtoreacha
criticalpopulationdensity.
Withinlaminarcomposites,thereareplaneswithdifferentfracturecharacteristics:
Interlaminarplanes(2Dcomposite)areusuallytheweakest(matrixdominated),and
Throughlaminaplanesshowgreaterresistancetocrackpropagation(fibreassisted).
The use of 3D or multidirectional reinforcement assists by increasing interlaminar strength but

loweringstrengthsintheothermajoraxialplanesthroughadilutioneffect.
56.6.4.2
Continuous fibre MMCs
Thephasespresentarefibres,matrixandinterface.LikeCFRP,voidagelevelsshouldbelow,<2vol.%.
Anythinggreaterthanthiscanbeviewedasunacceptableandthemanufacturingrouteatfault.
Excessive fibrematrix interaction, with fibre degradation, is also a concern. The insitu strength of
fibresissometimeslessthanpredictedandajudgementisthenmadeastowhethersatisfactorylevels
havebeenattained.Prolongedcontactwithmoltenmetal(matrix)orlackofaprotectivecoatingare
usuallythecauseoffibredegradation.
Evidenceoffibrebreakageasaresultofcompositemanufacture,oftenfrompressformingtechniques,
isagaincauseforconcern.Largediametermonofilamentscanprovesusceptibletobreakageifover
formed.Smalldiameterfibresaremoretolerantofmechanicalhandlingandformingtoradii.
With continuous fibres, there is the possibility of fibre contact without matrix wetting between the
fibres. These are sometimes called neckless defects. High levels indicate a poor manufacturing
technique,e.g.lackofpressureortimeformeltinfiltration.Occasionalinstancesshouldbetolerable.
The presence of reinforcement phases can modify the solidification and the microstructure of the
metalsalloysusedasmatrices.Itcannotbepresumedthatcharacteristicsseeninunreinforcedalloys
are automatically conferred to the matrix; especially as alloys can be controlled with heat treatment
andmechanicalworking.
56.6.4.3
Continuous fibre CMCs
Thesearecomplexmaterialsconsistingoffibre,matrix,interface,voidsandmicrocracks.
As with MMCs, insitu fibre strengths are generally lower than anticipated by a simple Law of
Mixtures. Greater opportunities exist for thermal degradation of fibres and corrosive attack, even
assumingafibrecoating(interface)isused.
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Thematrixisthemorecomplexphaseduetoitsinhomogeneity.Mostceramicmatricesaremadeby
lowpressure infiltration techniques, although hot pressing has some attractions. Low pressure
synthesisreliesonagradualbuildupofmatrix,possiblywithpyrolysisstages,andthisgivesriseto
discontinuitiessuchasentrappedvoidsandlocalcracking.Voidageupto10%canbetolerated,andis
unavoidableinsomeprocesses.
In view of their use as thermostructural materials, modest strengths should be accepted. It can be
argued that some voidage makes a constructive contribution to the benign fracture characteristics.
Excessivevoidagehinderstheintegrityofthecompositebyreducinginterlaminarintegrity.Voidage
in excess of 10% is generally unacceptable, unless for thermal insulation purposes rather than for
structuralengineering.
The significance of microcracks is a more difficult issue to resolve. It is recommended that an
acceptable composite be established which fulfils the requirements. That composite is then
characterisedbymetallographyandNDTtodetermineitsstateofintegrity.NDTtechniquessuchas
Xray and backscattering are used for imaging the bulk of the material. The validity of NDT
techniques which can detect individual microscopic features is less appropriate in view of the large
populationofmicrofeatures.
56.7 Machining
56.7.1
General
Withthepossibilityofusingmaterialswhicharehardandbrittleorcontainreinforcingphases,their
machiningcharacteristicscanbesummarisedasadvisorystatements.
56.7.2
Isotropic metal alloys
Conventional machining techniques are used, with accepted practices for each alloy group. Whilst
aluminiumisreadilymachinable,thereisanincreasingreluctancetoremovelargeamountsofmetal
fortitaniumandsuperalloys.A90%metalremovalisnotuncommonforaluminium,butasmaterial
costsincreasethereisreluctancetocreateunnecessaryscrap.Segregationofscrapisalsonecessaryfor
somealloys,especiallythosecontaininglithium.
56.7.3
Particulate MMC
Machiningispossible,butatacost.Thesematerialstendtorelyonsiliconcarbideoraluminaparticles
forthereinforcingphases.Thesearehardandextremelyabrasive.Conventionalhighspeedsteeland
carbide tooling wear out very fast. Diamond tipped or coated tooling provides the only realistic
optionforprolongedtoollifeandanacceptablesurfacefinish.
56.7.4
Continuous fibre MMC
Otherthantrimming,thesematerialsarenormallyconsolidatedvianetshapeprocessroutes;forthe
same reasons as particulate MMCs. The fibres or filaments are not amenable to clean cutting, other
thanperpendicularlythroughthefibre.
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56.7.5
Carbon-Carbon composites
These are machinable, as the matrix is relatively soft. Carbide tooling is appropriate for the harder
carbonfibres.Thisistrueprovidedthatnoglassyorceramicoxidationinhibitingphasesarepresent.
56.7.6
Ceramic matrix composites
All the phases present are very hard and abrasive. Diamond tipped tooling is the only mechanical
machining option available. That said, all machining is kept to an absolute minimum and ideally
restrictedtoslittingortrimming.Thisplacesafirmemphasisonnetshapeprocesstechniques.
56.7.7
Techniques
Inadditiontothosehighlightedforeachmaterial,MMCandCMCcomponentscanbelasermachined,
althoughconsiderableexpertiseisrequired.
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57 Environmental aspects of design

57.1 Introduction
Thischapterdescribestheenvironmentalfactorsassociatedwithspacewhichhaveadirectinfluence
on material selection. Such factors form part of the material development process, where an
applicationdictatestheuseofaparticularmaterialtype.
Wherethematerialsavailablecannotmeettherequirementsalone,protectionsystemsareused.These
canbeintheformofacoatingoramoresubstantialstructure,suchasashield.Inbothcases,therole
andlifeofthesystemneedsevaluationwithrespecttothewholestructure.
57.2 Space parameters

57.2.1
Material selection
Material selection is biased towards the specific needs of space programmes. Some of the issues
associated with the acceptance of fibrereinforced plastics are of less concern if metals and ceramics
areconsidered.
Equally, metals and ceramics are applied within environments where it is inconceivable to use
plastics,particularlyathightemperatures.
Table57.2.1summarisesthematerialsenvironmentalresponse.
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Table57.21Advancedmetalandceramicbasedmaterials:Relevanceofspace
parameterstomaterialselection
MaterialGroup
Parameter
Outgassing/Offgassing
UV or Radiation
Stability
Plastics(CFRP)
Metallics
Ceramics
Atomic Oxygen (LEO)
Toxicity
Flammability
Moisture Absorption
Low CTE but some

instability
NA
Bulk material stable

Thin films may
degrade
Controlled CTE
possible
e.g. SCC
Thermal Cycling
Will accept -170C

to +200C
Low, Anisotropic
Will go close to 1000C

as maximum
Good to High
Will go to high
temperatures
Low to Medium
Modest CTE,
temperature
range important
Engines & TPS
For engines
Dimensional Stability
Aqueous Corrosion
Embrittlement at
Cryogenic
Temperatures
Thermal expansion
Oxidation Resistance
Hydrogen
Embrittlement
Emissivity
Flux Capacity
Hot Gas Corrosion
Low axial CTE.

High transverse
CTE
NA
other than LEO
For fuel tanks

NA
NA
NA
Wide variations
possible
Engines, (Ni).
For propulsion systems
Key
:Issueformaterialselection.
:Unimportant,duetogoodmaterialstability.
NA:Notappropriate.
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57.3 Application specifics

57.3.1
Material selection
From the specific requirements of space programmes, it is possible to identify key issues which
influence material selection. These are instances where compromises should be made in materials
development to ensure that a particular parameter is addressed to reach an acceptable performance
level.
Suchissuesinclude:
Thermalexpansion:controlledandconstant,despitepersistentthermalcycling.
Hydrogen effects: avoidance of hydrogen embrittlement in the handling of hydrogen fuel,

throughouttherangeoftemperatures.
Oxidation and hotgas corrosion: sufficient resistance to survive 30 missions for a reusable
thermalprotectionsystem(TPS).
Thermalconductivity:veryhigh.
Creep:resistanceforshort,singlecyclelifeexpectancyat550C.
57.4 Protection systems

57.4.1
Requirements
Protectionsystemsareusedinenvironmentswhichcanseverelydamageamaterialorstructurewere
it directly exposed. The more obvious occurrences are linked to high temperatures or high energy
situations.
Withtheadventofreusablestructures,otherissuesthataffecttheintegrityofmaterialsorstructures
include:
AtomicoxygenattackinLowEarthOrbit(LEO),
Micrometeoritesandhighvelocitydebrisimpact,
Oxidationbyheatedairorcombustiongases,
Hotexhaustgascorrosion,
Aqueouscorrosion,saltsandacids,
Biofungalattack,
Lighteningstrike,
Thermalflux.
SomeofthesephenomenawereinvestigatedintheESAfundedWEPROTstudy,Ref.[571].
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57.4.2
Types of protection systems
57.4.2.1
General
Protection systems are usually thin coatings (less than 1mm), but they can be more substantial in
termsofshieldsorthermalprotectionpanels.Coatingsareusedonbothmetallicandceramicbased
materials.
57.4.2.2
Function
Traditionally,aprotectionsystemissacrificialinshieldingtheunderlyingsubstrateorstructureandis
not expected to contribute to overall strength, e.g. thermal barrier coatings. Thermostructural
components perform a combined role, but some materials need an additional surface coating, e.g.
oxidationprotectionsystemsforcarbonfibrereinforcedcomposites,suchascarboncarbonandC/SiC
CMCs.
57.4.2.3
Integrity
Theintegrityoftheprotectionsystemshouldbesuchthatitcontinuestofunctionthroughoutthelife
oftheapplication.
Coatingsthatcrackorspallhavelimiteduseifthisoccursearlyinthelifeofthecomponent.Insome
cases,protectivecoatingsarefarfromideal,butaretheonlysolution.
Reproducible and predictable performance are preferable, even if regular repairs or component
replacementsarenecessary.
57.4.3
Evaluation of protection systems
57.4.3.1
WEPROT study
WithintheESAfundedstudyWEPROT,asurveywasconductedofthemajorterrestrialandorbital
environmentsforthermalprotectionsystemsonRVandRLV,Ref.[571].
Thestudycomparedtheperformanceofcandidatemetallicbasedsystems(titaniumaluminideand
PM1000 ODS) with ceramicbased (oxidebased and C/SiC CMCs) against terrestrial and orbital
environmentsidentifiedasappropriateforreusablevehicles.
57.4.3.2
Ceramic-based TPS
For C/SiC TPS, the environmental phenomena which cause damage to the surface coating or the
structuralmaterial,soreducingreusability,canbesummarisedas,Ref.[571]:
A low speed impact, e.g. tool drop during assembly or maintenance, of about 0.5 Joule can
cause damage to the oxidation protection system (OPS) that can reduce the life performance
due to oxidation of carbon fibres during reentry. Repair of the damaged area can probably
restorereusability
Humidityaffecting theinsulation below a C/SiC panel.Useofsuitable coatings orsprayscan

avoidwaterpenetration;buthasnotbeeninvestigatedfurther.
Rain erosion is a key issue for the economical operation of an RLV. The test activities aim to
identifytheeffectthatrepairoftheOPShasonservicelife.
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Hail impingement damages the OPS and probably the underlying structure when it occurs
duringlaunchordescentandlanding.ReplacementoftheTPSisneededifthestructureishail
damaged. During landing, catastrophic failure caused by hail is unlikely; but has not been
investigatedfurther.
LightningstrikeduringdescentorlandingcausesdamagetotheTPS.Precautionsintheformof
properdesignofattachmentscanavoidseriousdamage.
Hypervelocity impact by micrometeoroids or debris is a key issue for the life of the TPS.
Published literature indicated that orbital environmental phenomena affecting the life were
more serious than expected at the beginning of the TPS development for RLV. A weather
proofinginvestigation,includinghypervelocitytests,wasnecessary,Ref.[575].
57.4.3.3
Metallic-based TPS
TPS made from TiAl was identified as the most advanced metallicbased system because of its
strengthtoweight ratio for sandwich panels, along with surface stability against oxidation or
degradationafterthermaltreatments.Themainfindingscanbesummarisedas,Ref.[571]:
Lowspeedimpactprobablycausesdentsinthefacesheetbutnocracking
Although humidity is not a problem for a metallic sandwich panel, the insulation system
beneathhastobeprotectedbyawaterproofcoating.
Rainerosionattypicallandingspeedsprobablycausesseriousdamagebecausemediumenergy
impact causes dents with cracking. Rain erosion tests, with subsequent plasma and thermo
mechanicaltesting,areintendedtoshowtheoccurrenceandextentofdamage,Ref.[573].
AlthoughthelightningstrikebehaviourofTiAlisunknown,catastrophicfailureofODSand
Tialloysdidnotoccur.Itisexpectedtoperforminasimilarmannertohypervelocityimpacts,
i.e. possible holes without cracks. This phenomenon was not considered further during test
programme.
Hypervelocity impact by micrometeorites or debris causes holes without cracking, this was
confirmedbyinitialhypervelocityimpactstestsonTiAl.Thedifferencesindamagecausedby
debrisandmicrometeoritesisforfurtherinvestigation.
An assessment of damage tolerance against tool drop, rain erosion and repeated thermal cycling
formedpartoftheWEPROTtestcampaign,Ref.[572],[573],[575].
57.5 References
57.5.1
General
[571]
U.Trabandtetal:Astrium(Bremen)/Plansee
SurveyofmajorterrestrialandorbitalenvironmentsforRVandRLV
WEPROTWP1100:SurveyReportWEPROTTN001ASTR(January
2003)
[572]
Bremen/ESAHQ(Paris)
CeramicMatrixCompositesLifeCycleTestingUnderReusable
LauncherEnvironmentalConditions
Int.J.Appl.Ceram.Technol.,2[2]150161(2005)
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[573]
Bremen/ESAHQ(Paris)
RLVTPSandHotStructuresOperationalCostEvaluationafterLife
CycleTestingwithRain,HailandLowSpeedImpacts
4thInternationalReentrySymposium,Archachon2005
[574]
V.Liedke,U.Trabandt&M.Dogigli:
OxidationLifetimeImprovementofCMCbasedHotStructures
(OLCHOS)
ESAContractReportNo.6713/02/NL/CP;DocumentNumber:OLC
ARCS2000
[575]
WeatherProofingofReusableTPSagainstTerrestrialandOrbital
EnvironmentsRain,HailandImpactTestingonDifferentTPS
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58 Joint selection factors

58.1 Introduction
Thischapterdescribesthefactorstobeconsideredforthedesignandmanufactureofjointsbetween
metals and ceramic materials. As most joints experience high temperatures, the effect of material
selectionandmanufacturingmethodonresidualstressesisconsidered.
Thebenefitsandproblemsassociatedwithusinganinterlayerinafusedjointisdescribed,alongwith
thoseofferedbymechanicaljointsorgradedstructures.
58.2 Basic considerations

58.2.1
When dissimilar materials, such as metals and ceramics, are joined, there are specific physical
characteristics of the materials which are important. Their importance is closely linked with the
thermalhistoryofthejoint,i.e.:
creatingthejoint,and
theoperatingconditionsthatareappliedtothejoint.
Whereverpossible,thephysicalandmechanicalpropertiesofdissimilarmaterialsshouldbematched
as closely as possible. Stiffness and coefficient of thermal expansion are the most significant
properties.
Withsomematerialpairings,thereisconsiderabledisparityinpropertiesandaviablejointcanneed
aninterfacematerialtobridgethedifference.
Toprovideaninsightintothevariationsinpropertiesofprospectiveconstituentsofjoints,Table58.2.1
providesindicativedataontherangeofmaterialsthatcanrequirejoining.
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Table58.21Dissimilarmaterialsforjoints
Properties
Max. Temp. Melting Temp.
Strength, UTS
(MPa)
(C)
(C)
Metallic alloys
400
110-150
600
890
450
1725
650-865
700
1500
(YS: 310-750)
1276
800
1455
(0.2%PS: 1056)
1310
900
1390
MMC
Conductivity @ RT,
(Wm-1 C-1)
Comments
150
6.0
Standard aerospace alloy.

Most common Ti-alloy.
150
Common stainless steel.
11.2
Well established Ni-alloy.
New material.
600
Anisotropic, Fibre-reinforced,
high modulus, unidirectional.
200
600
Particulate reinforced.
1040 (L)
500
1725
Monofilament reinforced.
TD
TD
900
1455
Monofilament reinforced.
2.1 to 3.5
3.2
4.2 to 5.4
7.7 to 8.1
6.5
310
280-331
345-470
300-372
186
Flex: 400-845
Flex: 845
Flex: 300-540
Flex: 240-400
Flex: 405
10-30
21.3
125-200
39(25)
1-2
Powder based.
Powder based.
Powder based.
Powder based.
Powder based.
C-SiC
1 to 2
200-250
400
~1600
N/A
SiC-SiC: 2-D fabric
210
230
~1600
N/A
25(L)
6(TT)
C-C: 2-D fabric
0 to 1
90-100
127-172
~2000
N/A
Material
CTE,
(x 10-6C-1)
Stiffness, E
(GPa)
Aluminium: 7075
Titanium: Ti-6AI-4V
23.0
11.0
70
120
Steel: SS 316
14.0
196
Nickel: lnconel 718
13.0
200
Aluminide: Ni3AI
12.5
226
~0 to -I
379-414
552-834
200
<23.0
100
610
(0.2%PS: 490)
<11.0
225
Silicon Nitride
Sialon
Silicon Carbide
Alumina
Zirconia (ZrO2)
Aluminium:
DWG-A1/P100(UD)
Aluminium:
2124/18vol.% SiCp
Titanium/SiCf:
Ti-6AI-4V/SCS-6(UD)
Nickel/W Fibre (TFRS)
Monolithic ceramic
1400
1900
1600
1700
2050
2960
CMC
Anisotropic. 2-D carbon fibrereinforced.

Anisotropic. 2-D SiC fibrereinforced.
Anisotropic. 2-D C-C composite.
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Key:
Aluminium
25.3
69
Silver
20.6
71
Copper
18.3
117-132
Nickel
15.2
210
Molybdenum
Niobium
Tungsten
5.1 to 5.7
7.2 to 8.1
4.5
303
98
411
Titanium
7.6
108
Base material or interlayer (Pure)

69
AD
660
(0.2%PS: 25)
140
AD
960
220
AD
1083
(0.2%PS: 50)
323
AD
1452
(0.2%PS: 63)
435
2615
900
240
2467
1000
550
3387
1200
369
AD
1675
(0.2%PS: 246)
238
418
397
79
135
52
130
Refractory metal
Refractory metal
Refractory metal
16
YS:Yieldstress.PS:Proofstress.Flex:Flexural.N/A:Notapplicable.TD:Temperaturedependent.AD:Applicationdependent.
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58.2.2
Joint strength
58.2.2.1
General
Designingandimplementingjointsalwaysrequiresanelementofcompromise,notablywithrespect
tothestrengthattainable.
A suitable joint is one having sufficient strength for the intended application with retained
integrityoveradesiredtimeperiod.
Ajointcannotbestrongerthantheweakestmaterialbeingjoinedandfailureatultimateload
occurssomewhereinthesystem.
Bynecessityandforconfidence,thatfailureisconsistentandreproducible.
58.2.2.2
Residual stress
Infusedjointsbetweendissimilarmaterials,eithermetalsorceramics,themajorlimitingfactortojoint
strengthisresidualstressinoneofthematerials.Thisstressincreaseswithtemperaturechangesaway
fromthatatwhichthejointisfirstformed,especiallyoncooling.
Insomenonoptimisedjoints,theresidualstresscanexceedthebasicstrengthofoneofthematerials
and fracture occurs without external loading. Whereas other nonoptimised joints might withstand
cooling,butonlyverysmallsustainedloadsareneededtocompoundtheresidualstressesandcause
jointfailure.
58.2.2.3
Failure
Inceramictometaljoints,failureismostprevalentintheceramicbecauseofitsbrittleness,lowstrain
tofailure,higherstiffnessandmodeststrengthcharacteristics,[See:Table58.2.1].
In practice, joints between radically dissimilar materials require considerable ingenuity to obtain
reasonablejointstrengths.
58.2.2.4
Effect of fusion temperature
Itiscommontousefusiontemperaturesintherange800Cto1000Cbetweenceramicsandmetals.
The actual amount of expansion at these temperatures is quite considerable, e.g. 0.27% for silicon
nitrideand1.3%forsteel.
At the fusion temperature, residual stresses are assumed to be zero. On cooling, the degree of
contraction of these materials differs and constraints are imposed by the differences in physical
properties.
Forexample:
Si3N4
Steel
E
310
196
3.0
14.0
TheSi3N4isatadisadvantagebecauseitcontractsbyasmallamountandcannotstretchbecauseofits
high modulus. It has limited strength with no capacity for ductileplastic behaviour. On cooling to
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ambient,itisthereforehighlystressedatthedirectpointofconnectiontothesteelbeforeanyexternal
loadisapplied.
It has been calculated that for a supposed direct silicon nitridetosteel joint fused at 1200C, the
residualtensilestressesintheSi3N4approach1000MPa,Ref.[581].Suchastressisbeyondtheability
of Si3N4 to sustain without fracture. Indeed, the fusion temperature has to be lowered dramatically
beforeSi3N4cansustainanysignificantexternaltensileloading.
58.2.2.5
Reproducibility
Given the effect of the fusion temperature, significantly different strengths are reported for what
appeartobejointsbetweenidenticalmaterials(substrates).
Jointstrengthishighlydependentonthepreciseconditionsusedinformingthejoint.Inanoptimised
joint,theresidualstressescanbereducedbyseveralhundredMPaovernonoptimisedvariants.This
differentiates between an acceptable and unacceptable joint purely from consideration of basic
strength,letalonedurability.
58.2.3
Joint design factors
TheclosematchingofstiffnessandCTEofdissimilarmaterialshasbeenhighlighted.Withdissimilar
materialssomeelementofmismatchisinevitable,soafusedjointisdesignedandmadetominimise
theconsequenceofthesemismatches.
Inundertakingthis,carefulconsiderationisgivento:
Thepresence,ornot,ofaninterlayermaterial.
Thetemperatureandpressureofjointconsolidation.
Chemicalcompatibilityofthetwosubstrates.
Loadintroductionintothejoint.
Operatingenvironment,including:
maximumtemperature,and
fatigue.
58.3 Interlayers
58.3.1
Function and effect on fused joints
58.3.1.1
General
Introducing a third material can affect a joint in several ways. The thickness of the interlayer is
important.Theprincipaleffectsinclude:
Residualstresses:Probablyreducedwithinthejoint,andarealleviatedfurtherbytheuseofa
thickinterlayer.
Jointconsolidationtemperature:Determinedbythemeltcharacteristicsoftheinterlayer,orits
abilitytoformadiffusionbondwiththesubstrates.
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Joint strength: Usually determined by the weakest substrate to interlayer bond, or cohesive
strengthoftheinterlayer.
Interlayer material: Selection determines the ultimate service or operating temperature of the
joint.Dependingonthedissimilarmaterialstobejoined,thematerialstriedinclude:
Aluminium
Copper
Niobium
Molybdenum
Titanium
Nickel
Iron
Silver
58.3.1.2
Interlayer materials
Someinterlayermaterialshavelowmeltingpoints,whicheasesproblemswhenfusingjoints.Others
havemuchhighermeltingpointswhichisalsoreflectedinthetemperaturecapabilityofthejoint.
Thecomplicatingfactorsarethesolidstatereactions(diffusion)whichoccurbetweeninterlayerand
substrate. These can occur at varying temperatures, with or without pressure assistance (0MPa to
100MPa).
58.4 Joint consolidation

58.4.1
Temperature and pressure
58.4.1.1
General
These two parameters have a synergistic effect. A low consolidation temperature is desirable to
minimiseresidualstressesoncooling.Thiscanbeaidedbyapplyinghighpressures.However,theuse
ofhighpressures,e.g.withinahotisostaticpressing(HIP)chamber,poseslimitationsonsize,shape
andcomplexityofcomponentsandisnormallyavoided.
Low pressure brazing has always been attractive for fabricating components, such as gas turbine
nozzleguidevanes,becauseofitsrelativesimplicity.
Themajorityofworkonfusionjoiningofdissimilarmaterialshasbeenwithsimplebuttjointsofsmall
crosssectional area. This enables virtually any fabrication process to be used, avoiding the issue of
complexassembly.
Todate,thepressureregimesusedhavebeen:
Lowpressure:
Mediumpressure:
Highpressure: 60MPato207MPa(to30000psi)
0to0.6MPa(to87psi)
0.6MPato15MPa(to2175psi)
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Consolidationtemperatureswithinterlayersrangebetween450Cforaluminiumand1400Cforthe
refractorymetalsNbandMo.
58.4.1.2
Metal substrates
Withouttheinterlayer,joiningisbyeither:
Diffusionbonding,or
Meltingofoneofthesubstrates.Itisonlyfeasibleifoneofthesubstratesismetal,withfusion
occurringat0.5to0.98ofthemetalmeltingtemperature(Tm).
58.4.1.3
Ceramic substrates
For connections between ceramics, either similar or dissimilar, melting of either substrate is neither
practical nor possible in most cases. Therefore, a metallic interlayer is used unless fusion can be
achievedby:
Hightemperatureinorganicrefractorycement
Pyrolysisofpolymeradhesive,e.g.polycarbosilane,toaceramic,suchasSiC.
InfiltrationanddensificationofthebondlineatahightemperaturebyCVD/CVItogiveSiC.
58.5 Material compatibility

58.5.1
Chemical and physical
58.5.1.1
General
Compatibility between dissimilar materials is difficult to define when materials are expected to
functionathightemperatures.
58.5.1.2
Requirements
Aftertheinitialfusion,itisdesirabletohaveastablechemicalandmicrostructuralcompositionwithin
thejointzone.Thisenablesconsistentanddurablejointperformancetobeobtained.
Itisundesirabletohavecontinuingchemicalactivityanddiffusionoccurringduringtheoperational
lifeofthejoint,astheperformancecanbeunpredictable.
58.5.1.3
Potential problems
When a fused joint, with or without a thin interlayer, is created, those occurrences which can be
detrimentalinclude:
Localisedmicrocrackingandflawingofabrittlesubstrate.
Presenceofexcessivequantitiesofbrittlephaseswithinthefusionordiffusionzone.
Inappropriatealloyelementspresentinmetallicsubstrateorinterlayer.
Insomecasesheattreatmentscanbeusedtoreducethermalstressingwithinajoint.
Chemical and physical incompatibilities are of less concern in mechanically interlocking parts, [See:
Chapter61].
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58.5.1.4
Use of alloy interlayers
The majority of interlayer materials studied have been pure metal foils and not alloys. If alloys are
used, then a more complex joint microstructure can be anticipated. This is true of braze materials,
although useful information is presently available from experiences in brazing nickel and titanium
alloys.
58.6 Load introduction

58.6.1
Basic principles
58.6.1.1
General
Thebasicprinciplesforloadintroductionaresimilartothoseforadhesivelybondedorfastenedjoints,
althoughspecialcareistakenifoneoftheadherendsisabrittleceramic.
58.6.1.2
Fused joints
Directtensile,cleavageandpeelloadingsareavoidedbecausejointstrengthsarelowestinthese
modes.
Compressiveandshearloadingsarepreferable.Theformerwhenaceramicispresent.
58.6.1.3
Graded structures
Thesearetolerantofmostlocalisedloadingmodesasagradualtransitionincompositionbetweenthe
twomaterialsisachieved.Ifoneofthematerialsisaceramicthencompressiveloadingispreferable,
butnotessential.Mechanicalinterlocks,pinningandfastening
This class of joints enables disassembly and the inclusion of seals. They also avoid the additional
thermal transient necessary in fusion fabrication. This eliminates thermal distortion on cooling.
However, additional problems arise when assembly is undertaken at ambient temperature and
subsequentheatedinservice.
Positional tolerances take into account thermal expansion and the need to sustain load. Subjects
requiringattentioninclude:
Localisedbearingandcrushingstrength
Notchsensitivityatchangesinsectionandatimmediateloadtransferpoints
Slackeningorovertighteningofjointsbydifferentialexpansion.
[See:Chapter61]
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58.7 Operational environment

58.7.1
Environmental factors
58.7.1.1
General
Forjointsinvolvingmetalsandceramicsappliedinhightemperaturesituations,thereareanumberof
environmental conditions which can invoke instability leading to reduced joint integrity. These
include:
Hotcorrosionbyreactivegases,e.g.O2andH2O.
Thermalshock,introducingdifferentialstressesacrossthejoint.
Thermalcyclinginducesamicrocrackpopulationthatpropagateswithrepetitivecycling.
Mechanicalloading,compounded.
Acousticfatigue.
58.7.1.2
Joint design
Withalloftheenvironmentalconditions,fracturedamageismorelikelytooccurinthemostbrittle
materialspresent,i.e.theceramicinametalceramicconnection.
Theimportantaspectstodeterminearethe:
actualloadstobetransmittedbythejoint.
lifeexpectancy(durability)ofthejoint.
jointstrength,withasufficientmargintoavoidacatastrophicfailureinservice.
58.8 References
58.8.1
General
[581]
A.Frischetal
DiffusionBondingofSi3N4toODSSuperalloyMA6000byHot
IsostaticPressing
PowderMetallurgyConference1990,26July
Paper11,Volume2,p5260
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59 Joints between dissimilar materials

59.1 Introduction
This chapter summarises the requirements for joints between advanced metal and ceramicbased
materials.Theeffectofoperatingenvironmentandtheoptionsavailableformanufacturingthejoint
arealsogiven.
59.2 Requirements
59.2.1
Temperature range
With the advent of spaceplanes and advanced launchers, there are significant thermal management
problemstoberesolvedwithinstructuralconfigurations.
Structuresspanningthetemperaturerangefrom+1600Cdowntobelow250C(20K)canbegrouped
as:
Hot
Warm,or
Cold.
The extreme high temperatures are at the external surfaces of spaceplanes on reentry or in and
aroundpowerplants.Thelowerandambienttemperaturesareinthemainstructuralairframeandin
liquidfuelcontainment.
59.2.2
Structures
59.2.2.1
General
Joints between components of dissimilar materials within a structure largely reflect the points at
whichdifferentoperatingenvironmentsmeet.
59.2.2.2
Materials
Connectionsarelikelytobemadebetween:
metallicandmetallic,
metallicandceramic,and
ceramicandceramic.
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Metallic includes both alloy and metal matrix composite (MMC). Ceramic covers monolithics,
composites(CMC),andcarboncarbon(CC).
RepresentativematerialsaresummarisedinTable59.2.1.
Table59.21Jointsbetweendissimilarmaterials:Representativelistofmaterials
Metallic
Ceramic
Alloys:
Monolithic:
Nickel (Superalloys)
Steel
Copper
Si3N4
Sialon
Al2O3
SiC
MMCs:
CMCs:
Ti-based
Ni-based
Cu-based
SiC-SiC
C-C
Glass-ceramic
59.2.3
Loading
Joints between dissimilar materials are likely to be structural and to some extent loadbearing. The
integrityofsuchjointsinsomecasescanbecriticaltotheintegrityofthespacestructure.
Thejointsneedtowithstand:
directmechanicalloading.
stressescausedby:
thermalgradients.
thermalcycling.
fatigue:
mechanical.
thermal.
Longevityisofhighimportanceinreusablestructures,suchasspaceplanes.
59.2.4
Joining methods
59.2.4.1
General
Theprincipaloptionsforjoiningare:
fusionbondinginallitsforms,[See:Chapter60].
mechanicalinterconnections,includingfastening,
[See:Chapter61]
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59.2.4.2
Fusion bonding
Fusionbondingpracticesinclude:
Diffusionbonding,
Brazing,
Reactionbonding,
Fusionwelding,
Resinpyrolysis.
59.2.5
Joint components
Withinjointstherecanalsobe:
cements,
seals,[See:Chapter75].
interlayers,[See:58.3].
gaskets.
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60 Fusion joining
60.1 Introduction
Jointscanbeachievedinanumberofways,butareprincipallymadebyeitheraliquidphaseorsolid
phase transformation. Broadly, liquid transformations are made at higher temperatures than
comparable solidphase bonding. This is significant as there is usually a preference for lower
temperature processing. However, this is offset by the fact that solidphase transformations usually
requirehigherconsolidationpressuresthanliquidphasebondingtoachieveasoundintegralbond.
Fusion bonding methods are described as is development work aimed at evaluating joint
performance,Ref.[All].
60.2 Joining techniques

60.2.1
General
Table60.2.1comparestherelativemeritsofthedifferenttechniquesdescribed.
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Table60.21Comparisonofjointingandconsolidationtechniques
Jointing/
consolidation
Advantages
Disadvantages
technique
Good for glass to metal

Fusion welding
Good for localised connections

Appropriate to similar
materials
Low pressure technique
Liquid phase
bonding
- Brazing
Diffusion
bonding
- with or
without
interlayer
Graded
structures
Allows use of brazes and frits

to achieve workable joints
Offers means of reducing
jointing temperature
Interlayer gives better
accommodation of CTE
differences
Offers means of
accommodating significant
differences in material CTE
and other properties, e.g.
modulus and conductivity
Appropriate for joining
dissimilar materials
Limited practical
combinations
Inappropriate for large-area
joints
Cannot accommodate
significant CTE differences
Requires wettability
Requires understanding of
chemical capabilities
Cannot accommodate
significant CTE differences
Requires consolidation
pressure
Requires understanding of
diffusion mechanisms
A sophisticated process
technique is to be used to
create a true transition zone
60.2.2
Liquid-phase processing
60.2.2.1
Melt refining
A transition zone is created between the two materials by localised compositional refining of the
molten phase. The materials are usually metals, e.g. steels, and the change occurs in the alloying
constituents,Ref.[All].
Thisincludeszonerefiningandvacuumarcrefining.
60.2.2.2
Fusion welding
One or more component materials are melted and fused with the others. In metaltoceramic
combinations, the metal is usually melted. This process is suited to small localised joints where a
controllableheatsourcecanbeused.
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60.2.2.3
Liquid-phase bonding
Boththematerialstobejoinedremainsolid.Theconnectionismadebyathirdconstituentwhichis
introduced at the faying surfaces and melted, so fusing both materials together as it solidifies. This
third constituent is a lower melting point material and hence the joints thermal capability is
determinedbyitscharacteristics.
Thisincludesbrazing.
60.2.3
Solid-phase processing
60.2.3.1
High-pressure (HIP) bonding
Bothmaterialstobejoinedremainsolid,butsufficienttemperatureandpressureareappliedtocause
bondingbyinterdiffusion.Thiscanbecarriedoutwithorwithoutathininterlayerofathirdmaterial.
Diffusionbondingoccursatatemperaturecloseto,butbelow,themeltingpointoftheleastthermally
stablematerialpresent.
60.3 Joint configuration and performance

60.3.1
Technology status
60.3.1.1
General
Table60.3.1presentsareviewofpublishedpapersonthefusionbondingofdissimilarmaterials.Most
of the work consists of joining trials, with or without interlayers, Ref. [All]. There is rarely any
explanationastowhythematerialsarejoined,i.e.theapplicationsarenotgiven,oranyjustification
fortheselectionofthevariousinterlayers.
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Table60.31Fusedjoints:Technologyreviewofjoints
Material A
Interlayer
material
Material B
Consolidation
technique
Vacuum arc
remelting
Process
conditions
Welding of dissimilar
electrodes
Comments
[Reference]
Graded structure for steam systems in
power stations, Ref. [60-1], [60-2]
Optimisation of interlayer thickness,
single and multiple, Ref. [60-3]
Study to identify efficiencies of interlayers,
Ref. [60-4]
2.25%Cr Mo-steel
316 stainless steel
None
Steel
Alumina (AI2O3)
Nb, Mo, Ti, (1 to 2mm) HIP
1000-1300C at 100 MPa
Type 405 stainless

steel
INVAR
(Fe-32Ni-5Co)
Silicon nitride
Si3N4
Ni,Fe,Ti,Nb (pure) + W HIP
1200-1400C at 100 MPa
Si3N4
Al (pure) (0.5mm)
Hot pressed
700-950C at 0-0.15 MPa
Bond strength optimisation, Ref. [60-5]
AI2O3 & Ti, Pt, Fe,

SS316, Cu
AI, Ag, Cu, & Ni foils
Hot pressed
>450C for Al
>600C for Ag & Cu
>900C for Ni
Evaluation of bond strengths, Ref. [60-6]
ODS nickel superalloy MA 6000
Si3N4
NiCo 36
(Fe-36%Ni)
W-Ni-Cu alloy
Ni & Ti (pure)
HIP
1100C-1300C, 100 MPa
Optimisation of interlayers, both single &

double, Ref. [60-7]
W-6Co alloy
AI2O3 (2% TiC)
Nb plus Ni-based filler
Ni
Steel
Al
Ti
Cr
C
Ti
C
Superalloy
AI2O3
AI2O3
SiC
TiN, TiC
CrN, Cr3C2
SiC, TiC
TiC
SiC
ZrO2
HP bonding
LP brazing
HIP
None
None
None
None
1200C, 60MPa
1255C, 0.2-0.6MPa
1400C, 207MPa
1400C, 207MPa
600C, 207MPa
-
Superalloy
Cu
Ni
ZrO2
TiB2, TiC
TiB2, TiC
None
-
AI2O3
None
PVD
PVD
CVD
PVD-CVD
PVD-CVD
Powder metallurgy,
Wet or dry
sprayed, 1 or 2 gun
-
Comparison of techniques. LP brazing

preferred, Ref. [60-8]
Demonstration of seven zone graded
compositions, Ref. [60-9]
Functionally gradient materials (FGM)

from Japan organised by Science &
Technology Agency, Ref. [60-10]
425
ECSSEHB3220Part5A
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Material A
Interlayer
material
Material B
Consolidation
technique
Process
conditions
950C at 3MPa
950C at 3MPa
AI2O3
Al2O3
ZrO2 (PSZ)
Mo.Nb,W, Kovar
AI2O3
AI2O3
AI2O3
AI2O3
AI2O3
Cu
Al
Ta
Fe
Nb
Cu
AI2O3
Ti
Liquid phase bonding Direct wetting sought
AI2O3
Ti alloy, Steel
Al
Solid phase bonding
Si3N4
Si3N4
lm Ti + braze Ag-Cu
or Au-Ni or Au-Ni-Pd
Brazing
AI2O3 or Si3N4
Titanium alloy
(TA6V) or Nb
Cu-40Ag-5Ti braze
Active brazing
SiC fibre/AI2O3
matrix
Stainless steel
304L
Ag/Cu/Ti braze
Active brazing
Stainless steel SS
Cu
Cu
Reaction bonding
None
None
None
None
None
None
Comments
[Reference]
Demonstration of strong joints, Ref. [60-11]
Fusion Welding
Material B melted
Largely impractical, Ref. [60-12]
Diffusion bonding
980C at 8.5MPa
600C at 8.5MPa
1400C at 10MPa
1375C at 1 MPa
1575C at 15MPa
Temperatures between 0.5 to 0.98 Tm

Pressures between 1 & 100MPa
Activity within thin

interlayer
Brazing temperatures:
Ag-Cu: 790C
Au-Ni: 970C
Au-Ni-Pd: 1130C
Under vacuum, 0.1MPa,
applied pressure at 850
to 890C for 2 to 10
minutes
Under vacuum, 1000C
for 20 minutes
Effectively brazing. Direct melting within

joint
Hot pressing required
1m Ti to improve wetting by braze. High
strength joints obtained, Ref. [60-18], [60-21]
Studies on reactions between braze &
substrate, Ref. [60-20]
Initial trials, Ref. [60-24]
426
ECSSEHB3220Part5A
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60.3.1.2
Objectives
Theprincipalobjectivesoftheworkaretoobtainstrongbondswhentestedatroomtemperatureand
provideabetterinsightintojoiningmechanisms.Varioustheoriesandmodelsforjointresponseare
alsopresented,Ref.[All].
60.3.2
Joint strength
60.3.2.1
General
Table60.3.2providesaselectionofreportedbondstrengthsforfusionjoints,Ref.[All].Thetestsare
for direct tensile loading normal to the bonded interface, conducted at room temperature. This
represents a fairly exacting stress condition with residual stresses at their maximum, coupled with
undesirabletensileloadingofbrittlematerials.
Consequentlythereportedfiguresarewidelyscattered,varyingfrom5MPato175MPa.Astrengthof
450MPa was achieved when like materials were joined, i.e. Si3N4 to Si3N4 with a Cu interlayer. A
strength of 5MPa is very poor, whereas 175MPa provides a useful strength. The quoted strengths
provideabroadinsightintothatpossible.
Table60.32Fusionjoints:Publishedbondstrengthsforvariousjoints
Material
A
Material
B
Interlayer(s)
Technique
Bondstrength,atRT.
[Reference]
Steel
405 S
Steel
405 S
Steel
Si3N4
Al2O3
HIP (DB)
Mean 63 MPa, Ref. [60-3]
HIP (DB)
LP (DB)
Si3N4
Mo + Nb
Nickel braze
+ W + Fe
Nickel braze
+ W + Fe
Al
HP (DB)
Si3N4
Si3N4
Ag-Cu
Brazing
INVAR
Al2O3
Al2O3
Al2O3
Al2O3
Al2O3
Al2O3
Al2O3
Al2O3
Al2O3
Al2O3
PSZ
(Zr2O3)
Si3N4
Al2O3
Al2O3
Al2O3
Al2O3
Ti
Fe
SS 316
Cu
Al2O3
S Steel
Al
Al
Ag
Cu
Ni
Al
Al
Al
Al
Cu
Cu
HP (DB)
HP (DB)
HP (DB)
HP (DB)
HP (DB)
HP (DB)
HP (DB)
HP (DB)
HP (DB)
LP (RB)
LP (RB)
Max ~450 MPa, Ref. [60-5]

Max ~32838 MPa, Ref. [6018]
Max ~175 MPa, Ref. [60-5]
Max ~70 MPa, Ref. [60-6]
Max ~40 MPa, Ref. [60-6]
Max ~50 MPa, Ref. [60-6]
Max ~45 MPa, Ref. [60-6]
Max ~50 MPa, Ref. [60-6]
Max ~20 MPa, Ref. [60-6]
Max ~10 MPa , Ref. [60-6]
Max ~5 MPa, Ref. [60-6]
Max ~124 MPa, Ref. [60-11]
Max ~167 MPa, Ref. [60-11]
S Steel
Cu
LP (RB)
Max ~70 MPa, Ref. [60-11]
Si3N4
Si3N4
Key
:70MPaachievedbyannealing
HIPHotisostaticpressing
DBDiffusionbonding
RBReactionbonded
LPLowpressure
HPHighpressure
427
ECSSEHB3220Part5A
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Thestrengthsareverymuchdependentonthe:
materialsselected,
specimenconfiguration,and
precisejoiningtechniqueused.
60.3.2.2
Effect of temperature
Jointstrengthsvarywithtemperature.Itcanbeexpectedthatlowerstrengthsareseenatambientor
closetothefusiontemperature,whilstamaximumstrengthoccurssomewhereinbetween.
60.3.2.3
Factors affecting joint strength
Greaterbondstrengthsareseeninthosejointswhich:
minimiseresidualstressesbyuseofmaterialgradation,and
lowfusiontemperatures.
Wheretheserulesarenotfollowed,lowstrengthsorevenfractureoncoolingarepossible.
Theuseofheattreatmentcansignificantlyincreaseambientstrengths,particularlywhereaverylow
strengthisotherwiseindicated.
60.4 References
60.4.1
General
[601]
G.Oakesetal
PropertiesofGradedTransitionJointsProducedbyVacuumArc
Remelting
AdvancesinMaterialTechnologyforFossilFuelPlants.ASM
International,ConferenceProceedings,13September1987
ISBN0871703149,p559572
[602]
I.A.Shiblietal
PropertyValidationofaGradedCompositionTransitionJoint
CreepandFractureofEngineeringMaterialsandStructures
Proceedingsofthe3rdInternationalConference,510April1987
InstituteofMetalspublication,ISBN0904357996,p741759
[603]
K.Suganumaetal
EffectofInterlayersinCeramicMetalJointswithThermalExpansion
Mismatches
CommunicationsoftheAmericanCeramicSociety,December1984,
pC256toC257
[604]
K.Suganumaetal
JoiningSi3N4toType405SteelwithSoftMetalInterlayers
428
ECSSEHB3220Part5A
20March2011
MaterialScienceandTechnology,Vol2,p11561161.Nov1986
[605]
K.Suganumaetal
JoiningofSiliconNitridetoSiliconNitrideandtoInvarAlloy
usinganAluminiumInterlayer
[606]
M.G.Nicholas
DiffusionBondingCeramicswithDuctileMetalInterlayers
BrazingandSoldering,No.10,Spring1986,p1113
[607]
A.Frischetal
DiffusionBondingofSi3N4toODSSuperalloyMA6000byHot
IsostaticPressing
PowderMetallurgyConference1990,26July,Paper11
Volume2,p5260
[608]
V.Heinzeletal
BondingbetweenTungstenandOxideCeramicsbyBrazing
Volume2,p6668
[609]
G.P.Yiasemides
SimultaneousSinteringandDiffusionBondingofMetalstoCeramics
usingHIP
Volume2,p100102
[6010]
A.Yoshitakeetal
FabricationoftheFunctionallyGradientMaterials(FGM)TheState
oftheArt.ESASP303,June1990,p103107
[6011]
W.E.Borbidgeetal
AReviewoftheReactionBondingTechniqueforJoiningCeramicsto
Metals
JournaldePhysique,ColloqueC1,supplmentauNo2,Tome47
fevrier1986,p131137
[6012]
M.G.Nicholas&D.A.Mortimer
CriticalAssessmentCeramic/MetalJoiningforStructural
Applications
MaterialsScienceandTechnology,September1985
Vol1,p657665
[6013]
M.G.Hockingetal
MetallicandCeramicCoatings:Production,HighTemperature
PropertiesandApplications
LongmanScientificandTechnical.ISBN0582033055,1989
[6014]
X.S.Ningetal
BondStrengthandInterfacialStructureofSiliconNitrideJoints
BrazedwithAluminiumSiliconandAluminiumMagnesiumAlloys
429
ECSSEHB3220Part5A
20March2011
[6015]
.A.DeLucaetal
AnAdvancedCeramictoMetalJoiningProcess
Ceram.Eng.Sci.Proc.,8[78]p602610,1987
[6016]
M.D.Pughetal
TheInteractionofReactionbondedSiliconCarbideandInconel600
withaNickelbasedBrazingAlloy
MetallurgicalTransactions,Volume20ANo.9,September1989
p15711894
[6017]
A.J.Moorhead&P.F.Becher
AdaptationoftheDCBTestfordeterminingFractureToughnessof
BrazedJointsinCeramicMaterials
[6018]
M.L.Santella&L.C.Manley
StrengthandMicrostructureofTitaniumVaporCoatedSilicon
NitrideBrazeJoints
Proceedingsofthe3rdInternationalSymposiumonCeramic
MaterialsandComponentsforEngines.p513527,Nov1988
[6019]
K.Suganumaetal
RelationshipbetweentheStrengthofCeramic/MetalJointsinTensile
andThreepointBending
AmericanCeramicSocietyCommunications,Vol69
Oct1986,pC235toC236
[6020]
C.Peytouretal
CharacterisationofCeramic/TA6VTitaniumAlloyBrazedJoints
J.Mater.Res.,Vol5,No.1,Jan1990,p127135
[6021]
M.L.Santella
BrazingofTitaniumVaporCoatedSiliconNitride
AdvancedCeramicMaterials,Vol3,No.5,1988,p457462
[6022]
G.Hanfleretal
DiffusionBondingofCastandEBWeldingofPMNickelbase
Superalloys
ProceedingsoftheConferenceHighTemperatureAlloysforGas
TurbineandOtherApplications.Liege,Belgium,Oct69,1986p801
810.D.ReidelPublishingCompany
[6023]
S.Kangetal
IssuesinCeramictoMetalJoining:AnInvestigationofBrazinga
SiliconNitridebasedCeramictoaLowexpansionSuperalloy
CeramicBulletin,Vol68,No.9,1989,p16081617
[6024]
S.Karunanithy
MeltInfiltrationandReactionattheFibre/MatrixInterfaceDuringthe
BrazingofaFibrereinforcedCeramictoMetal
430
ECSSEHB3220Part5A
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Am.Ceram.Soc.Comm.,Vol73,Jan1990,p178181
[6025]
M.Shimadaetal
DiffusionBondingofAl2O3andSi3N4CeramicsbyHIPping
EmergentProcessMethodsforHighTechnologyCeramicsPlenum
Press,1984,p591596
431
ECSSEHB3220Part5A
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61 Mechanical connections
61.1 Introduction
61.1.1
Requirements
61.1.1.1
General
Joints enable a number of components to be assembled into an integrated structure and load to be
transferredbetweenthecomponentsparts.
61.1.1.2
Similar materials
Joiningsimilarmaterialsistheeasiestsituation,achievableby:
mechanicalfastening,
bonding,or
welding(metalsandsomeplastics).
61.1.1.3
Dissimilar materials
Withdissimilarmaterialsthereisgreateruncertaintyonthecompatibilityoftwoconnectingsurfaces,
particularlyifthermalexcursionsareenvisaged.Ifreliabilityandconsistencyofjointperformanceis
paramount,thengreaterrelianceisplacedonmechanicalconnectionsthanthosesolelyusingfusion
orbondingtechniques.
61.1.1.4
In-service
Mechanical connections have the added ability to be disassembled and reassembled. This is
particularly useful in power units containing rotating components such as fan blades and pumps.
Equally,atregularintervals,individualcomponentscanbe:
Monitored,
Removed,
Cleaned,
Inspected,and
Repairedorreplaced.
432
ECSSEHB3220Part5A
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61.2 Versatile joints

61.2.1
Applications
61.2.1.1
General
Adistinctionismadebetweenthedemandsof:
Static, cold structures: such as airframes, thin skins and sandwich structures in CFRP and
aluminium,and
Dynamic, hot structures: such as engines and thermalresistant structures using titanium,
superalloys,hightemperaturecompositesorcombinationsthereof.
61.2.1.2
Static cold structures
Predominantmethodsare:
Mechanicalfastening,[See:Chapter22]:
threadedfasteners.
insertsforsandwichpanels,[See:Chapter23].
Adhesivebonding,[See:Chapter21].
[See: ECSSEHB3221 Adhesive bonding handbook, ECSSEHB3222 Insert design handbook,

ECSSEHB3223 Threaded fasteners handbook, ECSSQST7046 Requirements for
manufacturingandprocurementofthreadedfasteners]
61.2.1.3
Dynamic hot structures
Withthelikelihoodofthermalexcursions,allowanceismadefordifferentthermalexpansionsandthe
needforrelativemovement.
Mechanical connections, welding and brazing are common. Whilst fasteners can be used, e.g. bolts,
theirreliabilityunderhot,cyclicandcorrosiveconditionsshouldbeascertained.
The use of fastener systems in joint configurations between dissimilar materials is often the only
optionforapplicationssuchasthermalstructuresandTPSonreusablevehicles.Rivetsareavoided.
61.2.2
Mechanical techniques
Mechanicaljointmethodsinclude:
Retentionrings.
Tapers.
Interlocks.
Collars.
Pins.
Clips.
Compressionjoints.
433
ECSSEHB3220Part5A
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Threadedfastenerssystems,e.g.screws/bolts,nuts,washersandbushes,madefrom:
specialisthightemperaturemetals.
ceramicbasedcomposites.
monolithicceramics.
Inselectinganappropriatejointconfiguration,importantfactorsincludethe:
Intendedlifespan,
Reuseofstructuresandcomponents,
Serviceintervals,
Accessforinspectionandreplacement.
434
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62
(Heading number reserved)
ThisSectionhadoriginallybeenplannedtocoveraparticularsubjectasdirectlymappedtotheESA
PSS03203thatthisdocumentsetsuperseeds,theidentifiedsubjectwasconsiderednolongerrelevant
forthispublication.
To retain the original cross reference structure of the handbooks part 18, this heading has been
reservedasaplaceholderonly
63
(Heading number reserved)
ThisSectionhadoriginallybeenplannedtocoveraparticularsubjectasdirectlymappedtotheESA
PSS03203thatthisdocumentsetsuperseeds,theidentifiedsubjectwasconsiderednolongerrelevant
forthispublication.
To retain the original cross reference structure of the handbooks part 18, this heading has been
reservedasaplaceholderonly
435

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ECSS-E-HB-32-20 Part 5A

Aluminium alloys and their composites .......................................................28

Conventional aluminium alloys ................................................................... 28

New aluminium alloys................................................................................. 28

MMC - metal matrix composites ................................................................. 29

FML - fibre metal laminates ........................................................................ 29

Material availability ..................................................................................... 29

46.2 Conventional aluminium alloys ................................................................................. 30

Chemical composition ................................................................................ 30

Aerospace alloys ........................................................................................ 36

46.3 New aluminium alloys............................................................................................... 37

Aluminium-scandium alloys ........................................................................ 37

46.4 Al-Li - Aluminium-lithium alloys ................................................................................ 38

Manufacturing processes ........................................................................... 41

46.5 Al-Li alloys: Characteristics ...................................................................................... 42

Further development .................................................................................. 44

46.6 Al-Li alloys: Properties.............................................................................................. 44

Tensile properties ....................................................................................... 44

Fracture properties ..................................................................................... 46

Design values ............................................................................................. 52

Further development alloys ........................................................................ 53

46.7 Al-Li alloys: Stress corrosion cracking...................................................................... 53

Stress corrosion cracking resistance.......................................................... 54

Recent alloys .............................................................................................. 57

46.8 Al-Li alloys: Manufacturing aspects .......................................................................... 58

Cost implications ........................................................................................ 59

46.9 Al-Li alloys: Potential applications ............................................................................ 60

General factors ........................................................................................... 60

Space Shuttle external tank........................................................................ 61

A380 - Floor beams .................................................................................... 63

46.10 Oxide dispersion strengthened (ODS) alloys ........................................................... 64

Titanium alloys and their composites.........................................................125

Material selection factors.......................................................................... 125

Effect of alloy elements ............................................................................ 126

Alloy classes............................................................................................. 127

Alloys for aerospace use .......................................................................... 128

Heat treatment.......................................................................................... 130

Mechanical properties .............................................................................. 130

Physical properties ................................................................................... 136

47.3 New alloys .............................................................................................................. 137

Processing techniques ............................................................................. 137

47.4 Superplastic forming and diffusion bonding ........................................................... 138

Superplasticity .......................................................................................... 138

Diffusion bonding...................................................................................... 138

SPF/DB fabrication ................................................................................... 138

Materials ................................................................................................... 139

47.5 Discontinuously reinforced Ti-alloys ....................................................................... 140

Difficulties ................................................................................................. 140

Particulate reinforcements........................................................................ 140

Properties ................................................................................................. 141

Further development ................................................................................ 141

47.6 Continuous fibre reinforced Ti-alloy MMC .............................................................. 141

Composite development........................................................................... 141

Monofilament reinforcements ................................................................... 142

Matrix selection......................................................................................... 143

Composite process technologies.............................................................. 143

47.7 Continuous fibre reinforced Ti-alloy MMC: properties ............................................ 144

Composite optimisation ............................................................................ 144

Tensile strength and stiffness................................................................... 144