Totems: beyond animal and human rights

Douglas Racionzer

July 2013

Abstract
The rights-based approaches to animal welfare and human flourishing often
undermine the dignity and agency of the rights-bearers. This paper argues for a
reconsideration of traditional clan totems as a means to achieve the social
cohesion required to dignify humans and nature.

Introduction
It has always struck me as ironic that rights-based approaches to social
organizing and advocacy often undermine the agency and dignity of the
individuals and groups who possess these rights. It seems that human rights
discourses in particular have become fixated on legal and formal definitions and
processes. Formal norms as Garfinkeli and others argue cannot be enacted
without normal forms. That is the normal, taken for granted, mundane and
situated actions of members in particular settings.
On New Year s Day in 2010 I was visiting a friend and his wife, they expressed
horror at a recent Zulu ceremony called Ukushwama. In this ceremony some
30 unarmed Zulu chase a bull around a kraal, corner the animal and suffocate it
to death. An animal rights group took the matter to court to get the practice
banned as cruelty to animals. The Ukushwama ceremony is practiced as a
harvest festival.
The storm of controversy sharply split the country into opposing sides. The
National reported: The animal rights activists, the Presidents spokesman; Mr
Kodwa wrote, were acting "out of desperation and the desire to impose their
civilisation". The case was "absurd", and they were motivated by "racism that is
cloaked as defence of animal rights". "The slaughtering of cattle carries a
particular significance in African culture, as it does in many other countries in the
world. The disrespect and contempt for African culture and traditions
demonstrated by the debate demonstrates the utter hypocrisy of those who
have anointed themselves voices of reason. This is reminiscent of the arrival of
the European settlers on our shores who declared that our people were barbaric
heathens who needed to be civilised. Mr. Kodwa went on to state that "For
centuries we have been bombarded with the lie that African people, their values
and beliefs, were inferior to those of their western counterparts." The ANC
weighed in as well, in an official capacity, saying: "The matter of cultures and
practices of our people is a subject that is sacrosanct."
Michele Pickover, a spokeswoman for Animal Rights Africa, which brought the
legal action, said accusations of racism were "inaccurate and untrue". "Societies
are always changing. Culture is capable of significant adaptation as
circumstances change. "Not all traditions are worthy of admiration and respect.
1

Tradition should never be an excuse for cruelty, and surely harmful practices
should not be condoned just because they are cultural practices," she said, citing
cannibalism, infanticide, slavery, and bear-baiting as examples, among others.
"Our humanity and humility is at stake. South Africa has laws against animal
cruelty, but it also has constitutional guarantees of cultural, religious and
linguistic rights.ii
The court found in favour of the defendants and of Zulu culture.
This incident reflects the failure of a rights-based approach relying, as it does on
formal legal processes to satisfy anyone. The Zulu traditionalists are still
outraged and clearly are still smarting at the humiliation they feel at having their
cultural practices and rights questioned and impugned. The animal rights
activists are outraged and angry at the cruelty the Ukushwama metes out to
cattle.
A court of law is clearly going to disappoint one side and not fully salve the
outrage of the other. Formal norms cannot address normal forms.
This is perhaps where a more nuanced understanding and use of cultural
traditions might be used to craft a means that upholds cultural traditions while
also building social cohesion, human flourishing and promoting animal welfare.

Totems in African society

Studies in cultural anthropology have shown that societies which are made up
of clans also have totems and taboos. The totems are in great majority animals
and plants. In some cases, however, the totem can be any object, animate or
inanimate. The totem has been interpreted in the case of animals as a sacred
object which is symbiotically linked to the clan historically, physically and
spiritually. These animals are revered by clan members because apparently they
represent the soul and the spirit of their progenitor. iii
Bozongwana says of the Ndebele: When nomadic life came to an end, families
began to group together to form small communities under a powerful head.
Caves usually served as their centres and as forts to protect them form
harassment by other stronger families. To distinguish one group from another,
the system of totems was used. This is how the Dube, Mpofu , Sibanda, Nkomo,
Ncube and so on got their names. To adopt an animal as totem meant that it
became not only a member of the group, but also their patron and its meat
became sacred and is not eaten.iv
The belief is that the ancestral spirits incarnate the totem animal and dwell init.
Prohibitions are therefore an acknowledgement of subordination and acceptance
of the authority of the amadlozi. The Sibanda may not eat animals belonging to
the cat family that is, those with claws. The Ndlovu respect the elephant, while
the Ncube totem is the baboon.v
Tsiu, in his doctoral dissertation, writes of totems or diboko: The Basotho,
especially those of old, believe that in some mysterious and inexplicable way,
they derive their existence from these totems which they view as sacred. vi
2

Totems are universal and have been adapted to religious practices. Hindu
religious practice can be said to have adopted the cow as its totem. The cow in
Hindu religion is sacred and cannot be hurt or killed without offending Aditi, the
mother of the gods.

Totems and Westernization

This use of totems and the clan structure of African society is widespread
although urbanized youth often are not aware of these traditions and do not
make use of them in any significant manner. Indeed Western interest in Totems
can be traced to Fraser anthropological work which viewed Totemism as a
primitive form of religion and thus not fitting for civilized people. vii
Freud in 1913, following Fraser, erroneously argued that totems were a primitive
form of religion and that they expressed social formations that reinforced a
horror of incest, a commemoration of the primal binding act of fratricide and
subsequent neurotic guilt.viii
These views of totemism have been shown to be ethnocentric and racist. Totems
are actually ancient and exquisitely crafted social conventions and normal forms
that solve a number of social issues and serve to organize African society for the
common good.

Clans and Totems Listings

Below is a list of 49 clans and their totems among the Sotho and Tswana ix
Clan Name

Language

Country

Totem

Totem(English)

split from

Babirwa

Setswana

Botswana

Nare

Buffalo

Bafokeng

Sesotho,
Setswana

Lesotho, South
Africa (North
West, Free State)

Mmutla, Kwena

Rabbit/Crocodile

Bafula

Sesotho

Lesotho, South
Africa Free State

Kolobe

Wild Hog

Bagananwa

Sesotho sa
Lebowa

South Africa
Limpopo

Tshwene

Baboon

Bahlakwana

Sesotho

Lesotho, South
Africa Free State

Tlou

Elephant

Bahurutshe

Setswana

Botswana, South
Tshwene
Africa North West

Baboon

Bakgaga

Sesotho sa
Lebowa

South Africa
Limpopo

Kwena

Crocodile

Bakwena

Bakgalagadi

Setswana

Botswana

Bakgalagadi Baboalongwe

Setswana

Botswana

Bakgalagadi Bangologa

Setswana

Botswana,
Namibia

Bakgalagadi Baphaleng

Setswana

Botswana

Bakgalagadi - Bashaga Setswana

Botswana

Bahurutshe

Bakgatla

Sesotho,
Setswana

Lesotho,
Botswana, South
Africa

Kgabo, Eagle

Monkey

Bahurutshe

Bakhurutshe

Setswana

Botswana

Tshwene/Phofu

Baboon/Elands

Bahurutshe

Bakone

Sesotho ba
Lebowa

South Africa
Limpopo

hlagahlagane
(tlhantlhagane)

Scaly feathered
finch

Bakubung

Setswana

Kubu

hippopotamus

Bakwena

Sesotho,
Setswana,
Sesotho sa
Lebowa

Kwena

Crocodile

Bamalete

Setswana

Nare

Buffalo

Banareng

Sesotho,
Setswana

Nare

buffalo

Bangwaketse

Setswana

Botswana

Kwena

Crocodile

Bangwato

Setswana

Botswana

Phuti

duiker

Bapai

Sesotho ba
Lebowa

South Africa
Limpopo

Bapedi

Sesotho sa
Lebowa

Noko

Porcupine

Bakgatla

Baphalane

Sesotho

Kwena

Crocodile

Bakwena

Baphiri

Setswana

Phiri

Hyenna

Baphuting

Sesotho

Phuti

Duiker

Bapo

Setswana

Kwena

Crocodile

Barokologadi

Setswana

Noko

Porcupine

Barolong

Setswana

Tholo

Wildebest

Basia

Sesotho

katse

Wild Cat

Batau

Sesotho ba
Lebowa

South Africa
Limpopo

Tau

Lion

Bataung

Sesotho,
Setswana,
Sesotho sa
Lebowa

South Africa

Tau

Lion

Bahurutshe

Batawana

Batswana

Botswana

Tholo

Kudu

Bangwato

Batlhako

Setswana

South Africa

Tlou

Elephant

Batlhaping

Setswana

South Africa,
Namibia

Tholo ba nina
Tlhapi

Kudu/Fish

Batlharo

Setswana

Tshwene

Baboon

Batlhware

Setswana

Tshwene

Baboon

Batlokwa

Sesotho,
Setswana,
Sesotho sa
Lebowa

Noko, Nkwe,
Thakadu

Wild Cat

Batloung

Setswana

Tlou

Elephant

Letsatsi

Sun

Tshwene

Baboon

Botswana

Batsatsing
Batshweneng

Sesotho,
Setswana,
Sesotho sa
Lebowa

Batswapong

Setswana

Makgolokwe

Sesotho

Makgwakgwa

Sesotho

Makololo

Botswana

small buck

Zambia

Kwena

Crocodile

Tau

Lion

Sesotho ba
Lebowa

South Africa
Limpopo

Bakopa

Sesotho ba
Lebowa

South Africa
Limpopo

Bakutswe

Sesotho ba

South Africa

Bakwena

Bakwena

Bakgatla

Barolong

Bakgatla

Bahurutshe

hare or kgope
phuthi

Mapulana

Barolong

Bafokeng

Lebowa
Baroka

Limpopo

Sesotho ba
Lebowa

Bakwena Ba
MaThebe(also known Setswana
as Bantwane)

South Africa

Tau

Lion

Kwena, Tholo &

Kgabo

Crocodile

Bammangwato,
Barolong & Bakgatla

These Sotho and Tswana clans and their totems are valid and recognized across
national boundaries and do not restrict the movement of people. Indeed people
from different clans live side by side in peace partly due to the mutual respect
they have for each others totems.
There seems to be little effort to formally preserve and valorise clans and their
totems in South Africa. No centre for research has been established and
research seems limited to a few doctoral dissertations. Freedom Park seems the
natural centre for such research as well as the preservation of rituals and
heritage but to date no work in this regard has been done.
Credo Mutwa has established a centre where such knowledge might be
preserved in the park at Lotlamoreng dam just outside Mafikeng. The site
though is run down and clearly under-funded.
I have gathered a listing of some 43 totems linked to clans and surnames that
are common in South Africa:

Clan name

Totem

Bafula
Bakone
baKubung /baKavubu
baLobedu and Modjaji
Baphuthi / Makgoloekwe tribe/ baNgwato
baRolong/baTawana
Basia /baTloka/Sibanda
Basia /Mokoteli/ baPedi
Bathlalerwa / Shongwane
Dikolobe/ Balobedu
Dube /Cele of Zululand / baha duba
Ingwenyama /Shumba /Motaung/baTau/ baRoka/Mapulana
Inqilo (Xhosa)/Mlambo Clan (Xhosa)

Wild Hog
Scaly feathered finch
Hippo
Anteater
Duiker
Kudu/ wildebeest
Cat
Porcupine
Cheetah
Pig
Zebra
Lion
Orange throated
longclaw
bees &red ants
Monkey / fire
Guinea Fowl
cow
Vulture
Small buck
Tortoise
Dassie (Hyrax)
Hyena
Eland
hare
Crab

Inyosi (Xhosa) /Madiba/ Ubugqwango (Xhosa)

Kgabo/ baKgathla
Kgaka / sibanyoni/'nyoni
Khomo /Nkomo
Letlaka /
Makgolokwe
Makudu
Mokoka/Khumalo/Imbila
Mphisi
Mpofu
Mutlanyana / Mvundla /baFokeng /Phoka/baTswapong
Mutwa clan of the Msimango tribe /unonkala/ Rhadebe/
Mthimkulu/Zulu/Hlubi/Hadebe

Nare/ the Bedla in Transkei

Ndou / Tlou / amaHlubi- Rhadebe/Mhlanga/Msi/Mthinkulu/Ndlovu
/baTloung /Lemba/ balobedu/Makgekge/ baHlakwana
Ngwenya/ bakwena /Tangwena of Zimbabwe/ baFokeng
Nku
Nkwe /Ngwenya/ ikato yehlathi /Skosana /Bhele /
Ntja /Mnkbane (Xhosa)
Phakwe
Phiri /phokojwe
Phiti
Pitsi /pere
Poho
Sibanda
Thlapi /Hove/ Masilela
Tollo
Tshioene / mfene /baFurutshe /baTloaru from Zeerust
/Ncube/baGananwa
Tshukudu the Nari/ baBirwa/bamalete/ BaNareng
Umajola/ Nzo
Uxam (Xhosa) /Ntshilibe/Bhanqo/Mdumani

Rhino
Elephant
Crocodile
Sheep
Leopard
Dog
Eagle
Jackal
Buck
Horse
Bull
Predatory animal
Fish
Impala
Baboon
Buffalo
House snake/ any
snake
Leguaan

Putting totems to the service of the common good

These totems listed above do not cover the vast array of animals in South Africa.
If however we could establish a movement that sought to promote totems and
the respect due to them, we could at one fell, promote social cohesion as well as
animal welfare.
An organization such as the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals
could, instead of merely seeking to promote animal rights, begin to craft a
discourse that brings animla welfare into the centre of nation-building.
By respecting the totems of your neighbour, you give them dignity and respect
their cultural traditions.

Conclusion
This paper has sought to show that there is deeply entrenched cultural tradition
in African society that uses animal and plant totems to promote the social
cohesion. This paper argues that by putting this tradition to use in advocating
for the welfare of animals and the common good, we can advance our social
cohesion.

i Garfinkel H. 2002. Ethnomethodologys Program: working Out Durkheims Aphorism.

Oxford, Rowman and Littlefield
ii Sebastian Berger. Dec 8 2009 article. Culture-Clash over Bull killong ritual.
http://www.thenational.ae/news/world/africa/culture-clash-over-bull-killing-ritual
Downloaded 18 July 2012.
iii Kimenyi, Alexandre. 1989. Kinyarwanda and Kirundi Names : A semiotic analysis of
Bantu onomastics. New York : The Edwin Mellen Press
iv Rev. Wallace Bozongwana. 1983. NDEBELE RELIGION AND CUSTOMS (Originally published
by Mambo Press in Association with The Literature Bureau- 1983)

v Ibid
vi Tsiu, W.M. 2008. Basotho oral poetry at the beginning of the 21 st century (Volume 1).
Doctoral dissertation UNISA
vii Fraser, J.G. 1910. Totemism and Exogamy (4 volumes), London
viii Freud, S. 1913. Totem and Taboo. First published by Hugo Heller
ix http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sotho-Tswana_Clans