Introduction To Eurocodes: The Eurocode Family
Introduction To Eurocodes: The Eurocode Family
Introduction To Eurocodes: The Eurocode Family
1. Introduction to Eurocodes
R S Narayanan FREng O Brooker BEng, CEng, MICE, MIStructE
Introduction
This guide shows how to use Eurocode 21 with the other Eurocodes. In
particular it introduces Eurocode: Basis of structural design2 and Eurocode 1:
Actions on structures3 and guides the designer through the process of
determining the design values for actions on a structure. It also gives a brief
overview of the significant differences between the Eurocodes and BS 81104,
(which will be superseded) and includes a glossary of Eurocode terminology.
The development of the Eurocodes started in 1975; since then they have
evolved significantly and are now claimed to be the most technically
advanced structural codes in the world. The many benefits of using Eurocode 2
are summarised below. There are ten Eurocodes covering all the main structural
materials (see Figure 1). They are produced by the European Committee for
Standardization (CEN), and will replace existing national standards in 28
countries.
Each country is required to publish a Eurocode with a national title page and
forward but the original text of the Eurocode must appear as produced by
CEN as the main body of the document. A National Annex (NA) can be
included at the back of the document (see Figure 2). All the guides in this
series assume that the UK National Annexes will be used.
Figure 1
The Eurocodes
BS EN 1990, Eurocode:
Basis of structural design
Structural safety,
serviceability and durability
BS EN 1991, Eurocode 1:
Actions on structures
Actions on structures
Geotechnical
and seismic
design
BS EN 1998, Eurocode 8:
Seismic design
Eurocode: Basis of
structural design
Figure 2
Typical Eurocode layout
Representative values
D: Main text
E: Main Annex(es)
F: National Annex
Table 1
For each variable action there are four representative values. The
principal representative value is the characteristic value and this can be
determined statistically or, where there is insufficient data, a nominal
value may be used. The other representative values are combination,
frequent and quasi-permanent; these are obtained by applying to the
characteristic value the factors c 0 , c 1 and c 2 respectively (see Figure 3).
A semi-probabilistic method is used to derive the c factors, which vary
depending on the type of imposed load (see Table 3). Further information
on derivation of the c factors can be found in Appendix C of the Eurocode.
Title
Superseded standards
BS EN 1990
BS EN 199111
BS EN 199112
Actions on structures
exposed to fire
BS EN 199113
Snow loads
BS 6399: Part 2
BS EN 199114
Wind actions
BS 6399: Part 3
BS EN 199115
Thermal actions
BS EN 199116
BS EN 199117
Accidental actions
BS EN 19912
BD 37/88
BS EN 19913
BS EN 19914
BS EN 199211
BS EN 199212
BS EN 19922
Bridges
BS 5400: Part 4
BS EN 19923
Liquid-retaining and
containment structures
BS 8007
BS EN 19971
Geotechnical design
General rules
BS EN 19972
BS EN 1998
Combinations of actions
In the Eurocodes the term combination of actions is specifically used
for the definition of the magnitude of actions to be used when a limit
state is under the influence of different actions. It should not be
confused with load cases, which are concerned with the arrangement
of the variable actions to give the most unfavourable conditions and
are given in the material Eurocodes. The following process can be used
to determine the value of actions used for analysis:
1. Identify the design situation (e.g. persistent, transient, accidental).
2. Identify all realistic actions.
3. Determine the partial factors (see below) for each applicable
combination of actions.
4. Arrange the actions to produce the most critical conditions.
1. Introduction to Eurocodes
Table 2a
Selected symbols for Eurocode
Symbol
Gk
Definition
Characteristic value of permanent action
Qk
gG
gQ
c0
c1
c2
Table 2b
Selected subscripts
Subscript
Definition
Accidental situation
Concrete
Design
Effect of action
fi
Fire
Characteristic
Resistance
Shear reinforcement
Yield strength
Figure 3
Representative values of variable actions 5
Instantaneous value of Q
Characteristic value of QK
Combination value of c0 QK
Frequent value of c1 QK
Quasipermanent
value of c2 QK
Time
Table 3
c1
c2
0.7
0.5
0.3
0.7
0.5
0.3
0.7
0.7
0.6
0.7
0.7
0.6
Action
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.3
Category H: roofs*
0.7
0.7
0.5
0.2
For sites located at altitude H < 1000 m above sea level 0.5
Wind loads on buildings (see BS EN 199114)
0.5
0.2
0.2
0
0
0.5
Key
*See also 199111: Clause 3.3.2
Table 4
Design values of actions, ultimate limit state persistent and transient design situations (Table A1.2 (B) Eurocode)
Combination Expression reference
Permanent actions
Unfavourable
Favourable
Exp. (6.10)
g G, j, sup Gk , j , sup
g G , j, inf G k , j , inf
Exp. (6.10a)
g G, j, sup Gk , j , sup
g G , j, inf G k , j , inf
Exp. (6.10b)
jg G, j, sup Gk , j , sup
g G , j, inf G k , j , inf
g Q,1 Qk,1
Others
g Q,1 c 0 ,1 Q k,i
g Q,1 c 0 ,1 Qk,1
g Q,1 Qk,1
g Q,1 c 0 ,1 Q k,i
g Q,1 c 0 ,1 Q k,i
Note
1 Design for either Expression (6.10) or the less favourable of Expressions (6.10a) and (6.10b).
Table 5
Design values of actions, derived for UK design, ultimate limit state persistent and transient design situations
Combination Expression reference
Permanent actions
Unfavourable
Others
1.35 Gk a
1.0 Gk a
Exp. (6.10a)
1.35 Gk
1.0 Gk
Exp. (6.10b)
0.925 d x 1.35 Gk a
1.5 Qk
1.5 c 0,1b Qk
1.0 Gk a
1.5 Qk
1.35 Gk a
1.0 Gk a
Exp. (6.10a)
1.35 Gk
1.0 Gk
Exp. (6.10b)
0.925 d x 1.35 Gk a
1.5 Qk,1
1.5 c 0,1 Qk
b
1.0 Gk a
1.5 Qk,1
Key
a Where the variation in permanent action is not considered significant, Gk,j,sup and Gk,j,inf may be taken as Gk
b The value of c 0 can be obtained from Table NA A1.1 of the UK National Annex (reproduced here as Table 3)
Table 6
Design values of actions, serviceability limit states
Combination
Permanent actions
Variable actions
Unfavourable
Favourable
Leading
Others
Characteristic
Gk,j,sup
Gk,j,inf
Qk,1
c 0 , i Qk,i
Frequent
Gk,j,sup
Gk,j,inf
c 1,1 Qk,1
c 2 , i Qk,i
Quasi-permanent
Gk,j,sup
Gk,j,inf
c 2,1 Qk,1
c 2 , i Qk,i
Deflection
Notes
1 Where the variation in permanent action is not considered significant. Gk,j,sup and Gk,j,inf may be taken as Gk
Table 7
Example design combinations for deflection (quasi-permanent) derived for typical UK reinforced concrete design
Combination
Permanent actions
Variable action
Unfavourable
Leading
Office
Gk
0.3 b Q k,1
Shopping area
Gk a
0.6b Q k,1
Storage
Gk a
0.8b Q k,1
Key
a Where the variation in permanent action is not considered significant Gk,j,sup and Gk,j,inf may be taken as Gk
1. Introduction to Eurocodes
Eurocode 1
Eurocode 1 supersedes BS 6399: Loading for buildings6 and BS 648:
Schedule of weights of building materials7. It contains within its ten parts
(see Table 8) all the information required by the designer to assess the
individual actions on a structure. It is generally self-explanatory and it
is anticipated the actions to be used in the UK (as advised in the UK
National Annex) will typically be the same as those in the current
British Standards. The most notable exception is the bulk density of
reinforced concrete, which has been increased to 25 kN/m3. Currently
not all the parts of Eurocode 1 and their National Annexes are
available, in which case it is advised that the loads recommended in
the current British Standards are used.
Eurocode 2
Table 8
Eurocode 1, its parts and dates of publication
Reference
Title
Publication date
Eurocode
National Annex
BS EN 199111
Densities,
self-weight and
imposed loads
April
2004
Due
November
2005 a
BS EN 199112
Actions on
structures
exposed to fire
November
2004
Due
January
2006a
BS EN 199113
Snow loads
July
2003
Due
November
2005a
BS EN 199114
Wind actions
April
2005
Due
January
2006a
BS EN 199115
Thermal actions
March
2003
TBA
BS EN 199116
Actions during
execution
July
2005
TBA
BS EN 199117
Accidental actions
due to impact
and explosions
Due
March
2006 a
TBA
There are four parts to Eurocode 2; Figure 4 indicates how they fit into
the Eurocode system, which includes other European standards.
BS EN 19912
Traffic loads
on bridges
October
2003
Part 11
Due
September
2006a
BS EN 19913
Actions induced
by cranes
and machinery
Due
November
2006 a
TBA
BS EN 19914
Actions in silos
and tanks
Due
March
2006a
TBA
Eurocode 2, Part 11: General rules and rules for buildings9 is the
principal part which is referenced by the three other parts. For the UK
designer there are a number of differences between Eurocode 2 and
BS 8110, which will initially make the new Eurocode seem unfamiliar.
The key differences are listed below to assist in the familiarisation process.
1. Eurocode 2 is generally laid out to give advice on the basis of
phenomena (e.g. bending, shear etc) rather than by member
types as in BS 8110 (e.g. beams, slabs, columns etc).
2. Design is based on characteristic cylinder strengths not cube
strengths.
3. The Eurocode does not provide derived formulae (e.g. for bending,
only the details of the stress block are expressed). This is the
traditional European approach, where the application of a Eurocode
is expected to be provided in a textbook or similar publication.
The Eurocodes allow for this type of detail to be provided in
Non-contradictory complementary information (NCCI) (See
Glossary).
4. Units for stress are mega pascals, MPa (1 MPa = 1 N/mm2).
5. Eurocode 2 uses a comma for a decimal point. It is expected that
UK designers will continue to use a decimal point. Therefore to
avoid confusion, the comma should not be used for separating
multiples of a thousand.
6. One thousandth is represented by .
7. The partial factor for steel reinforcement is 1.15. However, the
characteristic yield strength of steel that meets the requirements
of BS 4449 will be 500 MPa; so overall the effect is negligible.
8. Eurocode 2 is applicable for ribbed reinforcement with characteristic
yield strengths of 400 to 600 MPa. There is no guidance on plain
bar or mild steel reinforcement in the Eurocode, but guidance is
given in the background paper to the UK National Annex10.
9. The effects of geometric imperfection (notional horizontal loads)
are considered in addition to lateral loads.
Key
a Planned publication date (correct at time of publication) Source: BSI8
Figure 4
Relationship between Eurocode 2 and other Eurocodes
BS EN 1997
EUROCODE 7
Geotechnical
design
BS EN 1990
EUROCODE
Basis of structural
design
BS EN 1998
EUROCODE 8
Seismic
design
BS EN 206
Specifying
concrete
BS EN 1991
EUROCODE 1
Actions on
structures
BS EN 10080
Reinforcing
steels
BS 8500
Specifying
concrete
BS EN 1992
EUROCODE 2
Design of concrete
structures
BS 4449
Reinforcing
steels
BS EN 13369
Precast
concrete
BS EN 1992
EUROCODE 2
Part 2:
Bridges
BS EN 1992 Part 3:
EUROCODE 2
Liquid-retaining
structures
Precast concrete
product
standards
Eurocode 7
Eurocode 7: Geotechnical design17 is in two parts and gives guidance on
geotechnical design, ground investigation and testing. It has a broad
scope and includes the geotechnical design of spread foundations, piled
foundations, retaining walls, deep basements and embankments. Like
all the Eurocodes it is based on limit state design principles, which is
a significant variation for most geotechnical design. Further guidance
related to simple foundations is given in the guide How to design
concrete structures using Eurocode 2: Foundations18.
Eurocode 8
Eurocode 8: Design of structures for earthquake resistance19 is divided into
six parts and gives guidance on all aspects of design for earthquake
resistance and covers guidance for the various structural materials for
all types of structures. It also includes guidance for strengthening and
repair of buildings. In areas of low seismicity it is anticipated that detailing
structures to Eurocode 2 will ensure compliance with Eurocode 8.
Related Standards
BS 8500/BS EN 206
BS 8500: Concrete Complementary British Standard to BS EN 206120
replaced BS 5328 in December 2003 and designers should currently
be using this to specify concrete. Further guidance can found in the
publication How to use BS 8500 with BS 811021 available from The
Concrete Centre.
BS 4449/BS EN 10080
Part 12
Eurocode 2, Part 12: Structural fire design12, gives guidance on design for
fire resistance of concrete structures. Although much of the Eurocode
is devoted to fire engineering methods, the design for fire resistance
may still be carried out by referring to tables for minimum cover and
dimensions for various elements. These are given in section 5 of Part
12. Further advice on using the tabular method is given in the guide
How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2: Getting started 13.
Part 2
BS EN 13670
Part 3
Eurocode 2, Part 3: Liquid-retaining and containment structures15 applies
the general rules given in Part 11 to the liquid-retaining structures
and supersedes BS 800716.
1. Introduction to Eurocodes
Definition
Principles
Clauses that are general statements, definitions, requirements and analytical models for which no
alternative is permitted. They are identified by (P) after the clause number.
Application Rules
These are generally recognised rules, which comply with the principles and satisfy their requirements.
Eurocodes may be used to satisfy national Building Regulations, which themselves will not be
harmonized. NDPs are therefore used to allow a country to set its own levels of safety. NDPs also allow
certain other parameters (generally influenced by climate, geography and geology) to be left open for
selection nationally: NDPs are advised in the National Annex.
A National Annex accompanies each Eurocode and it contains a) the values of NDPs b) the national
decision regarding the use of Informative Annexes and c) references to NCCIs
Normative
The term used for the text of Standards that forms the core requirements. Compliance with Eurocodes
will generally be judged against the normative requirements.
Informative
A term used only in relation to annexes, which seek to inform rather than require.
NCCI
Characteristic value
A value that may be derived statistically with a probability of not being exceeded during a reference
period. The value corresponds to a specified fractile for a particular property of material or product. The
characteristic values are denoted by subscript k (e.g. Qk etc). It is the principal representative value
from which other representative values may be derived.
Representative value
Value used for verification of a limit state. It may be the characteristic value or an accompanying value,
e.g. combination, frequent or quasi-permanent.
Design values
These refer to representative values modified by partial factors. They are denoted by subscript d
(e.g. f cd = f ck /g c ; Q d = g Q Q k).
Action (F)
Combination of actions
Set of design values used for the verification of the structural reliability for a limit state under the
simultaneous influence of different and statistically independent actions.
Fixed action
Action that has a fixed distribution and position over the structure or structural member.
Free action
Action that may have various spatial distributions over the structure.
Actions that are likely to act throughout the life of the structure and whose variation in magnitude
with time is negligible (e.g. permanent loads).
Actions whose magnitude will vary with time (e.g. wind loads).
Action, usually of short duration but of significant magnitude, that is unlikely to occur on a given
structure during the design working life.
Accompanying action
Design situation that is relevant during a period much shorter than the design working life of the structure.
Design situation that is relevant during a period of the same order as the design working life of the structure.
Serviceability limit state where some consequences of actions will remain when the actions are removed.
Serviceability limit state where no consequences of actions will remain when the actions are removed.
Execution
1. Introduction to Eurocodes
References
1 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS EN 1992, Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures. BSI (4 parts).
2 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS EN 1990, Eurocode: Basis of structural design. BSI, 2002.
3 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS EN 1991, Eurocode 1: Actions on structures. BSI (10 parts).
4 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS 8110: The structural use of concrete. BSI (3 parts).
M T. Designers guide to EN 1990. Thomas Telford, 2002.
5 GULVANESSIAN, H, CALGARO, J A & HOLICY,
6 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS 6399: Loading for buildings. BSI (3 parts).
7 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS 648: Schedule of weights of building materials. BSI, 1964.
8 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. Web page: www.bsi-global.com/Eurocodes/Progress/index.xalter. BSI.
9 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS EN 199211, Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures. General rules and rules for buildings. BSI, 2004.
10 BRITISH STANDARD INSTITUTION. PD 6687. Background paper to the UK National Annex to BS EN 199211. BSI, due 2005.
11 MOSS, R M & BROOKER, O. How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2: Beams (TCC/03/19). The Concrete Centre, due 2006.
12 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS EN 199212, Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures. Structural fire design. BSI, 2004.
13 BROOKER, O. How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2: Getting started (TCC/03/17). The Concrete Centre, due 2005.
14 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS EN 19922, Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures. Bridges. BSI, 2005.
15 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS EN 19923, Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures. Liquid-retaining and containment structures.
BSI, due 2006.
16 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS 8007: Code of practice for design of concrete structures for retaining aqueous liquids. BSI, 1987.
17 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS EN 1997, Eurocode 7: Geotechnical design. BSI (2 parts).
18 WEBSTER, R & BROOKER, O. How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2: Foundations (TCC/03/21). The Concrete Centre, due 2006.
19 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS EN 1998, Eurocode 8: Design of structures for earthquake resistance. BSI (6 parts).
20 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS 8500: Concrete Complementary British Standard to BS EN 2061, 2002 (2 parts).
21 HARRISON, T A & BROOKER, O. How to use BS 8500 with BS 8110 (TCC/03/11). The Concrete Centre, 2005.
22 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS 4449: Specification for carbon steel bars for the reinforcement of concrete. BSI, 2005.
23 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS EN 10080: Steel for the reinforcement of concrete Weldable reinforcing steel General. BSI, due 2005.
24 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. EN 13670: Execution of concrete structures Part 1: Common. BSI, due 2008.
25 THE CONCRETE SOCIETY. CS 152: National structural concrete specification for building construction, third edition. The Society, 2004.
downloads, details of other publications and more information on Eurocode 2 visit www.eurocode2.info
For information on all the new Eurocodes visit www.eurocodes.co.uk
Acknowledgements
The content of this publication was produced as part of the project Eurocode 2: transition from UK to European concrete design standards. This
project was part funded by the DTI under the Partners in Innovation scheme. The lead partner was the British Cement Association. The work was
carried out under the guidance of the Concrete Industry Eurocode 2 Group, which consists of representatives from:
Alan Baxter and Associates Arup British Cement Association British Precast Building Research Establishment Clark Smith Partnership
Concrete Innovation and Design Construct Department for Trade and Industry Office of the Deputy Prime Minister The Concrete Centre
The Concrete Society Quarry Products Association
Ref: TCC/03/16
ISBN 1-904818-26-9
Published November 2005
The Concrete Centre
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