Concepts of Geometry Cbse 10
Concepts of Geometry Cbse 10
Concepts of Geometry Cbse 10
Undefined terms:
In geometry, definitions are formed using known words or terms to describe a new
word. There are three words in geometry that are not formally defined. These
three undefined terms are point, line and plane.
, or by any two
Intuitive Concepts:
There are a few basic concepts in geometry that need to be understood, but are seldom
used as reasons in a formal proof.
Collinear Points
Coplanar points
Opposite rays
Parallel lines
Skew lines
postulates (axioms).
Euclidean Geometry is the study of flat space. We can
easily illustrate these geometrical concepts by drawing on
a flat piece of paper or chalkboard. In flat space, we
know such concepts as:
In his text, Euclid stated his fifth postulate, the famous parallel postulate, in the
following manner:
If a straight line crossing two straight lines makes the interior
angles on the same side less than two right angles, the two straight
lines, if extended indefinitely, meet on that side on which are the
angles less than the two right angles.
Today, we know the parallel postulate as simply stating:
Through a point not on a line, there is no more than one line
parallel to the line.
The concepts in Euclid's geometry remained unchallenged until the early 19th
century. At that time, other forms of geometry started to emerge, called nonEuclidean geometries. It was no longer assumed that Euclid's geometry could be used
to describe all physical space.
Examples:
1. Riemannian Geometry
Riemannian Geometry is the study of curved surfaces. Consider what would happen
if instead of working on the Euclidean flat piece of paper, you work on a curved
surface, such as a sphere. The study of Riemannian Geometry has a direct connection
to our daily existence since we live on a curved surface called planet Earth.
What effect does working on a sphere, or a curved
space, have on what we think of as geometrical
truths?
gradational fields, space travel and astronomy. Einstein stated that space is curved
and his general theory of relativity uses hyperbolic geometry.
What effect does working on a saddle
shaped surface have on what we think of
as geometrical truths?
In hyperbolic geometry, the sum of
the angles of a triangle is less than
180.
In hyperbolic geometry, triangles
with the same angles have the
same areas.
Lines can be drawn in hyperbolic space that are parallel (do not intersect).
Actually, many lines can be drawn parallel to a given line through a given
point.
It has been said that some of the works of artist M. C. Escher illustrate hyperbolic
geometry. In his work Circle Limit III (follow the link below), the effect of a
hyperbolic space's negative curve on the sum of the angles in a triangle can be seen.
Escher's print illustrates a model devised by French mathematician Henri Poincare for
visualizing the theorems of hyperbolic geometry, the orthogonal circle.
M. C. Escher web site: http://www.mcescher.com
Choose Galleries: Recognition and Success 1955-1972: Circle Limit III
Choose one:
2.
When two planes intersect, two lines are formed.
TRUE or FALSE?
Choose one:
TRUE
FALSE
3.
Which of the following statements is TRUE?
Choose one:
Planes l and q are parallel planes
Planes l and q intersect in line
Point P is in plane l.
4.
If two lines intersect, only one plane contains both the lines.
TRUE or FALSE?
Choose one:
TRUE
FALSE
5.
6.
Which of the following statements
is true?
Choose one:
Line
lies in plane l.
and
plane l is point A.
Plane l is perpendicular to line
7.
If two points lie in a plane, the line joining them
also lies in the same plane.
TRUE or FALSE?
Choose one:
TRUE
FALSE
8.
Student Tasks:
1. Using the string, determine the length of the great circle of the spherical ball. Pull
the string tight to the ball between the two poles, to approximate a geodesic. Record
this length.
2. Find the distance between the two designated, but non-connected, points on the
ball. (These points will not be the poles.) Record this length. Is the geodesic you
used for this length unique, or are other geodesics possible for this measurement?
3. Locate the vertices of each of the triangles on the ball. Using a great circle as a
geodesic, find the lengths of the sides of the triangles. Record the lengths for all of
the triangles.
4. To the best of your ability, use the protractor to measure the angles in each of the
triangles. Record the measurements for each triangle.
5. Make a concluding statement about the relationship between the angels of a
triangle on a sphere.
6. A discussion of Euclidean geometry versus non-Euclidean geometry would follow.
Basic Constructions
Topic Index | Geometry Index | Regents Exam Prep Center
The Compass:
Compasses come in a variety of styles. Become familiar with the compass you will be
using before beginning your constructions.
The Straightedge:
A straightedge is generally a clear plastic tool devoid of markings. It most often
appears in the shape of a triangle. A portion of a straightedge is visible in the lower
left corner of the picture on the left below.
If you do not have a straightedge, a ruler may be used. Just remember to completely
ignore the markings on the ruler.
copy an angle
bisect an angle
While the constructions listed above are considered the basic geometrical
constructions, you should also be able to construct situations that require the use of
these constructions.
ATTENTION
Video Users:
A reference line is a line upon which you produce copies of existing figures.
Directions:
Explanation of construction: The two line segments are the same length, therefore
they are congruent.
Copy an angle
Video of
Copy an Angle
Given:
Task: To construct an angle congruent to
.
Directions:
1. If a reference line does not already exist, draw a reference line with
your straightedge upon which you will make your construction. Place
a starting point on the reference line.
2. Place the point of the compass on the vertex of
(point A).
3. Stretch the compass to any length so long as it stays ON the angle.
4. Swing an arc with the pencil that crosses both sides of
.
5. Without changing the span of the compass, place the compass point
on the starting point of the reference line and swing an arc that will
intersect the reference line and go above the reference line.
6. Go back to
and measure the width (span) of the arc from where it crosses
one side of the angle to where it crosses the other side of the angle.
7. With this width, place the compass point on the reference line where your new arc
crosses the reference line and mark off this width on your new arc.
8. Connect this new intersection point to the starting point on the reference line.
Your new angle is congruent to
ATTENTION
Video Users:
Video of
Bisect a Segment
Directions:
1. Place your compass point on A and stretch the compass MORE THAN
half way to pointB, but not beyond B.
2. With this length, swing a large arc that will go BOTH above and
below
(If you do not wish to make one large continuous arc, you may simply place one small arc
above
.)
3. Without changing the span on the compass, place the compass point
on B and swing the arc again. The two arcs you have created should
intersect.
cross as C.
has now been bisected and AC = CB. (It could also be said that the segments are
congruent,
.)
(It may be advantageous to instruct students in the use of the "large arc method"
because it creates a "crayfish" looking creature which students easily remember and
which reinforces the circle concept needed in the explanation of the construction.)
Explanation of construction: To understand the explanation you will need to label the
point of intersection of the arcs above segment
as D and below segment
as E.
Draw segments
,
,
and
. All four of these segments are of the same
length since they are radii of two congruent circles. More specifically, DA =
DBand EA = EB. Now, remember a locus theorem: The locus of points equidistant
from two points, is the perpendicular bisector of the line segment determined by the
two points. Hence,
is the perpendicular bisector of
.
The fact that the bisector is also perpendicular to the segment is actually MORE than
we needed for a simple "bisect" construction. Isn't this great! Free stuff!!!
Bisect an angle
Video of
Bisect an Angle
Given:
Task: Bisect
Directions:
1. Place the point of the compass on the vertex of
(point A).
2. Stretch the compass to any length so long as it stays ON the angle.
3. Swing an arc so the pencil crosses both sides of
. This will create
two intersection points with the sides (rays) of the angle.
4. Place the compass point on one of these new intersection points on the
sides of
.
If needed, stretch your compass to a sufficient length to place your pencil well into the
interior of the angle. Stay between the sides (rays) of the angle. Place an arc in this
interior - you do not need to cross the sides of the angle.
5. Without changing the width of the compass, place the point of the compass on
the other intersection point on the side of the angle and make the same arc. Your two
small arcs in the interior of the angle should be crossing.
6. Connect the point where the two small arcs cross to the vertex A of the angle.
You have now created two new angles that are of equal measure (and are each 1/2 the
measure of
.)
Explanation of construction: To understand the explanation, some additional labeling
will be needed. Label the point where the arc crosses side
as D. Label the point
where the arc crosses side
as E. And label the intersection of the two small arcs
in the interior as F. Draw segments
and
. By the construction, AD = AE(radii
of same circle) and DF = EF (arcs of equal length). Of course AF = AF. All of these
sets of equal length segments are also congruent. We have congruent triangles by
SSS. Since the triangles are congruent, any of their leftover corresponding parts are
congruent which makes
equal (or congruent) to
.
Parallel
- through a point
Topic Index | Geometry Index | Regents Exam Prep Center
ATTENTION
Video Users:
Parallel
-through a point
Video of
Parallel through a point
3. When the copy of the angle is complete, you will have two parallel lines.
This new line is parallel to the given line.
Explanation of construction: Since we used the construction to copy an angle, we now
have two angles of equal measure in our diagram. In relation to parallel lines, these
two equal angles are positioned in such a manner that they are called corresponding
angles. A theorem relating to parallel lines tells us that if two lines are cut by a
transversal and the corresponding angles are congruent (equal), then the lines are
parallel.
Perpendiculars
- from a point on the line
- from a point off the line
Topic Index | Geometry Index | Regents Exam Prep Center
ATTENTION
Video Users:
Perpendicular
from a point ON a line
Video of
Perpendicular On Line
4. Without changing the span on the compass, place the compass point where the arc
crossed the line on the OTHER side and make another arc. Your two small arcs
should be crossing.
5. With your straightedge, connect the intersection of the two small arcs to point P.
This new line is perpendicular to the given line.
Perpendicular
from a point off a line.
Video of
Perpendicular Off Line
4. With your straightedge, connect the intersection of the two new arcs to point P.
This new line is perpendicular to the given line.
Explanation of construction: To understand the explanation, some additional labeling
will be needed. Label the point where the arc crosses the line as points C and D.
Label the intersection of the new arcs on the opposite side as point E. Draw
segments
,
,
, and
. By the construction, PC = PD and EC =
ED. Now, remember a locus theorem: The locus of points equidistant from two
points (C and D), is the perpendicular bisector of the line segment determined by the
two points. Hence,
is the perpendicular bisector of
.
The fact that we created a bisector, as well as a perpendicular, is actually MORE than
we needed - we only needed to create a perpendicular. Yea, free stuff!!!
Construct an isosceles
triangle whose legs and
Construct an Isosceles Triangle
base are of the predetermined lengths
Using Given Segment Lengths:
given. Construct the
new triangle on the
reference line.
When constructing an isosceles triangle, you may
Construct an equilateral
triangle whose sides are
of given length "a".
Construct the new
triangle on the reference
line.
Using your
Do not change the size of Do not change the size
compass,
the compass. Place your of the compass. Place
measure the
compass point on the
the compass point
length of the
reference line point and where the arc crosses
given segment, scribe an arc which will the reference line and
"a".
cross the line and will
scribe another arc
rise above the line.
which crosses the
previous arc.
Construction Activities
Topic Index | Geometry Index | Regents Exam Prep Center
1. Draw two quadrilaterals of about the same shape as the ones shown below. Using
your straightedge and compass, bisect each side of each figure. Join the midpoints of
the four sides of each figure in order, so that two new quadrilaterals are formed. What
do you notice?
3.
Draw two triangles of the same shape as shown below. Using your straightedge
and compass, bisect each of the three angles of each figure. What do you notice?
4. Using what you know about constructions, can you figure out a way to construct
the following items?
the altitudes of a scalene triangle
the altitudes of an obtuse triangle
the medians of a scalene triangle
the medians of an obtuse triangle
a square
and
Polyhedra
Topic Index | Geometry Index | Regents Exam Prep Center
Singular: polyhedron
Plural: polyhedra
pyramid
prism
A polyhedron is called regular if the faces are congruent, regular polygons and the
same number of faces meet at each vertex. There are a total of five such convex
regular polyhedra called the Platonic solids.
tetrahedron
octahedron
icosahedron
hexahedron
dodecahedron
F+V=E+2
Non-Polyhedra
The following solids are not polyhedra since a part or all of the figure is curved.
Cylinder
Cone
Sphere
Torus
A torus is a "tube shape". Examples include an inner tube, a doughnut, a tire and a
bagel. Smallr is the radius of the tube and capital R is the distance from the centre of
the torus to the center of the tube.
Prisms
Topic Index | Geometry Index | Regents Exam Prep Center
Oblique Triangular
Prism
Parallelepiped
A prism which has a parallelogram as its base is
called aparallelepiped. It is a polyhedron with 6
faces which are all parallelograms.
V = Bh
(Volume of a prism: B = base area, h = height)
Note: A cross section of a geometric solid is the intersection of a plane and the solid.
Cavalieri's Principle:
Reflective Prisms
In the study of optics, prisms are used to reflect light,
such as occurs in binoculars. Prisms are also used to
disperse light, or break light into its spectral colors of the
rainbow. The most commonly used optic prism is a
triangular prism, which has a triangular base and
rectangular sides.
Pyramids
Pyramid
Triangular pyramid
Square pyramid
Until the 19th century, the Great Pyramid at Giza was the tallest building in the
world. At over 4500 years in age, it is the only one of the famous Seven Wonders of
the Ancient World that remains standing.
According to the Greek historian Herodotus, the Great Pyramid was built as a tomb
for the Pharaoh Khufu.
Cylinders
Topic Index | Geometry Index | Regents Exam Prep Center
Cylinder
h = height (altitude)
r = radius
Cylinders are not called polyhedra since their faces are not
polygons. In many ways, however, a cylinder is similar to
a prism. A cylinder has parallel congruent bases, as does
a prism, but the cylinder's bases are circles rather than
polygons.
A net is a two-dimensional
figure that can be cut out and
folded up to make a threedimensional solid.
When working with surface areas of cylinders, read the questions carefully.
Will the surface area include
both of the bases?
Cones
Topic Index | Geometry Index | Regents Exam Prep Center
Cone
h = height (altitude)
r = radius
s = slant height
Cones are not called polyhedra since their faces are not
polygons. In many ways, however, a cone is similar to a
pyramid. A cone's base is simply a circle rather than a polygon
as seen in the pyramid.
The volume of a cone can be calculated in the same manner as the volume
of a pyramid: the volume is one-third the product of the base area times the
height of the cone,
Since the base of a cone is a circle, the formula for the area of a circle can be
substituted into the volume formula for B :
When working with surface areas of cones, read the questions carefully.
Will the surface area
include the base?
Spheres
Topic Index | Geometry Index | Regents Exam Prep Center
Sphere
r = radius
Note: A cross section of a geometric solid is the intersection of a plane and the solid.
Such a circle
will be found when the cross-sectional plane passes through the center of the sphere.
The equator is an examples of a great circle. Meridians
(passing through the North and South poles) are also
great circles.
The shortest distance between two points on a sphere is
along the arc of the great circle joining the points.
The shortest distance between points on any surface is
called ageodesic. In a plane, a straight line is a geodesic.
On a sphere, a great circle is a geodesic.
A hemisphere is the half sphere formed by a plane intersecting the center of a sphere.
Platonic Solids
(Regular Solids, Regular Polyhedra)
Topic Index | Geometry Index | Regents Exam Prep Center
Regular solids (regular polyhedra, or Platonic solids which were described by Plato)
are solid geometric figures, with identical regular polygons (such as squares) as their
faces, and with the same number of faces meeting at every corner (vertex). Euclid
proved that there are only five regular convex polyhedra.
The five Platonic Solids were thought to represent the five basic elements of the
world; earth, air, fire, water, and the universe.
The "regular solids" are important in many aspects of chemistry, crystallography, and
mineralogy.
The equilateral triangle is the simplest regular
polygon. Placing three equilateral triangles at a
vertex (total angle 180) will form
a tetrahedron (4 faces, 4 vertices).
It has the smallest volume for its surface.
The tetrahedron represents fire.
Tidbit of Info:
1.
Choose:
18 cu. units
93.5 cu. units
280.5 cu. units
467.7 cu. units
This figure is a regular hexagonal prism.
Find its volume.
Explanation
2.
Choose:
12.7 sq. ft.
50.2 sq. ft.
The radius of this sphere is 4 feet.
Find the area of the great circle of this sphere to the nearest
tenth.
Explanation
3.
Choose:
110
Find the volume of
this right circular cone
to the nearest cubic
foot.
80
64
47
Explanation
4.
Choose:
73.0 lbs
583.2 lbs
732.9 lbs
2442.9 lbs
Explanation
5.
Explanation
6.
Choose:
The figure to the left is a cube.
Find the number of degrees in angle
45
60
Explanation
7.
90
Choose:
True
False
If this 2-dimensional net is assembled, it will form the 3dimensional figure shown at the right.
8.
Choose:
18 sq. in.
24 sq. in.
36 sq. in.
This figure represents a slab of cheese. It is in the form of a
right triangular prism. Find the least amount of wrapping
needed to cover the cheese on all sides.
48 sq. in.
Explanation
9.
Explanation
Choose:
150.8 cu.in.
226.2 cu.in.
904.8 cu.in.
7238.2 cu.in.
10.
Choose:
800
A regular pyramid is shown at the
left. Find the volume of the
pyramid to the nearest cubic unit.
267
80
27
Explanation
11.
Choose:
1575
Find the volume in
cubic feet.
4050
5625
6225
Explanation
12.
Choose:
251.47 cm
228.91 cm
15.86 cm
15.13 cm
Explanation
13.
Vcylinder : Vsphere =
:3
Vcylinder : Vsphere = 3 : 2
Explanation
14.
Choose:
MetroPlex
CinemaPlex
Mom's Place
Explanation
15.
Choose:
41.6 cu.
units
124.7 cu.
units
128.4 cu.
units
203.6 cu.
units
Explanation
16.
In the chart below, the dimensions of a cylinder and a cone are doubled and
tripled. Find the volume of all three cylinders and all three cones. When
finished, state a hypothesis as to what happens to the volume of solids when
r = 4; h = 7
Doubled: r = 8; h = 14
Tripled: r = 12; h = 21
Cone:
r = 4; h = 7
Doubled: r = 8, h = 14
Tripled: r = 12; h = 21
Hypothesis
Polygons
Topic Index | Geometry Index | Regents Exam Prep Center
Types of Polygons
Listed below are some of the more commonly used polygons.
(Do not assume that the diagrams under the "Graphic" column are "regular"
polygons. Do not assume any specific details about the diagrams such as the length of
the sides or measures of the angles.)
Sides
Angles
Vertices
Diagonals
Number
Triangles
Triangle
Quadrilateral
Pentagon
Hexagon
Polygon
Graphic
Heptagon or
Septagon
14
Octagon
20
Nonagon or
Novagon
27
Decagon
10
10
10
35
Dodecagon
12
12
12
54
10
n-gon
---
(n - 2)
of a Polygon
Topic Index | Geometry Index | Regents Exam Prep Center
= 180(n - 2)
(where n = number of sides)
180 = 540
Notice that a pentagon has 5 sides, and that 3 triangles were formed by
connecting the vertices. The number of triangles formed will be 2 less
than the number of sides.
This pattern is constant for all polygons. Representing the number of sides of a polygon as n,
the number of triangles formed is (n - 2). Since each triangle contains 180, the sum of the
interior angles of a polygon is 180(n - 2).
1. Questions that ask you to find the number of degrees in the sum of the interior angles of a
polygon.
2. Questions that ask you to find the number of sides of a polygon.
Hint: When working with the angle formulas for polygons, be sure to read each
question carefully for clues as to which formula you will need to use to solve the
problem. Look for the words that describe each kind of formula, such as the
words sum, interior, each, exterior and degrees.
Example 1:
octagon.
An octagon has 8 sides. So n = 8. Using the formula from
above,180(n - 2) = 180(8 - 2) = 180(6) = 1080 degrees.
Example 2:
A polygon is called
a REGULARpolygon when all of its
sides are of the same length and all
of its angles are of the same
measure.
A regular polygon is both
equilateral and equiangular.
pentagon.
(which is the same as the number of sides).
540
5 = 108
Examples
Read these questions carefully! If the word "EACH" appears in the question, you will
most likely need the formula for "each interior angle" to solve the problem.
Cross multiply.
Exterior Angle
Topic Index | Geometry Index | Regents Exam Prep Center
Formula:
Sum exterior angles of any polygon = 360
(using one exterior angle at a vertex)
Finding the sum of the exterior angles of a polygon is simple. No matter what type of
polygon you have, the sum of the exterior angles is ALWAYS equal to 360.
If you are working with a regular polygon, you can determine the size
of EACH exterior angle by simply dividing the sum, 360, by the number of
angles. Remember, the formula below will ONLY work in a regular polygon.
Formula:
Each exterior angle (regular polygon) =
Examples
the sum of the exterior angles of:
1. Find
a) a pentagon
Answer: 360
b) a decagon
c) a 15 sided polygon
d) a 7 sided polygon
Answer: 3600
Answer: 3600
Answer: 3600
Types of Sentences
Topic Index | Geometry Index | Regents Exam Prep Center
All reasoning is based on the ways we put sentences together. Let's start our
examination of logic by defining what types of sentences we will be using.
A mathematical sentence is one in which a fact or complete idea is expressed.
Because a mathematical sentence states a fact, many of them can be judged to be
"true" or "false". Questions and phrases are not mathematical sentences since they
cannot be judged to be true or false.
"An isosceles triangle has two congruent sides." is a true mathematical sentence.
"Did you get that one right?" is NOT a mathematical sentence - it is a question.
The truth value of theses sentences depends upon the value replacing the
variable.
A compound sentence is formed when two or more thoughts are connected in one
sentence.Words such as and, or, if...then and if and only if allow for the formation
of compound sentences, or statements. Notice that more than one truth value is
involved in working with a compound sentence.
"Today is a vacation day and I sleep late."
"You can call me at 10 o'clock or you can call me at 2 o'clock."
"If you are going to the beach, then you should take your sunscreen."
"A triangle is isosceles if and only if it has two congruent sides."
Sentences, or statements, that have the same truth value are said to be
logically equivalent.
("equivalent" means "equal")
Under negation, what was TRUE, will become FALSE or - what was FALSE, will become TRUE.
is a false statement.
"A dog is not a cat." is a true statement.
"It is not true that a dog is a cat." is a true statement.*
"It is not the case that it is not true that a dog is not a cat." is a true statement.*
* Notice that there are different ways of inserting the concept of "not" into a
statement. While we would not usually speak in a manner similar to the last
statement, we must be alert to people who attempt to win arguments by using
several negations at the same time to cause confusion.
4.
Mathematicians often use symbols and tables to represent concepts in logic. The use of these
variables, symbols and tables creates a shorthand method for discussing logical sentences.
Truth table for negation (not):
(notice the symbol used for "not" in the table below)
REMEMBER:
Conjunction
AND
Topic Index | Geometry Index | Regents Exam Prep Center
Mathematicians often use symbols and tables to represent concepts in logic. The use of these
variables, symbols and tables creates a shorthand method for discussing logical sentences.
Truth table for conjunction (and):
(notice the symbol used for "and" in the table below)
Remember:
Disjunction
OR
Topic Index | Geometry Index | Regents Exam Prep Center
4.
"The word cat has 3 letters or the word dog has four letters."
(T or F = T) Since the first fact is true, the entire sentence is true.
Mathematicians often use symbols and tables to represent concepts in logic. The use of these
variables, symbols and tables creates a shorthand method for discussing logical sentences.
Truth table for disjunction (or):
(notice the symbol used for "or" in the table below)
Remember:
For a disjunction (or) to be true, EITHER or BOTH
facts must be true.
Biconditional
IF AND ONLY IF
Topic Index | Geometry Index | Regents Exam Prep Center
Mathematicians often use symbols and tables to represent concepts in logic. The use of these
variables, symbols and tables creates a shorthand method for discussing logical sentences.
Truth table biconditional (if and only if):
(notice the symbol used for "if and only if" in the table
below)
T
T
F
F
T
F
T
F
T
F
F
T
REMEMBER:
IF AND ONLY IF is TRUE
when both facts are T
or both facts are F..
For example:
"Broccoli tastes awful."
"The Beatles were an awesome group."
"Football is the most exciting sport to watch."
An even worse situation is the case where it is impossible to determine the truth value
of a sentence due to a lack of information.
For example:
"She did her homework."
"x + 5 = 25"
"It's the best movie this year."
An open
Example:
Open sentence:
Variable:
Domain:
x + 5 = 25
x
{10, 20, 22, 24}
Solution Set:
{20}
Example:
Open sentence:
She did her homework.
Variable:
She
Domain:
{Sue, Melissa,
Jennifer, Sandy, Joanne}
(girls' names you can choose from)
Solution Set:
{Sue, Sandy}
(the answers which makes the
open sentence true)
(You would have to know which
girls DID their homework. In
this case, Sue and Sandy did
their homework.)
Remember:
Compound Sentences
Topic Index | Geometry Index | Regents Exam Prep Center
T and T
T
T or F
T
if (T and F) then F
if F then F
When the truth value of one or more of the components of a compound sentence is unknown,
all of the possible truth values must be considered. A truth table is the easiest way to show
all of these possibilities.
T
T
F
F
T
F
T
F
T
F
F
F
T
T
T
F
F
F
F
T
F
T
T
T
The truth table tells you that the compound sentence will be false only when p and q are both
true. In all other situations, the compound sentence is true.
Remember: When working with a biconditional, the statement is TRUE only when
both conditions have the same truth value.
"A triangle has only 3 sides if and only if a square has only 4 sides."
... is logically equivalent to ...
"If it is a triangle then it has only 3 sides and if it is a square
then it has only 4 sides."
To negate a biconditional, we will negate its logically equivalent statement by using
DeMorgan's Laws and Conditional Negation.
SOME
Consider: "Some rectangles are
squares."
(Meaning that there exists at
negates to
negates to
SOME A
NO A are B.