~

First published 1982

Reprinted 1984
Second edition published 1988 by
Robert Brown & Associates (Aust) Pty. Ltd.
Third Edition published 1994 by
Technical Secretarial Service
P.O. Box l88
Forestville, NSW 2087
Reprinted 1998, 1999,2000,2002,2004, 2006, 2008
Copyright P.A. Sheedy, 1988
National Library of Australia Card Number and ISBN 978-0-9592907-1-4
Distributed by
Technical Secretarial Service
P.O. Box l88,
Forestville, N.S.W. 2087 Australia
Printed in Australia by
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All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be
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without the prior permission of the publisher.

TABLE

OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................... 1
CHAPTER 1 CLASSIFICATION OF MATERIALS .............................................................. 2
SOLIDS, LIQUIDS AND GASES ............ ..... ....... ... .. .. .. .... ... ..................... .... .................. 2
ELEMENTS , COMPOUNDS AND MIXTURES ...................... .. ...... ... ............. .. ........... .. 2
CHANGES IN MATIER ...................... ... .. .. ............... ... .... ..... ..... .. ................................. 4
METALS, NON METALS, COMPOSITES AND METALLOIDS ..... .. ... ... ... .. .... .. .. ... ..... 5
CHAPTER 2 NATURE OF MATERIALS ............................................................................... 13
THE BOHR ATOM ..... ... ................................ ....... .. .. ......... ............................................. 15
PERIODIC TABLE OF ELEMENTS ...... .. .. .................. ........ .......... ......... .. .. ... ................ 15
BONDING ........... .......... ... ... ... ... .. .. .................................................................. ............... 16
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN BONDING AND PROPERTIES ....................................... 20
CHAPTER 3 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MA TERIALS .................................................. 24
THERMAL PROPERTIES ........... ...... .. .. .................. .... ... ............. ... ........... ..................... 24
ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES ... ... ........ .. ...................... ................................................... 27
MAGNETIC PROPERTIES ................................................................. ....... .. ...... .. ...... .... 29
DENSITY ...... ..... ......... ..... .. .... .. .. .. ... .... .. .. .. .. .......... .... ...... ...... ..... ........ ... ... ....................... 33
REFRACTIVE INDEX .. ........................................................................... ....... ... ............. 33
CHAPTER 4 PHYSICAL TESTING ........................................................................................ 36
THERMAL PROPERTIES ... ... ... .......... ......................... .................................... .............. 36
THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY .... .. ..... ..... .. ... ... ................. .. ..... .... .... ................................ 36
ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES .......................................................... ...... .......... ........... ... . 38
MAGNETIC PROPERTIES ............................................................. .. ....... .. .. .. ...... .......... 39
DENSITY ........................... .... .. ....... ... ... .. .. ....... ........ ... ... ... ... ........................................... 40
REFRACTIVE lNDEX ...................................................... ... .......... ... ...... ... ................ ..... 40
CHAPTER 5 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS ........................................... 42
STRENGTII ................... .. .................................................................... ... ....... ....... .......... 42
HARDNESS ........................... ... ...................................... ................ .... .... ............. ........... 43
TOUGHNESS ... .......... ..... ...... ....... ... ... .... .. .. ... ....... ....................................... ................... 44
ELASTICITY .. ........................ ..... ... .. ... ... ...................................... .................................. 44
PLASTICITY .............. ............................ .. ..... .................................... .... .. .. .. ............. ...... 45
DUCTILITY .... ............ ...... ... ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ......... ....... ...................................................... 45
MALLEABILITY ........ .......................................................... ........... ........ .. .. ..... .. ............ 45
FATIGUE .... .. .... .... .. .... .... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... ..... ...... .. ... .. .. .. ............................................. ..... 46
CREEP STRENGTII .. .... ... ... ... ... .. ........ .............. .. .. .. ..... ... ..... ..... ..................................... 46
CHAPTER 6 MECHANICAL TESTING ................................................................................ 48
TENSILE TEST ............................................................................. ........ .......... ............... 48
HARDNESS TESTING ..... ... .......... .......... .. .. ... ........... .. .... .. ............................................. 5S
IMPACT TESTS .. ............. ... ... ....... .. ..... ....... ... ....... ............ ... ......... ..... ............................ 62
CHAPTER 7 NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTS ........................................................................... 69
LIQUID PENETRANT TESTS .. .. ... .. ....... .. .. ... ....................................... .......... ........ ....... 69
MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTS ....................................................... .......................... ... 70
EDDY CURRENT INSPECTION .......... .... .................................................... ... .......... .. ... 73
RADIOGRAPHIC INSPECTION ... ....... ..... .. ................................................. ... ............... 74
ULTRASONIC TESTING .............. ................................................................................. 77
STRAIN GAUGING ................ ... .. .. ............................ ... ... .. ........... ......... .. ....... .. .............. 78
COATING THICKNESS TESTING .. ....... .... ... ... ........................... ... ............................... 80

CHAPTER 8 CORROSION .................................................................................................... 83

ELECTROLYTES .......... ...... ... ... ... ...... .... ..... .. ...... ...................... ............. ..... ................. .. 84
FORMATION OF ANODE AND CATHODE ... ...................................... .... ...... .............. 85
CHEMICAL REACTIONS AT THE ANODE AND CATHODE ....................... .............. 92
FACTORS AFFECTING CORROSION .... ........ ... ...... ... ........... ... ........ .. ...................... .... 95
CORROSION SYSTEMS .. ............. .... ...... ............ ................................... ... ....... .............. 97
CORROSION PROTECTION .. ............ .... .. .. .;............ .............. ... .. ... ... .. ................ ... ... .... 102
DEGRADATION OF PLASTICS ..... ................................... ..................... ..... ......... ......... 106
CORROSION TESTING OF METALS .... .. .. ... .... ... ... ....................... ............. .................. 110
TESTING OF PLASTICS ............... ....................... ... ......... ....................... ... .... ..... ....... .... 112

CHAPTER9 WATER ........................................................................................................... 114

NATURAL WATER ........ ...... ...... .... .. ... .... ............ ............................ ....... ..... ......... ......... 114
PURIFICATION OF WATER .......................... ... ... .. ..... .. .. ..... ....... .............................. ... . 116
BOILER WATER CONDITIONING ................ ............................................. ......... ......... 117

CHAPTER 10 BITUMINOUS MA TERIALS ............................................................................ 120

TESTING OF BITUMINOUS MATERlALS ................................................... ............ .... 121

CHAPTER 11 FERROUS METALS .......................................................................................... 123

CAST IRONS ..... ........................... ............. ............ .............. ........................... ..... ..... ......
STEELS - CAST AND WROUGHT ............ ... ........ ......... ..... .... ..... .. .. .. .. ..........................
HEAT TREATMENT OF STEELS .. .. ... ............... ........... ................... ... ... .. ..... ..... ...........
SURFACE HARDENING OF STEELS ....... ...... ... ..... ...... ........ ... ... .. ... .... .........................
EFFECTS OF PROCESS HEAT ON STEELS .................................... .... .. .... .......... .........

126
129
130
133
135

CHAPTER 12 NON-FERROUS METALS - NON METALS ................................................... 137

NON-FERROUS METALS ......... ............. ....... ............................................. ..... .... ..... .... . 137
SURFACE TREATMENT OF ALUMINTIJM .. ......... ........ ... ..... ... .... ...... ... ......... .............. 142
NON-METALS ........ ................. ............................ ............ ....... ................................... .... 144
GLASSES .............. ...... ... .... .... .. ... ...................... ....... ....... ... ..... ... .... .. .. .. .. .. ........ .............. 147

CHAPTER 13 PROCESSING OF MATERIALS ...................................................................... 150

SAND CASTING ... ........ ..... .. .. ....... ... ... ...... ... ........... ........ .. ..... .... ..... .......... ....... ....... ... .... 150
SHELL MOULDING ... ........................................................... ............. .. .. ...... .............. .... 151
INVESTMENT CASTING .. .......... ... ... .... ... .............. ... ...... ..... .......... ........ ....... ......... ... ... . 152
PERMANENT MOULD CASTING ................ ....... ......... ...................... .......... .......... ...... 152
DIE CASTING .. ................ ... ... ... .. .. ... .............. .................. .. ......... ..... .... .... ... ................... 153
HOT WORKING OF METALS ... ...... ... .................. ... ... ... ..... ... .............. .... ...... ... ....... ...... 153
COLD WORKING OF METALS ....... .. ............. ...................... ... .... .. ... .. ... .... ...... ....... ...... 157
NEWER FORMING TECHNIQUES ........... ... ... ........... ... ........ .... .. ..... ... .......................... 160
POWDER METALLURGY ............ .... ... ... .. ................ ..... ............................... .... ..... ..... ... 162
PROCESSING OF PLASTICS ... ... ..... ... ............ ... ... .............. ..... .. .. .. .. .. ... .. ... ................... 164

CHAPTER 14 JOINING OF MATERIALS ............................................................................... 166

FASTENERS ............ ........................... ... .. .. ... ........... ... .. .. ......... ........... .. .. .......... .............. 166
SOFT SOLDERING ...................... ... ... ........... ........ ........ ... ...... .. .... .... .. .. .. ... ....... .......... .... 166
BRAZING .. ........ ..... .. ................. .. ...... .............. .... .. ........ ............. ......... ...... ..................... 168
WELDING ... ........... ..... ..... ................. .. ..................... ........ ........ ............................... .... ... 168
ADHESIVES ........... ..... ..... ................... ... .... ......................... ..... ....... ........ ..... ..... ...... ... ... . 176

CHAPTER 15 FINISHING AND COATING ........................................................................ 181

ELECTROPLATING .. ..... ... ... ... .. ....... .. ... .. .. ... .. ..... .... ... ...................... .. .. ..... .. ............. ... ...
IMMERSION PLATING .... ... .. .... ... ... .. .. ... ... .................... ... ............... .. .. .. ........... ....... ... ...
ELECTROLESS PLATING (AUTOCATALYTIC PLATING) ...... .. ................................
VACUUM DEPOSITION ..................... .. .. .. ..... ..... ................. .................... ... .... .. ..... ..... ...
OXIDE COATINGS ... ..... .... ... ..... .. ............................. ........... ..... .....................................
PHOSPHATE COATINGS ................. ... ... .. .. ... ..... ........ ................. .. .. .. .. .................. ........

II

182
185
185
185
185
186

CHROMA1E COATINGS ... ... ... ................ ..... ........ .. .......... ................ ....... ............... ...... 186
ANODISED COATINGS .................. ....................................... ...... ..... ............ ... ......... .... 186
NON-METALLIC COATINGS ......... ... ............................................................ ..... .... ...... 186
PAINT SYS1EMS ..... .. ... .... ... ... ..... .............. ........ ... ..... ...... .............................................. 188
COATING SELECTION ... .......... ........... ..... .. ... ...... ........... ..... ..... ...... ............ ... ............... 189

CHAPTER 16 SPECIAL MANUFACTURING TECHNIQUES ........

191

PRIN1ED CIRCUIT BOARDS .. ..... ............... .......... .................................... ... ................ . 191
ENCAPSULATION MATERIALS ........ ..... ..................................................................... 192
SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIALS .................................................... ............................. 194

CHAPTER 17 THE MATERIAL SELECTION PROCESS .................

u u

ANALYSIS ... ................................. .......... ...... .................. .... .... .......................................

AL1ERNATNE SOLUTIONS ................... ........ ................................... ....... ..... ....... .......
EVALUATION ............................................. .. ........... ...... ........ ..... ..................................
THE FINAL SELECTION .......... ................ ..... ...... ........ ...... ........... ....... ..........................
THE LAST STEP .......... .... ........................................ ..................... ..... ....... .....................

INDEX .....................................

u u u u u u

iii

u u

197
197
197
197
198
198

199

INTRODUCTION
Man, today, has available to him an infinite variety of materials and tools to produce almost any
object he desires.
Yet if we look briefly back into history, we fmd that these materials have evolved over some 5000
years.

One can consider mans' first encounter with 'technology' began in the Stone Age with the discovery of
the powers of fire, not only for cooking, but as a means of hardening wood for weapons and tools.
Man developed an awareness of the property we call hardness, in the use of hard rocks for grinding
spears and other implements, of flint for sharp edged knives and axes.
The first metals known to be used were gold and silver, probably because they were found in nature in
the "free" or metallic state. These metals have always been considered to be precious and so have
received considerable attention, though their industrial use represents only an infmitesimally small
percentage of the tonnage of all metals used today.
It is believed that copper was first extracted from its ores, by accident, about 4000 Be. Some 20003000 years later, iron was being smelted by the Egyptians and Syrians, for the manufacture of armour,
swords and knives, as well as for ancient agricultural implements.
Later still, aluminium and the more exotic metals were discovered.
Of the other materials, concrete had its beginnings in the Roman Period where it was known as
Pozzolana
Plastics were not exploited until the mid nineteenth century with the discovery of celluloid, and then
in the early 20th century, bakelite was discovered. Since then, a wide range of plastics, each with
specialised properties, has been developed.
Perhaps the most dramatic development in materials in recent years has resulted from research into
the properties of the semiconductor materials such as silicon, germaniwn and arsenic. This science is
advancing so rapidly that one cannot predict just where it will lead in the future.

We live today in a period where science and technology are advancing at an ever increasing rate.
This text reflects the knowledge of materials as we know them, and it is hoped, will provide the
student with some insight into the science on which Materials, Their Properties, Selection and Testing
is based.

CHAPTER 1

CLASSIFICATION OF MATERIALS

Everything we touch, everything we see, everything we use in our world is made from some
combination of elements selected from a total of 105 elements known to man, of which 92 occur m
nature.

Most of these elements are of little use in their 'pure' fonn. Rather they are used in combination with
other elements to produce materials with specific properties.

SOLIDS, LIQUIDS AND GASES

There are numerous ways in which we may classify these materials - I have chosen to commence at
the beginning - all materials can be basically classified according to their state:
Solid
Liquid
Gaseous.
A solid we defme as having a defmite shape and occupying a fixed space or volume. In the solid state,
the atomic particles that make up the solid are packed closely together, generally in an ordered threedimensional network. There are defmite bonds holding the atoms together in a pattern that is repeated
throughout the whole of the solid. These solids have a crystalline structure - they can be broken down
to individual crystals or grains. There are some solids that do not have this repetitive threedimensional pattern and are not crystalline in nature - these are known as amorphous solids they are
without fonn or structure.

Most metals and inorganic solids are crystalline in nature, whereas glasses and plastic solids are
generally amorphous, that is they have no crystalline structure.
A liquid is a substance that flows. or that confonns to the shape of the vessel in which it is contained.
The particles in a liquid are mobile, and can move freely past each other. Thus a liquid does not
exhibit any structure, although the particles do have a definite chemical composition.
A gas is a substance that diffuses and fills the vessel in which it is contained - its particles are more
mobile than those in a liquid, and are spaced further apart than they are in a liquid. The actual volume
of the particles in a gas is much less than the volume occupied by the gas. Hence gases can readily be
compressed.
It is important to realise that the state of matter can be changed by changing the conditions of its
envirorunent.

Thus liquid water can be changed to solid ice by cooling or to steam by heating.
Likewise steel may be liquefied by heating to over 1500C, and air may be liquefied by cooling to
about
-200C.

ELEMENTS, COMPOUNDS AND MIXTURES

All materials, irrespective of their state, can also be classified as:
elements
compounds

mixtures.

An element is a simple subst.'lIlce that cannot be broken down by chemical or physical means into
chemically simpler substances.

CHAPTER I CLASSlFICATION OF MA1ERIALS

There are only 105 elements known to man . The most common method of classifying elements is the
Periodic Table, and one of the features of an element is that its propenies give it a defmite place in the
Periodic Table.
Of the 105 elements listed in the Periodic Table, only 92 are stable and are known to OCCur naturall y,
and of these:
79 are solid
2 are liquid

11 are gaseous

in their natural state.

A compound is formed when TWO or more elements combine together chemically in fIxed proponions
by weight. The properties of the compound in no way resemble the properties of the elements from
which it is formed.
For example: Sodium (Na) is a very reactive metal Chlorine (CI) is a very noxious gas.
Yet when these TWO elements combine, we have sodium chloride (NaCI) or
as it is better known - common salt.
Compounds are homogeneous, and have a defmite composition. Compounds can be broken down by
chemical or physico/chemical means into their component elements. However the procedures for
recovering the individual elements are often very complex and require a good deal of energy.
A mixture is formed when TWO or more elements or compounds are mechanically mixed together in
any proportion. In a mixture there is no chemical reaction or bond beTWeen the components of the
mixture, and they can be separated by physical or mechanical means. Thus, we may dissolve salt in
water to form a mixture - salt water. The two may be subsequently separated by distilling off the water
to leave a salt residue. This is a physical separation, and does not involve any form of chemical

reaction, or chemical change.

Most metals used in engineering applications are alloys (or mixtures) of metals which appear
homogeneous, but when examined microscopically, their individual components may be identified.
Likewise, many composite materials such as reinforced concrete, and fIbre reinforced plastics are
mixtures in the chemical sense.
Most natural forms of matter, as they OCCur are mixtures of TWO or more elements or, more commonly,
TWO or more compounds, held together by physical rather than chemical means. For instance iron
OCCurS in nature as a compound, iron oxide, which is mixed with a large amount of earthy waste
(called gangue) containing silica (quanz), manganese oxides, and other compounds. Thus iron ore is
mined as a mixture that must fIrst be separated before the iron can be extracted from its oxide.
Mixtures can vary widely in composition, and are often heterogeneous.

TO SUMMARISE
An element

is a pure substance
is homogeneous - it has the sarne composition throughout
cannot be chemicall y decomposed or changed
has properties distinct from all other elements
has a defmite fIxed place in the periodic table.

CHAYfER I CLASSIFICATION OF MA1ERIALS

A compound

is a pure substance

is homogeneous - it has the same composition throughout

cannot be physically separated, but can be chemically separated into its constituent elements

has properties unlike those of the constituent elements

is composed of elements combined together in fixed proportions by weight.

A mixture

may be homogeneous or heterogeneous. It has no fixed composition

can be physically separated into its component parts
the ingredients maintain their individual properties.

CHANGES IN MATTER
Malter may undergo both physical change and chemical change.
A physical change is one that does not result in a change in the chemical composition of the material for example, ice can be melted to water, but both ice and water have the same chemical composition.
Furthermore, a physical change may be reversed - the water can be cooled again to ice.
Other physical changes include:
distilling of salt water to separate salt and water

magnetising a piece of iron

melting a piece of copper.

A chemical change is one in which one or more entirely new substances are formed. These substances
may be elements or compounds, and they have their own peculiar properties. A chemical change may
be accompanied by a physical change.
For example, when iron rusts (or corrodes), a new chemical compound is formed from the chemical
reaction between iron (Fe) and its environment (0,) to produce iron oxide FeO. Or when hydrogen
gas (fI,) and oxygen (0,) are mixed in the presence of a spark or flame, a violent explosion results,
and the product of this chemical reaction is water (HP). These reactions:
2Fe + 0, -7 2FeO and

2H, + 0, -7 2Hp
can be reversed, but they require a considerable amount of energy - the production of iron from iron
oxide requires a blast furnace; and oxygen and hydrogen can be produced from water by the use of
electrical energy. Thus, for a chemical change to reverse, the change is generally difficult.

TO SUMMARISE
In a

physical change:
No compound is formed or destroyed
It is generally easy to reverse the change
Generally only a small amount of energy is involved.

In a chemical change:

New elements or compounds are formed

It is often difficult to reverse the change requiring a large amount of energy

It may occur spontaneously and give off a large amount of energy.

C HAPTER 1 CLASSrncAllONOF MAlERlALS

METALS, NON METALS, COMPOSITES AND METALLOIDS

The 105 elements in the periodic table can be divided, roughly, into metals, non-metals and
metalloids. Mixtures and compounds containing these elements can also be divided along the same
lines.
However, scientists and engineers have developed systems that make use of the favourable features of
each system to create materials with extraordinary combinations of physical and mechanical
properties.
These materials are composites - a combination of two or more materials that has properties that none
of the individual components have by themselves.

METALS
A metal is a material in which the atoms are held together by a matrix of electrons. Some of the
electrons associated with each atom are, to a certain extent, free to move between the atoms that
constitute the crystal structure of a metal . Because electrons carry an electric charge, they are involved
in the passage of an electric current. The free movement of electrons in a metallic structure is
responsible for the good electrical conductiviry of most metals.
~

II

/
II

II

1/

/
/

Fig 1.1 A simple cell (left) and an arrangement of cubic ceUs

(above). Atoms in a solid metal arrange themselves in this
and other types of patterns. One crystal contains many such
cells.
In their pure form , most metals are normally soft and malleable. They are composed of just one kind
of atom, and in the solid state, these atoms crystallise in a regular pattern or structure that is
characteristic of that me~1.l .

CHAPTER I CLASSIFICAnON OF MA1ERIALS

-- -

Body-centred Cubic

Face-centred Cubic

- -Close-packed Hexagonal

Fig 1.2 Typical crystal structures

If one was to prepare a large single cryst:lI of a metal, then this pattern or arrangement of atoms
would be continuous throughout the whole crystal. However, most metals crystallise as an
agglomeration of numerous small crystals, each oriented in different directions, and each separated
from the other by a surface that we call a grain boundary.
Characteristic properties of a metal include:

Usually solid at room temperature (except mercury which is liquid at room temperature)
Exhibit a sheen or lustre, particularly on a freshly cut surface

Are good electrical conductors

Are good thermal (heat) conductors

Are malleable - they can be plastically deformed

Are opaque - light cannot pass through them

They can generally be strengthened by mi xing with other metals or alloys, or by thermal
treatment
Chemically speaking, metals have, for their valence a small positive number, usuall y 1,2, or 3.
Metals are generally categorised as being ferrous (composed ptincipally of iron) or non ferrous
(composed prinCipally of elements other than iron).
The main ferrous metals are:
Carbon steels
Alloy steels
Tool steels
Stainless steels
Cast irons.
All steels are alloys of iron with small amounts - up to 2% - of carbon, although most steels contain
less than I % carbon. In addition, other elements such as manganese. nickel and chromium are added
to enhance the properties of the steel.
Cast Irons are alloys of iron with 24% carbon plus other elements such as manganese, silicon and
nickel which, once again, are used to enhance the properties of iron. The high carbon content of cast
irons results in a very low malleability. Hence they are supplied only as castings, produced by pouring
hot liquid iron into a prepared mound.

CHAPTER I CLASSIFICATION OF MA1ERlALS

Non-ferrous metals include all the metal and alloy systems whose principal constituent is a metal
other than iron. Thus aluminium , copper, lead, zinc, tin , nickel, silver, gold, magnesium, chromium,
molybdenum, and tungsten and all of their alloys fonn just some of the non-ferrous metal systems.

NON METALS
Whilst non-metallic elements make up the minority group in the periodic table, the number of nonmetallic compounds is inflnite.
The main non-metallic groups of interest to engineers are:
Ceramics
Plastics (or polymers)
Rubbers

Wood.

Typical propenies of non-meL'lls include:

May be solid, liquid, or gaseous
Poor electrical conductivity
Poor thermal conductivity
In solid state, they have a dull appearance
They are generally brittle
Generally have a low speciflc gravity
Chemically, they are often based upon elements having a valence of 5, 6, 7 or 8. (Elements with
valence 8 are men. They have a very low tendency to react or to combine with other elements to
fonn compounds).
A ceramic is a combination of one or more metallic elements with a non-metallic element. The
propenies of a ceramic resemble those of a non-metal. The propeny that distinguishes a ceramic from
other non-metals is the nature of the bond that holds the atoms together. Ceramics usually have a vety
rigid ionic/covalent bond, and tend to be very hard and brittle, chemically inen or unreactive, and
good electrical insulators. This latter propeny results because the electrons that provide electrical
conductivity are held fmnly in place by the covalent bonding.

Aluminium oxide (AlP,) is a typical ceramic material; it is fonned by two aluminium atoms
combining with three oxygen atoms. It is a good insulating material, both electrical and thennal, it is
highly refractory, and extremely hard. It is used for insulated mountings in switchgear and high
tension lines. for refractory brick linings in metal melting furnaces and as an abrasive in grinding
wheels.
Plaslies , or more correctly 'polymers' are a large group of materials which consist of, or conL'lin, as an
essential ingredient, a subsL'lnce of high molecular weight whiCh, while solid in the finished SL'lte, is
at some stage of its manufacture soft enough to be fonned into various shapes, mostly through the
application of heat and/or pressure.
Polymers are composed of many long chain molecules, each molecule conL'lining a large number of
atoms. In most polymers, the elements carbon and hydrogen fonn the major constituents.
Polyethylene is a typical polymer, that is produced by "polymerisation" of many ethylene molecules to
fonn a long chain molecule, in which the individual atoms are held together by covalent bonds so that
each atom shares its electrons with adjacent atoms,

CHAPTER I CLASSIFICA nON OF MA TERlALS

Fig 1.3 Polyethylene Molecule (C,H,)n

The bonding between the molecular chains in polymer materials is by weak electrostatic forces called
Van der Waals bonds. Thus polymers are relatively low in strength and high in plasticity.
Strengthening can be accomplished by techniques that restrict the movement of the chains, including
the use of fibres, and fillers, and by cross-chain linking.
Plastics are often classified as thermosetting and thermosoftening, sometimes called thermoplastic.
All plastics soften when initially heated to allow the plastic to be shaped or fabricated. However, after
cooling from the initial heating, their subsequent behaviour upon re-heating determines their
classification.
Thermosetting plastics are those which are hardened permanently by the action of heat. This means
that after final curing, the plastic cannot be softened or reshaped in any way by heating. Further
heating may eventually cause decomposition.
Thermoplastic (thermosoftening) plastics are those which may be softened and reshaped when
reheated, and when cooled, they become hard again. This cycle may be repeated several times
providing the maximum temperature is kept within limits, and is not high enough to cause
decomposition. Thermosoftening plastics may also be fabricated by the combined action of heat 'Uld
pressure. Typical thermosetting and thermosoftening plastics include:
THERMOSETTING PLASTIC

THERMOSOFTENING PLASTIC

A1kvds

Acrvlics (Perspex)
ABS
Cellulose
P.T.F.E. (Teflon)
Polyamides (Nylon)
Polycarbonates
Pol ystyrenes
Polyethylene (Polythene)
Polyvinyls
Polypropylenes
Fluorocarbons

Epoxies
Phenol formaldehyde
Urea formaldehyde
Melamine
Polyesters
Silicones

Natural rubber is extracted from latex obtained from the tree "Hevea Braziliensis" . The latex contains
30% to 45% rubber, and the balance is mainly moisture. In its crude form, rubber is a fairly useless
tacky compound. It is combined chemically with additives and subsequently vulcanised (or heated) to
convert it into a useable product.

CHAPTER I CLASSIFICATION OF MA1ERlALS

The additives are blended by masticating the crude rubber in a powerful blade type mixing machine in
which colouring agents, curing agents and inert fillers may also be added. Sulphur is also added to aid
the vulcanising process. Vulcanising involves heating the material to about 150C, generally in a
metal mould of the desired shape. This provides the energy for the chemical reaction that creates the
chain bonds responsible for the elastomeric properties of rubber.
One of the limitations of natural rubbers is their low resistance to deterioration due to the effects of
ozone in the atmosphere. A large range of synthetic rubbers have been developed which have good
ozone and weather resistance, or have resistance to heat or to particular chemicals. The principal
synthetic rubbers include butadiene, polychloroprene (neoprene), polyisobutylene, nitrile, polysulphide
and silicone. These are used in seals , gaskets, O-rings and similar parts in situations where natural
rubber would have a restricted life.
Wood is of biological origin, and is one of the earliest materials used by man. It is composed
principally of fibres of the complex hydrocarbon, cellulose, which are surrounded by a thin k~yer of
lignin which 'cements' the fibres together. Wood also contains small amounts of a number of other
compounds starch, resin, gum, wax, tannins etc. The different arrangements of the cell structure in
wood give each wood its particular properties. Woods are generally classified as "hardwood" or
"softwood".

Hardwoods contain large cells known as "vessels", whereas the cells in softwood are small. Also
hardwoods contain pores whereas softwood is non-pored. These tenns can be misleading because
some "hardwoods" can, in fact, be quite soft - the classic example is Balsa wood - a pored (yet very
soft) hardwood.
Wood often requires seasoning before use - this is the drying out of the wood - because freshly felled
timber contains a high percentage of water, both free water in the cell cavities and chemically
combined water within the structure of the cell walls. If wood is not correctly seasoned, it can warp,
crack and even collapse.

COMPOSITE MATERIALS
A composite is a combination of two or more materials that has the properties that neither material
has by itself. Wood is really a composite - cellulose fibres held together by a glue or lignin. In
plywood, the directional properties of wood - it is stronger in the longitudinal direction than in the
transverse direction - are overcome by alternating the grain direction in successive sheets.
At

the present time the more important composites include:

reinforced concrete
fibre reinforced polymers
reinforced metals
laminated metal systems

Reinforced concrete is probably the most widely used of all constructional materials; it has many
advantages - a relatively low cost, comparatively easy to position, and it is maintenance free. Concrete
is strong in compression, but relatively weak in tension and bending. By carefully locating steel
reinforcement in the concrete, the tensile load can be carried by the steel. In some cases the concrete
may be prestressed to counteract an initial deflection in a concrete member. The steel reinforcement is
loaded in tension whilst the concrete is poured around it. After the concrete has cured, the tensile
force is removed with a resulkwt contraction in the reinforcement. The effect is to apply a residual
compressive force to the concrete. Subsequent tensile loading of the concrete must overcome this
compressive force before any tensile force is felt by the concrete member.

CHAPTER I CLASSlFICATION OF MA lER.IALS

CCIn.crete in compression
Load

Steel reinforcement
takes tensile load

Concrete in tension
fails

Concrete in compression
Load

l
Steel reinforcement
concrete in compression

Fig 1.4 Effects of reinforcement in concrete

Just as the tensile properties of concrete may be improved by steel reinforcement, so the properties of
polymers can be improved by a similar procedure. Reinforcement materials used in polymers include
fibreglass, graphite, and boron.
Glass fibres are very strong. but if they are notched. they fracture easily. By coating the fibre in a
polyester resin, it can be protected from damage so that its stiffness and strength can be utilised.
Fibreglass reinforced plastics are utilised in marine, automoti ve and aircraft applications where its
lighmess, strength and corrosion resistance properties are important However the glass quickly loses
its strength once the temperature is raised. Fibres of asbestos. graphite and boron have been employed
successfully as reinforcement materials in plastics because of the improved temperature resistance and
greater strength and stiffness over glass fibre.
More recently, very strong (and often brittle) whiskers or fibres have been used
physical and mechanical properties of metals.

to

further improve the

A whisker is a single crystal of a material that has been prepared by "growing" in a preferred
direction. It measures about 0.5 to 2.0 microns in diameter, and up to 20mm long. Because of their
small size, and their high degree of crystal perfection, whiskers consistently exhibit properties
approaching those calculated for perfect materials with strengths up to 35000 MPa (the strength of
steels range up to about 2000 MPa).
Ceramic whiskers of alumina have been embedded in cobalt to produce a strong and heat resistant
composite. Boron and rungsten have been embedded in aluminium and copper to improve the stiffness
of these metals.
An important group of composite materials is the clad metals group. Different metals may be bonded
together for a variety of reasons, including strength, corrosion resistance or differential expansion.

Thermostatic controls, or bi-metallic strips, are produced by roll-bonding a high thermal expansion
alloy such as copper to a lo w expansion alloy such as steel. Heating the composite causes a differential
expansion of the two metals with the result that the bi-metallic strip bends or deflects towards the low
expansion alloy.

10

CHAPTER 1 CLASSIFICAnON OF MA1ERIALS

Austenitic stainless steel is roll bonded to mild steel to provide a corrosion resistant lining on a steel
shell. This provides a cost saving and also, the !tigher thermal conductivity of the mild steel gives a
more uniform heating of a heated vessel.

METALLOIDS
Metalloids are those elements intermediate between the non metals and the metals, and whose
properties sometimes resemble the non-metals. The metalloid elements include silicon, germanium,
arsenic and boron. These materials are fmding their major demand as semiconductor materials in
electronic devices.

11

CHAPTER 1 CLASSlFICAnON OF MATERlALS

GLOSSARY
Chemical change
Homogeneous
Heterogeneous
Composition
Electron
Malleable
Ceramic

Metal
Non-metal
Metalloid
Plastic
Polymer
Solid
Liquid
Gas
Crystalline
Element
Mixrure
Compound
Physical change
Crystal S nucrure
Amorphous

Thennosetting
Thennosoftening
Rubber

Wood
Composite
Reinforcement
Laminate
Polymer
Whisker

QUESTIONS
1.

Distinguish between elements. compounds and mixrures.

2.

What is the purpose of reinforcement

a) in concrete?
b) in plastics?

3.

What distinguishes a ceramic material from a metal?

4.

What is a composite material? Name two types of composite materials.

5.

Distinguish between metals and non-metals.

6.

Discuss the important fearures of

a) a physical change
b) a chemical change

12

CHAPTER 2

NATURE OF MATERIALS

Before we embark on a study of the properties of materials, it is important to understand the

fundamentals of the chemistry that controls their properties.
Pltilosophers and scientists have, for centuries, speculated as to the nature of matter. However the
beginning of the atomic theory as we understand it today can be traced to a Scottish Chemist, John
Dalton who, in 1808 set forth ltis atomic model of matter - Dalton considered that:
Elements are made up of minute individual particles called atoms (a word derived from the Greek
word 'Atomos' meaning indivisible)

All atoms of anyone element have the same properties and mass.
Subsequent research scientists such as Thomson, Rutherford and Bohr have shown that the Dalton
concept of an indivisible atom was false, and that the atom is a complex structure built up from still
smaller particles wltich have been given the names:

Neutrons
Protons

Electrons.

Furthermore many of the properties of materials are best understood in terms of the structure of the
atom, and the manner in wltich atoms join together to form molecules. The atom is basically a
spherical structure whose overall diameter is about 10.7 nun. It contains a core or nucleus composed of
protons and neutrons wltich is surrounded by electrons moving in 'shells" or "orbitals" at various
distances from the nucleus.
A proton is a particle weighing about 1.67 x 10.27 kg and possessing a single positive electrical charge.
A neutron is a particle weighing 1.008 times the mass of the proton but with zero electrical charge.
The nucleus of the atom comprises protons and neutrons (except the hydrogen atom wltich contains
just one proton).
The electron exists in orbits surrounding the nucleus. Its mass is only 1/1836 that of the proton or
neutron, and each electron has a single negative electrical charge.
Since the atom is electrically neutral, the number of electrons orbiting an atom is equal to the nwnber
of protons in its nucleus.

o
e

neutron
proton
electron

Fig 2.1 Structure oj an atom

Because the electron has a very low mass when compared with the proton and neutron the mass of an
atom is contained primarily in its nucleus. However the diameter of the atom is several thousand times
the diameter of the nucleus. Thus much of the atom is, in fact, open space. It has been estimated that,

13

CHAPTER 2 N ATIlRE OF MATERIALS

if the density of a child's marble was equal to the density of an atomic nucleus, then the marble would

weigh over 30 million tonnes.

Each energy level or shell containing electrons can contain up to a given maximum number of
electrons given by the general fonnula:

maximum no. of electrons = 2n 2

where n is the shell number, counted as number I nearest to the nucleus. The shells are generally
represented by the letters k to q.
The simplest, and the lightest, atom is hydrogen, which we picture as:

(i)

(ii)

Fig 2.2 (i) Orbital view of hydrogen atom and

(ii) A simplified 2-dimensional representation
A more complex atom is aluminium containing 13 protons and 14 neutrons in its nucleus and 13
electrons SUITOWlding the nucleus.

electron

Fig 2.3 A simplified 2 dimensional representation of an atom of

aluminium
It is the electrons, particularly those in the outermost shell or shells, that determine many of the
chemical, physical, and engineering properties of materials. Because of the special nature of these
outer electrons they are given a special name of valence electrons.
The basic structure of the atom of any particular element may be defmed by its:

Atomic number

Mass number

Atomic weight.
The atomic number (Z) of an element is equal to the number of protons in the nucleus of its atom.

14

CHAPTER 2 NATURE OF MATERIALS

Since all atoms have no electrical charge, then the atomic number also signifies the number of
electrons revolving around the nucleus. And the atomic number also provides us with the position of
the element in the Periodic Table of elements.
The mass /lumber (A) of an element is equal to the sum of the protons and neutrons in the nucleus of
the atom. Mass numbers tell how much lighter or heavier an atom of one element is relative to an
atom of another element.
The atomic weight of an element is the average mass of the element compared to the mass of a carbon
atom which is taken as twelve atomic mass units. Atomic weight is often slightly different to the mass
number because many elements contain atoms with different mass numbers called isotopes.
An isotope is an atom of an element having the same atomic number (number of protons) as ,mother
atom of the same element, but a different mass number, hence a different number of neutrons.
Chlorine, atomic number 17, has two isotopes, one with mass number 37 and one with mass number
35. The atomic structures of these two isotopes are:
Mass number 37 - 17 protons, 20 neutrons, 17 electrons
Mass number 35 - 17 protons, 18 neutrons, 17 electrons
Chlorine contains 23% mass number 37 and 77% mass number 35 and so has an atomic weight equal
to 35.46.

THE BOHR ATOM

The classic Bohr theory depicts the atom as a nucleus surrounded by orbiting electrons (in much the
same way that our solar system is centred on the sun with the planets orbiting around it). Furthermore
each electron remains in its particular shell unless excited by an external force which may cause it to
"jump" into another shell, thereby gaining or losing a certain amount of energy.

This concept of the atom is adequate for the purposes of this course. However, it should be realised
that this is a somewhat simplified explanation. Current atomic theory states that the spatial
arrangement of electrons in an atom is described by a "quantum number", and requires a study of the
quantum theory and wave mechanics, a study that is beyond the scope of this text. Whatever theory
one studies, it is accepted that chemical interactions between elements and compounds involve the
interaction of electrons, particularly those that occupy the outer shells of the atom.
The valence number of the atom is a function of the number of electrons in the outer shell. Elements
with up to 4 outer electrons have valence number equal to this number of outer electrons. Elements
with 5-8 outer shell electrons have a valence equal to (8-N) where N = number of outer shell
electrons. An outer electron shell is considered to be full if it has 8 outer shell electrons (or 2 in the
case of Helium). This is in spite of the fact that, shells m - q, can theoretically contain more than 8
electrons.
Elements with 8 outer electrons are generally unreactive - they do not tend to combine with other
elements to form compounds. When an element has less than 8 outer shell electrons, it will tend to
combine with other elements in a marmer that will fill the outer shells of the reacting elements. We
call this process bonding.

PERIODIC TABLE OF ELEMENTS

Scientists have, for several hundred years, recognised that a certain pattern or periodicity exists in the
chemical and physical properties of elements. In 1869 Dimitri Mendeleef, a Russian scientist, was
able to show that, when elements are arranged in order of increasing atomic weight, a striking
periodicity, or repetition, of physical and chemical properties becomes evident. Subsequently, the
scientist Moseley, in 1912. showed that the periodic properties of the elements are a function of the

15

CHAPTER 2 NATURE OF MA1ERIALS

atomic numbers, and not atomic weights as was postulated by Mendeleef. (In all but a few of the
elements. atomic weig ht increases with increasing atomic nwnber; however there are three instances
of inversion of order of atomic weights in the periodic table). It is interesting to note that in early
versions of the periodic table there were several blank spaces, representing elements that had not then
been fo und in nature, yet the properties of these unknown elements were able to be predicted with
great accuracy.
There are several features of the periodic table which deserve attention:
There are 105 elements, from Hydrogen number I - the lightest element, to Hahnium - nwnber
105 - the heaviest.
Of these 105 elements, 92 are known to occur naturally, the remaining 13 have been
manufactured in laboratories or reactors.
The table is divided into 8 vertical "groups" and seven horizontal "periods" .
The table can be di vided, for convenience, into 5 distinct zones:
a) Light metals, which occupy the two groups IA and IlA on the left hand side of the table.
b) Transition metals, which occupy groups III B, IV B, V B, VI B, Vil B, VIIl B, I B and Il B in
the central portion of the table - these are all high melting point metals (except mercury
(Hg, they usually fonn coloured compounds when they react to fonn salts, and many of
them are capable of forming compounds in more than one valence.
c) Soft metals, which fall between the transition metals and the metalloids -these include
aluminium (AI), tin (Sn), lead (Pb), bismuth (Bi), all of which are relatively soft, have low
melting points and are fairly unreactive.
d) Metalloids, which include elements boron (B), carbon (C), silicon (Si), antimony (Sb) and
tellurium (Te), are elements which may behave as metals or as non-metals. Hence they are
the elements that feature in the semiconductor industry.
e) Non-metals, which occupy the extreme right hand side of the table, and include the inert
gases of group VIIl A (sometimes called group D).
In summary, the 105 known elements may be depicted as:
105 Elements

I
I
7 Metalloids

4 Unstable

64 Metals

63 Solid

13 Trans-Uranium

88 Stable

17 Non-Metals

1 Liquid

5 Solid

1 Liquid

11 Gaseous

5 Reactive

6 Inert

BONDING
In any solid material the atoms that comprise the elements, and the elements themselves, are held
together by chemical bonds - if they were not everything we use would be dust, and a very fme dust at
that. The basic premise in all chemical bonds is that atoms combine with each other fonn complete
outer electron shells. They do this by gaining, losing or sharing electrons from their outer shell so that
they are left with outer shells containing eight electrons (or two electrons in the case of hydrogen).

IONIC (ELECTRO VALENT) BOND

In the ionic bond, two or more atoms gain or lose electrons. Thus an atom of oxygen, whose electron
structure is (2.6) tends to gain two electrons to make its structure (2.8). Likewise chlorine (2.8.7)
gains one electron to become (2.8.8). Sodium (2.8.1) lose one electron to become (2.8), and potassium
(2.8.8.1 ) loses an electron to become (2.8.8). These electron arrangements resemble those of the inert
gases neon (2.8) and argon (2.8.8). The electrons gained or lost are referred to as the valence
electrons.

16

CHAPTER 2 NATURE OF MA1ERlALS

Since there is no change in the nucleus of the atom, this gain or loss of one or more electrons results
in a nett negative (if electrons are gained) or positive (if electrons are lost) charge on the atom because
the atom now contains an excess or a deficit of electrons (negative charges) compared with their
complement of protons (positive charged particles). These charged atoms are known as ions.
An atom that loses electrons to become a positively charged ion is known as a cation. These lost
electrons are transferred to the non-metallic atom to produce an anion. Metallic elements tend to form
cations. These cations and anions are held together by the electrostatic attraction that oppositely
charged particles have for each other. The unit formed by this ionic bond between two or more
oppositely charged ions is called a molecule.

In each molecule the number of electrons lost by the cations must equal the number of electrons
gained by the anions, so that the molecule, as a whole, is electrically neutral. We may represent the
chemical reaction between magnesium metal and chlorine gas to fann magnesium chloride as follows:
Mg + CI, --> MgCl,

Ionically this is written:

Mg' + CI,' --> Mg2. + 2CIThe atomic strucrures of the participants in this reaction are:

Mg

2CI

Fig 2.4 Atomic representation of reaction between Magnesium and

Chlorine
This electrostatic attraction is the only force of attraction that exists between the ions in an Ionically
bonded solid or crystalline material. These materials are sometimes called 'inorganic' materials. If the
material is dissolved in water, the ions become detached and are mobile or free to move.
The presence of an electric field is sufficient to overcome the forces between the ions and to attract the
charged ions towards oppositely charged electrodes inunersed in the aqueous solution. Thus aqueous
solutions of ionised salts will conduct an electric current. This property enables us to electroplate
metals such as nickel, copper and chromium from aqueous solutions containing ions of the particular
metal .
Ionised salts also become conductors if they are heated until they are molten, or fused , for in this state,
the energy provided by the heat is sufficient to overcome the electrostatic attraction between charged

17

CHAPTER 2 NATIJRE OF MATERIALS

ions. The imposition of an electric field again results in attraction of the ions towards the oppositely
charged electrodes.

Fig2.5 i)

(iii)

(ii)

(i)

Mg-ion

cf ion

Magnesium Chloride crystal

ii) Aqueous Magnesium Chloride, in which the salt is

ionised with ions randomly distributed.

iii) Aqueous Magnesium Chloride with an electric potential

applied through the electrodes - charged inns are

attracted to the oppositely charged electrode.

COVALENT BONDS
The majority of chemical compounds are not ionic - they are not salts - but rather are bonded by
different types of forces. In a covalently bonded molecule, there is no transfer of electrons between
atoms. Rather the bond results from the sharing of pairs of electrons between atoms. In this manner,
atoms are seen to again develop a full outer shell of electrons.
There is almost an inImite munber of organic compounds based principally upon the elements carbon
and hydrogen that are bonded by covalent bonds. For instance methane (CH.) may be represented as:

Hydrogen atoms

Ic~~~n

Electrons contributed by carbon atom

o Electrons contributed by hydrogen atoms

Fig 2.6 Methane Molecule
Four hydrogen atoms, each share a pair of electrons with the carbon atom. In each pair of electrons,
one is donated by each of the sharing atoms. It may be seen that carbon has developed an outer shell

18

CHAPTER 2 NAnJRE OFMATERlALS

of 8 electrons and each hydrogen atom has 2 electrons. Each shared electron passes from an orbil'll
controlled by one atom to an orbital controlled by two atoms, and it is this control which constitutes
the covalent bond. Chemists represent the structuraJ formula of a covalent bond by a dash ".".
Thus methane is represented structurally as:

I
H-C-H

H
Fig 2.7 Structural representation of Methane molecule
One "." represents one pair of shared electrons. For example acetylene C,l!, in which three pairs of
electrons are shared between the two carbon atoms, and one pair of electrons is shared between each
of the hydrogen and carbon atoms, is represented structuraJly as:

H-C:EC-H
Fig 2.8 Acetylene Molecule
Organic molecules are not the only molecules that are bonded by covalent bonds water (HP) and
many of the gases including oxygen (0,), nitrogen (N,), chlorine (Cl,), and hydrogen (H,) also contain
covalent bonds.
Perhaps one of the more imPOl1ant aspects of the covalently bonded compounds is that, because they
do not contain charged particles or ions, they do not conduct an electric current.
The development of our plastics industry is based upon the properties of the covalent bond. Plastic
materials are produced by chemical processes called "polymerisation" in which covalent compounds
can be made to join together to form long chain type molecules in which the bond strengths are very
high. For instance polythene (or polyethylene) is made by a polymerisation reaction involving the gas
ethylene. Structurally we may represent this:
n (C,H.,)

--7

(C,H.,),

H H H H H H

I I

I I

I I

I I

I I

I I

C=C +C=C +C=C+ ...

>

H H H H H H
Figure 2.9 Polymerisation of Ethylene
The name given to the family of plastics is "polymer" , derived from the Latin "poly" = "many" and
"mer" = "units". A polymer is a long chain organic molecule produced by the chemical joining of
many units of one or more individual molecules, which we call "monomers". As the molecule size of
covalent compounds increases, so the bond strength increases. Rubber, which consists of large
interlocked covalent molecules, has great strength and elasticity because of the strength contained in
the covalent bonds.

19

CHAPTER 2 NA TIlRE OF MA1ERIALS

It must be realised that, in any compound, it is the bond strength that is responsible for strength and
the elastic properties of the material, When a rubber band is stretched, it is the atom to atom bond that
is being deformed - not the atom itself.

METALLIC BOND
The metallic bond is more complex than either the ionic or covalent bond, The absence of oppositely
charged ions in the structure of a pure metal removes any possibility of ionic attraction, Also, since
most metals contain only I to 3 valence electrons, there are insufficient electrons to form covalent
bonds, The metallic bond results from the sharing of the outer valence electrons by two or more
atoms, not by a fixed overlap of outer electron shells, but by the electrons becoming "free" to fonn a
negatively charged "electron cloud" around the positively charged metallic ions,
Because the positive metal ions tend to repel each other, they take up positions in their crystal lattice
according to some form of geometrical pattern, with a space between each atom, What holds these
positive metal ions together is their mutual attraction for the negatively charged cloud of electrons, In
this arrangement, these valence electrons are not held fmnly to one atom or pair of atoms, Rather they
are relatively free to travel which explains why metals are such good electrical conductors,
The opaque lustre of metals is brought about by the vibration of surface electrons when struck by a ray
of light A light wave is a form of energy - this energy is absorbed by the vibration of surface electrons
when the light ray strikes the surface, thus stopping the wave from being transmitted any further. The
vibrating electron may itself become the source of a wave, resulting in the reflective property of
metals,

e
e

e
e

e
e

e e
e

e

Fig 2,IOMetallic Bond

MOLECULAR BONDS
The fourth type of bond that may exist between atoms is the molecular bond. This bond occurs
between the noble gas atoms whose outer shell contains 8 electrons and so is, effectively, full (except
heliwn which contains 2 electrons).
The forces of attraction between noble gas atoms are very small, and are known as Van der Waa!'s
forces. These forces are the result of unbalanced distribution of electrons around the atoms. These
forces also act to supplement the normal electron bonds (or primary bonds) in many non-metallic
materials.

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN BONDING AND PROPERTIES

A simple method of classification of materials is related to the type of bonds that bind the atoms or
molecules together.

20

II

CHAPTER 2 NA nJRE OF MATERlALS

Ionic compounds are non-conductors in their solid state, but become conductors in aqueous solution.
or when molten.
Covalent compounds are non-conductors because their electrons are bound tightly to the molecule.
Metals, however are excellent conductors because the electrons forming the "elecrron cloud" are
relatively free to move and so rransrnit an electric charge through the conductor.
Ionically bonded materials generally exhibit moderately high melting points and moderate hardness,
whereas those materials which are bonded by covalent bonds vary from very low in hardness, and low
melting point to extremely high hardness and melting point. Diamond, which is the hardest of all
materials and melts at over 6000'C is a covalently bonded molecule of carbon.
An important property of most metals is the fact that they can undergo considerable plastic
deformation - they can be stretched and deformed without fracture. This is due to the nature of the
metallic bond. Under the action of suitable forces , layers of atoms (or ions) in a metal can slide or slip
over each other without significantly altering their relationship with the electron cloud. These may be
contrasted with ionic materials that show negligible ductility since deformation results in ruprure of
the bond.

Table 2.1 Summary of the Effect of Bond on the Properties of Materials

Type of
Bond

Binding
Forces

Optical
Properties

Ionic

Electrostatic
attraction of
ions of
opposite
charge
Sharing of
electron pairs

Transparent Insulators
or coloured when solid
conductors
when aqueous
or molten
Maybe
Insulators
transparent nonto opaque
conductors

Covalent

Electrical
Properties

Metallic

Attraction
Opaque and Conductors
between
reflecting
positive 'ions'
and 'free'
electrons
Molecular Polar
Transparent Insulators
attraction of
unbalanced
charoes

21

Thermal
Properties
Medium to
high melting
point

Mechanical
Examples
Properties
(Solids)
Generally hard NaCI
MgSO,
and brittle

Solids have a
high melting
point. Plastics
have a low
meltin~ point
High melting
point

Solids are hard Diamond

and brittle.
to plastic
Plastics are soft
and ductile

Low melting
point

Soft and plastic Ar

Tough and
ductile

Cu
Fe

CHAIYI"ER 2 NATURE OF MA l"ERIALS

PERIODIC TABLE
Key
Atom ic Number

79

Au

H
1. 008

Atomic mass

197.0

0,"

lI)u,,,,,,,

He

S)111bol of cicment

4.003
IIda,m

name of clement

10

Li

Be

Ne

6.94 1

9.012

10.8 1

12.0 1

14.01

16.00

19.00

20. 18

UIII,.."

Be "II,,..,

BOlon

12

II

13

CJloon

14

Nill

rn

15

O~,

16

Fluorine

17

N'M

18

Na

Mg

AI

Si

CI

Ar

22.99

2UI

26.98

28.09

30.97

32.06

35.45

39.95

Sodit,,,,

19

"bf."".hrn

20

Akmini .."

21

22

23

24

25

26

27

28

29

Ca

Sc

Ti

Cr

Mn

Fe

Co

Ni

39. 10

40.08

H .96

47 .90

50.94

52.00

54.94

55.85

58.93

58.7 1

Pou'iSium

37

C.k i.Jm

38

S.....H.. "

TilJnl,."

40

39

"andi.."

Ch,,:mium

42

41

hM

Mw.III"IIs.e

43

Cobol!

45

Nkt.1

46

30

Cu
63.55
c ,
47

31

Silicon

32

Ga

Ge

As

Se

Br

Kr

72.59

74.92

78.96

79.9

83.8

n"
48

G.ILiJm

49

Ocmllllium

50

Z I'

Nb

Mo

Tc

Ru

Rh

Pel

Ag

Cd

In

Sn

88.9 1

91.22

92.9 1

95.94

98.91

10 1. 07

102.91

106.4

107. 87

11 2..1

I IH2

11 8.69

Yllri",,,

57-7 1

7.1rc<~'i"'n

72

Lwl","o:lu

Nio\~"m

73

Mo hkrom

74

Thn<ti''''

75

Rmh<u ollll

Rh"Hnm

77

76

Pll lorljlH"

78

SUI'"

79

Codml .....

80

hH,."

81

".."rue

51

Sr
Smmill'"

To

82

Scl,nl .. "

52

Sb
""""".

121.75
83

Ilromisw:

53

Te

Xc

127.6

126.9

131.3

TeUu ri m'

84

Iodine

85

Hf

Ta

Re

Os

II'

Pt

Au

Hg

TI

Pb

Bi

Po

At

132.91

137.34

178.19

180.95

183.85

186.2

190.2

192.22

195.09

196.97

200.59

204.37

207.2

208.98

209

2 10

CHi"",

Ihri,,,,

II>&l b. ..

T,"ul,m

Rt.:nl ....

O!:rni,m

lridi,."

Pl.!!.... '"

Gold

Mc",u .

Thilll ..n

... ~

Di ...... th

Polonium

"<t.cine

88

Fr

Ra

223

226

I'nnciClm

Rldi ....

89- 103
Aclinidoel

57

60

59

58

61

62

63

64

65

66

67

68

70

69

71

La

Ce

Pr

Nd

Pm

Sm

Eu

Gd

Tb

Dy

Ho

Er

Tm

Yb

Lu

138.9 1

140. 12

110.91

IH. 24

145

150.4

151.96

157.25

158.93

162.5

164.93

167.26

168.93

173.04

174.97

1. 111..,.."

89

Ceriu",

90

P'.nt",....,

91

Ne"" mhm

92

P.ml<thi",,,

93

Samll;""

94

I:ur limn

95

O.da1!nillm

96

Ac

Th

Pa

Np

Pu

Am

em

227

232.0

231.0

238.0

237.0

244

243

247

P,cl>ctlnl"",

Ur ... r,m

Actini,."

l h~rilllt1

N. IUl;"m

Plu\OIulIIlI

Arnoricinm

en rinm

T. ,!>;,m

97

1>\" toosh.n

98

Bk

Hob",,,m

99

flbill m

100

n",lillm

101

rU.lbill,"

102

Xo"o"

86

Ba

87

K 'M

54

Cs

~."

"M

36

69.72

87.62
56

ChlorirK

35

Zn

Rb
R"bid i" ",

SUIfUf

34

65.38

85.47
55

"""'M

33

Lu\clillm

103

Cf

Es

Fm

Mel

No

Lr

24 7

25 1

254

257

258

255

256

D.rkol"'m

C.li!cmi ,m

E;n~.inlum

P.n,,",",

M....101.Ii'un

Not-"li.,m

\. ...... r~I"n

Rn

.222

CHAPTER 2 NATURE OF MA1ERIALS

GLOSSARY
Atom
Proton
Neutron
Electron
Atomic Number
Atomic Weight
Mass Number
Isotope
Ionic Bond

Covalent Bond
Metallic Bond
Molecule
Anion
Cation
Inorganic
Polymer
Monomer

QUESTIONS
I.

Sketch the atomic structure of the element oxygen, which has atomic number 8 and mass
number 16.

2.

Why are ionically bonded salts non-conductors in their solid state. yet become conductors
when dissolved in water?

3.

Is pure water a conductor or a non-conductor?

4.

Why is normal tap water a conductor?

23

CHAPTER 3

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF
MATERIALS

The physical properties of a material may be considered to be those properties that are determined by
nature. They can often be measured without destroying the material. There are so many physical
properties that it is not possible to review them all in this course. However certain of the physical
properties are important:

THERMAL PROPERTIES
The thermal properties must be considered for any material that is to be fabricated or used at a
temperature other than ambient, or if it is expected to perform some type of heat transfer function.

THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY
Thermal conductivity, which is the rate of heat flow in a homogeneous material under steady state
conditions, is measured as Watt/metre Kelvin (W.m'K'). (The Watt is the power used when work is
done at the rate of I joule/second (I J-S"') - the Kelvin is the unit of thermodynamic temperature, and
is equal to t'Celsius + 273.15).
It can be shown that the quantity of heat (Q) that flows through a material per unit time is equal to:
K . A.t.T
X

where

Q = quantity of heat conducted through the material per second (Watts)

K =thermal conductivity (W.m'K')
A = area of the conducting surface (metre')
X = thicmess of the material (metre)
t.T = temperature difference at opposite surfaces

Incident
Extracted _ _
heat

energy

heat
energy

T (cold)
thickness
Fig 3.1 Steady state heat flow through a homogeneous solid
material.
A high value of thermal conductivity indicates that the material is a good conductor of heat. A degree
of caution is needed in determining thermal conductivities since surface effects (surface fIlms of liquid
and gas and surface oxides on a metal) can have a major influence on the overall transfer of heat
through a material. For example, aluminium has a thermal conductivity of 218 W.m'K'. However

24

CHAPTER 3 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

under most normal conditions, aluminium is coated with a film of aluminium oxide (Alp,) on all of
its exposed surfaces. The thermal conductivity of AlP, is less than I W.m' K' so that this creates a
banier to the transfer of heat.

T (hot)

........... _- T,

Fig 3.2 Thermal gradient across oxidised aluminium.

Thus the thermal gradient through an oxidised aluminium section may be represented as shown in
figure 3.2.
Calculations for heat transfer through such a section may sometimes be simplified by the use of an
overall heat transfer coefficient, or thermal conductance for the section.

THERMAL CONDUCTANCE
Thermal conductance is measured in watt/square metre Kelvin (W.m' .K'), and is a unit by which the
heat transfer for different materials may be directly compared.

THERMAL EXPANSION
Thermal expansion is also important when materials are to be heated or cooled. Almost all materials
expand when heated and contract when cooled. If a material that is being heated is restrained in such
a manner that it is unable to expand, or if it is fixed to a different material with a different thermal
expansion, then stresses must inevitably develop within the system. Because materials become weaker
as temperarures increase, such stresses often lead to failure by fracture, or, more commonly, distortion
or bucklin g of the components.
This effect is used to advantage in bi-metallic temperature sensing switches. Two snips of metal, one
with a high thermal expansion. and the other wi th a low thermal expansion, are firmly bonded
together. As the temperarure is increased , the snip bends towards the metal of lower thermal
expansion. If the temperarure is decreased, the strip bends in the opposite direction. This type of
device is widely used as the sensing and switching element in many types of thermal switches.
The thermal expansion coefficient of a material may be expressed in millimetres/millimetre Kelvin
(mm.mm' K' ) or more simply 11K or K" since mm.mm' is nothing more than a ratio and has no
'dimensions',
The important point to remember about the use of the thermal expansion coefficient is that it may be
used with any linear unit. Thus if the coefficient of thermal expansion for a material is O.OO IK' then
on heating through 10K (or I'C since the temperature interval is the same on both Celsius and Kelvin
scales), then I mm will expand to 1.001 mm, 1m will become I.oolm and so on.

25

CHAPTER 3 PHYSICAL PRoPERTIES OF MA1ERlALS

HEAT CAPACITY
Heat capacity (specific heat) is the amount of heat energy required to heat a material through I K (or
l aC), and is expressed in the units joules/Kelvin (J.K! ). Heat capacity is generally determined in
terms of the volume of a material (J.m' K! ), or in terms of the mass of a material (J.kgK'! ). Heat
capacity is an important consideration when estimating the requirements for electronic heat sinks
where a high heat capacity combined with high thermal conductivity is desirable to conduct heat from
electronic devices.

MAXIMUM USE TEMPERATURE

A number of polymer materials become soft and of little use at temperatures above about 1000C - the
temperature of boiling water. Maximum use temperature for a polymer is that temperature, above
which, the material loses its useful engineering properties. Typical maximum use temperatures are
shown in table 3.1, which is a summary of data published in British Standard BS2757: 1956
(Australian Standard AS.C320:1958). This standard defines 7 classes of insulating materials and
assigns maximum use temperatures to each class.
Class

Maximum Use
Temp. 'C
90

105

120

130

155

H
C

180
220+

Examples
Untreated or unimpregnated cellulose, e.g. paper, cotton, silk,
fibre, and plastics.
Treated or impregnated coltons, paper etc. otherwise similar to

Y.
Cellulose cotton and paper bonded with phenol-formaldehyde.
Polyester and epoxy resins. Alkyd, vinyl formaldehyde and
urethane resins, as coatings on wire.
Combinations of material such as mica, glass fibre, asbestos, etc.
with suitable bonding, impregnating or coating substances such
as epoxy resins, phenol-formaldehyde and polyester resins.
Materials similar to Class B but with higher temperature
bondino and impregnatin o substances.
Silicones and materials such as mica, glass, asbestos, teflon.
Inorganic insulants such as ceramics, glass, mica, quartz and
P.T.FE.

MELTING TEMPERATURE

II

Melting temperature is the temperature at which a solid changes to a liquid state. For some materials,
this change occurs abruptly at a particular temperature, whereas for others it may occur gradually over
a range of temperatures.

II
I

26

CHAPTER 3 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MA1ERIALS

Table 3.2 Typical Melting Temperatures

Material
Mercury
Water
Lead
Aluminium
Copper
Iron
Titaniwn

Melting Temperature DC

Silica brick
Magnesite brick
Graphite brick

-39

0
327
660
1083
1535
1812
1700
1900
3500

HEAT RESISTANCE
Heat resistance is the maximwn useful temperature for metallic and refractory materials. A refractory
is a material that retains its mechanical and chemical stability at elevated temperature. Heat resistance
is partly determined by the nature of the environment. Most metals suffer. rapid oxidation at elevated
temperatures so that this factor controls their useful upper temperature limit. However in a nonoxidising or reducing atmosphere. this upper temperature limit may be considerably extended.

ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES
Whenever a design requires that a pan act as an electrical conductor or an electrical insulator, then
the electrical properties of the material become important. The principal electrical properties are

resistivity and conductivity.

RESISTIVITY
Resistivity, is the rate at which electrical current will flow through a given cross section or along a
given length. The unit used is the ohm metre (Qrn) or a multiple (MQrn or GQrn) for insulating
materials or micro ohm metre (Ilflm) for conducting materials.

The resisti vity due to solid solution (one metal dissolved in the other) may be expressed as:
aX=YxX(I-X)
where

X = the mole fraction of solute

Y = the solid solution resistivity coefficient. Y is larger for greater differences in valence and
atom size between solute and solvent atoms

For dilute solid solutions

aX = YxX

27

CHAPTER 3 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MAlERlALS

Table 33 Effect of an addition of 0.5% alloying element on conductivity of copper

Solute
Silver
Zinc
Nickel
AJuminiwn
Berylliwn
Silicon
Phosphorous

Conductivity
%IACS
98
95
75
56
44
28
15

For multi-phase alloys, the relationship becomes more complex.

CONDUCTIVITY
Conductivity is simply the reciprocal of resisti vity. However the unit for conductivity is siemen/metre
(S.m']) where one siemen is the conductance of a conductor that has an electric resistance of one ohm.
In chapter 2 we spoke of the structure of atoms, and of valence being the nwnber of outer electrons in
an atom, or the nwnber of vacant electron sites. To understand conducti vity we must look a little
closer at these electrons, because electrical conductivity results from drift of electrons in a direction
opposite to the electric field, and a corresponding drift of "electron holes" in the direction of the field.
Variations in conductivity (8) with temperature and composition depends upon the nwnber of carriers
of electric charge (n), their charge (q). and their mobility (!!).
This may be equated as:

8 = nQ!!
In insulators, the electron valence bonds are completely filled. Thus there are no "free" electrons or
electron holes. rEO, hence 8=0.
In a metallic conductor, the valence electrons are not bound to any particular atom, but they are free to
move among the atoms in all directions through the crystal structure. If an electric field is
superimposed on the conductor, the negatively charged ~ctro ns will be attracted towards the positive
pole. As the electron moves in this direction, it will soon encounter either the electric field of another
atom, or even the solid nucleus of an atom and so may be deflected or refl ected. Whilst the nett effecl
is a movement of electrons towards the positive pole, .the limiting factor on the conducti vity of a metal
is the mobility of the electron, or, as it is often referred to, the mean free path of the electron. The
longer mean free path provides for a greater electrical conductivity. Mean free path is affected by
atomic and crystal structure (which are fixed for any particular metal), and by composition,
temperature and cold work.
Increasing alloy or impurity content decreases electrical conductivity as noted above. Increasing
temperature also decreases electrical conductivity because increasing temperature causes greater
agitation of atoms in a metal. It has been shown that, except for very low temperatures, electrical
resistivity varies linearly with temperature in accordance with the relationship

crt= 273 {I + Yt(T- 273)1

where

m = resistivity at 273' K (O'C)

Yt = temperature resistivity coefficient which has a val ue of approximately O.005/K in pure
metals

At absolute zero (O'K or -273'C) many metals approach a condition of super conducti vity (zero
resistivity). This property is being exploited in some high technology areas.

28

CHAPTER 3 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

Plastic defonnation or cold working of a metal by rolling or drawing or shaping the metal in a cold
condition also decreases the electrical conductivity, because it defonns the crystalline lattice.
Table 3,4 Electrical Resistivity of Metals
Metal

Conductivity (% lACS)*

Resistivity
(Microhm-cm)
Copper
100
1.7
42
Aluminium (SiMg alloy)
4.1
Aluminium (Zn-CuMg alloy)
32
5.3
Magnesium
37
4.6
Lead
7.8
22
Type 304 stainless steel
2.5
70
High alloy steel
2.9
60
Cast steel
10.7
16
* Conductivity of a metal is often quoted as %IACS or percentage of the
International Annealed Copper Standard

For any metal, the total resistivity due to (i) alloying elements or impurities, (ii) temperature. and (iii)
cold work is the sum of the resistivities for each factor. This may be expressed as
0' = ax + crt + as
where

ax = resistivity due to presence of impurity atoms

crt = resistivity due to temperature
as = resistivity due to cold work

Resistivities of some common metals are shown in table 3.4.

For electrical insulating materials - dielectrics - there are other properties that must be considered.
These include:

DIELECTRIC STRENGTH, a measure of the insulation breakdown voltage, expressed as

volts/metre (V.ml ) or kV.mml . Typical values range from about 20 to 100 kV.mm l for
insulating materials. Dielectric strength is sensitive to temperature, and decreases with increasing
temperature.

ARC RESISTANCE is the resistance of a material to deterioration by burning and carbonisation

when an arc is struck across its surface.
WATER ABSORPTION, particularly in polymeric materials, where absorption can result in
swelling of the material and in a significant lowering of its resistivity and its dielectric strength.

MAGNETIC PROPERTIES
The magnetic properties of a material can be described by a number of factors. Perhaps the most
important of these is FERROMAGNETISM - that property that detennines whether a material will be
attracted by a magnetic field. There are only four common elements that exhibit ferromagnetism iron, nickel, cobalt and gadolinium. However there are a number of alloys that exhibit varying degrees
of ferromagnetism , although these are based mainly on the above elements. There are also some
alloys, such as Mn-Bi, that contain none of the above elements but are ferromagnetic .
Magnetic properties arise from the fact that electrons, as they orbit around a nucleus, also spin on an
axis, in much the same way that the earth and other planets spin as they orbit the sun. If two electrons
within the one energy level (or sub-orbital) are paired - rotating in opposite directions - their magnetic
effects are cancelled out. however, when the electrons are unpaired and rotate in like direction, the
elements can develop magnetic properties. Under suitable conditions, ferromagnetic materials may

29

CHAPTER 3 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MAlERIALS

become permanent magnets, with large numbers of unpaired electrons in the outer electron orbitals.
These unpaired electron spins give rise to a great number of magnetic domains within each crystal ill
the metal or alloy.
In an unmagnetised ferromagnetic material, these domains are randoml y oriented, so that their effects
cancel out. However. if th~ domains are aligned by a magnetic field. the material becomes magnetic.
A material is saturated with magnetism when all the domains are aligned in the one direction.
Whether or not a material retains the magnetism is determined by its magnetic hardness. A
magnetically hard metal is one in which magnetism is retained, and a magnetically soft melltl is one
in which magnetism is lost at some time after the removal of the magnetic field , or source of
magnetisation.

Most materials are not visibly affected by even the most powerful magnets. However, in a strong
magnetic field, the majority of metals do exltibit a very weak attraction, and are called paramagnetic
materials. Other materials tend to be repulsed by a strong magnetic field. These are mostl y the nonmetallic materials such as glass, and even water. These are called diamagnetic materials. It takes very
sensitive instruments to detect these effects. Since the magnetic characteristics of these paramagnetic
and diamagnetic materials are less than one millionth as effecti ve as those of the iron - cobalt - nickel
alloys, there is little engineering interest in them for their magnetic properties.
It is well known that the passage of an electric current (electrons) through a conductor produces a
magnetic field . This principle has been used extensively in a range of devices from delicate
galvanometers to massive electromagnets. This magnetic field produces a magnetic flux density which
is measured in Tes1a (T). Within a vacuum, the magnetic flux density (B) is related to the magnetic
field strength (H) through the magnetic permeability of a vacuum (J.lol by:

!!o= H

The units for these quantities are:

Magnetic permeability (!!.,) - Henry/metre (H.m')
Magnetic flux density (B) - Tesla (T)
Magnetic field strength (H) - Amp/metre (A.m' )
The value of!!o - magnetic penneability of a vacuum is 4" x 10' Henry/metre.
If a material is present to replace the vacuum in this situation, the magnetic flux density, which is also
known as magnetic induction, changes because the material has a different magnetic permeability.
When comparing permeabilities, it is convenient to use a relative value called relative permeability
(!!,). Thus for a material

!!o!!, = H

or

For a vacuum !!, = 1.0. For paramagnetic materials, !!, is slightly greater than one, and for
diamagnetic materials, it is slightly less than one.
e.g.
for Aluminium !!, = 1.000022, and
for Bismuth !!, = 0.9998
Ferromagnetic materials have very high valves of !!" ranging up to about one hundred thousand (10').
The magnetic flux density (magnetic induction) (B) that develops in the presence of a material is
defmed by the relationship
B =!!o (H + M) = !!oH + !!oM
where M is the magnetisation, measured in amp/metre, which is the same unit as is used for magnetic
field strength.
Thus
M = (!!, -I)H
(!!, - I) is called the magnetic susceptibility (Xm)
i.e .

Xm = !!, -I

and

Xm =

~
30

C HAPTER 3 P HYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERlALS

Magnetic susceptibilities
paramagnetic:
diamagnetic:
ferromagnetic:

for the three types of materials are:

+0.0001 to 0.01
-0.00005 to 0
+ 102 to 106

HYSTERESIS
The magnetic characteristics of ferromagnetic materials are generally induced by passing a current
through a coil that surrounds the material . By staning with zero current, hence zero magnetic field
and zero flux density, the nett magnetisation can be increased by steadily increasing the current. This
produces an alignment of the magnetic domains within the material so that there is a rapid increase in
flux density until most of the domains are aligned in the same direction, and the material reaches its
saturation magnetisation. If the magnetic field is then removed (by stopping the current flow through
the coil), the induction (flux density) does not disappear inunediately. In a magnetically hard alloy. it
may remain indefmitely. In a magneticall y soft alloy, it may disappear over a reasonably short period
of time. In all cases, there is a residual or remanent magnetisation or remanent inducti on (B,) that
persists.
If an opposing magnetic field is produced (by reversing the direction of current flow through the
conductor), the magnetic induction may be balanced or offse~ so that the nett effect is zero. Increasing
this opposing field (or coercive field) will ultimately result in a reversal of the magnetic induction. A
plot of magnetic field (H) against magnetic induction (B), is called a hysteresis loop, and the energy
consumed per cycle is equal to the BH area within the loop.

Magnetic Domains

Induction (8)
(fiux density)

Saturation full alignment

remanent
magnetisation

-----~~=v=tn_-t----~~Magnetic
field (H)

~]Original non-aligned domains

Saturation reverse
full alignment
Fig 3.3 Typical hysteresis loop.
In a soft magnet, remanent induction (remanence) is low, and in a hard magnet, it is high.
Remanence is expressed in webers/m'.

31

CHAPTER 3 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MA1ERIALS

The properties of interes t in pennanent magnet materials are:

remanence

coercive field
maximum demagnetising product

Table 3.5 Magnetic properties of hard ferromagnetic alloys.

Material

Remanence
(B,) Webers/m'

Carbon steel
Alnico V
Ferroxdur

1
1.2
0.4

Coercive Field
(Hc)amp/m
0.4 x 104
5.5 x 104
15 x 104

Max Demagnetising product

(BH max.) joules/m'
0.1 x 104
3.4 x 104
2.0 x 104

Note: Alnico is an aluminium - nickel - cobalt permanent magnet alloy. Ferroxdur is a compound
BaFeoO.
For soft magnetic materials, the propenies of main interest are:
coercive field
saturation induction
max. relative permeability
Table 3.6 Magnetic properties of some soft ferromagnetic alloys.
Material

Pure Iron
Silica ferrite transformed sheet
Ni-Fe permalloy
Ni-Fe-Mo Superpermalloy
Cobalt
Nickel

Saturation Induction

Coercive Field

Maximwn Relati ve

(Bs) Webers/m'
2.2
2
1.6
0.2
1.7
0.6

(-He) amp/m
80
40
10
0.2

Permeabilitv
(Il,(max.))
5000
15000
2000
100000

Maximum relative permeability (11, Max.) represents the maximum slope of the B-H curve. It is useful
because it indicates the field strength necessary to provide high induction values.
B

Slope = tan

~B

8 = ~H

=11, max
~B

~H

Fig 3.4 Maximum Relative Permeability

CURIE POINT (Curie temperature). All ferromagnetic materials gradually lose their magnetic
properties as temperature is increased, and at a cenain temperature their ferromagnetic propenies

32

CHAPTER 3 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

disappear altogether. This temperature is known as Curie Point or Curie Temperature. Above this
temperature ferromagnetic materials become paramagnetic. When cooled, they again become
ferromagnetic.
Curie temperatures for the three basic ferromagnetic metals are:

Metal

Curie Point (DC)

Iron
Cobalt
Nickel

768
1120
358

These values show the limit of the useful ferromagnetic temperature range for the material.

DENSITY
The density of a material is its mass per unit volume, and is related directly to the atomic weight of
the atoms that constitute the material and to the number of each type of atom present in unit volume
of the material. Thus high atomic weight atoms packed closely together will produce a high density
material.
Another way of expressing density is in terms of its specific gravity. Specific gravity is a ratio - the
ratio of the density of the material to the density of water. The specific gravity of water is 1.000.

Density, or specific gravity of a material is used when it becomes necessary to detennine the mass of a
component or structure; knowing the volume of material in the structure and its density, the total mass
is simply:
M;oxV
where

0; density
V; volume

The standard unit of density is kg.m3 (or g.L'). Specific gravity, being a ratio, has no units.

REFRACTIVE INDEX
When light strikes a material it may be totally reflected as occurs with most solid materials, it may be
transmitted, as with clear glass, or it may be partly absorbed, the colour of the transmitted light
depending upon the nature of the material. A material that reflects all light is referred to as OPAQUE,
one that transmits all (or most) of the incident light is TRANSPARENT. and one that transmits only
some of the incident light is TRANSLUCENT.
If a beam of light strikes a transparent material at an oblique angle, it is bent or REFRACTED at the
interface, in such a way that the angle of incidence (i) and angle of refraction (r) are related to each
other by Snell's Law which states:
Sin(i) ;~
Sin(r) V,
where

and

V, = velocity of light in medium I

V, =velocity of light in medium 2

33

CHAPTER 3 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

Medium 1
.

e.g. air

Medium 2
e.g. water
I

Fig 3.5 Refraction oj Light

The ratio of velocity of light in a vacuum (II) to that in a medium (11m) is the refractive index of the
medium.
V,S-.:::in:o.(i",-,'-)
Thus
n =- = Vm Sin(rm)
Typical values of refractive index are:
Medium
Air
Water
Crown Glass
Fused Quartz
Diamond

Refractive Index

1.0002926
1.333
1.5171
1.4584
2.42

34

CHAYrER 3 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MA1ERIALS

GLOSSARY
Thermal conductivity
Thermal expansion
Bi-metallic
Heal resistance
Coefficient
Oxidation
Resistivity
Mean free path
Solute
Solvent
Solid solution
Plastic deformation
Strain hardening

Dielectric
Ferromagnetism
Magnetic domain
Paramagnetism
Diamagnetism
Magnetic fl ux
Magnetic permeability
Hysteresis
Remanence
Coercive field
Density
Refractive index

QUESTIONS
I.

Discuss the factors that control the transfer of heat through a solid material.

2.

Why are long steam supply lines built with a loop at regular intervals along their length?

3.

In selecting a material for a furnace lining. would you use one with a high heat capacity or a
low heat capacity? Why?

4.

What is a refractory material?

5.

What is the effect of temperature on the resisti vity of a conductor?

6.

In selecting an insulating oil for a high voltage transformer, would you specify a high or low
dielectric strength? Why?

7.

Discuss a practical application of ferromagnetism.

35