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Review on Nutritional, Medicinal and Pharmacological

Properties of Centella asiatica (Indian pennywort)
Amar Jyoti Das

Department of Biotechnology , BFIT, H.N.B.Garhwal University Dehradun , Uttarakhand ,

India

To cite this article: Amar Jyoti Das (2011): Review on Nutritional, Medicinal and Pharmacological Properties of Centella
asiatica (Indian pennywort), Journal of Biologically Active Products from Nature, 1:4, 216-228
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JBAPN 1 (4) 2011 pp 216 - 228

216

Journal of Biologically Active Products from Nature

ISSN Print: 2231-1866 Online: 2231-1874
www.jbappn.com

Review on Nutritional, Medicinal and Pharmacological

Properties of Centella asiatica (Indian pennywort)
Amar Jyoti Das
Department of Biotechnology; BFIT, H.N.B.Garhwal University Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India

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Received 10 April 2011; accepted in revised form 22 June 2011

Abstract: Centella asiatica is commonly known for its medicinal and nutritional values
throughout the world. The medicinal properties of Centella root, leaf and other parts of the plant are
also well known in traditional system of medicine. During the last few decades there has been an
increasing interest in the study of medicinal plants and their traditional use in different parts of
India. In the present review the chemical composition, food and nutritional value, ethno medicinal and
pharmacological activities of Centella asiatica have been discussed to provide collective information on its
multi purpose commercial values..

Key words: Centella asiatica, nutritional values, pharmacological.

Introduction
Centella asiatica Linn is a perennial herb that
grows up to 2 m. It is widely grown for its
medicinal value. It is a member of the family
Apiaceae with about 50 genera. The roots and
leaves of C. asiatica have a long history of
medicinal uses that still employed today. In the
view of the immense medical importance of C.
asiatica plant evidenced in the various studies
mentioned above and also corroborated in a
recent reviews article that there is a strong
incentive for further research into the pharmacological activities of C. asiatica plant extract
against common infectious diseases considering
the fact that the plant is readily available in the
tropics and within the reach of the local populace.
Classification:
Kingdom:
Plantae
Division:
Angiosperm
*Corresponding author (Amar Jyoti Das)
E-mail: < [email protected] >

Class:
Order:
Family:
Genus:
Species:

Dicotyledonous
Umbelliferae
Apiaceae
Centella
asiatica

Morphology
Species Centella are small prostrate herbs
rooting at the nodes, but mostly they are with stout
hollow internodes. The plants usually have an
aromatic smell due to the presence of essential
oil or resin in all organs 1 .The leaves are alternate,
but they are palmately compound. The petiole is
often swollen and sheathing at the base and
stipules are absent 1 . Flowers are fascicled
umbels, each umbel consisting of 3-4 white to
purple or pink, sessile flowers. Fruits are schizocarp with globular shape of 4 mm long 2,3,4. It has
dehiscent seed which has a hard oily endosperm
and a small embryo 1.

2011, Har Krishan Bhalla & Sons

Amar Jyoti Das et al. / JBAPN 1 (4) 2011 pp 216 - 228

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Centella asiatica with flower

217

Centella asiatica growing on wet place

Centella asiatica
Origin Distribution
C. asiatica is the most ubiquitous species found
extensively in shady, marshy, damp and wet place,
such as paddy fields, rivers banks forming a dense
green carpet. They are generally habitat of
tropical and subtropical regions of India up to an
altitude of 600 m. The plant has been reported to
occur also at high altitudes of 1550 m in Sikkim
and 1200 m in Mount Abu (Rajasthan).The plant
is indigenous to South-East Asia, India, SriLanka, parts of China, the Western South Sea
Islands, Madagascar, South Africa, South East

USA, Mexico, Venezuela, Columbia and Eastern

South America 7.
Vernacular name
The herb is known as Brahmi in Unani
medicine, Mandookparni in Ayurveda and Gotu
kola in the western world. In India the herb is
generally known by Indian pennywort. But the
plant is known by different vernacular name in
different parts of India and they are also known
by different vernacular name in all over the world.
such names are listed below.

Vernacular names in different regions of India 5,6,8

State

Vernacular Name

State

Vernacular Name

Assam
Bengal
Bihar
Bombay
Deccan
Gujarat
Manipur

Manimuni
Tholkuri
Chokiora
Karivana
Vallari
Moti brahmi
Phuk

Maharastra
Meghalaya
Kerala
Orissa
Tamilnadu
Tripura
Mizoram

Karinga
Bat-maina
Mayalchevi
Thalkudi
Saraswataku
Thankuni
Lambak

Amar Jyoti Das et al. / JBAPN 1 (4) 2011 pp 216 - 228

218

Vernacular names in different regions of World 4

Region

Vernacular Name

Region

Vernacular Name

Bangladesh
China
Cook Islands
Hawai
Tahiti

Dhol manik
Fo-ti-tieng
Kapu kapu
Pohe kula
Tohetupou

Fiji
Sri-Lanka
Nepal
Tonga
USA

Totodro
Thankuni sak
Gho tapre
Tono
Marsh pennywort

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Chemical composition
Centella contains broad spectrum of photochemicals and the beneficial effects of C. asiatica
is due to its various composition. Such compounds are follows:
Triterpene acid
They are triterpenoid derivatives of triterpene
molecule. C. asiatica contains various triterpene
acids such as asiatcoside, centelloside,
madecosside, thankuniside madecassic acids and
brahmoside brahminoside, brahmic acid.
Asiaticoside, madecossoside predominated and
in the leaves with less in roots 9,10,11.
Glycosides
A glycosides is any molecule in which a sugar
group isbonded through its anomeric carbon to
another group by a Glycoside bond. C. asiatica
store glycosides in inactive form. These Glycosides are activated on hydrolysis. Asiaticoside,
madec-osside and centelloside are the glycoside
present within the plant on hydro-lysis they yield:
(a) Tripene acids (b) Asiatic acid (c) Madegascari
acid and (d) Centellic acid and all these are
present in free form in the plant 12,13,14.
Alkaloids
They are group of naturally occurring chemical
compound which mostly contain basic nitrogen
atom. C. asiatica contain traces amount of
alkaloids. Till now hydrocotylin (C22H35NO8) an
alkaloid has been extracted from dried parts of
the plant 15,16.
Volatile and Fatty oils
The plant contains about 36 % of volatile and
fatty oils. The fatty oil consists of glycerides of
palmitic, stearic, lignoceric, oleic ,linoleic and

linolenic acids 16.

Flavonoids
They are the yellow pigments, also collectively
known as Vitamin P and citrin .In C. asiatica
flavonoids,3-glucossylquercetin,3-glucosykaemferol, 7-glucosykaemferol have been isolated.
Apart from these recently two new flavonoids
named Castilliferol 1 and Castillicetin 2 are
isolated from whole plant 13
Others
The plant is reported to contain tannins
inorganic acid, sugar, resin and amino acids, i.e
aspartic acid, glycine, glutamic acid, -alanine
and phenylalanine. The total ash contains
chloride, sulphate, phosphate,iron, calcium,
magnesium, sodium and potassium 16,17,18,19,20.
Food and nutritional value
The nutritional value of C. asiatica is
promising as it is rich in carotenoids and vitamin
C and vitamin B. The herb is commonly used as
porridge for feeding pre-school children in SriLanka in order to combat nutritional deficiency
21,28
. This nutritious porridge known as Kola kena
by the Sinhalese people of Sri-Lanka. Kola kena
is made with very well boiled rice, coconut milk
and C. asiatica which liquidized. The porridge is
accom-panied with jiggery for sweetness 21,23. In
Indonesia, the leaves are used for Sambai oi
peuga-ga, and Aceh type of salad. In Vietnam and
Thailand leaves are used for preparing drinks or
cold rolls. In Malay cuisine the leaves of this plant
are used for Ulam, a type of Malay salad 24. It is
also used for preparation of Malluma, a traditional
accompaniment to rice and curry 23. In Brazil
leaves of Centella are used for preparation of
chutney. Tribals of Wayanand district (Western

Amar Jyoti Das et al. / JBAPN 1 (4) 2011 pp 216 - 228

ghats) used C. asiatica for preparing their favorite
dish Muthil (C. asiatica cooked with crab orfish)
25
. Moreover, their juice is considered as nutraceutical drink for health benefits 29. C. asiatica
are also widely available in the market in the form

219

of tea and soft drinks 8. It is one of the constituents

of Indian summer drink Thandaayyee. Thus,
the nutrient content of C. asiatica completes ones
diet 27. The food value of content of C. asiatica
are listed in table 1.

Table 1. Nutritional content of Centella asiatica, mean

composition per 100 gram of edible portion 3,5,7,28,29

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Element
Protein g/100g
Moisture g/100g
Calcium mg/100g
Iron mg/100g
Energy value calories/100g
Fibre g/100g
Vitamin C mg/100g
Phosphorus mg/100g
Carbohydrates g/100g
B-Carotene mg/100g
Medicinal properties
C. asiatica is an effective remedy for various
ailments and has been used for thousands of years
all over the world. The medicinal property of C.
asiatica is becoming popular day by day through-

Quantity
9.94
84.37
1.060
32
38.99
18.33
9.73
370
51.92
1.000
out the world. The plant is beneficial for rheumatism, extra vitality increasing brain power,
lowering blood sugar level, skin condition, increased circulation, arthritis, senility and varicose. As
per Ayurveda, the herb is of multifunction.

Worldwide Ethno medical uses of Centella asiatica

Countries

Usage

Amazonia
Brazil
Bangladesh

Memory enhancer
Hypertension, diarrhea, urinary tract infection
Dog bite, asthma, carminative tumor and wounds,
itching, leucorrhoea, malaria.
Jaundice, nosebleeds, tonsillitis, fractures, measles,
Tuberculosis, urinary difficulties.
Childhood tidal fevers, eye problems, fractures,
swollen joints, rib pain and unwanted.
Low immunity, Impotence, Vascular problems,
Poor memory ,Heart disease
Leprosy, kidney trouble, ulcers, body aches,
asthma, gastric, catarrh, elephantis
Brain, endocrine gland, skin problem, bloodcirculation, wound healing
Hypertension, diarrhea, urinary tract infection
Rheumatism, indigestion, leprosy, poor Memory
Leprosy, tuberculosis
Relieve hypertension, open sores

China
Fiji
Hawaii
India
Sri-Lanka
Malaysia
Nepal
Madagascar
Thailand

Reference
30
31
32
17
31
40
33,34,35,36
37
26
31
38,39
41

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Pharmacological properties
The long history of C. asiatica use has led
modern day researcher to study Centella extract.
This paper explains the evidence based information regarding the photochemistry and
pharmacological activity of this plant. Such
pharmacological properties are shown under preclinical and clinical trials:
Preclinical trials
Antibacterial activity
The alcoholic extract of C. asiatica shows
antibacterial activity against gram positive
(Bacillus subtilis, Staphlyococcus aureus) and
gram negative (E.coli, Pseodomonas aeruginosa,
Shigella sonnei, Burkholderia pseudomallei)
organism 42,43,44, and this antibacterial activity is
due to triterpene asiaticoside. The triterpene
weakens the membranous tissue, which results
in dissolving the cell wall of microorganism, so
that they can be eliminated easily 45,46.
Antiprotozal
Alcoholic extract of the entire plant showed
antiprotozoal activity against Entamoeba
histolytica 47.
Antitumor activity
Due to its immune stimulating properties the
methanol extract of C. asiatica (100 mg/ml)
significantly reduced development of murine
solid tumors and crude extract of C. asiatica
partially purified fraction inhibited the proliferation of ascites tumors bearing mice. The
mechanism may involve inhibition of DNA
synthesis 48,49,50.
Wound healing
The alcoholic extract and the hydrogel of C.
asiatica were investigated for the evaluation of
its healing efficiency on excision wound model
in mice. A different formulation of alcoholic
extract was topically applied on the excision
wound surface as a single dose. Wound area and
histopathology were used to evaluate the effect
on wound healing. The effect produced by gel,
in terms of wound contracting ability, wound
closure, decrease in surface area of wound, tissue
regeneration at the wound site and histopatho-

220

logical characteristics were significant in treated

mice. Thus, the study provides a scientific
rationale for the traditional use of this plant in
the management of the wounds 51.
Antiviral
Combine crude extract of each C. asiatica,
Mudure. cochin chinesis, and Magnifera indica
Linn. showed antiviral activity 52.
Anxiolytic activity
The triterpene content in C. asiatica extract
showed anxiolytic activity and there are
possibility of synergistic effect between terpene
and asiaticoside 52.
Anabolic effect
Alcoholic extract of C. asiatica shows anabolic
effect by increasing blood protein nitrogen and
prevented fatty acid infiltration of liver. This
increase in heamoglobin content was quite high
and statically significant. It decreased the mean
level of blood urea 53.
Memory enhancing
Aqueous extract of C. asiatica shows significant
effect in memory enhancing. These positive effect
is due to brahmic acid, brahminoside and
brahmoside present in it 67,68. Neonatal rat pups
(7 days old) were given different doses of fresh
leaf juice of C. asiatica orally for different periods
of time. These rats were then subjected to spatial
learning (T- Maze) and passive avoidance tests
along with the age matched normal and saline
control rats. The results showed improvement in
spatial learning performance and enhanced
memory retention in neonatal rats treated with
higher doses. These results indicate that treatment
with C. asiatica fresh leaf juice during growth
spurt period of neonatal rats enhances memory
retention 54.
Hepaprotective
Titrated extract of C. asiatica shows positive
result in curing chronic hepatic disorder 55.
Antiproliferant activity
Aqueous extract of C. asiatica along with
Psoralea corylifolia inhibited kertinocyte repli-

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cation. This effect of C. asiatica is due to its two

consitituent triterpenoid glycosides madecassoside and asiaticoside 56.
Neuron protection
When the chemical structure of Asiatic acid
from C. asiatica are modified and obtained 36
derivatives. Out of these 3 derivatives significantly mitigated the neurotoxicity induced by
glutamate in their screening system. The
neuroprotective activities of these 3 derivatives
appeared to be more powerful than that of Asiatic
acid itself. These derivatives significantly
decreases the levels of glutathione, glutathione
peroxidase and other enzymes, which participate
in the cellular defense mechanism blunting
oxidative stress 56.
Liver Protection
The aqueous extract of C. asiatica significantly
inhibited ethanol-induced gastric lesions and
decrease mucosal myelo peroxidase in a dose
dependent manner, when the extract was given
before ethanol administration. These result
suggest that C. asiatica protected the gastric
mucosa by improving the integrity of the mucosal
lining while reduction of myeloperoxidase and
gastric lesions could be due to decrease in the
recruitement of neutrophils by C. asiatica or to
its free radical scavenging activity 57.
Gastric ulcer
Ethanolic extract of Tinospora cordifolia and
C. asiatica at dose of 100 mg/kg daily showed
marked protective action stress induced
ulceration due to adaptogenic property of mixture
78
. An extract of the herb also significantly
inhibited gastric ulceration induced by cold and
restraint stress in animal models. The dose
dependent reduction of gastric ulceration was
associated with a dose dependent increase of the
GABA level in the brain 58.
Antidiabetic
Triterpenic fraction of Centella (TTFCA) is
useful in diabetic microangiopathy by improving
microcirculation and decreasing capillary
permeability. Also TTFCA protect against
deterioration. Ethanolic and methanolic extracts

221

had shown significant protection and lowered the

blood glucose levels to normal in glucose
tolerance test. In alloxan induced diabetic rats
the maximum reduction in blood glucose was
observed after 3 hr at a dose level of 250 mg/kg
of body weight. The percentage protections by
ethanolic and methanolic extracts were 30 and
48 % respectively. In long term treatment of
alloxan induced diabetic rats, the degree of
protection was determined by measuring blood
glucose, triglycerides, cholesterol and urea levels
on 0, 3, 5, 7 and 10th day. Both the extracts
showed a significant anti-diabetic activity
comparable with that of glibenclamide 59. These
results indicate that the C. asiatica leaves possess
significant anti-diabetic activity.
Radiation
C. asiatica doses increase the survival time of
the mice significantly, when the mice were irradiated with Co-60 gamma radiation externally 60.
Venomous disorder
C. asiaticais an effective treatment for disorders
of the venomous system. In study of C. asiatica
has been proven to reduce symptoms of heaviness
and pain associated with increased capillary
permeability 61.
Cardioprotective
The alcoholic extract of C. asiatica showed
cardio protective activity in limiting ischemiareperfusion induced myocardial infraction in
rats 62.
Slimming
C. asiatica extract, caffine and L-cartine
provides slimming effect in human by increasing
the cyclic adenosine monophospate content with
a subsequent rise in the nonesterified fatty acid
content in human adipocytes 63.
Immunomodulating
Methanol extract of Centella shows immunomodulating effects in various clinical applications. Constiuents of this plant have been
shown to increase white blood cell counts;
especially modifying immune cell that are the first
line of defense against invading bacteria 64,65,66.

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Dermatologic activity
Crude extract of C. asiatica shows dermatologic activity. This activity of C. asiatica is due
to its synergistic component Madecassocide 63.
Clinical trials
Venomous insufficiency
Clinical studies have shown positive effect of
C. asiatica in the treatment of venomous
insufficiency. A two month double blind, placebocontrolled study of 94 people with venomous
insufficiency of the lower limb compared
beneficial effect of C. asiatica extract at 120 mg
daily and 60 mg against placebo. The result
showed a significant dose related improvement
in the treated groups in symptoms, such as
subjective heaviness, discomfort and edema 64.
Another study of people with venomous
insufficiency, 8 weeks of treatment with C.
asiatica extract, was shown to reduce the time
necessary for the swelling to disappear 65.
Anxiety
C. asiatica be useful in the treatment of
generalized anxiety disorder and may be used as
a promising anxiolytic agent in near future. A
study was undertaken to evaluate the role of 70
% hydro-ethanolic extract of C. asiatica on
generalized anxiety disorder in man. Hamiltons
Brief Psychiatric Rating Scale was used to screen
the subjects. Thirty-three participants (18 male
and 15 female; average age 33 yrs) were
medicated with the C. asiatica in a fixed dose
regime (500 mg/capsule, twice daily, after meal).
They were thoroughly investigated using standard
questionnaires based on psychological rating
scale at baseline (day 0), mid-term (day 30) and
final (day 60).The scale also includes a number
of direct queries about current levels of
experienced stress. The observations revealed
that, C. asiatica not only significantly attenuated
anxiety related disorders but it also significantly
reduced stress phenomenon and its correlated
depression. C. asiatica further significantly
improved the willingness for adjustment and
cognition 66. Another study 40 participants were
given either placebo and then subjected to sudden
loud noises. Researchers measured eye blinks a

222

found significantly reduce startle response in

those treated with C. asiatica. This suggest, that
C. asiatica may helpful in anxiety 67.
Micro circulation disturbance
Long-distance flights journey physical effect
range from simple swelling of the lower limbs to
the formation of dangerous blood clots. Centellas
effectiveness was evaluated in 33 male and 33
female passengers (mean age of both male and
female is 38) (33 traveling in economy class for
3-12 hours. Subjects were randomized to receive
60 mg (TTFCA) three times per day or a placebo
two days before, the day of, and two days after
the flight. Results showed significant
improvements in microcirculatory function in
those utilizing TTFCA, with edema and rate of
ankle swelling approached normal values in those
given TTFCA 68.
Diabetes
Diabetes is featured by increased skin blood
flow and decreased venous return, resulting in
blood pooling. A study was conducted in 50
patients with diabetic microangiopathy to asses
the effects of C. asiatica. Out of 50 patients, 30
patients received oral TTFCA 60 mg twice daily
for 6 months, 10 patients received placebo and
10 recives no treatment. Using laser doppler
flowmetry measurements, the researchers
concluded those taking TTFCA had significant
reductions in skin blood flow at rest after three
and six months compared to patient receiving
placebo or those receiving no treatment 69.
Scar management
Centella has long been recommended for the
treatment of hypertrophic scars. A placebocontrolled study of 100 pregnant women
compared application of a cream containing a C.
asiatica extract, vitamin E and collagen-elastin
hydrolsates to placebo 89. Application of topical
C. asiatica preparations showed beneficial effect
in decreasing scarring seen during wound healing,
appearing to be related to the stimulation of
maturation of scar by production of type 1
collagen by decreasing the inflammatory reaction
and myofibroblast 70. In one open clinical trial,

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227 patients were divided into two groups and

treated with oral Centella alone or surgical scar
revision plus Centella at doses of 60-150 mg daily
for up to 18 months. In the Centella-only group,
116 of 139 patients (82 %) experienced relief of
symptoms and disappearance of inflammation 71.
Anti-inflammatory and wound healing
Human skin fibroblast studies suggest C.
asiatica may benefit people with wounds. One
type of saponin often extracted from C. asiatica
is asiaticoside which is known to promote healing
activity through increased collagen formation.
Asiatic acid, another popular molecule extracted
from the plant, supports skin healing 51,52. Clinical
studies have shown positive effect of an
innovative preparation from the two herbal
extracts Punica granatum and C. asiatica. When
this herbal extract was applied on people, it
significantly reduced the signs of chronic
priodonitis promoted tissue healing and
modulated host responses 74.
Others
Centella may also have positive effect for
scleroderma, alcohol-induced liver cirrhosis, leg
ulcers, and as adjunctive treatment in leprosy 2,75.
Herb-drug interactions
There have no reports documenting negative
interactions C. asiatica and drugs to date 75. But
Centella inhibits CYP2D6 and CYP3A4 in vitro
can affect the intracellular concentration of drugs
metabolized by these enzyme 76.
Safety Issues
When taken orally, C. asiatica rarely causes
any side effects other than the occasional allergic
skin rash, and safety studies suggest that it is
essentially nontoxic 77. C. asiatica should not be
use during pregnancy and lactation, because C.
asiatica may have emmenagogue effects 78. In
addition, relying on this type of herbal treatment
alone and avoiding conventional medical care for
cancer may have serious health consequences.
Dose
In adults, the recommended daily dose of C.

223

asiatica extract containing up to 100 % total

saponins (triterpenoids) is 60 mg once or twice
per day 75,79. In case of children there is no any
prove of effective dose reported.
Current findings and future prospects
The present review is indicative of multiple
useful clinical effects of Centella asiatica. Many
studies especially in animal experiments have
shown its wide pharmacological activities in brain
improvement and neuroprotection effect. So,
further clinical studies are necessary systematically to evaluate efficacy using standardized
extracts in a large sample which may bring to the
light, the precise mechanisms for ameliorating
many other CNS related conditions like
depression and sleep disorders apart from anxiety.
Currently, a pilot study is going on by National
Centre for Complementary and Alternative
Medicine (NCCAM) in Oregon U.S.A, to investigate the safety, tolerability and effectiveness of
C. asiatica selected triterpenes 75,80. One recent
study showed protective effect of C. asiatica
extracts against colchicine induced cognitive
impairment and associated oxidative damage in
rats. In the study, chronic treatment with C.
asiatica extracts (150 and 300 mg/kg, p.o.) for a
period of 25 days, beginning 4 days prior to
colchicine administration, significantly attenuated colchicine-induced memory impairment
and oxidative damage, besides, significantly
reversing the colchicines administered increase
in acetylcholinesterase activity 75,81. Another
current study showed that low concentration of
ethanolic extract of C. asiatica is able to protect
neuron cells from oxidative stress probably by
inhibiting the activation of caspase-9 pathway but
it can exert neurocytotoxic effect at high
concentrations. This study was conducted to
evaluate the neuroprotective potential of
ethanolic extract of C. asiatica compared to that
of tocotrienol rich fraction (TRF) using human
neuroblastoma, SH-SY5Y cells. Cytotoxicity and
neuroprotective effects of C. asiatica and TRF
were measured by using 3-(4, 5-dimethylthiazol2-yl)-5-(3-carboxymethoxyphenyl)-2-(4sulfophenyl)-2H-tetrazolium, inner salt (MTS)
against BSO-induced neuron cell death. The rate

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of apoptotic cell death was measured via FITC

Annexin V apoptosis flow cytometer. Presence
of live and apoptotic cells were further confirmed
with calcein-AM and propidium iodide
fluorescence staining. Caspase-8 and -9 were
measured to determine the mechanism of
activation of the apoptotic pathway. Results
showed that C. asiatica extract was toxic to
neuron cell culture at >100 g/ml. TRF (1 to 50
g/ml), as positive control and CA (1 to 50 g/
ml) conferred significant protection against BSOinduced cell death. Post-treatment with C.
asiatica also significantly reduced caspase-9
activity against BSO-induced cell death 82.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

8.

9.
10.
11.
12.
13.

14.
15.

224

Conclusion
Centella asiatica has a long history of traditional use for a wide range of disease. Much of
the traditional uses have been validated by
scientific research. Quite a significant amount of
work has been done on the pharmacological and
biological activity and possible application of
chemical compounds from whole part of the
plant. Hence extensive investigation on its
pharmacodynamics, kinetics and proper
standardization and clinical trials should be
carried out in order to exploit their therapeutic
utility to combat various diseases.

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