LIC Unit 1 and 2 PDF
LIC Unit 1 and 2 PDF
LIC Unit 1 and 2 PDF
3321
Linear
Integrated Circuits
and Applications
Integrated Circuit Packaging Technology
UNIT I.
Introduction
Integrated circuits - Classification
IC Manufacturing process
o Thin and thick film techniques
o Monolithic techniques
Epitaxial
Photolithography
Metallization
Diffusion systems
Surface passivation and isolation
Unit 1Introduction
In the early 1960s, a new field of microelectronics was born primarily to meet the
requirements of the Military which wanted to reduce the size of its electronic
equipment to approximately one-tenth of its then existing volume. This drive for
extreme reduction in the size of electronic circuits has led to the development of
microelectronic circuits called integrated circuits (ICs) which are so small that
their actual construction is done by technicians using high powered microscopes.
ICs are produced by the same processes as are used for manufacturing individual
transistors and diodes etc. In such circuits, different components are isolated from
each other by isolation diffusion within the crystal chip and are interconnected by
an aluminum layer that serves as wires.
A discrete circuit, on the other hand, is one that is built by connecting separate
components. In this case, each component is produced separately and then all are
assembled together to make the electronic circuit
J.S. Kilby of Texas Instruments was the first person to develop (in 1959) an
integrated circuit a single monolithic silicon chip in which active and passive
components were fabricated by successive deposition, etching and diffusions. He
was soon followed by Robert Noyce of Fairchild who successfully fabricated a
complete IC including the interconnections on a single silicon chip. Since then the
evolution of this technology is fast-paced.
high frequency operation. As a result, the response time or the operating speed of
the system is improved.
6. Low power consumption
Because of their small size, ICs are more suitable for low power operation than
bulky discrete circuits.
7. Easy replacement
ICs are hardly ever repaired because in case of failure, it is more economical to
replace them than to repair them.
8. Higher yield
The yield is the percentage of usable devices. Because of the batch fabrication, the
yield is very high. Faulty devices usually occur because of some defect in the
silicon wafer or in the fabrication steps. Defects in silicon wafer can occur because
of lattice imperfection and strains introduced in crystal growth, cutting and
handling of the wafers. Usually such defects are extremely small, but their
presence can ruin devices built on or around. Reducing the size of each device
greatly increases the chance for a given device to be free of such defects. The same
is true for fabrication defects such as the presence of a dust particle on the
photolithographic mask.
1.3 Drawbacks of ICs
The integrated circuits suffer from the following drawbacks :
1. ICs function at fairly low voltages,
2. They handle only limited amount of power,
3. They are quite delicate and cannot withstand rough handling or excessive heat.
However, the advantages of ICs far outweigh their disadvantages or drawbacks.
1.4 Level of Integration
Level of integration in ICs has been increasing ever since they were developed The
number of electronic circuits or components that can be fitted into a standard size
IC has been dramatically increasing with each passing year. In fact, whole
electronic systems rather than just a circuit are incorporated in one package.
( b ) Thick-film ICs
Digital ICs
Examples:
i. Op-Amp
ii. Power Amplifier
iii. Multiplier
iv. Comparator
v. Voltage Regulator
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
Examples:
Logic gates
Flip-flop
Counter
Calculator chips
Memory
Microprocessor
2. Small-signal amplifiers,
3. Power amplifiers,
4. RF and IF amplifiers,
5. Microwave amplifiers,
6. Multipliers,
7. Voltage comparators,
Operational amplifier is by far the most versatile form for an LIC and is discussed
separately.
Examples of linear ICs are :
1. BEL CA-3020used as multipurpose wide-band power amplifier.
2. BEL CA-3065it is a monolithic IC which combines a multistage IF amplifier,
limiter, an FM detector, an electronic attenuator, a Zener diode regulated power
supply and an audio amplifier. In fact, this IC provides a high performance
multistage sub-system of a TV receiver. It is available in 14-pin dual-in-line
package.
Main Applications of IC
Most electronic equipment today use integrated circuit, for
example:
Computer / Server / workstation
TV / Radio / Video
Cell Phones
Digital Clock
Robotic Systems
Telecommunication System
Automotive
Medical Equipment
Aerospace
Children's Toys
Military Field
Missile System
etc.
1.5.3 i) Oxidation
The process of oxidation consists of growing a thin film of silicon dioxide (SiO 2)
on the surface of a silicon wafer. Silicon dioxide has several uses:
1. To serve as a mask against implant or diffusion of dopant into silicon,
2. To provide surface passivation, (oxide layer serves as a protection for the
semiconductor surface.
3. To isolate one device from another,
4. To act as a component in MOS structures.
Several techniques have been developed for forming oxide layers. Some of these
are:
1) Thermal oxidation,
Impurity concentration versus depth into the substrate) during the pre-deposition
and the drive-in steps of diffusion.
resistance to minimize both the voltage drops on the lines as well as the
capacitances between the lines so as to reduce delay times
1.5.3.x) Dicing
In back end processing, a wafer completed in front end processing is cut into
individual IC chips and encapsulated into packages
1.5.3.xi) Mounting
After the IC chips are cut apart, they are sealed into packages. The IC chips must
first be attached to a platform called the "lead frame.
1.5.3.xiii) Packaging
The final step in IC fabrication is packaging the device in a suitable medium that
can protect it from environment of its intended application. In most cases this
means the surface of the device must be isolated from the moisture and
contaminants and the bonds and other elements must be protected from corrosion
and mechanical shocks. (The IC chips and the lead frame islands are encapsulated
with molding resin for protection).
Basic concepts
differential amplifiers
ideal op-amp
o parameters of op-amp
o Basic op-amp applications
Scale changer
Inverting and non-inverting amplifier
summer and subtractor
multiplier and divider
differentiator
integrator
instrumentation amplifier
2.1 Introduction
An operational amplifier, in general, is a three-stage circuit, and is fabricated as an
integrated circuit. The first stage is a differential amplifier, the second stage
provides additional voltage gain, and the third stage provides current gain and low
output impedance
Operational amplifier (Op-amp) is a very high-gain, high- rin directly-coupled
negative-feedback amplifier which can amplify signals having frequency ranging
from 0 Hz to a little beyond 1 MHz. They are made with different internal
configurations in linear ICs. An OP-AMP is so named because it was originally
designed to perform mathematical operations like summation, subtraction,
multiplication, differentiation and integration etc. in analog computers. Present
day usage is much wider in scope but the popular name OP-AMP continues.
Typical uses of OP-AMP are : scale changing, analog computer operations, in
instrumentation and control systems and a great variety of phase-shift and
oscillator circuits.
Circuit function: to take an input signal (Vin), amplify it, and drive a load resistance
(Rload).
If it is necessary for an amplifier to be able to output true AC voltage (reversing
polarity) to the load, a split DC power supply may be used, whereby the ground
point is electrically "centered" between +V and -V. Sometimes the split power
supply configuration is referred to as a dual power supply
The output voltage across the load resistor can now swing from a theoretical
maximum of +15 volts to -15 volts, instead of +30 volts to 0 volts. This is an easy
way to get true alternating current (AC) output from an amplifier without resorting
to capacitive or inductive (transformer) coupling on the output. The peak-to-peak
amplitude of this amplifier's output between cutoff and saturation remains
unchanged.
Unlike normal amplifiers, which amplify a single input signal (often called singleended amplifiers), differential amplifiers amplify the voltage difference between
two input signals.
Notice: The two input leads can be seen on the left-hand side of the triangular
amplifier symbol, the output lead on the right-hand side, and the +V and -V power
supply leads on top and bottom.
Notice that one input lead is marked with a (-) Inverting and the other is marked
with a (+) Non-inverting terminal.
The voltage output of a differential amplifier is determined by the following
equation: Vout = AV(Vnoninv - Vinv) or Vout = AV(V1 V2)
Consider the following table of input/output voltages for a differential amplifier
with a voltage gain of 4:
Same as
Most amplifiers have one input and one output. Differential amplifiers have two
inputs and one output, the output signal being proportional to the difference in
signals between the two inputs.
Since the ideal op-amp responds only to the difference between the two input
signals V1 and V2 , the ideal op-amp maintains a zero output signal for V1 = V2
When V1 = V2 0, there is what is called a common-mode input signal. For the
ideal op-amp, the common-mode output signal is zero. This characteristic is
referred to as common-mode rejection because if used properly you can reject
signals you dont want while simultaneously amplifying signals you do want. This
process is called Common Mode Rejection Ratio or CMRR and it is used to
eliminate noise and hum which can be common to a signal
The output dc offset voltage is the measured open-loop output voltage when the
input voltage is zero. This configuration is shown in Figure (a).
IB = |IB1+IB2|/2
8. Input Offset Current
The difference between the two input currents is called the input offset current
Iios = |IB1-IB2|
Following additional points are worth noting :
1. Infinite input resistance means that input current i = 0 . It means that an ideal
OP- AMP is a voltage-controlled device.
2. R0 = 0 means that V0 is not dependent on the load resistance connected across
the output.
3. Though for an ideal OP- AMP AOL = , for an actual one, it is extremely high
i.e., about 106
However, it does not mean that 1 V signal will be amplified to 106 V at the output.
Actually, the maximum value of V0 is limited by the basis supply voltage,
typically 15V. With AOL = 106 and V0 = 15V the maximum value of input
voltage is limited to
become 1 V.
vo
Network
These two conditions give rise to VIRTUAL GROUND, where the voltages
at both the inputs are maintained at exactly same level.
- Virtual ground means that the differential input voltage is essentially zero
- VO = AOLVd = AOL(V1 V2)
- Vd = VO /AOL = VO / inf = 0
- V1 = V2
Voltage at one terminal can be assumed same as that at another
- A virtual short-circuit therefore exists between the inputs
It transforms the open-loop gain into a controllable closed loop gain via the
negative feedback resistor
Reduces distortion possibilities
Increases bandwidth or frequency range
Increases input resistance
Decreases output resistance
Decreases effects of temperature and power supply on the gain of the circuit
2.1.4 Op-amp Applications
Although an OP-AMP is a complete amplifier, it is so designed that external
components (resistors, capacitors etc.) can be connected to its terminals to change
its external characteristics. Hence, it is relatively easy to tailor this amplifier to fit
a particular application and it is, in fact, due to this versatility that OP-AMPs have
become so popular in industry.
An OP-AMP IC may contain two dozen transistors, a dozen resistors and one or
two capacitor
Typical uses of OP-AMP are :
Non-inverting terminal has been grounded, whereas R 1connects the input signal 1
to the inverting input. A feed-back resistor Rf has been connected from the output
to the inverting input
Gain of inverting amplifier
It is seen from above, that closed-loop gain of the inverting amplifier depends on
the ratio of the two external resistors R1 and Rf and is independent of the
amplifier parameters.
It is also seen that the OP- AMP works as a negative scaler. It scales the input i.e ,
it multiplies the input by a minus constant factor K .
If Rf > Rin multiplier Rf < Rin divider
Such a positive scaler circuit which uses negative feedback but provides an output
that equals the input multiplied by a positive constant is shown in Figure above
Since input voltage 2 is applied to the non-inverting terminal, the circuits is also
called non-inverting amplifier. Here, polarity of 0 is the same as that 2 i.e .,
both are positive.
Gain of non-inverting amplifier
It provides a gain of unity without any phase reversal. Its gain is very much close
to being exactly unity.
This circuit is useful as a buffer or isolation amplifier because it allows, input
voltage in to be transferred as output voltage 0 while at the same time preventing
load resistance RL from loading down the input source. It is due to the fact that its
Ri = and R0 = 0.
In fact, its circuit can be obtained from that of non-inverter by putting R1=Rf =0
2.1.4.4 Adder / Summer
The adder circuit provides an output voltage proportional to or equal to the
algebraic sum of two or more input voltages each multiplied by a constant gain
factor. It is basically similar to a scaler(-) except that it has more than one input,
the output voltage is phase-inverted
Calculation