MAKALAH

PROPERTIES OF THE TYPE POLYMERS

Diajukan Untuk Memenuhi Tugas Teknologi Polimer

Oleh :
Debi Andriana

NIM

2012430159

PROGRAM S1 TEKNIK KIMIA

FAKULTAS TEKNIK
UNIVERSITAS MUHAMMADIYAH JAKARTA
2015
Properties of The Type Polymers
1. Polyethylene

Polyethylene (abbreviated PE) or polyethylene (IUPAC) name polyethylene or

poly(methylene) is the most common plastic. The annual global production is approximately
80 million tonnes. Its primary use is in packaging (plastic bag, plastic films,geomembranes,
containers including bottles, etc.). Many kinds of polyethylene are known, with most having
the chemical formula(C2H4)nH2. Thus PE is usually a mixture of similar organic
compounds that differ in terms of the value of n.
Physical properties
Polyethylene is a thermoplastic polymer consisting of long hydrocarbon chains.
Depending on the crystallinity and molecular weight, a melting point and glass transition may
or may not be observable. The temperature at which these occur varies strongly with the type
of polyethylene. For common commercial grades of medium- and high-density polyethylene
the melting point is typically in the range 120 to 180 C (248 to 356 F). The melting point
for average, commercial, low-density polyethylene is typically 105 to 115 C (221 to 239 F).

Chemical properties
Most LDPE, MDPE, and HDPE grades have excellent chemical resistance, meaning
that it is not attacked by strong acids or strong bases. It is also resistant to gentle oxidants and
reducing agents. Polyethylene burns slowly with a blue flame having a yellow tip and gives
off an odour of paraffin. The material continues burning on removal of the flame source and
produces a drip. Crystalline samples do not dissolve at room temperature. Polyethylene
(other than cross-linked polyethylene) usually can be dissolved at elevated temperatures
inaromatic hydrocarbons such as toluene or xylene, or in chlorinated solvents such
as trichloroethane or trichlorobenzene.

Classification
Polyethylene is classified into several different categories based mostly on
its density and branching. Its mechanical properties depend significantly on variables such as
the extent and type of branching, the crystal structure and the molecular weight. With regard
to sold volumes, the most important polyethylene grades are HDPE, LLDPE and LDPE.
1. Ultra-high-molecular-weight polyethylene (UHMWPE)
2. Ultra-low-molecular-weight polyethylene (ULMWPE or PE-WAX)
3. High-molecular-weight polyethylene (HMWPE)
4. High-density polyethylene (HDPE)
5. High-density cross-linked polyethylene (HDXLPE)
6. Cross-linked polyethylene (PEX or XLPE)
7. Medium-density polyethylene (MDPE)
8. Linear low-density polyethylene (LLDPE)
9. Low-density polyethylene (LDPE)
10. Very-low-density polyethylene (VLDPE)
11. Chlorinated polyethylene (CPE)

2. Polypropylene
Polypropylene (PP), also known as polypropene, is a thermoplastic polymer used in a
wide variety of applications includingpackaging and labeling, textiles (e.g., ropes, thermal
underwear and carpets), stationery, plastic parts and reusable containers of various types,

laboratory equipment, loudspeakers, automotive components, and polymer banknotes.

An addition polymer made from the monomer propylene, it is rugged and unusually resistant
to many chemical solvents, bases and acids. In 2013, the global market for polypropylene was
about 55 million metric tons.

Chemical and physical properties

Most commercial polypropylene is isotactic and has an intermediate level
of crystallinity between that of low-density polyethylene (LDPE) and high-density
polyethylene (HDPE). Polypropylene is normally tough and flexible, especially
when copolymerized with ethylene. This allows polypropylene to be used as an engineering
plastic, competing with materials such as acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS).
Polypropylene is reasonably economical, and can be made translucent when uncolored but is
not as readily made transparent aspolystyrene, acrylic, or certain other plastics. It is
often opaque or colored using pigments. Polypropylene has good resistance to fatigue. The
melting point of polypropylene occurs at a range, so a melting point is determined by finding
the highest temperature of a differential scanning calorimetry chart. Perfectly isotactic PP has
a melting point of 171 C (340 F). Commercial isotactic PP has a melting point that ranges
from 160 to 166 C (320 to 331 F), depending on atactic material and
crystallinity. Syndiotactic PP with a crystallinity of 30% has a melting point of 130 C
(266 F).[2] The melt flow rate (MFR) or melt flow index (MFI) is a measure of molecular
weight of polypropylene. The measure helps to determine how easily the molten raw material
will flow during processing. Polypropylene with higher MFR will fill the plastic mold more
easily during the injection or blow-molding production process. As the melt flow increases,
however, some physical properties, like impact strength, will decrease. There are three
general types of polypropylene: homopolymer, random copolymer, and block copolymer.
The comonomer is typically used with ethylene. Ethylene-propylene rubber or EPDM added
to polypropylene homopolymer increases its low temperature impact strength. Randomly
polymerized ethylene monomer added to polypropylene homopolymer decreases the polymer
crystallinity, lowers the melting point and makes the polymer more transparent.
3. Polystyrene
Polystyrene (PS) /plistarin/ is
a
synthetic aromatic polymer made
from
the monomer styrene. Polystyrene can be solid or foamed. General purpose polystyrene is
clear, hard, and rather brittle. It is an inexpensive resin per unit weight. It is a rather poor
barrier to oxygen and water vapor and has a relatively low melting point. [4] Polystyrene is one
of the most widely used plastics, the scale of its production being several billion kilograms
per year. Polystyrene can be naturally transparent, but can be colored with colorants. Uses
include protective packaging (such as packing peanuts and CD and DVD cases), containers
(such as "clamshells"), lids, bottles, trays, tumblers, and disposable cutlery.
As a thermoplastic polymer, polystyrene is in a solid (glassy) state at room
temperature but flows if heated above about 100 C, itsglass transition temperature. It
becomes rigid again when cooled. This temperature behavior is exploited for extrusion, and
also formolding and vacuum forming, since it can be cast into molds with fine detail.
Polystyrene is very slow to biodegrade and is therefore a focus of controversy. It is often
abundant as a form of litter in the outdoorenvironment, particularly along shores and
waterways, especially in its foam form.

4. Polyacrylonitrile
Polyacrylonitrile (PAN), also known as Creslan 61, is a synthetic, semicrystalline
organic polymer resin, with the linear formula (C3H3N)n. Though it is thermoplastic, it does
not melt under normal conditions. It degrades before melting. It melts above 300 C if the
heating rates are 50 degrees per minute or above.
Almost all
polyacrylonitrile resins arecopolymers made from mixtures of monomers with acrylonitrile as
the main component. It is a versatile polymer used to produce large variety of products
including ultra filtration membranes, hollow fibers for reverse osmosis, fibers for textiles,
oxidized PAN fibers. PAN fibers are the chemical precursor of high-quality carbon fiber. PAN
is first thermally oxidized in air at 230 degrees to form an oxidized PAN fiber and then
carbonized above 1000 degrees in inert atmosphere to make carbon fibers found in a variety
of both high-tech and common daily applications such as civil and military aircraft primary
and secondary structures, missiles, solid propellant rocket motors, pressure vessels, fishing
rods,tennis rackets, badminton rackets & high-tech bicycles. It is a component repeat unit in
several important copolymers, such as styrene-acrylonitrile (SAN) and acrylonitrile butadiene
styrene (ABS) plastic.
5. Poly(methyl Methacrylic)
Poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) is a transparent thermoplastic often used as a
lightweight or shatter-resistant alternative tosoda-lime glass.
Although not a type of familiar silica-based glass, the substance, like many thermoplastics, is
often technically a type of glass (a non-crystalline vitreous substance) and historically has
often been called acrylic glass. Chemically, it is the synthetic polymer of methyl
methacrylate. The material was developed in 1928 in several different laboratories by many
chemists such as William Chalmers, Otto Rhm and Walter Bauer and was first brought to
market in 1933 by the Rohm and Haas Company, under the trademark Plexiglas.[4]It has since
been sold under many different names, including Acrylite, Lucite, and Perspex.
PMMA is an economical alternative to polycarbonate (PC) when extreme strength is
not necessary. Additionally, PMMA does not contain the potentially harmful bisphenolA subunits found in polycarbonate. It is often preferred because of its moderate properties,
easy handling and processing, and low cost. Non-modified PMMA behaves in
a brittle manner when loaded, especially under animpact force, and is more prone to
scratching than conventional inorganic glass, but modified PMMA can achieve high scratch
and impact resistance.

6. Polyesters
Polyester, is a category of polymers that contain the ester functional group in their
main chain. As a specific material, it most commonly refers to a type called polyethylene
terephthalate (PET). Polyesters include naturally occurring chemicals, such as in
the cutin of plant cuticles, as well as synthetics through step-growth polymerization such
as polybutyrate. Natural polyesters and a few synthetic ones are biodegradable, but most
synthetic polyesters are not.

Depending on the chemical structure, polyester can be a thermoplastic or thermoset, there are
also polyester resins cured by hardeners; however, the most common polyesters are
thermoplastics.
Fabrics woven or knitted from polyester thread or yarn are used extensively in apparel and
home furnishings, from shirts and pants to jackets and hats, bed sheets, blankets, upholstered
furniture and computer mouse mats. Industrial polyester fibers, yarns and ropes are used in
tyre reinforcements, fabrics for conveyor belts, safety belts, coated fabrics and plastic
reinforcements with high-energy absorption. Polyester fiber is used as cushioning and
insulating material in pillows, comforters and upholstery padding. Polyesters are also used to
make
bottles,
films, tarpaulin,
canoes, liquid
crystal
displays, holograms, filters, dielectric film
for capacitors, film
insulation for wire andinsulating tapes. Polyesters are widely used as a finish on high-quality
wood products such as guitars, pianos and vehicle/yacht interiors.Thixotropic properties of
spray-applicable polyesters make them ideal for use on open-grain timbers, as they can
quickly fill wood grain, with a high-build film thickness per coat. Cured polyesters can be
sanded and polished to a high-gloss, durable finish.
While synthetic clothing in general is perceived by many as having a less natural feel
compared to fabrics woven from natural fibers (such as cotton and wool), polyester fabrics
can provide specific advantages over natural fabrics, such as improved wrinkle resistance,
durability and high color retention. As a result, polyester fibers are sometimes spun together
with natural fibers to produce a cloth with blended properties. Synthetic fibers also can create
materials with superior water, wind and environmental resistance compared to plant-derived
fibers, and are sometimes renamed so as to suggest their similarity or even superiority to
natural fibers (for example, China silk, which is a term in the textiles industry for a 100%
polyester fiber woven to resemble the sheet and durability of insect-derivedsilk).

7. Polyformaldehyde
Polyoxymethylene (POM), also known as acetal,[1] polyacetal and polyformaldehyde,
is an engineering thermoplastic used in precision parts requiring high stiffness, low friction
and excellent dimensional stability. As with many other synthetic polymers, it is produced by
different chemical firms with slightly different formulas and sold variously by such names
as Delrin, Celcon, Ramtal,Duracon, Kepital and Hostaform.
Typical applications for injection-molded POM include high performance engineering
components such as small gear wheels, ball bearings, ski bindings, fasteners, knife handles,
and lock systems. The material is widely used in the automotive and consumer electronics
industry.

Properties
POM is characterized by its high strength, hardness and rigidity to 40 C. POM is
intrinsically opaque white, due to its high crystalline composition, but it is available in all
colors. POM has a density of = 1.4101.420 g/cm.[5]

POM homopolymer is a semi-crystalline polymer (7585% crystalline) with a

melting point of 175 C. The POM copolymer has a slightly lower melting point of 162
173 C.
POM is a tough material with a very low coefficient of friction. However, it is
susceptible to polymer degradation catalyzed by acids, which is why it is stabilized - both the
homopolymer and the copolymer have chain end groups (introduced via end capping) that
resist depolymerization. With the copolymer, the second unit is normally a C2 (ethylene
glycol) or C4 (1,4-butanediol) unit, which is introduced via its cyclic acetal (which can be
made from the diol and formaldehyde) or cyclic ether (e.g. ethylene oxide). These units resist
chain cleavage, because the O-linkage is now no longer an acetal group, but an ether linkage,
which is stable to hydrolysis. POM is sensitive to oxidation, and an anti-oxidant is normally
added to molding grades of the material.
1. POM advantages:
2. High abrasion resistance
3. Low coefficient of friction
4. High heat resistance
5. Good electrical and dielectric properties
6. Low water absorption
8. Polyparaphenylene
Poly(p-phenylene) (PPP) is the precursor to a conducting polymer of the rigid-rod
polymer host family. Oxidation or the use of dopants is used to convert the non-conductive
form to a semiconductor. It is made of repeating p-phenylene units.
9. Polycarbonates
Polycarbonates (PC), known by the trademarked names Lexan, Makrolon and others,
are a particular group of thermoplasticpolymers. They are easily worked, molded,
and thermoformed. Because of these properties, polycarbonates find many applications.
Polycarbonates do not have a unique resin identification code and are identified as Other, 7.
Items made from polycarbonate can contain the precursor monomer bisphenol A (BPA).
Properties and processing
Polycarbonate is a durable material. Although it has high impact-resistance, it has low
scratch-resistance and so a hard coating is applied to polycarbonate eyewear lenses and
polycarbonate exterior automotive components. The characteristics of polycarbonate are quite
like those of polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA, acrylic), but polycarbonate is stronger and
usable over a greater temperature range. Polycarbonate is highly transparent to visible light,
with better light transmission than many kinds of glass.
Polycarbonate has a glass transition temperature of about 147 C (297 F),[6] so it
softens gradually above this point and flows above about 155 C (311 F).[1] Tools must be
held at high temperatures, generally above 80 C (176 F) to make strain- and stress-free
products. Low molecular mass grades are easier to mold than higher grades, but their strength
is lower as a result. The toughest grades have the highest molecular mass, but are much more
difficult to process.
Unlike most thermoplastics, polycarbonate can undergo large plastic deformations
without cracking or breaking. As a result, it can be processed and formed at room temperature
using sheet metal techniques, such as bending on a brake. Even for sharp angle bends with a
tight radius, heating may not be necessary. This makes it valuable in prototyping applications
where transparent or electrically non-conductive parts are needed, which cannot be made
from sheet metal. Note thatPMMA/Plexiglas, which is similar in appearance to
polycarbonate, is brittle and cannot be bent at room temperature.
Main transformation techniques for polycarbonate resins:
extrusion into tubes, rods and other profiles including multiwall
extrusion with cylinders (calenders) into sheets (0.520 mm (0.0200.787 in)) and films
(below 1 mm (0.039 in)), which can be used directly or manufactured into other shapes

using thermoforming or secondary fabrication techniques, such as bending, drilling, routing,

laser cutting etc.
injection molding into ready articles
10. Polysulphone
Polysulfones are a family of thermoplastic polymers. These polymers are known for
their toughness and stability at high temperatures. They contain the subunit aryl-SO2-aryl, the
defining feature of which is the sulfone group. Polysulfones were introduced in 1965
by Union Carbide. Due to the high cost of raw materials and processing, polysulfones are
used in specialty applications and often are a superior replacement for polycarbonates.
11. Polyimides
Polyimide (sometimes abbreviated PI) is a polymer of imide monomers. Polyimides
have been in mass production since 1955. With their high heat-resistance, polyimides enjoy
diverse applications in applications demanding rugged organic materials, e.g. high
temperature fuel cells, displays, and various military roles. A classic polyimide is Kapton,
which is produced by condensation of pyromellitic dianhydride and4,4'-oxydianiline.
Properties
Thermosetting polyimides are known for thermal stability, good chemical resistance,
excellent mechanical properties, and characteristic orange/yellow color. Polyimides
compounded with graphite or glass fiber reinforcements have flexural strengths of up to
50,000 psi (340 MPa) and flexural moduli of 3,000,000 psi (21,000 MPa). Thermoset
polyimides exhibit very low creep and high tensile strength. These properties are maintained
during continuous use to temperatures of up to 452 C (846 F) and for short excursions, as
high as 704 C (1,299 F).[3] Molded polyimide parts and laminates have very good heat
resistance. Normal operating temperatures for such parts and laminates range from cryogenic
to those exceeding 500 F (260 C). Polyimides are also inherently resistant to flame
combustion and do not usually need to be mixed with flame retardants. Most carry a UL
rating of VTM-0. Polyimide laminates have a flexural strength half life at 249 C (480 F) of
400 hours.
Typical polyimide parts are not affected by commonly used solvents and oils
including hydrocarbons, esters, ethers, alcohols and freons. They also resist weak acids but
are not recommended for use in environments that contain alkalis or inorganic acids. Some
polyimides, such as CP1 and CORIN XLS, are solvent-soluble and exhibit high optical
clarity. The solubility properties lend them towards spray and low temperature cure
applications.

12. Polyamides
A polyamide is a macromolecule with repeating units linked by amide bonds.
Polyamides occur both naturally and artificially. Examples of naturally occurring polyamides
areproteins, such as wool and silk. Artificially made polyamides can be made through stepgrowth polymerization or solid-phase synthesis yielding materials such as nylons, aramids,
and sodium poly(aspartate). Synthetic polyamides are commonly used in textiles, automotive
applications, carpets and sportswear due to their high durability and strength. The
transportation industry is the major consumer, accounting for 35% of polyamide (PA)
consumption.
13. Polyurethanes
Polyurethane (PUR and PU) is a polymer composed of a chain of organic units joined
by carbamate (urethane) links. While most polyurethanes are thermosetting polymers that do
not melt when heated, thermoplastic polyurethanes are also available.

Polyurethane polymers are traditionally and most commonly formed by reacting a dior polyisocyanate with apolyol. Both the isocyanates and polyols used to make polyurethanes
contain on average two or more functional groups per molecule.
Some noteworthy recent efforts have been dedicated to minimizing the use of
isocyanates to synthesize polyurethanes, because the isocyanates raise severe toxicity issues.
Non-isocyanate based polyurethanes (NIPUs) have recently been developed as a new class of
polyurethane polymers to mitigate health and environmental concerns.
Polyurethane products often are simply called urethanes, but should not be
confused with ethyl carbamate, which is also called urethane. Polyurethanes neither contain
nor are produced from ethyl carbamate.
Polyurethanes are used in the manufacture of nonflexible, high-resilience foam
seating; rigid foam insulation panels; microcellular foam seals and gaskets; durable
elastomeric wheels and tires (such as roller coaster, escalator and skateboard wheels);
automotive suspension bushings; electrical potting compounds; high performance adhesives;
surface coatings and surface sealants; synthetic fibers (e.g., Spandex); carpet underlay; hardplastic parts (e.g., for electronic instruments); and hoses.
14. Polyureas
Polyurea is a type of elastomer that is derived from the reaction product of
an isocyanate component and a synthetic resinblend component through step-growth
polymerization. The isocyanate can be aromatic or aliphatic in nature. It can
bemonomer, polymer, or any variant reaction of isocyanates, quasi-prepolymer or a
prepolymer. The prepolymer, or quasi-prepolymer, can be made of an amine-terminated
polymer resin, or a hydroxyl-terminated polymer resin.
The resin blend may be made up of amine-terminated polymer resins, and/or amineterminated chain extenders. The amine-terminated polymer resins will not have any
intentional hydroxyl moieties. Any hydroxyls are the result of incomplete conversion to the
amine-terminated polymer resins. The resin blend may also contain additives, or non-primary
components. These additives may contain hydroxyls, such as pre-dispersed pigments in
a polyol carrier. Normally, the resin blend will not contain a catalyst(s).
15. Polyethylene Glicols and Polypropylene Glycols
Polyethylene glycol (PEG) is a polyether compound with many applications from
industrial manufacturing to medicine. The structure of PEG is (note the repeated element in
parentheses):
H-(O-CH2-CH2)n-OH
PEG is also known as polyethylene oxide (PEO) or polyoxyethylene (POE), depending on
its molecular weight.
Polypropylene glycol or polypropylene oxide is the polymer of propylene glycol.
Chemically it is a polyether. The term polypropylene glycol or PPG is reserved for low to
medium range molar mass polymer when the nature of the end-group, which is usually
a hydroxyl group, still matters. The term "oxide" is used for high molar mass polymer when
end-groups no longer affect polymer properties. In 2003, 60% of the annual production of
propylene oxide of 6.6106 tonnes was converted into the polymer.
Properties
PPG has many properties in common with polyethylene glycol. The polymer is a
liquid at room temperature. Solubility in water decreases rapidly with increasing molar mass.
Secondary hydroxyl groups in PPG are less reactive than primary hydroxyl groups in
polyethylene glycol. PPG is less toxic than PEG, so biotechnologicals are now produced in
PPG.
(copied from IPCS Chemical Safety Information from Intergovernmental Organizations from
www.inchem.org: Polypropylene glycol: Hazardous characteristics:)

Combustible and in the form of vapour explosive when exposed to heat or flame.
When heated to decomposition it produces acrid and irritating fumes (Sax, 1989).
The toxicity of polypropylene glycol is mainly due to the parent compound and not to its
metabolites. Polypropylene glycol has an irritatant effect on direct contact with eyes, mucous
membranes and possibly after prolonged contact with skin.
Polypropylene glycol causes CNS depression similar to that caused by ethanol but it
is only one-third as potent. Cardiotoxic effects include arrhythmias and cardiac arrest. Renal
and hepatic damage has been reported (Seidenfeld & Hanzlik, 1932).
16. Polyacrylic Acid
Poly(acrylic acid) (PAA or Carbomer) is generic name for synthetic high molecular
weight polymers of acrylic acid. They may behomopolymers of acrylic acid, crosslinked with
an allyl ether pentaerythritol, allyl ether of sucrose or allyl ether of propylene. In a water
solution at neutral pH, PAA is an anionic polymer, i.e. many of the side chains of PAA will
lose their protons and acquire a negative charge. This makes PAAs polyelectrolytes, with the
ability to absorb and retain water and swell to many times their original volume. Dry PAAs
are found in the market as white and fluffy powders. Carbomer codes (910, 934, 940, 941 and
934P) are an indication of molecular weight and the specific components of the polymer. For
many applications PAAs are used in form of alkali metal or amonium salts e.g. sodium
polyacrylate.
17. Poly Methacrylic Acid
Poly(methacrylic acid) (PMAA) is a polymer made from methacrylic acid. It is often
available as its sodium salt, poly(methacrylic acid) sodium salt.
18. Polyvinyl Acetate
Polyvinyl acetate (PVA, PVAc, poly(ethenyl ethanoate): commonly referred to
as wood glue, white glue, carpenter's glue,school glue, Elmer's glue in the US, or PVA glue) is
a rubbery synthetic polymer with the formula (C4H6O2)n. It belongs to thepolyvinyl
esters family with the general formula -[RCOOCHCH2]-. It is a type of thermoplastic.
Properties
The degree of polymerization of polyvinyl acetate typically is 100 to 5000. The ester
groups of the polyvinyl acetate are sensitive tobase hydrolysis and will slowly convert PVAc
into polyvinyl alcohol and acetic acid.
Under alkaline conditions, boron compounds such as boric acid or borax cause the
polymer to cross-link, forming tackifying precipitates or toys such as Slime and Flubber.
A number of microorganisms can degrade polyvinyl acetate; most commonly, damage is
caused by filamentous fungi however there are also algae, yeasts, lichens and bacteria that
have been shown to degrade polyvinyl acetate.
19. Polyvinyl Alcohol
Polyvinyl alcohol (PVOH, PVA, or PVAl) is a water-soluble synthetic polymer. It has
the idealized formula [CH 2CH(OH)]n. It is used in papermaking, textiles, and a variety of
coatings. It is white (colourless) and odorless. It is sometimes supplied as beads or as
solutions in water.
Structure and properties
PVA is an atactic material that exhibits crystallinity. In terms of microstructure, it is
composed mainly of 1,3-diol linkages [-CH 2-CH(OH)-CH2-CH(OH)-] but a few percent of
1,2-diols [-CH2-CH(OH)-CH(OH)-CH2-] occur, depending on the conditions for the
polymerization of the vinyl ester precursor.[1]

Polyvinyl alcohol has excellent film forming, emulsifying and adhesive properties. It is also
resistant to oil, grease and solvents. It has high tensile strength and flexibility, as well as high
oxygen and aroma barrier properties. However these properties are dependent on humidity, in
other words, with higher humidity more water is absorbed. The water, which acts as a
plasticiser, will then reduce its tensile strength, but increase its elongation and tear strength.
PVA has a melting point of 230 C and 180190 C (356-374 degrees Fahrenheit) for
the fully hydrolysed and partially hydrolysed grades, respectively. It decomposes rapidly
above 200 C as it can undergo pyrolysis at high temperatures.
PVA is close to incompressible. The Poisson's ratio is between 0.42 and 0.48.
20. Polyvinyl Acetate
Polyvinyl acetate (PVA, PVAc, poly(ethenyl ethanoate): commonly referred to
as wood glue, white glue, carpenter's glue,school glue, Elmer's glue in the US, or PVA glue) is
a rubbery synthetic polymer with the formula (C4H6O2)n. It belongs to thepolyvinyl
esters family with the general formula -[RCOOCHCH2]-. It is a type of thermoplastic.
Properties
The degree of polymerization of polyvinyl acetate typically is 100 to 5000. The ester
groups of the polyvinyl acetate are sensitive tobase hydrolysis and will slowly convert PVAc
into polyvinyl alcohol and acetic acid.
Under alkaline conditions, boron compounds such as boric acid or borax cause the
polymer to cross-link, forming tackifying precipitates or toys such as Slime and Flubber.
A number of microorganisms can degrade polyvinyl acetate; most commonly, damage is
caused by filamentous fungi however there are also algae, yeasts, lichens and bacteria that
have been shown to degrade polyvinyl acetate.

21. Polyvinyl Chloride

Polyvinyl chloride, more correctly but unusually poly(vinyl chloride), commonly
abbreviated PVC, is the third-most widely produced synthetic plastic polymer,
after polyethylene and polypropylene.
PVC comes in two basic forms: rigid (sometimes abbreviated as RPVC) and flexible.
The rigid form of PVC is used in construction for pipe and in profile applications such as
doors and windows. It is also used for bottles, other non-food packaging, and cards (such as
bank or membership cards). It can be made softer and more flexible by the addition
of plasticizers, the most widely used beingphthalates. In this form, it is also used in plumbing,
electrical cable insulation, imitation leather, signage, inflatable products, and many
applications where it replaces rubber.
Pure poly(vinyl chloride) is a white, brittle solid. It is insoluble in alcohol but slightly
soluble in tetrahydrofuran.
Physical properties
PVC is a thermoplastic polymer. Its properties are usually categorized based on rigid
and flexible PVCs.
Rigid
Property
Flexible PVC
PVC
Density [g/cm3]

1.31.45

1.11.35

Thermal conductivity [W/(mK)]

0.140.28

0.140.17

Yield strength [psi][13]

4500
8700

14503600

Young's modulus [psi]

490,000

Flexural strength (yield) [psi]

10,500

Compression strength [psi]

9500

Coefficient of thermal expansion (linear)

[mm/(mm C)]

5105

Vicat B [C]

65100

Not
recommended

Resistivity [ m]

1016

10121015

Surface resistivity []

10131014

10111012

Mechanical properties
PVC has high hardness and mechanical properties. The mechanical properties
enhance with the molecular weight increasing but decrease with the temperature increasing.
The mechanical properties of rigid PVC (uPVC) are very good; the elastic modulus can reach
1500-3,000 MPa. The soft PVC (flexible PVC) elastic is 1.5-15 MPa. However, elongation at
break is up to 200-450%. PVC friction is ordinary; the static friction factor is 0.4-0.5, and the
dynamic friction factor is 0.23.

22. Polyvinylidene Chloride

Polyvinylidene chloride (PVDC) is a homopolymer of vinylidene chloride.
Properties
It is a remarkable barrier against water, oxygen and aromas. It has a superior chemical
resistance to alkalies and acids, is insoluble in oil and organic solvents, has very low moisture
regain and is impervious to mold, bacteria, and insects. But it is soluble in polar solvents.
It has good thermal stability, but above 125 C decomposes to produce HCl.
23. Polytetrafluoroethylene
Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE)
is
a
synthetic fluoropolymer of tetrafluoroethylene that has numerous applications. The bestknown brand name of PTFE-based formulas is Teflon by DuPont Co., which discovered the
compound.
PTFE is a fluorocarbon solid, as it is a high-molecular-weight compound consisting
wholly of carbon and fluorine. PTFE ishydrophobic: neither water nor water-containing
substances wet PTFE, as fluorocarbons demonstrate mitigated London dispersion forces due
to the high electronegativity of fluorine. PTFE has one of the lowest coefficients
of friction against any solid.
PTFE is used as a non-stick coating for pans and other cookware. It is very nonreactive, partly because of the strength of carbonfluorine bonds and so it is often used in
containers and pipework for reactive and corrosive chemicals. Where used as a lubricant,
PTFE reduces friction, wear and energy consumption of machinery. It is also commonly used
as a graft material in surgical interventions.
Properties
PTFE is a thermoplastic polymer, which is a white solid at room temperature, with a
density of about 2200 kg/m3. According to DuPont, its melting point is 600 K (327 C;

620 F).[17] It maintains high strength, toughness and self-lubrication at low temperatures
down to 5 K (268.15 C; 450.67 F), and good flexibility at temperatures above 194 K
(79 C; 110 F).[18] PTFE gains its properties from the aggregate effect of carbon-fluorine
bonds, as do all fluorocarbons. The only chemicals known to affect these carbon-fluorine
bonds are certain alkali metals and fluorinating agents such as xenon difluoride and cobalt(III)
fluoride.
Property
Value
Density

2200 kg/m3

Melting point

600 K

Thermal expansion

135 106 K1

Thermal diffusivity

0.124 mm/s

Young's modulus

0.5 GPa

Yield strength

23 MPa

Bulk resistivity

1016 m

Coefficient of friction

0.050.10

Dielectric constant

=2.1,tan()<5(-4)

Dielectric constant (60 Hz)

=2.1,tan()<2(-4)

Dielectric strength (1 MHz)

60 MV/m
The coefficient of friction of plastics is usually measured against polished
steel. PTFE's coefficient of friction is 0.05 to 0.10, [17] which is the third-lowest of any known
solid material (BAM being the first, with a coefficient of friction of 0.02; diamond-like
carbon being second-lowest at 0.05). PTFE's resistance to van der Waals forces means that it
is the only known surface to which a gecko cannot stick.[24] In fact, PTFE can be used to
prevent insects climbing up surfaces painted with the material. PTFE is so slippery that
insects cannot get a grip and tend to fall off. For example, PTFE is used to prevent ants
climbing out of formicaria.
Because of its chemical inertness, PTFE cannot be cross-linked like an elastomer.
Therefore, it has no "memory" and is subject to creep. Because of its superior chemical and
thermal properties, PTFE is often used as a gasket material. However, because of the
propensity to creep, the long-term performance of such seals is worse than for elastomers
which exhibit zero, or near-zero, levels of creep. In critical applications, Belleville
washers are often used to apply continuous force to PTFE gaskets, ensuring a minimal loss of
performance over the lifetime of the gasket.
24. Polybutylene
Polybutylene (polybutene-1, poly(1-butene), PB-1)
is
a polyolefin or
saturated polymer with the chemical formula (C4H8)n. It should not be confused
with polybutene, a low molecular weight oligomer.
Polybutylene is produced by polymerisation of 1-butene using supported ZieglerNatta catalysts. PB-1 is a high molecular weight, linear, isotactic, and semicrystalline polymer. PB-1 combines typical characteristics of conventional polyolefins with
certain properties of technical polymers.
PB-1, when applied as a pure or reinforced resin, can replace materials like metal,
rubber and engineering polymers. It is also used synergistically as a blend element to modify
the characteristics of other polyolefins like polypropylene and polyethylene. Because of its
specific properties it is mainly used in pressure piping, flexible packaging, water heaters,
compounding and hot melt adhesives.

25. Polybutadienes
Polybutadiene is
a synthetic
rubber that
is
a polymer formed
from
the polymerization process of the monomer 1,3-butadiene. Polybutadiene has a high
resistance to wear and is used especially in the manufacture of tires, which consumes about
70% of the production. Another 25% is used as an additive to improve the mechanical
strength of plastics such aspolystyrene and acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS).
Polybutadiene rubber accounted for approx. a quarter of total global consumption of synthetic
rubbers in 2012. [1] It is also used to manufacture golf balls, various elastic objects and to coat
or encapsulate electronic assemblies, offering high electrical resistivity.
26. Polychloroprene
Neoprene or polychloroprene is a family of synthetic rubbers that are produced by
polymerization of chloroprene. Neoprene exhibits good chemical stability, and maintains
flexibility over a wide temperature range. It is used in a wide variety of applications, such
as laptop sleeves, orthopedic braces (wrist, knee, etc.), electrical insulation, liquid and sheet
applied elastomeric membranes or flashings, and automotive fan belts.
27. Phenol-Formaldehyde Resin
Phenol formaldehyde resins (PF) are synthetic polymers obtained by the reaction
of phenol or substituted phenol withformaldehyde. Phenolic resins have been mainly used in
the production of circuit boards but have been largely replaced withepoxy
resins and fiberglass cloth, as with fire-resistant FR-4 circuit board materials. Phenol
formaldehyde resins are better known, however, for the production of molded products
including pool balls, laboratory countertops, and as coatings andadhesives. In the form
of Bakelite, they are the earliest commercial synthetic resin.
28. Urea-Formaldehyde and Melamine-Formladehyde Resins
Urea-formaldehyde, also known as urea-methanal, so named for its common
synthesis pathway and overall structure, is a non-transparent thermosettingresin or plastic,
made from urea and formaldehyde heated in the presence of a mild base such
as ammonia or pyridine. These resins are used in adhesives, finishes, MDF, and molded
objects.
It was first synthesized in 1884 by Hlzer, who was working with Bernhard Tollens.
[2]
In 1919, Hanns John (18911942) of Prague, Czechoslovakia obtained the first patent for
urea-formaldehyde resin.
Properties
Urea-formaldehyde resin's attributes include high tensile strength, flexural modulus,
and a high heat distortion temperature, low water absorption, mould shrinkage, high surface
hardness, elongation at break, and volume resistance.
Index of Refraction = 1.54
Melamine resin or melamine formaldehyde (also shortened to melamine) is a
hard, thermosetting
plastic material
made
from melamineand formaldehyde by polymerization. In its butylated form, it is dissolved in nbutanol and xylene. It is then used to cross-link with alkyd,epoxy, acrylic,
and polyester resins, used in surface coatings. There are many types, varying from very slow
to very fast curing. It was initially discovered by William F. Talbot
29. Cellulose
Cellulose is
an organic
compound with
the formula (C6H10O5)n,
a polysaccharide consisting of a linear chain of several hundred to many thousands of (14)
linked D-glucose units.[3][4] Cellulose is an important structural component of the primary cell
wall ofgreen plants, many forms of algae and the oomycetes. Some species of bacteria secrete
it to form biofilms.[5] Cellulose is the most abundant organic polymer on Earth. [6] The

cellulose content of cotton fiber is 90%, that of wood is 4050% and that of dried hemp is
approximately 45%.
Cellulose is mainly used to produce paperboard and paper. Smaller quantities are
converted into a wide variety of derivative products such as cellophane and rayon.
Conversion of cellulose from energy crops into biofuels such as cellulosic ethanol is under
investigation as an alternative fuel source. Cellulose for industrial use is mainly obtained
from wood pulp and cotton.
Some animals, particularly ruminants and termites, can digest cellulose with the help
of symbiotic micro-organisms that live in their guts, such as Trichonympha. In humans,
cellulose acts as a hydrophilic bulking agent for feces and is often referred to as a "dietary
fiber".
Structure and properties
Cellulose has no taste, is odorless, is hydrophilic with the contact angle of 2030, is
insoluble in water and most organic solvents, is chiral and is biodegradable. It can be broken
down chemically into its glucose units by treating it with concentrated acids at high
temperature.
Cellulose is derived from D-glucose units, which condense through (14)-glycosidic bonds.
This linkage motif contrasts with that for (14)-glycosidic bonds present
in starch, glycogen, and other carbohydrates. Cellulose is a straight chain polymer: unlike
starch, no coiling or branching occurs, and the molecule adopts an extended and rather stiff
rod-like conformation, aided by the equatorial conformation of the glucose residues. The
multiple hydroxyl groups on the glucose from one chain form hydrogen bonds with oxygen
atoms on the same or on a neighbor chain, holding the chains firmly together side-by-side and
forming microfibrils with high tensile strength. This confers tensile strength in cell walls,
where cellulose microfibrils are meshed into a polysaccharide matrix.

A triple strand of cellulose showing the hydrogen bonds (cyan lines) between glucose strands

Cotton fibres represent the purest natural form of cellulose, containing more than 90% of
this polysaccharide.
Compared to starch, cellulose is also much more crystalline. Whereas starch undergoes a
crystalline to amorphous transition when heated beyond 6070 C in water (as in cooking),
cellulose requires a temperature of 320 C and pressure of 25 MPa to become amorphous in
water.
Several different crystalline structures of cellulose are known, corresponding to the
location of hydrogen bonds between and within strands. Natural cellulose is cellulose I, with
structures I and I. Cellulose produced by bacteria and algae is enriched in I while cellulose
of higher plants consists mainly of I . Cellulose in regenerated cellulose fibers is cellulose II.
The conversion of cellulose I to cellulose II is irreversible, suggesting that cellulose I
is metastable and cellulose II is stable. With various chemical treatments it is possible to
produce the structures cellulose III and cellulose IV.[15]

Many properties of cellulose depend on its chain length or degree of polymerization, the
number of glucose units that make up one polymer molecule. Cellulose from wood pulp has
typical chain lengths between 300 and 1700 units; cotton and other plant fibers as well as
bacterial cellulose have chain lengths ranging from 800 to 10,000 units. [6] Molecules with
very small chain length resulting from the breakdown of cellulose are known as cellodextrins;
in contrast to long-chain cellulose, cellodextrins are typically soluble in water and organic
solvents.
Plant-derived cellulose is usually found in a mixture with hemicellulose, lignin, pectin and
other substances, while bacterial cellulose is quite pure, has a much higher water content and
higher tensile strength due to higher chain lengths.
Cellulose
is
soluble
in Schweizer's
reagent, cupriethylenediamine (CED), cadmiumethylenediamine (Cadoxen), Nmethylmorpholine N-oxide, and lithium chloride / dimethylacetamide. This is used in the
production of regenerated celluloses (such as viscose andcellophane) from dissolving pulp.
Cellulose is also soluble in many kinds of ionic liquids
Cellulose consists of crystalline and amorphous regions. By treating it with strong
acid, the amorphous regions can be broken up, thereby producing nanocrystalline cellulose, a
novel material with many desirable properties. [18] Recently, nanocrystalline cellulose was used
as the filler phase in bio-based polymer matrices to produce nanocomposites with superior
thermal and mechanical properties.
References

Ebewele, Robert Oboigbaotor. 2000. Polymer Science and Technology. New York : CRC
Press LLC
Gowariker, Vassant R.1986.polymer Science.New Delhi : New Age International (P) Limited,
Publishers.