Thesis

FISHERIES CO-MANAGEMENT, THE ROLE OF LOCAL INSTITUTIONS
AND DECENTRALISATION IN SOUTHEAST ASIA

Fisheries co-management,
the role of local institutions and
decentralisation in Southeast Asia
With specific reference to marine sasi in Central Maluku, Indonesia
PROEFSCHRIFT
ter verkrijging van

de graad van Doctor aan de Universiteit Leiden,
op gezag van de Rector Magnificus Dr. D.D. Breimer,
hoogleraar in de faculteit der Wiskunde en
Natuurwetenschappen en die der Geneeskunde,
volgens besluit van het College voor Promoties
te verdedigen op maandag 15 mei 2006
klokke 14.15
door
Ingvild Heléne Therese Harkes

geboren te Boskoop
in 1967
Promotiecommissie:
Promotor: Prof. dr. R. Schefold
Co-promotor: Dr. G.A. Persoon
Referent: Prof. dr. R.B. Pollnac (University of Rhode Island)
Overige leden: Prof. dr. L.J. Slikkerveer

Prof. dr. P. Spyer
Prof. dr. W.T. de Groot
Prof. dr. L.E. Visser (Universiteit Wageningen)
Dr. M. Osseweijer
We build too many walls and not enough bridges.
Sir Isaac Newton

Cover photo:
Mr Pieter Huliselan, village headman of Nolloth, pronounces ceremonial
words and sprinkles water over the sea to open sasi. Thereafter (backside)
a diver enters the sasi area to harvest the first Trochus shell (photo: Ansye
Sopacua).
Layout: Sjoukje Rienks, Amsterdam

Printed by: UFB/GrafiMedia
ISBN-10: 90-9020697-3
ISBN-13: 978-90-9020697-4
Institute of Environmental Sciences (CML)

Leiden University
PO Box 9518
2300 RA Leiden
The Netherlands
Acknowledgements
A thesis like this is not the product of one person; it is a collaborative project.
For the efforts and support of many people I am immensely grateful.
The main part of this study was carried out during my work as associate-ex-
pert under the Dutch Directorate for International Collaboration (DGIS) – a
lifetime opportunity to do the work I had always dreamed of. The first pe-
riod (1996-98) was spent at ICLARM in the Philippines (now the World Fish
Centre in Malaysia) under the inspiring guidance of Robert Pomeroy whom
I admire very much for his work and want to thank for his ongoing support.
I felt privileged to be able to work in such international working environ-
ment and am very grateful for the support of ICLARM staff and colleagues of
whom I want to mention Chingkel, Chell, Jojo, Bing, Albert, Deng Palomares
and Marco Noordeloos.
The operational costs for the sasi study were borne by IDRC and partly by DA-
NIDA through the Fisheries Co-management Research Project. In Maluku, I
worked together with Irene Novaczek who is a dedicated and gifted research-
er and development worker, and with Ansye Sopacua and Marcus Tatuhey
to whom I am all very grateful. Many thanks also to Irene Sahertian, Tetha
Hitipeuw, Hermien Soselisa and others at Yayasan Hualopu and Pattimura
University. For their friendship, lodging, support and the fun times we had I
would like to thank Kiki Dethmers, Klaas Jan Teule, Hans van Oostenbrugge,
Manon Osseweijer and Arie Brouwer.
The second period (1998-2000) was spent at the Institute for Fisheries Man-
agement and Coastal Community Development (IFM) in Denmark where I
finished the research report and focused more on Africa again, initially with
Sten Sverdrup-Jensen and Jesper Raakjaer Nielsen and in a later phase Poul
Degnbol and Doug Wilson who were all very inspiring people to work with.
Other colleagues and friends at the North Sea Centre were Anne Katrine
Normann, Jan and Tatiana Sohn, Dorte Holmgaard, Kirsten Klitkou, Nina
Broen, Christian Olesen and Ulrik Jes Hansen whom I like to thank for their
support, assistance and company.
The actual writing of this thesis has been made possible by Gerard Persoon
who has not only arranged a table and chair for me at CML, but who has also
supervised and guided this ‘project’. I am very grateful for all his warm sup-
port. My gratitude also concerns my promotor Reimar Schefold. All my col-
leagues at CML have also played an important role and I like to thank them
for their interest and support: Hans Bauer, Ruth Norduyn, Marieke Hobbes,
Koen Overmars, Myrna Eindhoven, Marco Huygen, Tessa Minter, Jan van der
Ploeg, Merlijn van Weerd, Wouter de Groot, Barbara Slee, Hans de Iongh,
Paul Loth, Denyse Schnelder, Annelies Oskam, Roswitha Adelaar, Edith de
Roos, Louis Defo and Norbert Sonne and all the others who came and went
from the research stations in the Philippines and Cameroon and brought
with them a breeze from the field.
People outside CML who have been of great support are Carel Drijver, Maarten
Bavinck, and Peter van der Heijden. I would further like to thank Anky Frank
and Elke Heyer for helping me to clarify where my heart and ambitions lay
– which is in the work I do now…
Most important are my family and friends. I want to acknowledge the never-
ending love and support of all these people so dear to me. Dear family, Wille-
mijn, Roos, Carla, Marietta, Hetty, Brigitte, Madelon, Diny, Trienette, Saskia,
Manon, Natascha, Janni, Maryze, Hans, Herman, Sylvia, Liz, Hugh, Astrid,
Maria, and Dick:
Thank you all so much!!

Table of Contents
Map Central Maluku 15

Glossary 16
Introduction 19
1 Theoretical framework 27
1.1 The road towards environmental anthropology 27
1.1.1 Environmental determinism versus cultural determinism 27
1.1.2 The ecosystem approach, human ecology and processual
human ecology 29
1.1.3 Ecological anthropology and environmental sciences
in the Netherlands 30
1.1.4 Environmental anthropology today 31
1.2 Other environmental approaches 32
1.2.1 The systems view 32
1.2.2 Adaptive management 33
1.2.3 Resilience thinking 34
1.3 Common property theory 34
1.3.1 The tragedy of the commons 34
1.3.2 The study of common property resource management 35
2 Co-management 39
2.1 Co-management defined 39
2.2 The parties in co-management 40
2.3 Important issues in co-management 43
2.3.1 Property rights 44
2.3.2 Participation 45
2.3.3 Local knowledge 45
2.3.4 Conflict resolution 47
2.3.5 Compliance and enforcement 48
2.3.6 Transaction costs 49
2.4 Shortcomings of co-management 49
2.5 Co-management today 50
2.6 The role of the anthropologist 53
3 Methodology 55
3.1 The research framework 55
3.2 Study site selection 57
3.3 Research methods 57
3.4 Inventory 60
3.5 Performance 61
3.6 Institutional resilience 61
3.7 Fisheries management and legal framework 62
3.8 Decentralisation 63
3.9 Conditions for success of co-management 63
3.10 Measuring of project success 64
4Description of the research area 65

4.1Socio-political history of Central Maluku 65
4.2History of Sasi in Maluku 69
4.3Village level socio-political context 72
4.3.1 Traditional village government structure 72
4.3.2 Modern village government structure 72
4.3.3 Government related organisations 74
4.3.4 The church 75
4.3.5 Other organisations 75
4.4 The fishery and biological context 76
4.5 Characteristics of the fishery 76
4.5.1 The commercial fishery 78
4.5.2 Top shell and sea cucumbers 79
5 Case Study: Desa Nolloth, Saparua Island 81

5.1 Physical, biological and technical attributes 81
5.1.1 Physical environment 82
5.1.2 Biological characteristics 82
5.1.3 Attributes of the sasi area 83
5.1.4 Fisheries technology 84
5.1.5 Artisanal and small commercial fishers 84
5.1.6 Large-scale commercial fishers 85
5.2 Attributes of the community and fishers 86
5.2.1 Employment 86
5.2.2 Village government 86
5.2.3 Village finances 88
5.2.4 Village organisations 88
5.2.5 Role of women 89
5.2.6 Fisher profile 89
5.3 Market attributes 90
5.3.1 Commercial large-scale fish trade 91
5.3.2 Trade in top shell and sea cucumber 91
5.4 Sasi institutional and organisational arrangements 92
5.4.1 Marine sasi: the players 94
5.4.2 Ceremonies for marine sasi 95
5.4.3 The harvest 101
5.4.4 Enforcement 102
5.4.5 Compliance 103
5.4.6 Significance of sasi and local knowledge 103
5.5 External institutional and organisations arrangements 104
5.5.1 Link with higher government bodies 104
5.5.2 Links between the community and government fisheries
management 105
5.5.3 Collaboration with other institutions 105
5.5.4 External economic influences 105
5.5.5 Infrastructure and development projects 105
5.6 Incentives to cooperate 106
5.6.1 Spiritual significance of sasi 106
5.6.2 Legitimacy 106
5.6.3 Status 106
5.6.4 Economic benefits 107
5.6.5 Sanctions 108
5.6.6 Social pressure 108
5.6.7 Conservation of scarce and valuable resources 108
5.6.8 Acknowledge of problems in the fishery 108
5.6.9 Attitudes 108
5.7 Patterns of interaction 109
5.8 Outcomes 110
5.8.1 Equity 110
5.8.2 Efficiency 112
5.8.3 Social sustainability 113
5.8.4 Biological sustainability 115
5.9 Synthesis 115
6 Presence, performance and institutional resilience of sasi 119

6.1 Inventory 119
6.1.1 Distribution of sasi on land crops and marine resources 119
6.1.2 The governing authorities: adat, church and local
government 122
6.1.3 Written rules, sanctions and ceremonies 123
6.1.4 Function and scope of sasi in resource management 123
6.2 Performance 125
6.2.1 Equity and efficiency of management 125
6.2.2 Social sustainability 126
6.2.3 Biological sustainability 126
6.4 Conclusion 130
7 Institutional resilience of marine sasi 135
7.1 Introduction 135
7.2 Institutional resilience defined 136
7.3 Patterns of loss of sasi since the 1940s 137
7.3.1 Loss of the entire sasi institution 137
7.3.2 The erosion and loss of marine sasi 138
7.4 Factors influencing activity of sasi 139
7.5 Reasons for loss of sasi between 1940-1997 141
7.6 Results of the comparative case-study 142
7.6.1 Objective of sasi 143
7.6.2 Rules and regulations 143
7.6.3 Role of traditional institutions 144
7.6.4 Leadership 145
7.6.5 Boundaries 146
7.6.6 Enforcement and compliance 146
7.6.7 Externalities 147
7.7 The revival of sasi in Central Maluku 148
7.8 Conclusions 150
8 Fisheries management in Central Maluku 155

8.1 Formal jurisdiction of marine waters prior to the passing
of Law 22/1999 155
8.2 National laws affecting artisanal and small-scale fisheries 156
8.3 Key management issues 156
8.4 Agencies involved in fisheries management and development
in Maluku 158
8.5 Implementing fisheries policy 162
8.5.1 The process of establishing a development project plan 163
8.5.2 The process of producing a fisheries law 163
8.6 Licensing 164
8.7 Enforcement 164
8.8 Communication and collaboration between village and higher
levels of management 165
8.9 Conclusions 166
9 Current legislation and policy framework for resource

management in Indonesia 171
9.1 Decentralisation of management authority 171
9.2 Financial arrangements and division of benefits 173
9.3 Shortcomings in the current system 174
9.4 The role of the central government 175
9.5 Role of the provinces 176
9.6 Role of the (sub-)district government 177
9.7 Role of the local community 177
9.8 Conclusions 178
10 Decentralisation and Coastal Resource Management in the
Philippines and Indonesia 181
10.2 Objective and rationale of decentralisation 183
10.3 Shifting power 185
10.4 The formation of local elites 185
10.5 Getting the institutions right 186
10.6 Approach 188
10.7 Decentralisation in coastal management 191
10.8 Regional case studies of decentralisation 192
10.8.1 The Philippines 192
10.8.2 Discussion Philippines 198
10.8.3 Indonesia 200
10.8.4 Discussion Indonesia 206
10.9 Bottlenecks and opportunities 207
10.10 Conclusion 210
11 Conditions affecting the success of fisheries co-management:

Lessons from Asia 213
11.2 Conditions affecting the success of fisheries co-management 214
11.2.1 Supra-community level 214
11.2.2 Community level 216
11.2.3 Individual and household level 225
11.3 Policy implications for fisheries co-management 226
12 Project success: different perspectives, different measurements 229

12.1 Success of failure? 230
12.1.1 Calagacalag 230
12.1.2 Tiguib 231
12.2 From development to people-centred resouce management 232
12.3 Shortcomings in evaluation 233
12.4 Emic and etic 235
12.5 Subjectivity objectified or: emic becomes etic 236
12.6 What to measure and when? 238
12.7 Proposed methodology 241
12.8 Conclusion 242
13 Discussion and conclusions 245

13.1 Sasi 246
13.3 Revitalization of sasi 249
13.4 Sasi and the design principles 250
13.5 Decentralisation 251
13.6 The potential of sasi as a modern resource management
institution 253
13.7 Alternative management systems in non-sasi villages 257
13.8 Conclusion 259
13.9 Further research 260
13.10 The role of anthropology – building bridges 261
References 263
Summary 287
Samenvatting 299
Curriculum Vitae 313
MAP OF MALUKU 15
16
Glossary
Adat Customary law and ritual practices

Ambonraad Government council (under the Dutch rule)
AR Artificial Reef
ARISAN Informal savings group
BAPPEDA Regional Planning Board
BAPPENAS National Development Planning Board
Bagan Floating lift net
Baileo Community house
Bantay Dagat Local (traditional) enforcement unit in the Philippines
Baor Beel or lake in Bangladesh
BPD Village Representative Board
Bupati District head
BVC Beach Village Committee
COREMAP Coral Reef Rehabilitation and Management Program
CRMP Coastal Resources Management Project (Proyek Pesisir)
DANIDA Danish International Development Agency
DENR Department of Environment and Natural Resources
(Philippines)
Desa Village (under the formal village structure)
DGIS Netherlands Directorate-General for International
Cooperation
DKP Departemen Kelautan dan Perikanan (Ministry of Marine
Affairs and Fishery)
DPRD District and provincial assemblies (house of representatives)
Dusun Subdivision of village (literally: garden)
EEZ Exclusive Economic Zone
EIA Environmental Impact Assessment
FAD Fish Aggregating Device
Giob Type of net
GPM Protestant church of Maluku
ICLARM International Center for Living Aquatic Resources Manage-
ment (currently the WorldFish Center in Penang, Malaysia)
IDRC International Development Research Centre in Canada
IDT Economic development group (village level)
ITQ Individual transferable quota
Kabupaten District
Kapitan Traditional warrior chief
Kecamatan Sub-district
Kelapa Coconuts
GLOSSARY 17
KEP Economic development group (village level)

Kepala adat Traditional leader, head of the adat
Kepala desa (kades) Village head (under formal government structure)
Kepala dusun Head of a dusun (part of village)
Kepala kewang Head of the kewang
Kepala soa Hereditary clan leader
Ketua adat Chief adat authority
Kewang Traditional law enforcers in the village
Klasis Lower administrative church structure
Kotamadya Municipality (district level)
KUD Village cooperative
Latu Chieftain, king
Latupati General assembly for (traditional) village leaders at island
wide level
LGC Local government code
LGU Local government unit
Lelang Auction
LIPI National research institute
Lola Top shell (Trochus niloticus)
LMD Formal village council
LKMD Implementing organisation of the LMD
Manerinti (High level) village cooperative (KUD)
Marga Clan structure
Marinyo Village heralds
MREP Marine Resources Evaluation and Planning project
Mauwin Shaman
MCE Monitoring, control and enforcement
MREP Marine Resources Evaluation and Planning Project
MEY Maximum Economic Yield
MSOY Maximum Social Yield
MSY Maximum Sustainable Yield
Muhabet Coordinates communal action in the village
Muro-ami Fishing technique with which corals are smashed
Musbangdes Village Development Deliberation
NARS National Aquatic Research Partners
Negeri Village
Negeri lama Small kingdom
NMC National Maritime Council
P5D Regional Development Management and Planning
Orientation
Pancasila State ideology
Papalele Female fish trader (small scale)
Patalima Union of five negeri
Patasiwa Union of nine negeri
Pelpri Church men’s group
18 FISHERIES CO - MANAGEMENT IN SOUTHEAST ASIA
Pelwata Church women’s group

Pendeta Church minister
Perahu Outrigger boat
Perda Regional regulation
Petuanan Village territory
PKK Government women’s group
PRIAP Policy Research and Impact Assessment Program
Propinsi Province
Raja Village leader descending from the traditional ‘royal’ clan
Rakorbang Development Coordination Meeting
Rancangan Perda Regional Regulation Plan
Reformasi Signifying the reorganisation of the Indonesian political
structure
Rumpon Floating fish aggregating device (FAD)
Saniri besar Legislative village council
Saniri negeri Traditional village government (executive body)
Sarekat Ambon First indigenous political party on Ambon
Sasi Sets of rules which regulate resource use and social
behavior
Sasi adat Traditional sasi institution
Sasi lelang Auctioned sasi (harvest rights)
Sasi darat Sasi on land (terrestrial resources)
Sasi gereja Church sasi
Sasi laut Sasi in the sea and rivers (marine resources)
Soa clan (also lumah tau)
Synod Administrative church structure
TAC Total Allowable Catch
TAKESRA Small formal savings program
Tamaela umi haha Great leader (traditional)
Tiga Tungku Three hearthstones (adat leaders, village government, and
religious leaders)
Tuan negeri Keeper of sacred knowledge (adat leader)
Tuan tanah Clan leader from one of the founding families (lit. lords of
the land)
Teripang Sea cucumber
UDKP Permanent Work Region Unit
Uku Tribal group
Uku dua Group of two clans
Uku lima Group of five clans
VOC Dutch East Indies Company
Youth wing Church youth group
19
Introduction
This PhD thesis is the result of my work during my position as associate ex-
pert for the Dutch Ministry of International Cooperation (DGIS) from 1996
to 2000 within the framework of the worldwide Fisheries Co-management
Project funded by the Danish International Development Agency (DANIDA).
The Centre of Environmental Science of Leiden University enabled me to
write and compile additional material to complete this thesis.
The Fisheries Co-management Project is a collaborative research project of the

International Center for Living Aquatic Resources Management (ICLARM)
in the Philippines (now the WorldFish Centre in Penang, Malaysia), the Insti-
tute of Fisheries Management and Coastal Community Development (IFM)
in Denmark, and National Aquatic Research Partners (NARS) in Southeast
Asia and Africa1. The project was initiated in 1994 and phased out in 2004.
This collaborative project was based on a mutual interest to gain practical
experience in research in fisheries co-management, to demonstrate its appli-
cability as a sustainable, equitable and efficient management strategy, and to
develop models for use and adoption by governments, fishing communities,
NGOs and others. The overall purpose of the Fisheries Co-management Re-
search Project was to determine the prospects for successful implementation
of fisheries co-management strategies.
As part of the Fisheries Co-management Project, with funding assistance

from IDRC (International Development Research Council of Canada), to-
gether with Indonesian research partners from Yayasan Hualopu and Pat-
timura University2, a study was carried out on sasi, a local traditional natural
resource management system in Central Maluku, Indonesia (Fig. 1). The
overall objective of the research project was to evaluate this community-level
resource management and learn from it in order to develop better models for
the future (Pomeroy and Simanjuntak 1997).
1 In Southeast Asia participating countries were: the Philippines, Indonesia, Vietnam, Thailand,
Malaysia and Bangladesh. African partner countries were: Senegal, Benin, Cote d’Ivoire, Malawi,
Zambia, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, and South Africa. Similar research has also been carried out
in the Caribbean.
2 We worked in an inter-disciplinary team with as principal co-researcher Irene Novaczek (PhD
phycology and marine biology). Ansye Sopacua (BSc chemistry) was translator and carried out the
interviews on management structures. Marcus Tatuhey was responsible for data input and analy-
sis. The parts of the research projects presented in this dissertation are the ones where I was the
principal researcher (unless stated otherwise).
Rationale of the study
Worldwide, fish stocks are being over-exploited (FAO 2001; FAO 2003). The
productive and highly diverse coral reefs in Southeast Asia are in a critical
state (Amor 2002a; Amor 2002b). For many poor Asian communities aquat-
ic resources represent a crucial rural safety net that not only bolsters food
security, but also gives families a way to earn extra cash selling on the local
markets. In countries such as Indonesia and the Philippines, close to 50% of
people’s animal protein intake comes from fish consumption. Degradation
of natural resources, reduced access to markets and lack of political power to
reverse these processes are a severe threat to people’s livelihoods. Increasing
competition and conflict over limited resources further stress fisheries man-
agement systems.
Ongoing over-exploitation and degradation of natural resources causes gov-

ernments to rethink their management approach. Top-down, centralized gov-
ernment control over fisheries has lead to crises in fisheries worldwide as it
created the conditions under which fishers maximized their efforts (Kearney
1984; Jentoft 1989; Pinkerton 1989; McGoodwin 1990). In many cases the
government lacks the ability to effectively govern resources and enforce the
rules. As a result, compliance to regulations and a sense of ownership over
resources is low. The basis for government control was Hardin’s (1968) ‘trag-
edy of the commons’ which left no space for local property rights over re-
sources. Over-exploitation, increasing fishing effort, and conflicts over access
lie at the basis of depleting fisheries. In search for solutions and better ways
of governing resource use, new approaches have been developed of which co-
management is but one of the strategies. Co-management refers to the shar-
ing of management authority and responsibility between resource users and
the government. It involves the devolvement of management authority to
local and lower government levels, and the creation of institutional arrange-
ments including rights and rules. Co-management is considered to represent
a more democratic, equitable and efficient governance system as it involves
participatory and collaborative processes of decision-making and power shar-
ing, and a more equal sharing of resource benefits (Pomeroy 1994; Pomeroy
and Berkes 1997; McCay and Jentoft 1996; Ostrom et al. 1999; Kuperan et
al. 2003).
Clearly defined property rights are an important tool for fishers to exclude
others and to be able to enforce rules and regulations concerning the fish-
ery. Co-management therefore often includes the transfer of responsibility
over natural resources to local communities (Jentoft et al. 1998; Jentoft 2003;
Raakjaer Nielsen et al. 2004). Under pressure of large international organisa-
tions, supported by NGOs, and as a result of civil demands, central govern-
ments all over the world are now supporting decentralisation as a way to
INTRODUCTION 21
transfer authority to lower government and local levels in order to improve

resource management (Pomeroy 2001).
Sasi
Coastal villages in Central Maluku claim de facto rights of access and with-
drawal over fairly extensive areas of both land and sea through a set of rules
and regulations called sasi. Sasi is nested in adat which lays down the basic
ethics and codes of conduct and is an intrinsic part of the culture. Sasi of-
fers an important research opportunity because it is one of the few (if not
the only) long enduring local resource management systems in Asia (Zerner
1994a; von Benda-Beckmann et al.1995). While land sasi (sasi darat) controls
and manages agro-forestry, marine sasi (sasi laut) deals mostly with the fish-
ery, i.e. sedentary marine organisms and pelagic fishes found in the waters
close to shore. Sasi also applies to social behaviour. Fishery related rights and
rules usually apply to coastal waters facing a village, bay, coral reef ecosystem,
or other areas having easily recognized boundaries. However, while in some
villages of Maluku sasi was still functioning, in others it was growing weaker
or had disappeared entirely. The extent of sasi and how quickly, where and
why it weakened was not clear.
The government of Maluku realized that in some parts of the province, vil-
lage people were more likely to comply with traditional management systems
than with formal regulations. Sasi institutions as well as other traditional
local customs, however, were not reflected in national and provincial laws
and policies. Without acknowledgement by the government, fishing commu-
nities were not able to defend their institutional arrangements and hold off
the slow demise of their management systems. More recently, the situation
is changing as the government of Indonesia has decided to devolve manage-
ment authority over natural resources to lower levels. However, while govern-
ment policy makers know that local management exists, they lack information
on how well these systems perform. This research project went beyond the
descriptive studies that have already been carried out on sasi and undertook
a quantitative performance analysis. Information about the performance of
sasi potentially forms the basis for changes in policy to support, maintain and
develop local culturally appropriate and effective forms management.
As a village-level institution that has roots in the local culture, sasi is not
a co-management structure. However, research on sasi helps to understand
how traditional local systems change and adapt over time, providing insights
that are critical for the design of new systems as is provided under the new
decentralisation laws. The results can be of use to both the government of
Indonesia, the fishers and local resource users and other parties involved in
the process. The results are also useful to a worldwide audience interested in
the design and implementation of local (co-)management systems.
Research objectives of sasi were:

1 To identify the extent of operating sasi systems and practices in Central
Maluku Province.
2 To describe the sasi institution using the Institutional Analysis Frame-
work.
3 To measure the performance of sasi, i.e. impacts in terms of equity, ef-
ficiency, social sustainability and biological sustainability.
4 To investigate which mechanisms positively enhance the resilience of the
sasi institution.
5 To describe the legal framework and government institutions at work
with local resource management and the role and functioning of sasi un-
der this framework.
This study covers the institution and changes until 1998 when a civil strife
broke out that has highly impacted Central Maluku and, unavoidably, also
the sasi institution. The period 1998-2004 was one of major clashes between
Muslim and Christian populations, and the destruction of mosques, church-
es and whole villages throughout the islands. Ambon Island became divided
into a Christian and Muslim part and thousands of people fled to refugee
camps. In the end, over 5000 people lost their lives. The role of police and
army has been unclear and questionable at the least. The cause of the conflict
is unclear and various explanations are given, including ignition by outside
Muslim extremist groups, e.g. Laskar Jihad, while local gangs and groups
allegedly further fuelled the violent outbreaks. Aside from some scattered in-
formation (see also Chapter 10) the long-term effects on the social structure
and culture in Central Maluku, including sasi, are not clear. Information on
the legal framework and changes in the context of decentralisation are up to
date until January 2005.
Decentralisation
In response to a call for better management and a decrease in global fish

production, there is a widespread move towards decentralisation of manage-
ment authority to regional and local communities (Pomeroy 2001). Decen-
tralisation is generally accepted as the way forward, but has various results.
In countries like the Philippines, decentralisation has lead to positive results
and sustainable resource use. Current experiences in Indonesia on the other
hand show massive resource exploitation by local authorities, especially in
forest areas. Due to these negative experiences there is a tendency to turn
away from decentralisation (von Benda-Beckmann 2002, Ribot 2002). This
would be very unfortunate as, despite the current setbacks, in the longer run
INTRODUCTION 23
decentralisation presents the highest hope for establishing the conditions for
sustainable resource use and a more equitable and efficient social political
system. When assessing the current results of the decentralisation process,
it is also important to change the point of view and compare the situation
the past so that the important changes that have been made are done justice,
especially in a country like Indonesia that is undergoing a major transforma-
tion from an authoritarian centralised state to a more democratic regime.
In order to make proper assessments, it is important to carefully document

the features and process of decentralisation including the types of power,
authority transferred, and the accountability structures. It is also interesting
to analyse the role of local actors and the formation of new elites. Through
an analysis of the potential pitfalls and opportunities, some key factors can
be distilled that may, on the longer term, render decentralisation efforts suc-
cessful.
Research objectives of decentralisation were:

1 To describe the processes of decentralisation in Indonesia and the Philip-
pines.
2 To identify the obstructions towards true transfer of power.
3 To identify the lessons learned and see how they apply to Indonesia.
Conditions affecting success of co-management
Over the past 15 years, a growing number of projects and coastal manage-
ment initiatives has been documented and assessed in terms of success. In
1999, the first 5-year phase of the international Fisheries Co-management
Research Project came to an end and all the sites in Southeast Asia that were
part of the project were evaluated in order to identify the principles and con-
ditions that facilitate fisheries co-management at the household, community
and supra-community level, i.e. government, including the legal framework
and administrative structures.
While co-management may not be a viable alternative fisheries management

strategy for all countries and fishing communities, an evaluation like this
establishes in what situation and under what circumstances it proves to be
a sustainable, equitable, and efficient management strategy. Sought are rec-
ommendations on how fisheries co-management can be successfully imple-
mented, as well as methodologies and guidelines.
Research objectives of conditions for success were:

1 To investigate under what conditions co-management is a viable fisheries
management strategy.
2 To identify important principles that support co-management.
3 To identify the policy implications.
Measuring project success
Within Southeast Asia, the government of the Philippines has been a leader
in decentralising management of natural resources to the local level. Be-
tween 1984 and 1994 more than a hundred community-based resource man-
agement (CBRM) projects were undertaken. The time, funds, and collective
effort put into these projects accumulated a wealth of valuable knowledge.
However, the results in some ways were disappointing: less than 20% of the
projects were evaluated as being successful (Pomeroy and Carlos 1997). In-
terestingly, the project participants themselves did not perceive these projects
as failures at all (Pomeroy et al. 1996). Apparently, there was a discrepancy
in the perception of success between the project implementers and the re-
cipients.
Project activities involved, amongst others, alternative livelihood program-

mes, installation of protected areas, and technology for increased fish pro-
duction. The project implementers set as minimum criteria for project suc-
cess that (1) the community organisation still existed and that (2) at least a
single project intervention was maintained after the project had terminated.
For many project sites this was not the case. Why the majority of projects
failed, was not clear. What clear is that the indicators that were used failed to
measure the things that actually were achieved and appreciated by the local
population.
Research objectives of measuring success were:

1 To identify project failure and project success.
2 To explain the discrepancy between the perceptions of project staff and
beneficiaries on project success.
3 To design a methodology that captures the project impacts from both the
insider and the outsider perspective.
INTRODUCTION 25
This thesis�
After the introduction, theoretical framework, and methodology, this thesis

presents:
• A study of sasi, a local traditional resource management system in Central
Maluku, including presence, performance and institutional resilience, i.e.
the ability of an institution to survive over time.
• A case study of the, at the time, best functioning sasi institution of Nolloth
on Saparua Island to show the performance and potential for resource
management.
• An analysis of institutional resilience of sasi and the mechanisms behind
it in order to provide building blocks for newly to be established manage-
ment institutions.
• An analysis of the legal framework around sasi and natural resource man-
agement as it was in 1998 with an update of new laws as a result of the
downfall of Suharto and the current move towards decentralised manage-
ment.
• A description of the decentralisation process and the potential for coastal
resource management in the Philippines and Indonesia.
• A distillation of factors that contribute to project success on the basis of
research experiences in Southeast Asia as part of the Fisheries Co-man-
agement Research Project.
• A methodology to assess project success from the participants’ perspective
and in more qualitative terms based on an evaluation of over a hundred
community-based resource management (CBRM) projects in the Philip-
pines.
This thesis consists of several published articles and book chapters that have
been edited into ‘new’ chapters. The overlap in information from the differ-
ent articles has been edited out as much as possible, yet, some chapters will
contain similar information for which I apologise. Some chapters are parts of
the research report I wrote with Irene Novaczek, Ansye Sopacua and Marcus
Tatuhey3. While they have done most work on the legal and political context
that are part of Chapter 8, I like to take credit for the overall project design,
the case-studies (Chapter 5) and study on institutional resilience (Chapter
7). Chapters 4 and 6 were a collaborative effort. Chapter 11 on conditions for
success was written with other ICLARM staff working in the various sites in
Southeast Asia and where I contributed information and insights from Indo-
nesia. All the other chapters spring entirely from my own brain.
3 Novaczek, I., I.H.T. Harkes, J. Sopacua, M.M.D. Tatuhey (2001). An institutional Analysis of
Sasi Laut in Maluku, Indonesia. Technical Report 59. ICLARM, Manila.
27
1 Theoretical Framework
As both terrestrial and marine ecosystems are under severe pressure from
human use, climate change and other external impacts, the need for the prac-
tical application of science becomes more eminent. Scientists from various
disciplines have organised themselves to look into management of common
resources. Common property research is an outcome of this movement.
Multi-disciplinary and international research projects have been devised in
a search for solutions and better management approaches. The theory of
environmental anthropology helps us to understand the role of humans in
their environment and the impact they have on the ecosystem. This chapter
gives a chronologic overview of the theoretical schools in anthropology and
in environmental sciences to show the developments of both disciplines over
time and how they came together in environmental anthropology. It further
presents new schools of thought like Common Property Research that are
important in studying and analysing issues in resource management and
fisheries in particular. It is these (more applied) research lines that form the
context of the sasi study central in this thesis. In line with this pragmatic
approach, the chapter ends with the potential role of the anthropologist in
modern fisheries management approaches.
1.1 The road towards environmental anthropology
1.1.1 Environmental determinism versus cultural determinism

In his evolution theory, Darwin (1859) explained how in each generation
more individuals are produced than can survive in a context of limited re-
sources which leads to competition and adaptation. His ideas were influ-
enced by Malthus (1798) who argued that human populations naturally tend
to outstrip their food supply and that shortages would put a limit to popula-
tion growth. This idea of the environment shaping culture (human social
and cultural behaviour) is typical for environmental determinism and was
the dominant approach in ecological anthropology until the 1960s. Debates
in ecological anthropology centred upon the question whether cultures adapt
to their environment in the same way that organisms do. Researchers hoped
that the study of adaptations would provide explanations of customs and in-
stitutions (Salzman and Attwood 1996). One of the findings in ecological
anthropology was that populations are not engaged with the environment as
a whole, but with a part of it, their local environment or habitat, consisting of
selected aspects and elements. As a consequence, it was concluded that each
28 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
population developed its own cultural adaptations, especially technologal,

within a specific environment (Salzman and Attwood 1996).
The assumption was that understanding the environment of a region would

lead to an understanding of the cultures occupying that region. However, this
assumption proved incorrect as it could not explain the various cultural char-
acteristics and differences within similar geographical areas. In Europe, an-
thropologists responded by turning their attention to the social, rather than
the ecological functions of cultural institutions (Durkheim, Radcliffe-Brown
and Malinowski). In the United States the emphasis on environmental factors
remained (Boas, Wissler, and Kroeber) and formed into an approach called
possibilism (Milton 1996). Possibilism acknowledged that one the one hand
the environment limited human behaviour, while it also allowed for certain
activities to be carried out. The inadequacy in explaining cultural diversity,
however, remained an issue and in a search for a more precise understand-
ing of the effect of the environment on cultures Steward (1955) developed a
methodology called cultural ecology.
Steward searched for the adaptive responses of various cultures to similar

environments (Orlove 1980). He examined the available resources and distri-
bution in relation to the technology, economic arrangements, social organisa-
tion and demography of a certain place. As a result, he identified a ‘culture
core’ consisting of the elements of a culture influenced by the environment,
i.e. the features most closely related to subsistence activities and economic
arrangements. Yet, cultural ecology could neither provide a model for ex-
plaining the origin and persistence of cultural features, nor for determining
the extent of environmental influence in the evolution of specific cultures
(Netting 1977; Orlove 1980; Barfield 1997).
As a reaction, in the 1960s and 1970s new schools of thought were formed
based on cultural determinism, i.e. the idea that culture influences the en-
vironment. One of those schools, ethno-ecology, describes the conceptual
models that people have of their environment.1 It distinguished, for example,
‘folk nature’ or the perceptions that people have on nature, from ‘real na-
ture’ on which these perceptions are based. The approach used classifications
and shared its methods and underlying premises with cognitive anthropol-
ogy.2. In the end, however, neither environmental nor cultural determinism
1 The prefix ‘ethno’ was used to denote the field of knowledge defined from the viewpoint of the
people being studied (Fowler 1977). ‘Ethno’ was already used in the 19th century in ethno-botany
which focused on how and why people used and conceptualised herbs, plants and trees. It is still
an important approach in medicinal research.
2 The focus on classification and the extraction of knowledge in cognitive anthropology lead to
the development of structured methods of research still in use today such as interviews, direct
observation and participation.
THE ROAD TOWARDS ENVIRONMENTAL ANTHROPOLOGY 29
formed a satisfactory basis to describe human-environment relationships.3

Alternatively, instead of shaping or being shaped by environmental factors,
human beings were understood to interact with their environments in mutu-
ally constructive ways (Milton 1996).
1.1.2 The ecosystem approach, human ecology and processual

human ecology
The ecosystem approach, brought into play by anthropologists like Rappaport
(1968) and Vayda (1969), conceptualized human populations as participants
in ecosystems. It was a first attempt to reconcile ecological sciences with
functionalism4 in anthropology. Research focused, amongst others, on the
material outcomes of economic activities and the efficiency of subsistence
systems. Yet, the approach was limited with its focus on ‘units’ and ‘popula-
tions’ rather than cultures and its preference for small-scale (island) societies
(Rappaport 1969). A broader focus was presented by human ecology which
was concerned with the ways human populations interact with their environ-
ment. Yet, even though it acknowledged the importance of knowledge, infor-
mation, and people’s understanding of the world (Ellen 1982), the ecosystem
approach excluded the unobservable components of culture. It is therefore
– and this is where I agree with Milton (1996) – inadequate to study people-
environment relations.
In the mid 1970s, in contrast to cultural ecology, neo-evolutionism and neo-

functionalism,5 another approach emerged: processual ecological anthropology.
It focused on the processual relationship between the local population and
their immediate environment conditioned by the intervention of external po-
litical, legal, and economic factors. Important research trends were, amongst
others, the relation between demographic variables and production systems,
the response of populations to environmental stress, and the formation and
consolidation of adaptive strategies6 (Orlove 1980). Processual ecological an-
3 Human-environment relationships can be defined as the interplay between people and their
environment, including the elements and arrangements by which humans use the environment
and the limitations that the environment puts on human behaviour. Culture plays a prominent
role in human-environment relations (Milton 1996, 6).
4 Functionalism originally attempted to explain social institutions as collective means to fill indi-
vidual biological needs; later it came to focus on the ways social institutions fill social needs, es-
pecially solidarity. Functionalists argue that social institutions are functionally integrated to form
a stable system, and a change in one institution will precipitate a change in other institutions
(http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/).
5 Within neo-functionalism the social organisation and culture of specific populations are seen as
functional adaptations which permit the population to exploit their natural environment success-
fully without exceeding the carrying capacity through negative feedback (Orlove 1980; Bettinger
1996 in McGrath 2003).
6 If adaptive strategies are seen as the outcome of decision-making or repeated allocation of scarce
resources to a hierarchy of goals under conditions of constraint, then it is necessary to examine the
pattern of resource distribution and the source of goals and constraints. This is the contribution of
recent work in Marxism (Orlove 1980).
thropology examined shifts and changes in individual and group activities

and focused on the mechanisms by which behaviour and external constraints
influenced each other. It stimulated the importance of decision-making mod-
els in ecological anthropology.
1.1.3 Ecological anthropology and environmental sciences

in the Netherlands
In the Netherlands, anthropology had always been strongly linked to the co-
lonial past (Indonesia) and focused on culture, judicial systems, religion and
language. After the independence of Indonesia in 1945 and the subsequent
rigid relationship between the two countries, this focus was expected to
change towards a more environmentally oriented anthropology (Persoon and
Hobbes 1993; Schefold 1994). Research, however, continued largely along
existing research lines and aside from a number of interesting studies on en-
vironmental use, innovation and adaptation (Van den Breemer 1984; Visser
1989; De Bruijn and Van Dijk 1995, Bavinck 2001), ecological anthropology
in the Netherlands never strongly developed.
A major influence in the 1970s were the actor-based models which shifted
the focus from cultures towards the study of social processes and individual
incentive structures for certain (environmental) behaviour (Orlove 1980).
The actor-based models were elaborated by Vayda who developed the meth-
odology of progressive contextualisation (Vayda 1983, 1996).7 In the 1980s
Dutch environmental science searched for an approach to study environ-
mental problems without having to describe entire people-environment sys-
tems. Vayda’s approach formed the inspiration and therewith the basis of the
Action-in-Context approach which describes the role the different actors in-
volved in a problematic environmental action and their influence in the deci-
sion-making process at different levels. This model was developed further by
De Groot (1992, 1998) into the Problem-in-Context approach – a normative,
solution oriented approach to environmental problems.8 This approach has
been applied to study the social dynamics and driving forces of deforestation
in the Philippines (Van den Top 1998) and in Brazil, Ecuador and Cameroon
(Cleuren 2001).
The emergence of new generations of anthropologists together with a re-

structuring of the Dutch academic landscape has resulted in inter-univer-
sity research schools that cross the disciplinary boundaries. Environmental
7 Progressive contextualisation works its way from a defined (problematic) action outward to the
actors and factors that explain that specific action.
8 The Problem-in-Context approach contains a so called ‘actors field’ which presents the interac-
tions between actors at different levels (horizontal and vertical linkages). Options and motivations
of actors are influenced by contextual factors but also by other actors, usually at a higher level i.e.
in a more powerful position. The social chain in the model describes the institutional setting, the
social arrangements and the dependencies.
themes as ‘dynamics of natural resources’ and ‘management of coastal zones

and food security’ as well the study of complex resource systems such as
reefs (Buginesia Project) involve researchers from various disciplines among
which is anthropology (cf. Pet-Soede 2000). Nowadays, anthropologists are
often involved to represent the social science aspects of a multi-disciplinary
project in order to deal with a particular type of questions or to act as an inter-
mediary between local people and project. New types of research projects are
being developed genuinely aiming for an integrated approach on the basis of
problem oriented research questions. The search for solutions where differ-
ent disciplines need to feed in leads to interesting discussions, for example
about values, which form an important aspect of the process. The program
Environment and Development of the Centre of Environmental Sciences in
Leiden is such a collaboration of various disciplines.
1.1.4 Environmental anthropology today

Environmental issues were a strong impulse to develop a more applied an-
thropology, which came up next to mainstream academic anthropology. En-
vironmental anthropology has the potential to understand, inform and present
information on how to construct sustainable ways of living (Brosius 1999;
Osseweijer 2001). It looks at ‘the ways in which a particular population pur-
posely or unintentionally shapes its environment, and the ways in which its
relations with the environment shape its culture and social, economic and
political life’ (Salzman and Attwood 1996). The impact that humans have
on their environment is a combination of technology with economic values,
ethical standards, political ideologies, religious conventions, practical knowl-
edge, the assumptions on which all these things are based as well as the
activities that are generated by them (Milton 1996). Hence, it is important to
understand all aspects of human thought and action.
The distinction between people’s actions and what they hold in their minds,
made ‘choice’ available for investigation. It allows us to look at the incentives
that people have for certain behaviour and the choices they make about their
environment and the use of it (Milton 1996). Attention on the rationale be-
hind these choices, i.e. the options and motivations of people, is growing as
they appear essential in adaptation of behaviour, for example, in the setting
up of a management system and the institutions that support this over a
longer period of time. In the Fisheries Co-management Research Project the
study of the ‘patterns of interaction’ was essential to understand local initia-
tives towards resource management, i.e. the creation of organisations, rules
and regulation. Also studied were the outcomes in terms of sustainability,
equity and efficiency. Insight into these components and the incentives that
people have can provide a key in resource management as it identifies the
level on which adaptations can be made to stimulate people to change their
behaviour towards a more sustainable approach in resource use.
1.2 Other environmental approaches
The general growth in environmental scholarship and the recent theoretical

discourses have led to the development of a number of cross-disciplinary
approaches that deal with environmental issues and human-environment re-
lationships. A combination of those, and Common Property Theory in particu-
lar, form the overall framework for the Fisheries Co-management Research
Project and hence the sasi study described in this thesis. The members of
the research team were from various disciplinary backgrounds and my views
from environmental anthropology were complemented with insights from
political science, resource economics and (marine) biology. Together we as-
sembled the information necessary to complete the various boxes of the in-
stitutional analysis framework. My specific area of interest is institutional re-
silience, which is a spin-off from resilience thinking. These fields, as well as
other current environmental approaches, are described in the section below.
1.2.1 The systems view

Systems view or systems ecology is a relatively new field, but one with impressive
evidence on co-evolution in human-nature relations, including traditional
ecological knowledge and the self-organising ability of people for sustainable
resource use (Holling 1978; Berkes and Folke 1992). In the systems view, the
structure and function of the ecosystem is sustained by synergetic feedbacks
between human societies and their environment. The underlying assump-
tion is that the physical and biological environment places constraints on
the growth and development of the human sub-system and vice versa. Lead-
ing scientists in this field are Fikret Berkes and Carl Folke who look at how
the social system has developed management practices based on ecological
knowledge for dealing with the dynamics of ecosystems and on the social
mechanisms behind management practices (Berkes and Folke 1993, 1994,
1998, 2003). The self-organising abilities and adaptations of both the ecologi-
cal and human sub-system shape the way in which society defines and uses
natural capital.
The vital role of the life-support functions for economic development and
sustainability has caused a shift from ecology to economics and is theoretical-
ly as well as empirically analysed through ecological economics (Odum 1975).
The shift has, in part, given rise to the terminology of natural capital and
human-made capital. In contrast to the assumptions of standard economic
theory, ecological economists regard human-made capital and natural capital
as fundamentally complementary. Natural capital consists of non-renewable
resources such as oil and minerals, renewable resources such as fish and
wood, and the quality of the atmosphere and climate. Human-made capital
on the other hand is capital generated via economic activity through human
ingenuity and technological change – the produced means of production.
Natural capital and its derived goods and services are the basis for economic
OTHER ENVIRONMENTAL APPROACHES 33
development while it is not possible for human ingenuity to create human-

made capital without natural capital (Daly 1990). Only through maintenance
of an integrated, functional ecosystem can each environmental good and
service be assured (Berkes and Folke 1992) Sustainability, however, cannot
be studied by focusing only on natural capital and human-made capital. A
third dimension, cultural capital, is needed to explain the interrelations be-
tween the two.
Cultural capital refers to factors that provide human societies with the means
and adaptations to deal with the natural environment and to actively modify
it. It pays attention to how people view the world and the universe and in-
cludes cosmology, environmental philosophy and ethics (including religion),
traditional ecological knowledge, and social-political institutions. Cultural
capital, as used here, thus includes the wide variety of ways in which socie-
ties interact with their environment (Berkes and Folke 1998). From a systems
perspective, it is emphasized that the three types of capital are strongly inter-
related and form the basis for guiding society towards sustainability (Gunder-
son et al. 1995).9
1.2.2 Adaptive management

Adaptive management (Holling 1978; Walters 1986; Charles 2001; Folke et al.
2002; Gunderson and Holling 2002) is based on the assumption that the en-
vironment is inherently unpredictable and that scientific information will al-
ways be incomplete. The advantage of adaptive management is that it allows
for changes in the locus, scale, and the scope of decision-making, depend-
ing on the issue being addressed. Active adaptive management views policy
as a set of experiments designed to reveal processes that build or sustain
resilience (Berkes 2003). It requires and facilitates a social context with flex-
ible and open institutions and multi-level governance systems that allow for
learning (Folke et al. 2002). Learning and adaptive management are probably
the most important processes to make cross-scale approaches work (Degnbol
and Raakjær Nielsen 2002; Berkes 2003).
There are attempts to combine adaptive management and co-management

in what Folke et al. (2002) have called adaptive co-management: a process by
which institutional arrangements and ecological knowledge are tested and
revised in a dynamic, ongoing, self-organised process of trial and error.
9 There are a number of other approaches, such as ecosystem management (Schramm and Hu-
bert 1996 in Jentoft et al. 1998, 423) and participatory environmental research (Berkes 2001), but
these are not further discussed here.
1.2.3 Resilience thinking

Another current approach that studies people’s responses to a changing en-
vironment is resilience thinking. It focuses on the adaptive capacity of social
groups and their institutions to deal with stresses as a result of social, po-
litical and environmental change (Berkes and Folke 1998; Charles 2001).
One way to approach this is to look for informative case studies of change in
social-ecological systems and to investigate how societies deal with change.
This knowledge is envisaged to provide a basis for improved governance and
management of natural systems so that their capacity to sustain human and
natural capital is enhanced. The study of sasi laut can be regarded as such a
case study. Looking at the changes in processes and the adaptation and sur-
vival of the institution over time helps in explaining and understanding what
is called institutional resilience (see Chapter 7). Recently, a platform has been
established to work on issues around resilience: the Resilience Alliance.10
1.3 Common property theory
Currently, one of the most prominent approaches in dealing with natural re-
sources management is common property theory or commons research. Because
this approach is important as it forms the context of this thesis, it is dealt with
in more detail.
1.3.1 The tragedy of the commons

In the 1960s and 1970s policy innovations, based on early work of resource
economists and the idea that without private ownership commons would be
depleted, transferred forests, pasture land, inshore fisheries and other natural
resources from their previous property rights regimes to government own-
ership (Dietz et al. 2002). The rationale for centralised government control
was Hardin’s (1968) ‘tragedy of the commons’ which presented a pessimistic
view on human behaviour. The rationale for the tragedy of the commons was
in a common-pool resource, each user faces the dilemma about how much to
harvest. If all users restrain themselves, everybody benefits and the resource
will be sustained. However, if one person limits his use while his neighbours
do not, the person has lost the short-term benefits of taking his share and the
resource collapses. People therefore were assumed to always maximise their
efforts (Hardin 1968).
Sometimes, however, the transfers of property rights to the national govern-

ment were disastrous for the resources they were intended to protect. Instead
of creating a single owner with a long-term interest in the resource, nation-
10 The Resilience Alliance is a multidisciplinary research group that explores the dynamics of
complex social-ecological systems in order to discover foundations for sustainability (www.resal-
liance.org/).
COMMON PROPERTY THEORY 35
alising common-pool resources typically led to a rejection of existing indig-

enous institutions, poor monitoring of resource boundaries due to a lack of
capacity of the national government, and subsequently de facto open access
conditions and a race to use the resources (Dietz et al. 2002). As a result, the
presumption that government ownership was a universally applicable solu-
tion to the ‘tragedy of the commons’ was seriously challenged.
The rational-choice theory that underpins Hardin’s theory regards humans

as acting merely out of self-interest (Smith 1977). Opposing views, however,
argue that people are not simply a homo economicus, but members of a com-
munity and as such under influence of social and cultural values which are
important when economic decisions are made (Jentoft et al. 1998).11 Econom-
ic action thus is not an individual decision, but it is socially situated and em-
bedded in networks of social relations (Swedberg and Granovetter in Jentoft
2004). This implied that the ‘tragedy of the commons’ could be averted by
mechanisms that cause individuals to act in the interests of the collective
good, such as communication, trust, the anticipation of future interactions,
and the ability to build agreements and rules (Rappaport 1968; Vayda 1969;
Rappaport 1984; Dietz et al. 2002). Their arguments are backed up by rich
case study literature which present a wide diversity of settings in which us-
ers organised themselves and achieved better outcomes than Hardin’s model
could ever predict (Johannes 1978; Kalland 1981; Akimichi and Ruddle 1984;
Cordell 1984, 1989; McGoodwin 1984; Ruddle and Johannes 1985; Rud-
dle 1987; Sengupta 1991; Johannes 1998; Feeny et al. 1990, Pomeroy 1994;
Pomeroy et al. 1996), and also the study central in this thesis (Novaczek et al.
2001). In the end, the ‘tragedy of the commons’ was shown to be the conse-
quence of open-access conditions and not of common property (Berkes 2003)
thereby providing an argument for good governance and local management.
1.3.2 The study of common property resource management

Largely in reaction to Hardin’s article and the frightening stories about rapid
population declines of many (marine) species, in the late 1970s and early
1980s scientific interest in the commons grew (Dietz et al. 2002). Commons
research documented in considerable detail the self-organisation and self-
regulation of communities of resource users to deal with subtractability and
exclusion – two central problems of commons management.12 The dilemma
of ‘free riding’ can be an important incentive for individuals to maximise
their own resource benefits at the cost of the benefits available to others.
However, the studies mentioned in the above section showed that people
appeared to sometimes have different motivations and do move beyond indi-
vidual self-interest.
11 Jentoft therefore prefers to talk about homo socious (2004, 14).

12 The problem of subtractability means that overuse or destruction by one person subtracts from
the benefits available to others. The problem of exclusion means that the benefits go to all, while
the costs are shared between those who have paid their fair share (Dietz et al. 2002).
By the mid-1980s, more and more questions were being raised about Har-
din’s model and the number of scientists from various fields and countries
examining common-pool resources increased. Yet, the issues were not dis-
cussed widely across scientific disciplines because each tended to use its own
language and theory and there was little exchange between scholars from
various regions of the world. In 1983, the Panel on the Study of Common
Property Resource Management recognised the need for a common research
framework, which was designed by Oakerson (1986) and developed over the
following years.13 The Institutional Analysis Framework (IAF) used in the
Fisheries Co-management Research Project was derived from this model
(see Chapter 3).
The empirical foundations for the analysis of common-pool resources were

laid by a number of studies (Berkes 1986, 1989; Berkes et al. 1989; Blomquist
1992; McCay and Acheson 1978; Pinkerton 1989; Ostrom 1990; Bromley
1992; Tang 1992). They demonstrated that, under some conditions, local
groups using a common property regime (or resource management system)
could manage their resources quite well. This research changed the focus of
the field from a search for the ‘right’ overall conception and the ’right’ policy,
to a search for the conditions under which particular institutional arrange-
ments serve user groups well in sustaining their resource base over long
periods of time (Dietz et al. 2002). One of the most renown publications
that still guides many researchers is ‘Governing the Commons’ by Elinor
Ostrom (1990) who studied (and still does) complex institutional arrange-
ments which guide the use of common-pool resources such as large marine
ecosystems, groundwater basins, fresh water and grasslands. The condition-
al propositions she presented have been formulated as ‘design principles’.
The evolving theory of the commons fairly establishes the conditions under
which community-based management may or may not work.
The members of the panel also identified needs in research and lessons
learned that still provide guidance in studying common property regimes
(Dietz et al. 2002):
13 In 1990, the International Association for the Study of Common Property was established
(IASCP). At their bi-annual meetings, scientists from over 50 countries exchange their findings
(Dietz et al. 2002, 8).
1 The need to define the performance of an institutional arrangement in terms of both

environmental and human dimensions.
2 The importance of the initial situation as it affects emergence, performance, survival and
relative costs and benefits of institutional arrangements.
3 The importance of the distinction between the characteristics of the resource and the
regime that manages the resource.
4 The need to compare and synthesize analyses of common-pool resources and common
property regimes using a multidisciplinary framework.
5 The need, especially for international donors, to understand how various changes in
property rights affect institutional arrangements, such as the distribution of wealth.
6 The need to understand how spatial and temporal heterogeneity in the resource endow-
ment creates opportunities for some at the expense of others.
7 The need to compare the costs and benefits of various institutional arrangements for a
given resource.
8 Resource users’ ability and willingness to cooperate depends on their bargaining power,
the initial value of the resource, shared values and other factors.
FIGURE 1.1 – Research needs
Also developed were several comparative data bases designed to facilitate

quantitative work related to the evolving theories. The cross-national study
on fisheries co-management conducted by ICLARM and IFM in collabora-
tion with national partners in Africa and Southeast Asia formed such a net-
work. The purpose of this network of collaborating research institutions was
to apply the same core measurements to a series of cases within a country
and to revisit locations regularly in order to study the dynamic processes over
time. The common IAF framework allowed for comparison within, but also
between countries and regions (ICLARM/IFM 1996). From the case-studies
a number of new design principles or conditions for success were distilled
that are described in Chapter 11.
Currently, common property theory and ‘the commons’ are at the centre
of the international research agenda on the human dimensions of global
change. It is an important theme in studies on international cooperation,
environmental decision-making, and the design of resource management in-
stitutions in order to achieve global sustainable development (Ostrom 1999;
NRC 2002). Commons research is at a point of rapid growth in work intend-
ing to understand the dynamics of common-pool resources and the institu-
tions that manage (and mismanage) them (Dietz et al. 2002). This is even of
more relevance in the light of ongoing decentralisation processes where de-
cision-making power is being transferred to the local level (see Chapter 10).
New kinds of commons are being analysed and new methodological tools
and theoretical perspectives developed. This thesis aims to contribute to this
field through the study of sasi and insights that have been derived from my
experience in fisheries research.
39
2 Co-management
Top-down, centralized approaches to fisheries management have lead to

over-exploitation, mismanagement and crises in fisheries world-wide (Kear-
ney 1984; Jentoft 1989; Pinkerton 1989; McGoodwin 1990; Hannesson
1996; Berkes and Folke 1998; Finlayson and McCay 1998; Hara and Raakjær
Nielsen 2003). The lack of (local) property rights is an incentive for fishers to
over-harvest and compete over resources (Charles 2001). The inability of the
national government to enforce the rules has been undermining compliance
further. In some countries, such as Indonesia with a coastline of 81,000 km
long, effective management by the national government is physically impos-
sible. The infamous case of the collapse the Canadian cod fishery was a turn-
ing point both in recognising the vulnerability of fish stocks and the need to
manage them, as well in acknowledging the inability of the government to
do so (Finlayson 1994; Hannesson 1996; Symes 1997; Finlayson and McCay
1998; Haedrich and Hamilton 2000). In search for solutions and better ways
of governing resource use, it has become clear that one single best strategy
does not exist. Given the wide diversity of threatened resources it is agreed
that multiple institutional strategies are needed (Dietz et al. 2002). Co-man-
agement is such a strategy.
2.1 Co-management defined
Co-management, or collaborative management, was introduced in the early

1990s as the way forward (Pomeroy 1994; McCay and Jentoft 1996; Sen and
Raakjær Nielsen 1996). Co-management is commonly defined as a partner-
ship in sharing management authority and responsibility (and the benefits)
between a group of resource users and the government. As an institutional
mechanism it brings together groups of resource users and government
agencies, and it involves a participatory and collaborative process of regula-
tory decision-making and power sharing (Jentoft et al. 1998; Raajaer Nielsen
and Vedsmand 1999; Berkes 2003). Subsequently, co-management requires
decentralisation of management authority from the national to local and low-
er government levels. Because of the active participation of resource users
and decision-making powers being transferred to the local level, co-manage-
ment is considered a democratic, efficient and equitable governance system
(Kuperan et al. 2003).
Over the years, the concept of co-management has been used for a wide va-
riety of arrangements in various contexts. In its broadest sense, co-manage-
40 CO - MANAGEMENT
ment is seen as an evolving process guided by a set of institutional principles

which must be allowed to adapt and be flexible. It can also be viewed as a
set of institutional arrangements (rights and rules) that define the co-opera-
tion among the fisheries administration and relevant fishing communities
(Pomeroy and Berkes 1997; Nielsen and Vedsmand 1999). Others describe
co-management as: ‘A process of social creation through which knowledge
is gained, values articulated, culture re-expressed, and community formed’
(Jentoft et al. 1998). The result of its vague and common adoption is that
co-management has lost substance in the process (Pinkerton 2003). Also,
as co-management is applied on a wider scale and experience is growing, a
number of issues and challenges become visible and need to be tackled. In
this chapter I attempt to clarify some of the confusion by describing some
aspects important in co-management and I will briefly deal with some of the
current issues.
2.2 The parties in co-management
According to the definition, the two main parties in co-management are the
local community and the government (or government institution). In real-
ity, however, the process is often supported by NGOs or external agents and
can involve scientists, the private sector, and other stakeholders.1 Naturally,
the more parties become involved, the more difficult it is to establish a func-
tional management institution without alienating certain groups (Jentoft et
al. 1998).
Even where only two parties are involved, the process is complex as both the
community and the government are not one-dimensional and homogeneous.
Many scholars have contested the notion of a community as a homogenous
and static entity (Pannell 1997; Brosius et al. 1998; Van Est 1999; Leach et al.
1999; Ellen 2003; Persoon and van Est 2003; Wilson 2003a). There are often
divisions and power issues in a community based on gender, ethnicity, age or
social class. Also in a region, the group of resource users is often heterogene-
ous and composed of indigenous people as well as migrant resource users.
Such a complex group cannot be approached as one single community or as
one partner in co-management (Osseweijer 2001).
To identify a community in co-management Jentoft et al. (1998) suggest look-

ing at four aspects: 1) the definition of a community, 2) the locus and scale
1 Large international organisations and donors such as the World Bank, USAID and the Asian
Development Bank are important as they are playing a key-role in the move towards decentralisa-
tion (Persoon and van Est 2003). Also private organisations, the tourist industry, scientists and
researchers have a potentially important role in co-management. For the sake of simplicity, they
are not further discussed here.
THE PARTIES IN CO - MANAGEMENT 41
of a community, 3) the representation of sub-groups and 4) property rights.

Another interesting and helpful categorisation is presented by McCay (1999
in Pinkerton 2003) who talks about territorial communities (or communi-
ties of place) and functional communities (or communities of interest).2 A
community of place can be seen as a web of social interactions tied to place,
history and identity, whereas a community of interest usually consists of a
group with a shared reliance on a particular gear type or species (Jentoft et al.
1998). It is important to realise that communities of interest generally have
a weaker incentive to protect local fish habitats than communities of place,
simply because they are less dependent on the local resources and have the
option to move elsewhere (Pinkerton 2003). The incentives to maximise in-
dividual short-term interests for communities of interest are thus stronger
than the incentives to collectively exercise rights (Pinkerton 2003).
Local community members that live in the same place share their history and
culture and have social bonds such as kinship. As a consequence, important
cultural integrative aspects such as reciprocity, interdependence, commit-
ment and continuity are stronger in communities of place (Jentoft et al. 1998;
Osseweijer 2001). These integrative aspects are not only important incentives
in fisheries management and compliance on the longer term, they also cre-
ate the mechanisms that enhance social stability and institutional resilience
(see Chapter 7). It is thus important to identify the type of community when
establishing a co-management system.
It is also important to identify the locus and scale of a community in rela-
tion to the resources to be managed. Sedentary species or marine reserves
can be regulated locally, but for resources that cover more than one village
territory a local community may not be the appropriate structure. To manage
pelagic fish, for example, it is more appropriate to set up a management sys-
tem at supra-local level through functional community where access is access
is regulated by means of Individual Transferable Quota (ITQs).
The second important player in co-management is the government. The na-

tional government has a pivotal role in providing the legal basis for co-man-
agement arrangements through the establishment of commensurate legal
rights and authorities (Pomeroy and Berkes 1997; Pomeroy and Kuperan
2003).3 It further needs to devolve some of its powers, including the dis-
position of productive resources which, in reality, rarely seems to happen
2 A third community type identified in international environmental politics and that of growing
importance in co-management are so called ‘epistemic communities’. These are communities that
centre on specific management issues or management bodies and can be made up of industry
members, lobbyists, bureaucrats, journalists and scientists.
3 In addition to providing enabling legislation, the government may provide assistance and serv-
ices (administrative, technical and financial) to support the sustainability of the local organisations
and institutional arrangements (Pomeroy 2003).
42 CO - MANAGEMENT
(Agrawal and Ribot 1999). Many cases show inadequate transfer of powers or
a lack of government support (Agrawal and Ribot 1999; Wilson et al. 2003).
Sometimes it is sheer greed that keeps higher government levels from giving
up control, but often it is also the inadequacy of the organisational structures
of government departments to cope with the new management concepts and
approach. Besides, government institutions are often ridden with internal
conflicts, vested interests and, in some cases, corruption. At the same time,
the central government is under pressure from lobbyists and multi-nationals
to balance sustainable resource use and economic development. This can
lead to a situation where the government uses co-management as an instru-
ment to reach its own management objectives more efficiently (Hara and
Raakjær Nielsen 2003; Ahmed et al. 2004; Raakjær Nielsen et al. 2004, 6).
Instead of being part of a collaborative process, fishing communities are only
allowed to be involved in the implementation process. As a result, in some
places, local communities felt used and have developed a suspicious attitude
towards the state.
Another obstacle to effective collaboration is the fact that most departments

are staffed with biologists who are concerned over resource conservation,
rather than with the social aspects of collaboration and management (Hara
and Raakjær Nielsen 2003; Raakjær Nielsen et al. 2004). Government agents
seem to have little trust in the abilities and ideas of the local people. A differ-
ence in perceptions, knowledge base and incentives for management further
hampers effective communication and understanding. Without bridging this
gap there is no real basis for communal action. Moreover, when this situation
is not acknowledged, state involvement may actually undermine the social
mechanisms in the community (Pinkerton 2003; Habermas 1987 in Jentoft
2004).
Despite these hindrances, there is also great potential for collaboration. A

government committed to the process will change its structures and make
adaptations, for example by hiring more (social science oriented) staff (Wil-
son 2003a; Raakjær Nielsen et al. 2004; Seixas and Berkes 2004). To estab-
lish meaningful collaboration, the government and their staff need to under-
stand the important contribution stakeholders may have in all stages of the
management process (design, implementation, monitoring, evaluation, and
adaptation).4 A second step can be to study stakeholder concerns and user
knowledge, to learn the tools and techniques to conduct workshops, and to
learn the skills to manage conflicts among user groups (Seixas and Berkes
2004). The communication gap can be bridged during the process of institu-
tion building and negotiation. During this stage objectives can set that are in
line with the wishes of both the national government and the local commu-
nity, taking into account fishers’ knowledge and practises. This will enhance
4
For details on the process of co-management see Pomeroy (1998).
IMPORTANT ISSUES IN CO - MANAGEMENT 43
trust – a necessary ingredient in collaboration (Pinkerton 2003; Jentoft 2003;

Wilson 2003a; Raakjær Nielsen et al. 2004).
The government can further increase legitimacy of the new structures and
downward accountability5 through: 1) overseeing local arrangements and
dealing with abuse of local authority, 2) conflict management, 3) by back-
stopping local monitoring and enforcement mechanisms, and 4) by apply-
ing regulatory standards (Pinkerton 2003; Pomeroy 2003). The government
may also act to address issues and problems beyond the scope of local ar-
rangements and can act as a gatekeeper in case the co-management partners
do not carry out their responsibilities (Pomeroy 2003). Finally, the way the
government may serve a coordinating role is by setting up an appeal mecha-
nism, forum or other formal administrative structure for the various parties
to interact. These mechanisms stimulate accountability and thus serve as a
counterbalance for the relatively powerful role of the government (Jentoft et
al. 1998; Agrawal and Ribot 1999).
A third party often involved in initiating a co-management arrangement are

NGOs (cf. Balgos 2002). In their determination to grant rights to local com-
munities, they have been successful in gaining support for this issue, espe-
cially where it concerns indigenous people (Persoon and van Est 2003). The
involvement of NGOs, however, can also be delicate (Raakjær Nielsen et al.
2004). For years, (international) NGOs have played a prominent role in local
institution building. Regardless of how well they actually fitted with the local
circumstances and traditional structures, fisheries organisations or co-opera-
tives were established to deal with fisheries problems. The clash with existing
institutions caused these initiatives more often than not to fail (Jentoft 1986
in Jentoft 2004).
2.3 Important issues in co-management
Guiding principles in co-management are participation of those affected, eq-

uity and effiency of management structures, power sharing, and respect for
the local culture, including traditional institutions and local knowledge. Con-
flict resolution is also an important component of the co-management proc-
ess. Expected outcomes depend largely on the degree to which these mecha-
nisms are at work, but implementation or execution of these aspects is not
always clear-cut and highly dependent on the context. This section highlights
some of the aspects and instruments that are of importance in co-manage-
ment.
5 Legitimacy and downward accountability are the two main pillars of decentralised systems
(Agrawal and Ribot 1999; Raakjaer Nielsen et al. 2004).
44 CO - MANAGEMENT
2.3.1 Property rights

In studying resource management it makes sense to separate the concept of
the resource itself, from the rules that govern the resource (Dietz et al. 2002).
Commons research (see Chapter 1) deals primarily with common-pool re-
sources.6 Common-pool resources are ones for which exclusion is costly and
where one person’s use subtracts from what is available to others (Ostrom
et al. 1999; Dietz et al. 2002). When no property rights define who can use
a common-pool resource and how its use is regulated, a common-pool re-
source is under an ‘open-access’ regime (Charles 2001; Dietz et al. 2002,
Stern et al. 2002) and subsequently subject to over-exploitation. The diversity
of property rights regimes that can be used to regulate the use of common-
pool resources is large, including the broad categories of government owner-
ship, private ownership and ownership by a community. The type of govern-
ance regime depends for a large part on the characteristics of common-pool
resources, i.e. size and carrying capacity of the resource system, the mobility
of the resource, the temporal and spatial scale, renewability,7 the effect of
harvesting technologies, and the complex interactions between these factors
(Schlager et al. 1994; Norgaard 1995 and Agrawal 1999 in Ostrom 1999).
The metaphor of the ‘free rider’ refers to a person who enjoys the benefits
from the contributions provided by others without paying the costs. By stress-
ing the self-interest of people this metaphor reflects a negative view on user
involvement, but what it merely describes is human behaviour as a response
to a particular institutional context, such as an open-access regime. An open-
access regime can have certain advantages; it is in principal more equitable
and less divisive than other systems. But in general, open-access makes it
more difficult to enforce cooperation and agreed upon rules because of the
free rider problem and it thus contributes to competition and over-exploita-
tion (Jentoft et al. 1998). For this reason, to manage common-pool resources,
private property has been promoted.
The advantage of establishing local property rights is that it creates an incen-

tive to invest in the sustenance of the resource (Rose 1994 in Jentoft et al.
1998; Jentoft 2003). Clearly defined property rights are also an important
tool for fishers to exclude others (Raakjær Nielsen et al. 2004). The establish-
ment of a self-governing regime is easiest where there are clearly defined
sets of property rights (Scott 1993 in Jentoft et al. 1998; Jentoft 2003) and
local rights to manage can be strengthened if backed up by rights of owner-
ship (Jentoft et al. 1998). Therefore co-management in general argues for
6 A common pool resource is a valued natural or human-made resource that is available to more
than one person and subject to degradation as a result of overuse.
7 Renewability refers to the rate at which resource units that are extracted, replace themselves
over time.
the devolution of management authority and stimulates local ownership or

long-term leases.
2.3.2 Participation
Participation of all stakeholders is often mentioned as vital in the formula-
tion and successful implementation of decisions concerning environmental
resources (Uphoff 1984; Costanza 1998; Jentoft 2003; Berkes 2003). Effec-
tive management requires participatory decision-making processes that are
legitimate, accountable, and inclusive in the sense that they take into account
multiple stakeholders and interests (Agrawal and Gibson 2001). Participation
thus is the key word,8 but in reality, meaningful participation in management
processes proves more difficult than at first sight. Often there is no authentic
participation, i.e. true power sharing in the sense that there is local input
in allocation decisions and authority over commercially interesting products
(Pinkerton 1989; Agrawal and Ribot 1999; Hildebrand 1997 in Jentoft 2003;
Pinkerton 2003). Where powerful players are involved, the voices of local
stakeholders are often not heard (Berkes 2003).
The obstacles in achieving authentic participation are fundamental and com-

plex. There are differences in perspectives, interests, and expectations of the
various parties that are difficult to bridge (Notzke 1995), (see also section on
discourse analysis in Chapter 1). Various groups seek to control how institu-
tions allocate rights over resources and provide for their representation in
the division of those rights. It is therefore important to make a distinction
between ‘stakeholders’ and ‘right holders’, i.e. between people who are mak-
ing a claim or have an interest in the resource and those who can be consid-
ered as having a right to it, based on formal regulations, customary law or
other practices (Persoon 2004). A third group, so-called caretakers, tries to
work through the right holders – and particularly those in power – in order
to achieve their own objectives. The outside elites described in Chapter 10
are an example of this. Co-management thus will not go without being con-
tested by the many interested parties involved in securing benefits from the
resources in question (Raakjær Nielsen et al. 2004). In starting the process
of collaboration, it is therefore important to analyse those trying to get a seat
at the table.
2.3.3 Local knowledge

Well-functioning communities contain untapped human and capital re-
sources that should be put to use (Jentoft et al. 1998). Traditional knowledge,
generations-old adaptations, and self-regulating principles have helped vari-
ous groups to survive in the long-term and have the potential to improve sus-
tainability on both the social and the environmental level (Johannes 1989).
8 For a wider definition of participation, including the dimensions and types of participation, I
would like to refer to Uphoff 1984; Drijver 1991; Pretty 1994; and Harkes 1995.
46 CO - MANAGEMENT
These cultural and social qualities of human societies are assets or ‘social
capital’ (Jentoft et al. 1998). Incorporation of this social capital into fisheries
management is thought important in reversing negative social and environ-
mental impacts and in building more socially and environmentally stable
systems that are efficient and legitimate (McCay and Jentoft 1996; Milton
1996; Pomeroy and Berkes 1997; Ribot 2002; Raakjær Nielsen et al. 2004).
The use of local environmental knowledge however has to be dealt with criti-
cally and limitations need to be acknowledged. Some knowledge, for exam-
ple, is secret and therefore inaccessible to outsiders or certain groups in the
community. Also the fact that people’s view is based on a limited geographi-
cal locality can cause blind spots or worse. ‘Local ignorance’ can form a seri-
ous obstruction in negotiations or the establishment of a fisheries manage-
ment scheme.9 In many places people are simply in denial of environmental
problems and blame it on God or other externalities. This is also my personal
experience: ‘C’est a Dieu’ is repeatedly heard in north Cameroon when peo-
ple are asked why their fish catches are in decline (Harkes 1994).
Scepticism in the use of local knowledge in environmental management is

also expressed by Ellen and Harris (2000) who state: ‘The claims for the
environmental wisdom of local people have sometimes been misjudged and
naïve.’ The establishment of a property rights regime may be difficult in a
culture where people believe that nature is not a commodity to be bought,
sold or preserved (Posey 1999). In principle, these understandings of the
world are as valid as any other expression of local knowledge, were it not that
particular ideas or perceptions in fact refrain people from environmentally
sustainable behaviour. The way various groups tackle environmental prob-
lems thus is a reflection of diversity, both culturally as well as in terms of
biodiversity (Slikkerveer 1999). The use of local knowledge in environmental
management is thus context specific and requires careful consideration.
One of the main current challenges expressed in the search for solutions to
environmental problems, is to combine or integrate local knowledge and so-
called ‘global knowledge’. Despite increasing willingness on the part of fish-
eries managers to make use of local knowledge found in the communities,
the integration of local ecological knowledge and research-based scientific
knowledge into a common basis for management decisions remains a diffi-
cult task (Hobart 1993; Raakjær Nielsen et al. 2004). In fisheries, there seems
to be a fundamental gap in the perception of the condition of the stocks be-
9 It also refers to ‘ignorance’ in relation to scientific knowledge for social and economic develop-
ment. Ignorance is not a simple antithesis of knowledge, writes Hobart (1993). It is a state which
people attribute to others and is laden with moral judgement. The relationship of developers and
those to-be-developed is constituted by the developers’ knowledge and categories. Knowledge of
people being developed is ignored or treated as a mere obstacle to development.
tween fishing communities, scientists, and fisheries agents. The data gener-
ated through conventional scientific methods are often quite distinct from
the knowledge local people bring in, and which is by default context specific
and qualitative in nature. To make use of this knowledge, it is often redefined
and extracted from its context (Agrawal 1995 and Warren et al. 1995 in Ellen
and Harris 2000). Ellen and Harris (2000) warn for this so-called ‘decontex-
tualisation’ of knowledge.10
To prevent decontextualisation, it may prove useful to identify the different

purposes for which knowledge is used and extracted and make the process
explicit as Seixas and Berkes (2004) do in their description of the Ibiraquera
lagoon fishery in Brazil. They present mechanisms to deal with different
types of knowledge in the interactions among management institutions
across political scales and administrative sectors. For this, they distinguish
three purposes for a common knowledge base: (1) to provide information for
decision-making, (2) to minimise differences in stakeholders’ understand-
ing of problems, and (3) to provide input to management coordination at a
larger scale. In the search for fisheries management plans that allow both
traditional and scientific knowledge to feed in, the above categorisation may
be useful as it helps to define what type of knowledge is used for what pur-
pose. It is also important to look at how local perspectives are included in the
decision-making process. By making the process of explicit and placing it
the context, local knowledge, even though only partially used and extracted,
is acknowledged, credited and – in its limited form – useful in combination
with scientific knowledge in management.
2.3.4 Conflict resolution

There are various reasons why parties decide to cooperate in fisheries man-
agement; yet, problem solving provides one of the key incentives (Pinkerton
2003). In fisheries throughout the world internal conflicts arise over access
to resources, property rights, gear types, space, and markets (Jentoft et al.
1998; Seixas and Berkes 2004). Regulatory systems always impose restric-
tions on users and it is hardly possible to find a measure for conserving fish
stocks that does not benefit one resource user more than others. So there
are always those who win and those who lose (Raakjær Nielsen et al. 2004).
These restrictions on fishers and unequal division of resource benefits evi-
dently offer great potential for conflicts.
Interestingly, conflict is not only a destructive, but can also be a creative force
for resource management (Wilson 2003b). This is beautifully illustrated
through a comparative case study by Donda (2001) in Malawi. At Lake Chiuta
10 Decontextualisation refers to the separation of knowledge from its human agents and from the
situations in which it is produced, reproduced, transformed and presumably at its most effective
(Ellen and Harris 2000). See also Hobart (1993).
48 CO - MANAGEMENT
conflict over resources motivated local communities to request the govern-

ment for assistance in setting up co-management arrangements. Through
these arrangements, fishers found a judicially solid base to exclude outsiders
from their fishing grounds, which reduced conflict and improved manage-
ment.
Co-management accommodates for local conflicts to be resolved. Conflict

resolution mechanisms can help to facilitate negotiations, for example, on
access regulations or the division of benefits, or the identification of the
most appropriate measures. If conflicts, however, involve groups outside the
community, structures for coordination and coordination on a higher level
are usually required. The current challenge, as Hanna (2003) puts it, is to
develop conflict resolution processes that accommodate heterogeneous par-
ticipants and multi-dimensional change while maintaining the legitimacy of
management.
2.3.5 Compliance and enforcement

Compliance and enforcement in fisheries management are often understood
from an economic viewpoint, i.e. the rationale that fishers are calculating
the risk of being caught with the potential benefits of bypassing the rules
(Raakjær Nielsen 2003). In this so-called instrumental perspective, the ap-
proach to rule compliance is often geared towards monitoring, control and
enforcement (MCE approach). In contrast to this, social scientists look at it
from a more normative perspective which puts special emphasis on fishers’
internal incentives for compliance behaviour, such as norms. Norms form
the attitudes and expectations towards others and they create social pres-
sure.11 One of the assumptions is that individual decisions to comply with
the rules are largely based on moral obligation or peer group pressure. Ac-
tive participation of fishers thus helps to create a stronger moral obligation
of individuals to comply with the rules and regulations (Jentoft et al. 1998;
Kuperan et al. 1997; Folke et al. 2002).
Legitimacy of rules, regulations and the law enforcement authorities is also

a key incentive for compliance. The distribution of fishing rights needs to be
legitimate (distributive fairness), but also the regulatory system (procedural
fairness), (Tyler 1990; Raakjær Nielsen 2003). The study of sasi in Maluku
(see Chapter 5 and Novaczek et al. 2001) shows that village leaders or man-
agement authorities who lose legitimacy as a consequence of political strife
or unfair elections, open the way for disobedience. Government managers
often do not realise how important legitimacy is and how important it is that
the fishers feel heard about what they think needs to be done at the local
level. The strategy thus is to establish a larger degree of convergence between
11 Norms create social pressure. Moral is established in interaction with others, but differs from
norms by representing individual values based on personal reflections (Giddens 1984).
SHORTCOMINGS OF CO - MANAGEMENT 49
politically decided management objectives and what fishers perceive as le-

gitimate.
2.3.6 Transaction costs

Transaction costs are defined by Williamson (1979) as the comparative costs
of planning, adapting, and monitoring under alternative governance struc-
tures. In co-management transaction costs can be divided into: a) informa-
tion costs, b) decision-making costs, c) operational costs, and d) the costs for
monitoring, control and enforcement (Kuperan et al. 1997). A centralised
approach to fisheries management, as formerly in Indonesia, will initially
have lower design costs since it takes less time to reach decisions than under
a more cooperative approach. On the longer term, however, a centralised ap-
proach will prove more costly as implementation, monitoring and enforce-
ment costs will rise due to a lack of legitimacy. Decentralisation of manage-
ment authority to local levels therefore is expected to reduce transaction costs
(Ribot 2002).
The reduction of transaction costs is one of the main arguments for adopt-
ing co-management. This is especially the case in countries with an exten-
sive coastline and vast resources, such as the Philippines and Indonesia.
Co-management can be cost-effective because fishers can provide a direct
source of relevant information on fishing patterns, the state of the resource
and fish catches (Hanna 1995). The operational costs (the costs for undertak-
ing the fishing activities) can be reduced through more equal access and a
fair division of benefits. Through its participatory process co-management
is also expected to increase legitimacy and rule compliance, which, in turn,
further reduce enforcement costs. Enforcement costs can be further reduced
when violations of rules can be handled effectively at local level (Jentoft et al.
1998).
2.4 Shortcomings of co-management
Co-management as a strategy offers a viable solution for dysfunctional re-

source management and over-exploitation. But even though co-management
does have great potential and has gained increasing acceptance amongst gov-
ernment, development agencies and researchers, increasing experience and
wider application have brought certain shortcomings and pitfalls to the light.
The first, which is already mentioned in at the beginning of this chapter, is
that the concept of co-management is not clearly defined and means a differ-
ent thing to different people (Ossewijer 2001; Jentoft 2003; Raakjær Nielsen
et al. 2004). The second shortcoming is that, in many cases, co-management
has become largely instrumental, i.e. the involvement of fishing commu-
nities has been limited to the implementation phase without having been
involved in development and planning (Raakjær Nielsen et al. 2004). For
50 CO - MANAGEMENT
example, the Beach Village Committees at Lake Malombe, also in Malawi,12

felt they were doing the ‘dirty work’ for the Fisheries Department rather than
being involved as partners (Donda 2001). This trend might eventually lead to
a situation worse than before because the frustration among the fishing com-
munities will have increased not only because of the lack of empowerment,
but also because their heightened expectations about genuine participation
were not met.
The study of Osseweijer (2001) on marine resource use on the Aru Islands
(Indonesia) is a clear illustration of the vague application of co-management
that is often seen today. In Aru, WWF decided on the establishment of a
marine reserve. The process involved sensitization and awareness raising by
a local NGO in order to stimulate a feeling of ownership and rule compli-
ance. Hence the project was labelled ‘co-management’. The local population,
however, was not convinced of the need of a marine reserve at all and as the
establishment of the marine reserve was merely imposed on people rather
than the outcome of a negotiation process, it created resistance. This typical
example of fitting an existing WWF project into a ‘co-management jacket’ has
not only distorted the concept of co-management in the region, but whilst
this approach may have been possible during the centralistic Suharto years,
it has most probably ruled out any support for ‘proper’ co-management13 in
the future.
2.5 Co-management today
Globalisation14 is a process that is increasingly affecting management of

natural resources. Markets are opening up and local processes are becom-
ing more and more tied to global issues. As the scale increases, fisheries
management structures have to adapt. Local communities and socio-political
processes are becoming linked to distant localities15 and international eco-
nomic forces (Giddens 1990). The preservation of biodiversity and natural
resources on a global scale is important, but it is important to realise that bio-
diversity conservation generally concerns ecosystems rather than local com-
12 In his thesis, Donda (2001) compares two different processes of the establishment of co-man-
agement. The first, in Lake Chiuta was initiated by the local fishers. The second, in Lake Malombe
was government driven and subsequently has a distinct process and outcomes from the former
case.
13 ‘Proper’ as only now, after the reformasi, the necessary foundation is in place to actually sup-
port local resource management (see chapter 10).
14 Globalisation can be understood in various ways, but is characterised by the spread and ex-
change of ideas, practices and technologies on a world-wide scale (Milton 1996).
15 Rights of indigenous peoples and the preservation of biodiversity on a global scale through in-
ternational conventions are issues that are important, but that fall outside the scope of this thesis,
which focuses on fisheries.
CO - MANAGEMENT TODAY 51
munities, who can become marginalized in the process (Berkes 2003; Jentoft
2004). Also in coastal fisheries, local communities can encounter a loss of
control and authority as the scale increases. Industrialised high-tech fisher-
ies require substantial financial and organisational resources and long-term
access to fisheries. As local communities rarely have the means or power to
counter these powerful distant stakeholders, they are likely to become disem-
powered (Raakjær Nielsen et al. 2004).
As the scale of resource management increases, a range of new issues arises

as well as the number and heterogeneity of resource users. This makes deci-
sion-making and cooperation more complex. It also increases the costs of
monitoring and enforcement. The question arises whether the findings and
experiences of co-management on the local level can be scaled up (Costan-
za et al. 1998). Experiences from the Philippines and Bangladesh (Raakjær
Nielsen et al. 2004) show that large-scale resource systems in fact can be
handled by co-management institutions, but it is also becoming clear that
different principles come into play at different scales (Young 1999). Current
debates focus on which types of institutional arrangements are required and
on whether the standard design principles (Ostrom 1990) can be scaled up
to higher levels of social organisation. One way to deal with this is to create
‘nested institutions’ and through institutional interplay. This last structure is
also important in dealing with uncertainty, another recurrent issue in fisher-
ies management (Charles 2001).
Uncertainty refers to social and natural systems that are highly dynamic and
with limited predictability. The challenge in fisheries management is to make
decisions in relation to this uncertainty (Wilson 2002). Over the years, the
problems have become progressively more complex and difficult to manage.
Over-fishing, ocean disposal and spills, the destruction of coastal ecosystems,
land-based contamination and climate change affect marine ecosystems and
conventional management approaches based on predictability have become
increasingly unworkable (Costanza 1998). One solution to deal with uncer-
tainty is sought in adaptive fisheries management which is ‘based on institu-
tional structures which can evaluate outcomes, develop new understandings
of the situation, and take corrective action both in terms of management
measures and the institutional framework for management decisions’ (Deg-
nbol and Raakjær Nielsen 2002). Learning from past experiences and modi-
fication for future action is an important process to be included in co-man-
agement.
52 CO - MANAGEMENT
The ‘nested systems’ mentioned earlier refers to the fact that institutions thus
work at different levels of society and institutions exist within institutions
(Ostrom 1990).16 Aside from vertical linkages, multiple horizontal linkages
may exist with other institutions (Pinkerton 2003). Horizontal collaboration
is called institutional interplay. Fisheries management can also be regarded
as a nested system of institutions. Local management institutions, for exam-
ple, are often nested within larger political institutions such as associations
which deal with resource management issues at a higher level, for example,
a watershed. These associations in turn may be represented at the level of the
province or state. Decisions at one level are ‘passed up’ to the next through
representative structures (Degnbol et al. 2003). Local level decisions are in-
fluenced by higher-level rules and regulations and vice-versa, and the suc-
cessful exercise of rights on one level thus depends strongly on the exercise
of rights of the other.
Linking institutions, however, is more than just delivering decisions up and

down write Degnbol et al. (2003). Decision-makers have responsibilities vis-
à-vis those they represent. Hence, accountability and transparency are impor-
tant and depend much on the procedures and communication. Democratic
selection17 and the possibility to remove a representative are keys in creating
accountability. It is furthermore important how information is exchanged,
how conflicts are solved and how agreements or compromises are reached.
A challenge for management institutions is to ‘translate’ certain types of in-
formation from one level to another. The transfer of information on resource
management to different jurisdictional scales, is a process in which a lot of
information frequently gets lost (Degnbol et al. 2003).
There is also often a ‘language barrier’ between levels of institutions. To tackle

this problem, different sets of skills at different levels are needed to enhance
communication and understanding (Degnbol and Raakjær Nielsen 2002).
A new phenomenon mentioned to deal with communication problems at
various levels are what Degnbol et al. (2003) call ‘practitioners’ or ‘circuiters’
who move among the nested management institutions, supporting negotia-
tions and providing information. These practitioners need a variety of skills
from decision-making processes and conflict management, to expertise in
socio-cultural and biology related fields. In my view, this role is typically one
of a facilitator, a person who builds bridges between parties without personal
involvement. Anthropologists, used to ‘translating’ cultural aspects and ex-
pressions to another, could fulfil an important role here.
16 Nested systems: management institutions exist within a hierarchical structure in which deci-
sions are made at the lowest possible appropriate scale (subsidiarity principle).
17 I will not go deeper into definitions of democracy, but in this context it refers to election proce-
dures for representatives. Undemocratic representation, i.e. by appointment, can be highly legiti-
mate as is the case in Indonesia (see Chapter 5).
THE ROLE OF THE ANTHROPOLOGIST 53
2.6 The role of the anthropologist
Since people have been acknowledged as active participants in resource man-

agement, the contribution of social sciences – and anthropology in particular
– in the study and implementation of natural resource management has in-
creased. As is clear from the above, there is a general demand to complement
the scientific knowledge of biologists and economists on fish stocks and mar-
kets, with knowledge on the socio-cultural aspects of fishers and fisheries
management (Bowen and Riley 2003; Jentoft 2003). But what exactly is it
that the anthropologist can contribute?
Anthropology entails a large range of activities and approaches. Milton (1996)

distinguishes two major roles for anthropologists in environmentalism. The
first is to study environmentalism itself as a cultural phenomenon, so more
or less from an outsiders’ perspective (cf Pannel 1997). The second is to come
to a better understanding of the dialectical relation between humans and
their environment. Osseweijer (2001), for example, sees as major activity the
comparison and communication of the various environmental perceptions,
for instance during the preparations of a co-management regime. A third,
more applied role, is suggested by Kottak (1999) who sees the anthropologist
as agent: planning policies in line with local ecological awareness and knowl-
edge to enhance nature conservation or the advocacy of local people at risk.
A fourth role could be the anthropologist as facilitator or ‘translator’ between
parties in co-management. This role is more or less in line with what Degn-
bol et al. (2003) propose as ‘practitioners’ and ‘circuiters’.
In co-management there is often great misunderstanding among the various

parties about the use and management of resources, as well as the causes and
effects of environmental problems. The insights gained from comparing the
different perceptions on resource use and conceptions of the natural envi-
ronment can be very valuable in the establishment of resource management
regimes and co-management process in particular (Osseweijer 2001). There
is an important place for anthropologists to bring the different visions of the
environment and environmental problems into a critical perspective (Brosius
1999). The anthropologist, who has analysed the situation and developments
in the region, as well as the dialectical relation between local people and their
environment, might attain a better understanding of what Leach (1999) calls
the ‘messy middle ground’ between community and government. The an-
thropologist may therefore be able to bridge the cognitive gap between both
parties.
The current criticism of anthropologists working at environmental issues

is that their potential contribution has been largely ignored.18 In the 1970s,
Rappaport (1968, 1971) already argued for the inclusion of people’s under-
standing of the world in environmental management, also to determine
54 CO - MANAGEMENT
whether their knowledge would be ecologically sustainable. It is important

to understand how culture mediates human-environment relationships. The
absence of this knowledge seriously undermines the arguments presented
in the global environmental debate (Milton 1996). This is a serious short-
coming, because by analysing the relationship between the culture of people
and the ecological impacts of their activities, we would be able to understand
which cultures and which cultural features are ecologically sustainable and
which are not. These features can be key elements in the management of
natural resources.
18 This is, as mentioned before, to a certain extent due to the preference for other scientific input
(e.g. biological and economic) in management of natural resources and environmental issues. It
can, however, also be attributed to anthropologists themselves who have historically focused on
in-depth case studies without being able or willing to extend their focus beyond the local situation
under study. Results were not extrapolated to other sites or wider debates, partly because of the
ethical codes that kept anthropologist from sharing, sometimes sensitive, information (see also
Persoon and Hobbes 2003).
55
3 Methodology
3.1 The research framework
The Fisheries Co-management Research Project has developed an analytical

framework which, when applied in various research projects, enables com-
parisons among case-studies, country research and pilot-tested co-manage-
ment models (ICLARM/IFM 1996). The model allows for systematic data
analysis so that conditions that facilitate successful co-management may be
discovered. Institutional analysis focuses on the rights and rules that make up
the management institution. These rights and rules may be formal (written
down) or informal (unwritten code of conduct). The purpose of institutional
analysis is to separate these rules from the incentives and strategies of the
various players (individuals and organisations) involved in the institution. A
clear appreciation for what is cause and what is effect helps to understand
how different management structures affect behaviour of resource users and
subsequent outcomes (Fig. 3.1).
The Institutional Analysis Framework (IAF) acknowledges that the success

of a management institution does not only depend on structure (i.e. the sum
of constitutional, collective-choice and operational rules governing resource
access and withdrawal) but is also affected by the wide range of local, region-
al, national as well as international and exogenous contextual variables.
Biological, physical,
technological
attributes
Fisher
Community Market
Level (Supply-demand)
Exogenous attributes
attributes Incentives to Patterns of
macroeconomics, Attributes of fishers coordinate, interactions
political, social and stakeholders cooperate among OUTCOMES
natural community and resource
contribute users
Fisher or com-
munity institutional
and organizational
arrangements
Outside External institution-

Fisher/Com- al and organization-
munity Level al arrangements
FIGURE 3.1 – Institutional analysis framework (adapted from Oakerson 1992)

56 METHODOLOGY
There are three interrelated parts to institutional analysis: analysis of institu-

tional arrangements, analysis of performance, and the identification of key
factors affecting performance. The first aspect, institutional arrangement
analysis, describes what is occurring in real life and uncovers the relation-
ships between the institution and related organisations. Links that exist be-
tween the local management system and the sets of contextual variables are
also explored. Contextual variables include the biological, physical and tech-
nological attributes, the market attributes, the stakeholder and community
characteristics, community institutional and decision-making arrangements,
the external institutional and organisational arrangements, and exogenous at-
tributes. Contextual variables provide the incentives and disincentives which
in turn affect patterns of interaction among stakeholders, i.e. how resource
users participate in, support or comply with management institutions.
The second level of institutional analysis, institutional and organisational

performance, evaluates the outcomes of the co-management institutional ar-
rangements according to the measures of sustainability, efficiency and equi-
ty. The measuring instruments are applied to the impact of co-management
arrangements on human as well as ecological systems that operate and affect
the resource. The final level of analysis determines the characteristics of and
underlying factors for successful co-management.
The degree and type of interactions among resource users and managers
both at local and higher levels determines where an institution lies along the
continuum of potential co-management arrangements (Fig. 3.2 adapted from
McCay 1993 and Berkes 1994).
Co-management
Goverment-based
management
Community-based
management
Centralized government
control
Informing
Consultation
Cooperation
Information exchange
Advisory role
Joint action
Partnership
Community control
Community self-governance
and self-management
FIGURE 3.2 – The continuum of possible co-management arrangements.

RESEARCH METHODS 57
3.2 Study site selection
Research was focused primarily on the islands of Ambon, Seram and the
Lease Islands of Haruku, Saparua and Nusa Laut (Figure 1). To determine
the extent and activity of sasi, every village on the three Lease Islands was in-
cluded in the inventory. On Ambon Island, which has a total of 61 villages, we
left out the 23 suburbs of Ambon city where the sasi institution has virtually
disappeared. Of the 38 remaining coastal villages on the island, 50% were
included in the inventory. On the large island of Seram, which has 136 rural
coastal villages, we surveyed only those seven that are within easy reach of
Ambon (5% of the total).
For the performance analysis, we wanted to sample villages having sasi on

marine resources and villages with no sasi at all. From the inventory, however,
we found that most villages on Saparua, Haruku and Nusa Laut lie along a
continuum, with relatively few having either fully functional sasi or none at
all. We extended the inventory survey to selected coastal villages on Ambon
Island and southern Seram. Based on the results of this extended inventory,
two groups of 11 villages could be identified as performance study sites.
In 6 case study villages (two with a strong sasi institution, two where it was
lost, and two that were in the process of revitalization) a comparative insti-
tutional analysis was carried out. We studied how local institutional arrange-
ments interacting with the contextual variables, affect the actions of the re-
source users since these shape the incentives to comply to, adapt and enforce
local management rules (ICLARM/IFM 1996). In each village, data were
gathered on contextual variables, structure and function of institutional ar-
rangements and management outcomes. In surrounding marine territories
marine surveys were carried out.
3.3 Research methods
Structured interviews on the presence and activity of sasi were conducted in

63 villages. In all cases at least one of the informants was a local government
official or traditional (adat) authority figure because they were expected to
have detailed knowledge of village related issues. In addition, fishing family
interviews and/or in-depth case studies were carried out in 28 of the villages
and this added depth to the inventory data (see Table 3.1).
The inventory interview consisted of a standard list of questions. Respond-

ents were asked about the presence of sasi and other fisheries management
rules, whether sasi rules applied to the village, land, river or sea, the existence
of sasi ceremonies, written rules and sanctions, activity over time, and rea-
sons for the loss of sasi where it was no longer present.
58 METHODOLOGY
Table 3.1 – Informants interviewed in the three phases of the sasi study
Project objective and Methods Geographic area Type of Informant Number

research component
1 Inventory of sasi Structured 63 villages on Nusa Village official 83
institution in cen- interviews Laut, Saparua, Adat leader 24
tral Maluku Haruku, Ambon and Church minister 6
Seram Islands Fisher, elder 48
Teacher, re- 2
searcher
Total 165
(7 women)
2a Performance Structured 22 villages on Sapa- Fishers 332
analysis of sasi at interviews & rua, Haruku, Ambon,
the district level ladder survey and Seram Total 332
(73 women)
2b Performance Biological Saparua (Nolloth, Village officials 5
analysis of sasi: survey Itawaka, Ihamahu), Fishers 2
biological aspects (direct survey, Haruku (Haruku) and Adat leaders 1
informal inter- Ambon (Toisapu, Hu- Women 1
views) tumuri, Seri, Airlow) Total 9
(1 woman)
3a Institutional analy- Structured Nolloth, Haruku, Tu- Fishers 176
sis 6 villages: con- interviews & haha, Hulaliu, Seri,
textual variables ladder survey Hutumuri-Toisapu
and outcomes Total 176
(8 women)
3b Institutional analy- Semi-struc- Nolloth, Haruku, Tu- Village officials 25
sis: Resilience of tured inter- haha, Hulaliu, Seri, Adat leaders 7
local institutions views Hutumuri-Toisapu KUD staff 7
Elders 21
Youth 18
Fish traders 22
Women’s leaders 14
Male fishers 10
Female other 9
Male other 23
Total 157
(45 women)
Total number of interviews 839
(134 women)
Sasi can be characterized as church sasi or adat sasi according to the dom-
inant power in the institution (Imron Masyhuri 1995). Respondents were
asked whether they considered their sasi to be adat sasi, church sasi or some
other form of sasi, also to reveal the authority figures i.e. traditional (adat)
leaders, the minister (church), Muslim religious leaders or others (e.g. com-
RESEARCH METHODS 59
mercial harvesters). The role of the village government, and especially the
village head, was also documented.
In each of the 22 villages in the performance study, 15 heads of fishing house-

holds were interviewed. The data collected from 30 heads of fishing house-
holds in each of the six case-study villages (see chapter 5 of this thesis and
Novaczek et al. 2001) were also included. Each of the respondents provided
information on current conditions, changes through time (past 15 years) and
future expectations for each of the indicators (Table 3.2). For the purpose of
statistical analysis, the responses were divided into two groups: those from
fishers in marine sasi villages and those from fishers in villages lacking the
sasi institution.
TABLE 3.2 – Performance indicators

Equity 1 Role of fishers in • The degree of influence that fishers have in
management decision-making processes regarding fisheries
management
2 Access to marine • The individual access that fishers have to marine
resources resources
3 Fair distribution of • The division of (expensive) fishing gear among the
fishing gear fishers in the villages
4 Economic equality • The distribution of income (disparities) among the
villagers
Efficiency 5 Communal decision- • The degree to which villagers are able to make
making decisions (on the fishery) communally
6 Ease of entry into the • The costs and/or fees that need to be paid before
fishery people can start fishing
7 Control over access • The ability of people to define who is entering the
to fishery water and which resources are used
8 Compliance with • The degree to which people stick to the fisheries
fishery rules rules
Social 9 Family well-being • Degree of well-being in terms of housing, food, and
sustainability health
10 Income • The rise or decline in income
11 Tradition of collective • The occurrence of communal activities in the
action village (e.g. construction of roads and houses)
12 Discussion of village • The degree to which local issues are openly
issues discussed in the village
13 Community harmony • The lack or occurrence of conflicts in the village
Biological 14 Marine resource • The state of the resource in terms of coral health,
sustainability health numbers of fish, water clarity, etc.
15 Fish catch • The amount and size of fish caught
60 METHODOLOGY
The resilience study is based on information from both the inventory and the
comparative analysis of case studies with reference also to the contextual at-
tributes (political, economic and socio-cultural). Key informant interviews cov-
ered questions on the objective of sasi, the rules and regulations, the role of the
village government and traditional authorities, leadership, boundaries, compli-
ance and enforcement, and external factors having an impact on management
institutions (based on Lubis 1992; Ruddle 1993; von Benda-Beckmann et al.
1995; ICLARM/IFM 1996). The data from the inventory shows the process
of decline; the additional information was used to explain the mechanism
behind this process.
Detailed information on each of these aspects is described in Novaczek et al.

2001.
3.4 Inventory
We quantified the frequency and distribution of different sasi arrangements

and also determined whether the dominant power was correlated with the
attributes of the institution. The villages were grouped by three different fea-
tures: dominant religion, population size, and island.
The activity of marine sasi was quantified by combining the scores for indi-
cators e.g. presence of sasi fisheries rules, periodic closure of a marine sasi
area, existence of written rules and active enforcement of access restrictions.
Each indicator had a maximum score of 3. Scores reflected the relative degree
of activity i.e. the breadth of application of a closure or the functionality of
enforcers.
The number and breadth of application of marine management rules in both

sasi and non-sasi villages was quantified by first assigning value to a number
of indicators and then summing these values for each village. The indicators
concerned gear restrictions, local fisheries rules other than the national re-
striction on blast and poison fishing, area closures and active enforcement of
rules. A value was also assigned according to the number of species groups
affected by local management rules. Differences in average marine manage-
ment score for villages grouped by presence or absence of sasi, geographi-
cal location, population size and religion were determined statistically using
analysis of variance (SPSS 1997).
INSTITUTIONAL RESILIENCE 61
3.5 Performance
Indicators used to measure equity, efficiency, biological and social sustain-

ability are presented in Table 3.2. Comparisons were made between the aver-
age condition in the past in sasi and non-sasi sites, between past and present
in each type of village, and between average change through time in sasi and
non-sasi villages. The same series of comparisons were made for present and
future conditions.
In each of the 22 villages in the performance study, 15 heads of fishing house-

holds were interviewed. The data collected from 30 heads of fishing households
in each of the six case-study villages (see chapter 5 of this thesis and Novaczek
et al. 2001) were also included. Each of the respondents provided information
on current conditions, changes through time (past 15 years) and future expecta-
tions for each of the indicators (Table 3.2). For the purpose of statistical analy-
sis, the responses were divided into two groups: those from fishers in marine
sasi villages and those from fishers in villages lacking the sasi institution.
The values for each indicator are based on the perceptions of fishers using a
self-anchored ladder scale (Pomeroy et al. 1996). This standard tool provides
ordinal data, which allows statistical analysis. Fishers were asked to answer
questions using a picture of a ladder with ten rungs as a visual aid. Fish-
ers pointed to the rung that in their opinion represented past (15 years ago),
present and future (15 years ahead) conditions. The aim was to record fish-
ers’ perceptions of current conditions, change through time and degree of
optimism for the future. In addition, base-line data was gathered from each
respondent, including people’s economic status.
3.6 Institutional resilience
Aim of the study was to determine the reasons for loss or survival of sasi.
The similarities and differences among study sites were explored to reveal
the (social) mechanisms behind the process of decline of sasi and answer the
questions: What makes sasi strong or weak and why do some villages want
to revitalize it?
The resilience study is based on information from both the inventory and the
comparative analysis of case studies with reference also to the contextual at-
tributes (political, economic and socio-cultural). Interviews conducted for the in-
ventory of sasi included questions on whether sasi had ever been functional in the
village, when various functions had ceased and why. In addition, key informant
interviews in the case study villages (Table 3.3) covered questions on the objec-
tive of sasi, the rules and regulations, the role of the village government and tra-
ditional authorities, leadership, boundaries, compliance and enforcement, and
62 METHODOLOGY
external factors having an impact on management institutions (based on Ostrom

1990; Lubis 1992; Ruddle 1993; von Benda-Beckmann et al. 1995).1
TABLE 3.3 – Case study villages and presence of sasi

Village Sasi Island
Nolloth Strong Saparua
Haruku Strong Haruku
Tuhaha In the process of revitalisation Saparua
Hulaliu In the process of revitalisation Haruku
Toisapu-Hutumuri Disappeared Ambon
Seri Disappeared Ambon
The results of the inventory interviews were analyzed quantitatively. The re-
sults of the semi-structured interviews conducted in each case study village
were analyzed in a qualitative way and compared with the trends evident from
the inventory. The data from the inventory shows the process of decline; the ad-
ditional information was used to explain the mechanism behind this process.
3.7 Fisheries management and legal framework
The research area Central Maluku, includes two administrative districts: Ka-
bupaten Maluku Tengah and Kotamadya Ambon. Interviews with government
staff involved questions on fisheries management, control and enforcement
and the responsibilities of the various (government) institutions involved (Ta-
ble 3.4). They took place in 1997-98 at the district office in Ambon city and
Masohi on Seram, and at two sub-district offices on Haruku and Nusa Laut.
The perception of local level government staff was drawn from the interviews
of the general institutional analysis. Information regarding the perception
of people in coastal villages of central Maluku was drawn from interviews of
village government officials, traditional leaders and fishing families that were
conducted as part of the larger study on sasi (see Novaczek et al. 2001). In ad-
dition, published documents detailing law and policy were reviewed.
After the social upheaval and changes in government law as part of the de-
centralisation process, major revisions have been made in the legal frame-
work, including authority structures at the local and district level. An updated
version of the legal framework was derived from a literature survey. These
changes up to January 2005 are briefly presented in Chapter 9.
1 Detailed information on each of these aspects is described in the individual case studies (see
Chapter 5 and Novaczek et al. 2001).
CONDITIONS FOR SUCCESS OF CO - MANAGEMENT 63
TABLE 3.4 – Respondents interviewed to gather information on fisheries management in central

Maluku in 1997-98.
Topic Method Place Department Number of
interviews per
department
Government Semi- Ambon city (provin- BAPPEDA (Planning) 4

management structured cial capital); Masohi Dept. Forestry 2
structure at pro- interviews (District capital); Dept. Fisheries
vincial, district Saparua Island, Provincial 1
and sub-district Haruku Island (Sub-) District 8
levels (sub-district offices) Dept. Transport 4
Law Bureau 1
Environment Bureau 1
Police 3
Navy 2
Total 26
3.8 Decentralisation
The description of the process of decentralisation and its implications in

the Philippines and Indonesia is based on a literature survey, internet news
and updates. Information was also obtained from several experts working in
both countries through e-mail and telephone conversations. The cases in the
Philippines were selected as they provide current examples of decentralised
systems.
3.9 Conditions for success of co-management
Data for this chapter came from project partners working at the various (re-
search) sites of the Fisheries Co-management Research Project in the Philip-
pines, Indonesia, Vietnam, Thailand, Malaysia, and Bangladesh. Over forty-
five individual research projects and activities were undertaken during the
life of the project. These research projects and activities include: reviews of
community-based and co-management projects, case study analyses, impact
evaluations, the testing of hypotheses on the benefits and outcomes of co-
management, analysis of legal and policy documents, and information ex-
changed at meetings and workshops (see Table 3.5).
Aside from the write-up, my contribution to this chapter/article was mainly

in providing the key conditions for success from the Indonesian cases and
comparative analysis with the material from the other countries in order to
find consistency and define the degree of importance or relevance of the vari-
ous indicators and conditions.
64 METHODOLOGY
TABLE 3.5 – Sources of information

Activity Sources
Reviews of community-based Vietnam (Ministry of Fisheries Vietnam 1995; Thong et al.

coastal resource management and 1996; Thong and Thieu 1998)
co-management experiences: Philippines (Carlos and Pomeroy 1996)
Indonesia (Nikijuluw 1996a)
Thailand (Tokrisna et al. 1998)
Asia (Pomeroy 1995)
Worldwide (Sen and Raakjær Nielsen 1996)
Case study analysis: Bangladesh (Khan and Apu 1998; Thompson et al. 1998)
Thailand (Masae 1998)
Indonesia (Nikijuluw 1996b; Novaczek et al. 2001)
Vietnam (Pham and Phung 1999)
Philippines (Pomeroy and Pido 1995; Villavicencio and Bal-
ing 1995; Agbayani and Babol 1997; ICLARM et al. 1997;
Katon et al. 1997; Baticados and Agbayani 1998; Garces and
Done 1998; Katon et al. 1998; van Mulekom and Tria 1999)
Impact evaluation of co-manage- (Pomeroy et al. 1996)

ment arrangements:
Hypothesis testing of advantages (Kuperan et al. 1996; Kuperan et al. 1997; Kuperan et al.
or benefits of co-management: 1998; Susilowati 1998; Murshed-e-Jahan 1999)
Government legal, institutional (Susilowati 1996; University of the Philippines 1996; Fellizar
and policy analysis: et al. 1997; Pomeroy and Berkes 1997; Torell 1998; Ehsanul
1999; La Vina 1999; Purwaka 1999)
Meetings and workshops: (Pomeroy 1994; Pomeroy and Williams 1994; IFM 1995; Foltz
et al. 1996; ICARM 1996; Pido 1996; Middendorp et al. 1999)
3.10 Measuring of project success
The study on the measurement of project success was based on a literature sur-
vey and closer analysis of project documents. Pomeroy et al. (1996) describe
over a hundred community-based resource management (CBRM) projects in
the Philippines that were carried out over a period of 10 years. A later study
by Pomeroy and Carlos (1997) evaluated the success of these projects, which
was not very high (less than 20%). A literature study on perceptions, a closer
analysis of what people in fact did find positive about the projects, and a study
on why these perceptions can be different, revealed some keys in explaining
the difference in views on project success. From this information and mak-
ing use of various participatory techniques (PRA), a method was developed to
measure people’s development as well as the project’s outcomes in different
points in time.
65
4 Description of the research area
Maluku province in eastern Indonesia is known as the province of a thou-

sand islands. In fact there are 1,027 islands, covering about 10% of the entire
area of the province and occupied by about 1.8 million people (1990 census).
Central Maluku, includes two administrative districts, Kabupaten Maluku
Tengah and Kotamadya Ambon. It is located at 2°50’-3°50’ South Latitude and
126°55’-128°45’ East Longitude. The total area of central Maluku is 284,308
km2, consisting of 255,090 km2 of sea and 29,218 km2 of land. The major
islands of the area are Seram, Buru, Ambon, the Lease Islands (Haruku, Sa-
parua and Nusa Laut) and the Bandas.
Many of these islands are very small and surrounded by productive coral
reefs. The productive base on the islands is limited by geomorphologic fac-
tors (steep slopes) and most settlements and farming activities are concen-
trated along the strip of relatively flat coastal land. The majority of families
living in the small Maluku coastal communities gain at least a portion of
their living from exploitation of marine resources such as reef fish, pelagic
fish, shellfish and sea cucumbers (Hualopu 1996). Fisheries resources are
exploited throughout the islands, but exploitation in some places is regulated
through sasi, a traditional local resource management system.
4.1 Socio-political history of central Maluku
Villages organized under local government are believed to have formed in the
Neolithic approximately 4500 years ago (de Jonge and van Dijk 1995). From
this period archaeologists have determined that canoes, gardening tools and
simple stone axes were in use. Evidence of the building of a Baileo, the tra-
ditional community house, familiar in adat culture, dates back to the first
century A.D. (see also Cooley 1962). At this time there was already trade be-
tween central Maluku and China and other areas of Southeast Asia. The local
religion was animist (Holleman 1923).
Trade heralded the introduction of iron and bronze in Maluku approximately

2500 years ago (de Jonge and van Dijk 1995). It was in this time that labour
specialisation led to a hierarchical social structure with leaders, free people
and slaves. Art from this period is called Dongson style, but recent findings
suggest it might originate from even before the Iron Age.
66 DESCRIPTION OF THE RESEARCH AREA
The political structure of Central Maluku over the period of 1000-1500 A.D.
has been characterized as ‘patrician republican’ with an aristocratic ruling
class. The original inhabitants generally referred to as Alifuru lived in moun-
tain villages. Organized in tribal groups (uku) consisting of clans (lumah tau
or soa), the most important leaders were the chieftain or king (latu), the heads
of the uku, and the mauwin, a shaman mediating between the people, nature
and the world of ancestors and spirits (von Benda-Beckmann et al. 1995).
Each village was occupied by a number of clans with a patrilineal descent sys-
tem. The village-based groups of clans related by geographical proximity or
kinship, were grouped together as soa under a leader called the kepala soa (see
also Holleman 1923). The soa were in turn organized into small kingdoms
(negeri lama) led by a great leader (tamaela umi haha).
In Maluku, the period between the 15th and 17th century was full of turmoil
and dramatic political, economic and religious change (von Benda-Beck-
mann et al. 1995). Around 1500 the traditional economy of Maluku was
based on subsistence agriculture and fishing. Sago was important both as
food and as a trade item. The clove trade in Maluku was mainly in hands of
the Hindu-Javanese Majapahit kingdom, but soon Maluku was to be the bat-
tlefield where foreign powers struggled for control over the region’s natural
resources, particularly spices (Knaap 1981).
FIGURE 4.1 – Cloves drying on the street in Maluku.
At this time Muslim Arab traders arrived in northern Maluku. Their influ-
ence led to the establishment of Islamic kingdoms in the 15th century. Islamic
laws were incorporated into adat law and Arabic words were incorporated
SOCIO - POLITICAL HISTORY OF CENTRAL MALUKU 67
into local language. As the Majapahit hegemony declined, four powerful Is-
lamic kingdoms emerged in north Maluku. Islam moved south into central
Maluku, in particular to Hitu, a seaport on the north of Ambon Island. On
Ambon, a union of nine negeri (patasiwa) dominated the Leitimur peninsula,
while a union of five negeri (patalima) was established in the Leihitu section
of the island. On Haruku Island, Saparua and Nusa Laut powerful negeri also
emerged to dominate island life and establish kingdoms that competed with
one another.
In the course of the expansion of clove production from Ternate, via Hoamoal
on Seram to the central Maluku islands in the early 16th century, immigrant
groups, coming from the northern Maluku islands and Java settled along the
coast (von Benda-Beckmann et al. 1995), (see also Fig. 1). The 16th century saw
Portuguese traders entering Maluku and engaging in the political rivalries of
the native kingdoms. They built a fortress at Hitu on Ambon in 1515. In this
period Catholic missionaries made Ambon the centre of Catholic evangeli-
cal activity. The Portuguese were followed by the Dutch who dominated and
eventually defeated the Ambonese kingdoms.
By the 17th century the Dutch were firmly established as a trading power in Ma-
luku, with their Dutch East Indies Company (VOC) backed up by naval fleets.
After the Dutch defeated the Portuguese a period followed of warfare among
Dutch, British and the Maluku population, wherein the Dutch ultimately pre-
vailed. Yet, the ‘spice wars’ punctuated by local uprisings continued off and
on into the 20th century. With the defeat of the Portuguese, Roman Catholi-
cism disappeared and the settlements and villages in central Maluku eventu-
ally became either Islamic or Protestant (von Benda-Beckmann et al. 1995).
The Dutch colonial rule led to poverty and social disruption, and when in
1796 the British reappeared, complete lack of local support forced the Dutch
to give up their ruling power (Riedel 1886). The early 1800s was a period of
relative isolation for Maluku and inter-island contact was mostly via Buginese
and Makassar traders from Sulawesi and Java (Fox 1996). At this time the
Chinese also began to play a major role in local trade. However, in 1817 the
British were again defeated and the Dutch established their provincial capital
in Ambon.
The creation of an economic monopoly on clove production in Maluku en-

tailed enforced production quotas, the imposition of population relocations,
and radical interventions into existing patterns of social and political struc-
ture. Villagers were forcibly relocated on the coast and settled within newly
created territorial units managed by individuals occupying Dutch created ad-
ministrative roles (Chauvel 1990 in Zerner 1994b). There was serious local
resistance led by Thomas Matualesi – better known as Pattimura – of Saparua
Island in 1817, which ended in defeat for the local troops in 1823. Under sub-
sequent Dutch rule, Maluku chil-

dren were schooled in the Dutch
language and advances were made
in converting the local population
to Protestantism. The Christians
then came to be favoured by the
Dutch, rising to occupy admin-
istrative positions in the govern-
ment.
It was not until 1920 that ‘Sarekat

Ambon’, the first indigenous po-
litical party, was formed to advance
FIGURE 4.2 – Dutch governor Dirk Fock visits Ambon in the welfare of Ambonese people.
1927 (photo: Elsevier). Its leader, A.J. Patty, promoted in-
dependence. Although he himself
was subsequently exiled from Maluku, his work resulted in the opening up of
government to include traditional leaders in the governmental council, the ‘Am-
bonraad’. The Sarekat Ambon party was finally banned by the Dutch in 1939.
During World War II (1942-1945), Maluku was occupied by Japanese forces

and ruled by a military governor based in Ambon. People lived in fear of the
brutality of Japanese occupying forces. All political parties were banned and
the function of traditional (adat) government discouraged. Maluku was cut
off from the outside world and the period is remembered as one of extreme
hardship.
On 17 August 1945 the Republic of Indonesia proclaimed its independence

from the Dutch colonial rule. Sukarno was the first president. In 1950, after
the abolishment of the federal state and subsequent incorporation of the ‘au-
tonomous’ East Indonesia into the republic of Indonesia, on the 25th of April
contenders proclaimed the Republic of South Maluku (Republik Maluku Se-
latan – RMS) with J.H. Manuhutu as its first president. Within months an
invasion of Sukarno’s armed forces violently forced the government to leave.
The RMS still has a government in exile in the Netherlands.
The Dutch, with a degree of local support, attempted to retain control over
Maluku but this uprising was finally defeated by Indonesia’s military, after a
period of struggle that lasted up to 1952. In 1952, central Maluku was granted
official status as an autonomous administrative regency of Indonesia, and
in 1957 Maluku gained the status of a province with its own parliament. The
years 1955-65 were ones of political unrest at the national level that involved
a number of prominent Maluku politicians. It was also a period of rapid de-
velopment and poverty alleviation as the First Long Term Development Plan
covering 25 years, was implemented.
HISTORY OF SASI IN MALUKU 69
The coup d’état of 1965 resulted in the takeo-

ver by Major General Suharto, whose leader-
ship remained intact up until 1998. The Su-
harto era was characterized by tight control
over politics and a highly centralized form of
administration, both of which had a powerful
influence on political life and economic devel-
opment in Maluku. The influence and power
of the governing party came to be felt at all lev-
els, right down into the smallest villages (Dau-
vergne 1997). In 1974, Law No. 5, was passed
defining a new regional government structure.
This was followed by Law No. 5, 1979 which
decreed that all village governments must
be redesigned to follow a defined structure
which did not accommodate traditional (adat)
institutions such as sasi and the kewang (tradi-
tional law enforcers). The indigenous people
of Maluku were thrown into confusion over
whether to uphold their traditional laws and
institutions, conform to the new edict or seek
some compromise between the two. That con-
fusion, and the wide array of responses at the
FIGURE 4.3 – The first president of the RMS, village level, is still evident in Maluku today.
J.H. Manuhutu (Photo: Moluks Historisch
Museum) The 1970s were also a time of particularly
rapid economic change. Maluku experienced
an average economic growth of 12.8% a year, compared to an average of 8.9%
in 1983-88 and 6.7% in 1988-93 (Anonymous 1994). Much of this economic
progress was the result of direct government assistance. Also, from a pre-
dominantly agricultural economy Maluku gradually shifted to an economy
where industry is important. In 1970, 71% of the GDRP was from agriculture
and fisheries and only 1.6% from industry. In 1993 agriculture and fisheries
provided 32% of GDRP (industry 19%).
4.2 History of sasi in Maluku
In some Maluku communities, control over the land and marine territory
(petuanan) and its resources is vested in a social institution with a code of con-
duct, rules and regulations known as sasi (Volker 1925, Ellen 1978, Kriekhoff
1991). Sasi is not simply an institution designed to regulate resource use, it
also has a significant cultural role: ‘It is an encompassing body of meaning-
ful relations between people, the natural environment and gods, ancestors
and spirits’ (von Benda-Beckmann et al. 1995). Although the origins of sasi
are lost in the mists of time, local legend speaks of sasi being in place in the
14th century and perhaps earlier (Topatimasang 1997). Others maintain that
sasi developed in the 16th century in response to the needs of clove traders
(Kissya 1994), but it was almost certainly based on older adat tradition that
aimed to protect and control exploitation of natural resources (von Benda-
Beckmann et al. 1995).
The ‘spice wars’ of the 1600-1900s had the effect of stimulating militancy as
well as mobility in Maluku people and fostered fierce attachment of the peo-
ple to their territories (Chauvel 1981). This could have been positive in terms
of reinforcing adat. On the other hand, however, the battles were ultimately
lost, many of the bravest killed, and the sovereignty of local leaders abolished.
In some cases wholesale slaughter (as happened in Banda) and forced remov-
als, alienated people from their territories. In general, adat culture is believed
to have reached its zenith in the mid-1600s and the pattern since then has
been one of decline, although with periods of resurgence (Cooley 1962).
The introduction of the Islam and Christianity and the establishment of a

trade monopoly in cloves were of decisive influence for further development
of sasi. During the occupation and Christianization of Maluku by the Dutch,
sasi was at first discouraged along with other ‘pagan superstitions and ritu-
als’ (von Benda-Beckmann et al. 1995). However, the institution was subse-
quently revived and revised by the Dutch to control and maximize harvests
of valuable spice crops, regulate land tenure and provide a means of social
control (von Benda-Beckmann et al. 1995). In the revised form, the empha-
sis on spiritual aspects declined, while economic aspects of sasi came to the
fore. During this period and into the 1900s, native Mollucans were often
resentful rather than supportive of the Dutch style of sasi as it represented
the imposition of Dutch ethics and was often a burden on poorer members
of society (Zerner 1994a). Under Dutch influence, what had been purely an
adat institution became integrated to some extent with the village leadership
supported by the colonial government. At a later point, the church also came
to have a role in sasi, changing the institution further into one in which reli-
gious, government and adat leaders worked together.
In the period 1880-1893 Dutch Resident Riedel attempted to abolish sasi. He

wanted to break the power of kewang leaders over the spice trade and abolish
the kewang’s rights to enforce sasi rules, which he considered exploitative of
the local producers. In spite of his efforts, the sasi institution continued to
survive and evolve in many villages, and in 1921 the Dutch actually supported
sasi once more by formalizing the institution with the decree called ‘Het recht
van sasi in de Molukken’ (the rights of sasi in Maluku).
During World War II, the period of occupation by the Japanese represented
an extreme threat to all adat institutions. Lack of appropriate ceremonial
HISTORY OF SASI IN MALUKU 71
cloth and other goods meant that adat rituals could not be performed accord-
ing to tradition, so that in this period many substitutions were made (Cooley
1962). Indonesian independence involved civil war in Maluku, a time when
many leaders were lost and clans scattered. Integration into the new nation
of Indonesia meant a further blow to local indigenous language and culture
because Indonesian Malay became the language of compulsory schooling.
Subsequent decades of civil strife and political turmoil at local and national
levels doubtless continued to challenge the strength of local culture. In more
recent decades, cultural change has intensified as economic development
proceeded. By the 1960s there was a confident prediction (Cooley 1962) that
sasi was doomed to disappear ‘in the very near future’. But although weak-
ened over time, sasi never disappeared.
The aim of sasi and its function in resource management and conservation
has been debated (Pannell 1997). Zerner (1994a) argues that, although there
may be spin-off benefits in terms of resource sustainability, sasi is essen-
tially an institution for managing social interactions and mediating tenure
disputes or maximizing economic returns, rather than a resource conserva-
tion and management institution per se. On the other hand, sasi clearly was
performing a conservation function in the 1920s when the use of poisons
in the fishery was banned under sasi rules (Volker 1925). In the 1990s, sasi
again underwent change, with a renewed emphasis on conservation aspects
(Zerner 1994a).
The application of sasi to marine resources may have never been as wide-
spread as sasi on land crops. Zerner and Thorburn (forthcoming) have specu-
lated that in its original form, marine sasi was applied only to pelagic fish,
with the objective of protecting migratory fish from disturbance so as to max-
imize harvests for local consumption. In the decades following the 1930s,
the emerging international markets for top shell and sea cucumber appear to
have prompted the development of additional types of marine access prohibi-
tions and related ceremonies in places such as the Kei Islands in southern
Maluku (Zerner and Thorburn, forthcoming). Similar rules are evident in
central Maluku today and appear to date back at least to the 1960s.
There is another adat institution linked to sasi, the Latupati, a traditional

gathering of leaders at the island-wide level. The Latupati in the Lease Islands
(i.e. Saparua, Nusa Laut and Haruku) has been effectively dormant since the
passage of the legislation on village governments in 1979. However, a revital-
ized Latupati may have potential as a regional resource management body.
In 1996 the first Haruku Island Latupati meeting in 20 years was held as
a consequence of the efforts of NGOs interested in developing marine re-
source management capacity at the island and regional levels. Subsequently,
NGO interventions have also led to the revival of the Latupati on Nusa Laut
Island in 1998. On Saparua, there is also a Latupati but it was used only as a
venue for planning of annual social events. In resource management under

adat sasi, there is close collaboration among the Tiga Tungku, i.e. adat leaders,
village government and religious leaders.
4.3 Village level socio-political context
The following general overview of the socio-political context in rural, coastal

villages of central Maluku is based on the results of the six case studies carried
out on Saparua, Haruku and Ambon Islands and described in our research
report (Novaczek et al. 2001). Of these cases, Nolloth village is presented in
the following chapter. All study sites were Christian villages. Therefore some
of the findings, especially the role of the church in society, do not pertain to
social structure in Muslim villages.
4.3.1 Traditional village government structure

Prior to the enactment of the local government law (Law No.5, 1979) villages
in Maluku were led by a hereditary chief or raja. Although now considered
part of the ‘traditional’ structure, the position of raja was in fact not part of
the indigenous adat social structure, but a construction of Dutch colonial
leaders. When the Dutch consolidated their power in Maluku and forced the
hill-dwelling people to settle in coastal villages, they appointed the village
leader, i.e. the raja. Previous to this, the clan groups living in the hills were
led by warrior chiefs (kapitan).
The raja governed together with administrative and legislative councils (sa-
niri) whose members were the clan leaders. The raja’s powers under this
system were not absolute. He (or occasionally she) was obliged to consult
with the village council. Other hereditary functionaries included a war leader
(kapitan), persons responsible for communicating government decisions to
the people (marinyo), keepers of sacred knowledge (tuan negeri) and other
adat leaders (tuan tanah). There were also the hereditary leaders (kepala ke-
wang) of groups responsible for enforcing social and resource management
regulations called the kewang. The kewang applied and enforced sasi rules on
both land and sea within the village territory.
4.3.2 Modern village government structure

Each of Indonesia’s provinces is administered by a provincial government,
which in turn is divided into districts called either Kabupaten or, if urban,
Kotamadya. Below the districts are the sub-district government offices or Ke-
camatan. Government decrees, guidelines and programs are passed down
through this structure to the local administrative units which are called desa.
Each desa is governed by a kepala desa or village head, together with his staff,
and may comprise one or several villages. Villages that are smaller than 2000
inhabitants are usually not independent but have the status of dusun under
VILLAGE LEVEL SOCIO - POLITICAL CONTEXT 73
the larger unit (desa). The village head and his government office may there-
fore be many kilometres away. Dusuns are represented in the desa govern-
ment through their local leaders (kepala dusun).
Through the issuing of Law No. 5, 1974, provincial government structures

throughout Indonesia were redesigned following the above national model.
The same was done for village governments through Law No. 5, 1979. In the
implementation of the latter law, traditional political structures in the villages
were abolished. The hereditary raja was replaced by an elected village head,
the kepala desa. Smaller villages lost their independent status and became
dusuns of larger desas. The village councils were replaced by bodies known
as the LMD and LKMD (see below). An RT group (Rumah Tangga), the low-
est level in the government structure, consists of a cluster of neighbouring
households. There was no place in the new structure for the kewang, nor was
any replacement developed to take over the function of resource manage-
ment.
The LMD (Lembaga Masyarakat Desa) is the formal village legislative body oc-
cupied with decision-making and development of regulations. It has 10 to 15
members presided over by the village
head and the village secretary and is
divided into sections, i.e. village de-
velopment, government administra-
tion and community affairs, each of
which has a chief. The LMD reports
to the sub-district government level.
The decisions and regulations of
the LMD are executed by the LKMD
(Lembaga Ketahanan Masyarakat De-
sa), which is the administrative body
of the village government. As we
found out from our interviews, in
many cases LMD members are in
fact selected from among traditional
authorities (i.e. adat and clan lead-
ers). The extent to which the current
government overlaps with the previ-
ous, traditional village council var-
ies, yet, there was no village where
traditional authorities were not rep-
resented at all.
Although a dominant force, the for-

mal village government is only one
FIGURE 4.4 – Village government structure Tuhaha of three key elements generally rec-
ognized in Maluku villages. These three key institutions are called the Tiga
Tungku, or three hearthstones: the government, the church (or in Muslim vil-
lages the mosque) and adat or traditional authorities. In some villages, teach-
ers are also important and may displace adat leaders in the Tiga Tungku.
4.3.3 Government related organisations

Every village has a number of government related organisations. The most
relevant one with regard to the fishery is the village cooperative or KUD
(Kooperasi Unit Desa). There are three types of KUD depending on their ac-
tivities and level of autonomy, ranging from externally controlled to totally
self-supporting. The KUD operates independently from the village govern-
ment, but is under supervision of a head office in Ambon. Although separate
from local government, the KUD is influenced by village politics. The main
trade products of many KUDs are clove and to a lesser extent nutmeg. Other
enterprises such as speedboats and mini-buses and small shops are also of-
ten in the hands of the KUD. For its members, the KUD has a savings and
credit system and may provide access to machinery such as coconut grind-
ers. In Nolloth the KUD plays an
important role in organizing the
top shell harvest and selling the
yields.
The PKK is an abbreviation for

Pendidikan Kesejahteraan Keluarga
which means literally ‘Education
for the Prosperity of the House-
hold’. It is a vehicle for the wives of
the village (government) leaders to
improve family life in the spheres
of economy and peace through va-
rious activities, such as skill train-
ing (baking, cooking, sewing),
saving money, growing medicinal
plants, chicken breeding, cultiva-
tion of vegetables, dried fish and
fruit trade, child-care, and the pro-
motion of the state ideology (Pan-
casila). Membership is open but
generally includes mainly teach-
ers and civil servants. Common
village women often have no time
to attend or feel unwelcome in the
presence of higher positioned,
wealthy women.
FIGURE 4.5 – Announcement of PKK village program
VILLAGE LEVEL SOCIO - POLITICAL CONTEXT 75
The TAKESRA groups are small saving groups (±10 people) that particularly
target low-income women. It is an initiative of the National Coordinating
Agency for Family Planning (BKKBN) and is usually carried out by the village
head. The members save a weekly amount and when a certain sum is reached,
the group can get an additional government loan to start small businesses
(chicken breeding, restaurant, etc.). Another (informal) saving program is
called ARISAN. It is initiated by villagers from the lower social classes who
feel disconnected from the mainstream and do not expect the government
to take care of their problems. Therefore they use a revolving fund system to
provide the members with some capital.
The Social Service Department of the government has set up various eco-
nomic development groups including IDT and KEP. Farmers, fishers and
other small business people may be assisted through the IDT, which is a
national program to alleviate poverty. Each qualifying village receives a Rp
20 million loan from the government to subsidize small-scale development.
Each member has to pay back the amount to the government or to the group’s
treasury within a year. Participants are the poor fishermen who cannot afford
fishing gear. This was a pilot program in 1997 with the prospect of involving
more groups over the years to come.
4.3.4 The church

Protestant Christianity was introduced to Maluku during the Dutch colonial
time and the role of the Protestant Church of Maluku (GPM) is still promi-
nent. Executives who control programs and funding form the Synod in Am-
bon. Below this is the Klasis office in Saparua, which covers the Lease Islands.
The Klasis instructs the congregation level and they communicate with the lo-
cal church branches. Communication from one level to the other is through
meetings. To obtain funding, the village church submits a yearly program
proposal to the Synod. In predominantly Christian villages the GPM has a
strong influence on the people as well as on the government. The church
generally has representatives in the LMD and thus can influence decision-
making. In some cases the church motivates people to support government
economic programs. There are church groups for men, women and young-
sters, respectively the Pelpri, Pelwatan and Youth Wing.
4.3.5 Other organisations

The remaining adat organisation found in some villages is the kewang, which
enforces sasi regulations. Only Haruku village has a kewang spun off a youth
organisation (mini-kewang). Kewang structure and function is discussed to-
gether with the description of the sasi institution in the the case-study village
Nolloth (see Chapter 5). Another social group on village level is the Muhabet
which coordinates communal action for house construction and funerals.1
1 Holleman (1923) describes a similar custom of mutual help in the construction of houses and
processing of sago called Masohi.
Outside of the above-mentioned organisations, there are no informal meet-

ings where women could discuss problems and/or other village related is-
sues. Problems are discussed and if possible resolved within the family. As
a result, women are not united outside the family structure and are not criti-
cally aware of political issues in the village.
4.4 The fishery and biological context
Sir Alfred Wallace, on his expedition to Ambon Bay in the 1850s, marvelled
at the incredible diversity of coral and fish. Eastern Indonesia, including Cen-
tral Maluku, is part of the global centre for coral reef biodiversity. Endangered
species inhabiting this area include dolphins and whales, turtles, giant clams
and some other types of molluscs including top shell (Trochus niloticus). A
MREP survey (PSL-Unpatti 1996) revealed diverse biological communities
in the intertidal, inshore reef flats and reef slopes. Except for some sheltered
estuaries where mangrove forests are quite extensive, mangroves are mostly
confined to narrow coastal strips. Conversion of coastal land, including man-
groves, for shrimp pond development is just beginning in central Maluku
(northern Seram) but conversion for housing development is already wide-
spread.
Extensive sea-grass beds are common in central Maluku. In sea-grass beds

around Saparua Island fishes sighted numbered 62 species (Wouthuyzen et
al. in LIPI 1994a, 1994b; PSL-Unpatti 1994). Surveyors in 1991 (de Iongh
et al. 1994) found dugong feeding tracks in sea-grass beds around the Lease
island. The sea-grass beds are also a feeding ground for various turtles. Coral
species diversity in the Lease region is described as high; researchers found
110 species at Pulau Pombo and 85 at Ihamahu (Antariksa et al. 1993; PSL-
UNPATTI 1994). Surveys documenting hard coral cover (LIPI 1996) in Cen-
tral Maluku locations on Seram, Ambon and the Lease Islands show that
healthy coral was rare due the use of bombs and other destructive fishing
methods. A more elaborate description of the biological features of Central
Maluku can be found in Novaczek et al. (2001).
4.5 Characteristics of the fishery
In Central Maluku agricultural capacity is limited and the fisheries sector is

regarded as the opportunity for economic development. Over recent years
fishing efforts have been escalating. The prediction is that fishing effort will
increase while, at the same time, stock assessments and data on catches are
inadequate. If this continues, over-exploitation of commercially harvested re-
sources is likely (Nikijuluw 1995).
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE FISHERY 77
The tiny Lease Islands hold 12.5% of the population of Maluku province and
are 9-10 times more densely populated than the rest of Maluku. In general,
the settlements and farming activities are concentrated along the narrow strip
of relatively flat coastal land. Artisanal and small-scale commercial fisheries
contribute significantly to village economies in terms of employment and
income but villagers are also active in the agriculture sector. Because good
farmland is limited and the population relatively dense, the fisheries sector is
seen as an opportunity for economic development. The sea is a source of in-
come as well as a source of family food (Ruhunlela et al. 1994a, 1994b; LIPI
1996). On average, income from fisheries in a typical village ranges from
about 12 – 28% of the total income.
The fishery of Maluku mirrors that of Indonesia as a whole in that the labour
force is dominated numerically by the artisanal sector. In 1991, for example,
it was estimated that out of all fishing units operating in Indonesia, 92%
were tiny canoes powered by paddle and/or sail. Another 6% of boats em-
ployed outboard motors and the rest were large, motorized ships (Agriculture
Statistics 1993, Dept. of Agriculture, Jakarta). In Maluku province, with a
population of about 2 million people, 104,600 are considered to be fishers
(CBS 1995). Many more are fisher-farmers who actually show up in the gov-
ernment statistics as farmers.
FIGURE 4.6 – Fisherman throwing out a cast net in Hulaliu village
Artisanal fishers using fishing lines, spears, traps, hand-nets and set-nets
target a mixture of reef and pelagic species (for details see Novaczek et al.
2001). Women in fishing families supplement catches by harvesting octopus
and shellfish from intertidal and upper subtidal areas. Utilization of coastal
resources in the nearshore areas is intensive. For instance in Ameth on Nusa
Laut, fishers using 21 types of fishing gear collect 73 different species of fish
and shellfish from the reef flat, reef slope and inshore waters. An additional
19 species are harvested from the intertidal zone (Hualopu 1996).
4.5.1 The commercial fishery

Upwelling in the Banda Sea makes the central Maluku fishery a highly pro-
ductive one. The resources of Central Maluku are exploited not only by the
local population, but also by boats based in the city of Ambon as well as boats
from Sulawesi and Java and foreign fishing vessels. Key commercial species
include tuna, skipjack and a variety of small pelagics (anchovies, mackerel,
sardines). The commercial lift nets (bagan) and seiners target the small pelag-
ics, whereas pole and line boats typically harvest skipjack. Other commercial
operators employ longlines and various sizes of gill-nets and drift nets. Live
reef fish harvesters commonly employ divers using potassium cyanide.
The use of potassium cyanide as a fishing method is stimulated by the high

prices offered for grouper, ornamental fish and lobster and very common
in Central Maluku waters (Abrahamsz and Hetarie 1994; Geser et al. 1997).
Blast fishing is also common, both for reef and pelagic fishes, and causes
widespread damage to coral habitat (I. Novaczek pers. obs.). Smaller and
smaller mesh sizes are also a problem and leading to conflicts between the
lift net fishers who are using these nets and the hand-line sector (J. Sohou-
wat, Hutumuri village, pers. comm. 1996). Other destructive fishing methods
are fish traps which are either anchored with coral or set out on top of living
coral, the use of iron bars to break up corals during the low tide and muro-
ami, in which fishers use rocks to smash coral and chase the reef fish out
into a net.
Fisheries production figures over the past decades show an increase in ex-
ploitation from 59,485 tonnes in 1974 to 189,081 tonnes of fish in 1993.
In 1997, total recorded landings had reached 329,147 tonnes (Anonymous
1993, 1994, and 1995). In addition, a great deal of fish catch goes unrecorded
because it is trans-shipped at sea and taken directly to distant markets. Actual
records of landings and local research results are at odds with the official
federal optimism regarding potential for further development.
Coral reef fish are believed to be already over-fished throughout Indonesia

(Anonymous 1993, 1994, 1995). A 1995 assessment estimated that small
pelagic (baitfish) catches in central Maluku were already at 80-90% of the
maximum sustainable yield (MSY) (Pulitbangkan 1995) and in 1998, the
government research facility (LIPI) stated that both shrimp and baitfish were
overfished. Because of a shortage of baitfish, the catches of larger pelagics
such as skipjack have been static or declining in recent years, but even at the
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE FISHERY 79
reduced catch rates, skipjack are now considered to also be overfished (Niki-
juluw 1995; M.S. Latukonsina, Governor of Maluku, pers. comm. November
1998). Policy-makers are looking to expand fish and shellfish aquaculture in
an attempt to compensate for declining wild stocks.
Although there is a small minority of commercial gears in the hands of vil-

lage fishers, the majority of capital-intensive gears such as lift nets, fish ag-
gregating devices (FAD), pole and line vessels, long-liners and seiners, are
in the hands of urban businessmen and large companies. For example, in
1998 the fish processing company P.T. Sumber Aneka Tata Bahari owned a
fleet of 12 pole and line boats and three long-liners, plus five deep-sea FADs.
They exported 250-700 tonnes of fish a month (M. Siahay, boat captain, pers.
comm. 1998). Owners of these industrial enterprises are mostly urban Chi-
nese Indonesians, some are from the western islands of Sulawesi or Java, and
a few are foreign (from the Philippines or Japan).
FIGURE 4.7 – Bagan near Tuhaha village
4.5.2 Top shell and sea cucumbers

The commercial trade in top shells (Trochus niloticus) has been carried on
since at least the 1960s and is a trade that expanded rapidly (Zerner and
Thorburn, forthcoming). For example, recorded shell exports from Maluku
province went from under 80,000 kg in 1987 to over 256,000 kg in 1988.
Because rapid exploitation led to a crash in wild stocks, this species has sub-
sequently been declared protected and is therefore illegal to harvest outside
of aquaculture areas. In reality, however, harvesting and trade in wild shells
continues.
Sea cucumbers (Class Holothuroidea) have been a trade commodity for cen-
turies ever since Chinese, Makassar, Buginese and other wandering traders
first came to Maluku (Fox 1996). Older fishers can remember when inshore
sandy bottoms were thick with sea cucumbers. Today, however, the traders
rarely bother to visit many of their traditional harvesting areas because the
stocks have been largely fished out.
81
5 Case-study: Desa Nolloth, Saparua Island*
This chapter describes the situation in Nolloth, one of the 6 case-study villag-
es in the period 1997-98. This case was selected as it is most illustrative for
a fully functioning sasi system. The description of the case conforms to the
Institutional Analysis Framework (see Chapter 2) and provides an elaborate
description of the local marine management system including the contextual
variables.
5.1 Physical, biological and technical attributes
Nolloth village is situated on northeastern Saparua Island, one of the Lease

Islands (Figure 1 and 5.1). Before the Dutch colonization, the people of Nol-
loth originally lived in the hills, organised in a clan structure (marga). Two
groups of margas (uku lua with two clans and uku lima with five) descended
from the hills and settled on the coast where the village of Nolloth lies today.
FIGURE 5.1 – Sketch map marine territory Nolloth (features not necessarily to scale)
*Based on: Novaczek, I., I.H.T. Harkes, J. Sopacua, and M.D.D. Tatuhey (2001). An Institutional
Analysis of Sasi Laut in Maluku, Indonesia. Technical Report No. 59, Chp 10. ICLARM, Manila.
82 CASE - STUDY : DESA NOLLOTH , SAPARUA ISLAND
5.1.1 Physical environment

Nolloth has a relatively large (27 ha) land and sea territory (petuanan) com-
pared to other villages (Antariksa et al. 1993). Stories vary, but it seems that
at one time the reigning raja of Nolloth collaborated with the Dutch and in
return acquired more extensive marine and land rights than other villages.
The land is divided among the uku lua and uku lima. Each of the two groups
maintains its identity and each has traditional leaders who mediate land dis-
putes and manage certain natural resources in their territories.
The forest garden area straddles the northeastern cape of Saparua Island (Fig-
ure 5.1), south of the village of Itawaka. The main marine territory lies along a
6-7 km stretch on the eastern side of the cape. South of Nolloth’s village ter-
ritory lies the shore claimed by Ihamahu (just a few hundred meters), then a
stretch claimed by Itawaka and finally the village marine territories of Ulath
and Ouw. The villages of Iha and Tuhaha have no claims on this coast.
The marine sasi area is about 2.5 km long, lying on the east side of the island,
approximately one hour by small boat from the village. The area is wave ex-
posed and fringed by a narrow reef dominated by massive and soft corals and
interspersed with sandy patches (Andamari et al. 1993).
5.1.2 Biological characteristics

In 1997-98, the majority of fishers (60%) targeted pelagic fish only, others
both reef and pelagics (33%). Fourteen fish species were recorded as com-
monly caught, i.e. eight pelagic and six reef fish. In addition, men collected
several large shellfish species, while women collected mainly small shellfish.
The fishers preferred the more profitable pelagic fishery to coral reef fishing
because inshore reefs were already depleted.
Most fishing took place in the open sea and not in the sasi area. Fishers per-
ceived that the general condition of the marine environment had drastically
declined over the past 15 years, and they expected resources to decline further
in the future (for more details see Table 5.4). In Nolloth, the main causes for
resource decline identified were household waste and industrial pollution.
The number of motorboats has also increased and subsequently, more oil
spills into the sea.
Nearly all fishers also perceived significantly reduced fish catches. Blamed for
resource depletion were the increasing numbers of vessels from outside of
Lease and the use of modern gear, such as Fish Aggregating Devices (FADs or
rumpons), fine mesh lift nets (bagans), nylon gill nets, and blast fishing. Since
the 1980s, the number of motorized boats, modern gears, FADs and lift nets
had increased markedly around the Lease Islands. Fishers complained that
pelagics no longer came to the shore because FADs in offshore waters had
disturbed their migratory routes.
PHYSICAL , BIOLOGICAL AND TECHNICAL ATTRIBUTES 83
Most fishers agreed that fishing was different compared to the past. They
had to paddle further and further in trying to keep their fish-catches stable.
Nearly all fishers (93%) reported reduced catches and a subsequent decline
in income. In the late 1990s, the prices of fish had become so high, that
lower yields still provided an acceptable income. But the price increases were
not expected to make up for the increased input of time and labour for long.
In current times with increased financial needs for education and ‘luxury’
commodities such as TVs, in combination with increasing prices for boats,
engines and nets, fishers found it more and more difficult to cover their ex-
penses and make a living.
5.1.3 Attributes of the sasi area

Under marine sasi the harvest of top shells (Trochus niloticus) and sea cucum-
bers was regulated within a specific part of the sea. In the sasi area different
zones were recognized (Fig. 5.1). The stretch called Tinaul (between Wailalone
and Hatwan) was the richest fishing area for top shells, while sandy patches
were key sea cucumber areas. A seaward fringe is where a restriction on the
use of gill nets was enforced. These three zones in the sasi area were open
and closed at the same time. The sasi products were harvested only during
open season, which was proclaimed at intervals as short as a few months or
as long as three years. In the sasi area spear fishing, the use of nets, swim-
ming and diving were not allowed during the closed season. Only fishers
who were village residents were allowed to fish using hook and line.
Sea cucumbers caught include Teripang nanas (green coloured sea-cucum-

ber) and Teripang susu (black and white ones). The latter attain huge sizes
and are taken from deep water (>30m). In the past they were harvested by
Madurese compressor divers from Java, but over the years are being collected
more and more by local divers.
The top shells are found around 1-5 m deep at low tide, among the corals and
rocks. Depending on the size and abundance of the top shells, sasi could be
closed for up to several years. The optimal closure is three years. In three
years the animal matures and its shell reaches prime condition (Zerner and
Thorburn, forthcoming). The minimum size for harvested top shells in Nol-
loth was four fingers (6 cm) and after the harvest the remaining small shells
were left to grow.
Biological surveys indicated that Nolloth had better than average living coral
cover compared to other areas in Saparua. During the opening of sasi, spear-
fishers had access to the sasi area and fishers reported that the fishing in the
sasi area was better than elsewhere. They believed that the ban on gill netting
and destructive gears in the sasi area helped to preserve the living coral reef
and allowed the fish to grow. In fact, the sasi areas of Nolloth and Ihama-
hu were the only places surveyed by the research team in 1997 where top
shells could be found at all. Top shell yields dropped precipitously through
the 1980s (Evans et al. 1997). The 1998 harvest of almost 500 kg of top shell
from the sasi area revealed that management under the new village head,
who was committed to waiting at least two years between harvests, had al-
lowed the resource to recover.
5.1.4 Fisheries technology

In 1997, there were an estimated 400 fishers in Nolloth. Most fishers were
involved in the pelagic fishery in the open sea using their small outrigger
boats (perahus) or they worked as crew on pole and line boats. The majority
(70%) of fishers in our sample owned their own small boats; only a few (7%)
had a motorboat. The fishers in Nolloth mainly used hand-lines and nets
that were 50-150 m long. Most common was a type of net called giob, which
has quarter inch mesh and catches tuing-tuing (Cypselurus spp.). Also very
common were very fine mesh nets called siru and tanggu (1-2 mm mesh)
and komu nets (4.5 cm mesh). Relatively few fishers had other types of nets,
such as lalosi nets (4 cm mesh), lema nets (6 cm mesh), and ‘sardine’ nets.
Of our sample, 23% of the fishers interviewed owned no gear at all. Often
they leased, borrowed or rented equipment, or they worked on the boats of
other fishermen. According to the people, whether a fisher owned gear and
the type of gear reflected a person’s willingness to make an effort. The coast
near Nolloth is wave-exposed and not fit for lift nets. Therefore, in contrast
to the non-sasi villages in our study (see Novaczek et al. 2001), lift nets had a
relatively small impact on the local inshore fishery.
5.1.5 Artisanal and small commercial fishers

The artisanal and small scale fishing grounds include the village marine terri-
tory of Nolloth and neighbouring villages of Itawaka, Ouw and Ulath, as well
as waters as far away as Nusa Laut, southern Seram and the Banda Islands
(see Figure 1). Fishers did not necessarily go to sea every day; it depended on
weather and what other work was to be done on land. If fishing close to home,
fishers went to sea several times a day to spend a couple of hours fishing each
trip. If heading further out, they could be gone for 24 hours or more.
Catches varied greatly depending on gear type, species, weather and season.
For the inshore pelagic fishery, the year went like this: Jan-April moderate
seas and catches small; May-Sept huge waves, can hardly fish at all; October-
December seas calm, catches large. On a good trip, a small-scale net fisher
working with several helpers could bring two to four baskets of fish to shore.
Depending on the species and size, a basket could hold 50-150 fish. The catch
was divided up according to long established tradition, with one third going
to the owner of the boat and net, and two thirds going to the other crew of
up to four fishers. If the fish was landed at Nolloth each man got his share of
fresh fish. If landed elsewhere and sold, they split the money. The boat/gear
PHYSICAL , BIOLOGICAL AND TECHNICAL ATTRIBUTES 85
owner covered any expenses (gas for the motor, repairs). His profit was in the
order of 30,000-50,000 Rp per fishing trip (12-20 USD, early 1997 rate).
Costs for net fishers rose dramatically in the late 1990s. The price of some
types of netting, nylon line and buoys increased two to five-fold. Nets can last
ten years but must be repaired three to four times a year. Before the currency
crisis pushed prices up in 1998, a longboat suitable for net fishing cost 5.5
million Rp (± 2200 USD) and a motor 1.3 million Rp (± 520 USD).
In spite of the increased difficulty in catching fish, most fishers saw no rea-
son for concern. The trend in fishing was still towards intensification and
fishing techniques increased both in number and in effectiveness (smaller
mesh sizes, change to nylon nets). Rather than limiting their fishing, fishers
competed over the fish and had a wish to have faster boats. The younger gen-
eration was still optimistic and interested to take up fishing. They explained
that they would fish using the same techniques as used by older people from
whom they learned it, but ‘with some improvements towards the modern
methods.’
5.1.6 Large-scale commercial fishers

In 1997, there were seven large-scale, motorized pole and line boats operat-
ing out of Nolloth. Each boat employed 25-30 local fishers who learned ‘on
the job’. Their income was significantly higher than that of the artisanal fish-
ers who, with their small outrigger boats, would get at most 20 kg/day. Just
one of the boats was owned by a family from Nolloth; the others were owned
by Ambonese and Tulehu businessmen who had been active in the area since
the 1980s. According to the village head, the commercial fishers preferred to
operate from Nolloth because these crews were skilled and honest. The boats
spent Saturday night and Sunday in Nolloth. On Sunday night they would
leave again to pick up baitfish in Pia or Tuhaha, or buy them directly from the
lift nets and seiners near Ambon or another island.
The economic benefits from the large-scale pole and line fishery were signifi-
cant. The village did not collect any formal fees from the boats, but accepted
‘voluntary’ contributions. The boat owner gave one share of the total catch to
the church in Nolloth, half a share to local widows and orphans, and half a
share to the village government and others who had been helpful. The total
added up to Rp 50,000-200,000 a month (20-80 USD, early 1997 exchange
rate). All in all, the fishery brought in about Rp 50 million a month (± 20,000
USD), including the wages for about 150 fishers who worked on the boats.
5.2 Attributes of the community and fishers
As of 1997, the middle-sized village of Nolloth had 2546 inhabitants divided

over 530 households. The average household size was about 5 persons. The
village was 100% Christian with no recent history of in or out-migration.
There was no tourism; the visitors that did arrive usually visited relatives or
came to observe the sasi rituals.
Village facilities included electricity, three elementary schools, two gas sta-
tions, a food market, a drug store, and a banking service from the KUD.
Many residents had a television. The village also had an open storm drain
system and there were both private and community wells with some water
being brought in from a spring in Itawaka. Additional water-wells were being
developed. The nearest health centre was in Ihamahu, a neighbouring village
within walking distance.
Transportation to the village was good. The village had hard top roads and
there were frequent public minibuses connecting Nolloth with Saparua Kota,
the largest town centre on the island. Also speedboats took passengers and
trade goods directly from Nolloth to the urban centers of Ambon, and to
Masohi on Seram. Communication links were limited to a radio connection
and there was no telephone.
5.2.1 Employment
The village depended mainly on agriculture and fisheries. Fishing was a full-
time job for 40% of the villagers while another 30% fished part-time. There
had been a slight shift from farming to fishing due to increased revenues
from fishing (higher fish prices).
From 1979 to 1997, the number of small shopkeepers had increased to 18.
There were a few artisans who made furniture and several who worked in
housing construction. As a result of the new government structure, the num-
ber of government employees had tripled from 16 to 44 persons.
5.2.2 Village government

According to the village head, three main political bodies reigned the village:
the village head himself, the village officials and the co-operative (KUD) of
which the manager was an important adat leader – the tuan negeri. In Nol-
loth, the church minister was also a noted person. Among these authorities
there was close collaboration concerning village matters and they were mutu-
ally supportive.
ATTRIBUTES OF THE COMMUNITY AND FISHERS 87
TABLE 5.1 – Village leaders up to 1998

Village leaders in Nolloth
1995 – Pieter Huliselan
1987 – 1995 Arnold Matatula
1979 – 1987 Abner Selano
1971 – 1979 Niclas Matatula
no date Jonatan Selano
no date Yusuf Huliselan
In Nolloth there was a large overlap between traditional and modern village
institutions. The LMD consisted mainly of clan leaders (kepala soas) from
the former saniri negeri. After the installation of the formal village structure
in 1979, it became possible to elect a village head not from the raja clan.
This sometimes led to problems. For example, in 1987 Arnold Matatula be-
came the new village head (Table 5.1). He was also the treasurer and when
problems arose with village finances, he lost people’s trust. Therefore, people
were glad that in November 1995, Pieter Huliselan returned from Ambon to
become the new village head. Being from the raja clan he had a legitimate
claim on this position. Yet, after his ‘election’ he did not automatically have
the traditional authority connected with adat. To also acknowledge him as the
kepala adat (head of the adat), the tuan negeri of the village had to perform
FIGURE 5.2 – The mother of the village headman Oma Huliselan with Semmy Littik of
the research team
a traditional ceremony. Because of his high legitimacy, Huliselan had a very

strong position in the village.
5.2.3 Village finances

The village was financially supported through a national government pro-
gram administered by the sub-district office (Kecamatan). After submis-
sion of an annual proposal, the village would get a Rp 6.5 million grant (±
2600 USD, early 1997 exchange rate). One part of the grant was given to the
PKK (women’s group), a second part was reserved for additional livelihood
projects, but the largest share was used for village development such as a
fresh water supply, the rehabilitation of the village market and renovation
of the village museum. The schools were supported mostly by community
effort. The village economy received additional support from relatives who
lived elsewhere (e.g. the Netherlands) and from renting out marine resource
harvesting rights (sasi).
5.2.4 Village organisations

In Nolloth the usual village organisations were installed and to a more or less
extent active. In 1997, the PKK was awaiting the arrival of village head’s wife
before they would start any activities. The church organisations were also in
place, but the Pelwata was only attended by a small number of women be-
cause the program did not meet the needs of ordinary women (who were also
too busy to attend). As with the PKK, the women were not actively recruited
and most village women did not know what the organisations actually did,
so interest to join was low. On the other hand, the youth organisation of the
church was relatively well attended and active in the village, e.g. cleaning up,
helping the kewang etc. All organisations were quite conscientious in carry-
ing out their programs.
Some women organized themselves in the ARISAN saving-group which was

said to act independently from the village government. Savings were used for
small-scale trade (bread, sago) or to buy food. The 22 members of another
saving group, TAKESRA, were saving Rp 1000 monthly to gain capital for
a kiosk or sago trade. The village had an IDT program and from 1996-1997
about 60 people had benefited from this project that granted subsidies to,
amongst others, process and sell sago. Compared to the PKK and church
organisations, the ARISAN, TAKESRA and IDT groups were more relevant
to the poorer villagers because they provided economic benefits.
The village cooperative (KUD) in Nolloth was a Manderinti (highest level) and
primarily occupied with the clove and nutmeg trade. Roughly a third of the
adults in the village were members. They got a monthly payment from the
KUD and a yearly bonus. The amount depended on the profitability of KUD
enterprises (several shops and a speedboat). The annual turnover was Rp 70
ATTRIBUTES OF THE COMMUNITY AND FISHERS 89
million per year (± 30,000 USD, 1996 rate). Of this, the KUD donated Rp 1
to 2 million yearly to the church and the village government.
5.2.5 Role of women

Some women were working in the village organisations, often as treasurer or
in other ‘female related tasks’, but they were not found in the LMD or LKMD.
So, despite their active role in income generating activities, women were ex-
cluded from most village affairs: 10% of our survey respondents considered
women to be completely outside of decision-making processes. Women’s
public activities in the village were usually related to what they do in the
household, i.e. they provided the refreshments at village meetings and tradi-
tional ceremonies. Women expressed reluctance to take concerns directly to
village leaders. They would be more inclined to deal with their clan leader or
try to approach government through the PKK or the village head’s wife.
Many women were involved in cottage-scale businesses related to food

processing (sago,1 bread, smoked fish) and the trade of fish and agricultural
products. In the 1990s, when the clove monopoly caused a severe reduction
in income from cloves, pressure on marine resources and the number of
women involved in fish trading2 increased tremendously. The women also
harvested shellfish, small fish, and octopus from intertidal and shallow in-
shore waters. This was strictly a food fishery. The shellfishery intensified over
the years and for the women it was becoming harder to find large shellfish as
well as certain species.
The women were worried about the decline in marine resources because they
depended on shellfish for food, and on the fishery for household income. To
the women, sasi – just like most village matter – was a ‘government affair’.
They had no voice in decision-making around sasi, nor did they attend the
sasi rituals. Women interviewed did express the need to be involved in deci-
sion-making around marine resource management. Yet, they thought that
since their fishery was for food and not profit, the men in charge would not
take their concerns seriously.
5.2.6 Fisher profile

Of the 30 fishers surveyed, 93% were born in Nolloth and the same percent-
age had only elementary education. On average fishers in the sample were 47
years old. The respondents had an average of 6.6 household members, i.e.
more than the overall village average. No women were interviewed.
1 The sago processed in Nolloth is imported from Seram, and the end product is sold in Ambon.
2 The women involved in the fish trade are usually those living next to the shore in Nolloth and
Itawaka where fish are landed.
On an average, fishers had been active in this profession for 27 years. They
generally spent more than 8 hours per day at sea (most common was 7-10
hrs daily), which was second highest from our sample villages. The fishers
expressed great personal satisfaction in their chosen career, but only 18%
(still twice as high as the other villages) wanted their children to become
fishers. Most (61%) wanted them to be government staff. Only three of our
respondents belonged to a fishers’ group and membership in other village
organisations was also low. All of them said that sasi was very important.
The principal part of their income (81%) was from fishing. Other income
came from land crops (peanuts, coconuts, spices etc.). About a third (27%)
had income that was sent from a distant family member. Children who left
Nolloth to find work elsewhere would often provide the family with an exter-
nal income of on average Rp 264,000 per year (105 USD, early 1997 rate).
The economic indicator of the fishers sample was made up of adding scores
for land ownership, boat ownership, type of house and fishing gear. Most
fishers (83%) were landowners and almost half (47%) had permanent hous-
ing (cement with zinc roof). For Nolloth the average economic score was 8.1
(with a standard error of 0.35), which was in the lower third of the 27 villages
investigated. When TV ownership was factored in, the economic score be-
came 8.5 – the lowest of the case-study villages (see Appendix 3 in Novaczek
et al. 2001).
5.3 Market attributes
Most artisanal fishers in Nolloth sold their catches directly to consumers or

to small traders; a few (17% of sample) dealt with wholesalers. Most fishers
(97%) said it was them or their wives who set the sale price. The majority
(70%) sold their fish in Nolloth or elsewhere on Saparua Island (17%). The
key factor in choosing point of sale was the price. Prices varied, but in 1997,
mid-sized fish (komu, lema) would sell for 1000-2000 Rp each, while smaller
species (sardines) could fetch 250 Rp.
Compared to fishers in other case study villages, Nolloth fishers sold a rela-
tively high percentage of their catch; only 13% was used for family consump-
tion. Eight fishers said they did not eat any of the fish they caught, and none
ate more than half of their catch. The shellfish and fish gathered by women,
in contrast, were not sold but used for family consumption.
The small-scale fish trade was mainly in hands of village women, called pa-
palele, many of whom were wives of fishermen. The female fish vendors
bought and sold all kinds and sizes of fish, both in fresh and smoked form.
Post harvest processing of fish was limited to smoking. None of the vendors
MARKET ATTRIBUTES 91
had access to ice. The price of fish depended on various factors: weather con-
ditions, the amount of fish in the market, the size of the trader network, and
the auction price of fish set by the fish brokers who handled the commercial
catches. The profit of the retailer could approach 150-200%.
The fish vendors sold mostly in the local village market or in other villages on
Saparua Island, including Saparua town. The remainder ended up in urban
centres like Masohi, Tulehu and Ambon city. Fish were taken to the market
using public transportation. The women never travelled to or from a market
empty handed and often dealt in sago and vegetables as well as fish. Fish that
could not be sold fresh before noon that day was smoked and either went into
the stock needed for a long distance trading trip or was peddled door-to-door
in the village in the late afternoon.
Compared to the other case study villages on Saparua and Haruku, the wide
range of markets enjoyed by Nolloth traders was exceptional. The fish ven-
dors used their long experience and a strategy of flexibility to find the best
place to sell fish for the best price. They gathered information on city market
prices from bus and speedboat drivers and from people freshly arrived home
from the city. The ones that chose a district or provincial market for their
sales did this because: 1) the price was higher than on the local markets, 2)
they were easily accessible, and 3) they could sell fish together with other
commodities.
5.3.1 Commercial large-scale fish trade

Financial control over the pole and line fish trade was mainly in the hands of
Chinese Indonesians. The pole and line boats typically went out twice a week
on 3-day trips, unloading fish at cold stores in Tulehu and Masohi.
The pole and line boats targeted pelagic fish, especially skipjack. Fishing took
place throughout central and northern Maluku. Prices of fish were increas-
ing: in February 1998 the price given to Nolloth fishers for export quality fish
almost doubled. These trends were directly related to the availability of fish
and to market structures. More details on the commercial fishery and on the
commercial fish trade can be found in Chapter 5 of Novaczek et al. (2001).
5.3.2 Trade in top shell and sea cucumber

Under village head Huliselan, there was a harvest of sea cucumbers and top
shells from the sasi area every two years. There was a large market demand
for sea cucumbers by Chinese traders as well as by Butonese and Javanese
fishers who travelled around the Maluku seas. The KUD, which paid for the
harvesting rights, sold both sea cucumbers and top shells to Chinese-Indo-
nesian traders in Ambon.
Trochus niloticus is a protected species under national law and trade in top
shells is therefore illegal. As a result, all shells must be sold to certain traders
who have government permits to handle cultivated top shells and use this
as a cover for trading wild shells. The profits enjoyed by those in control of
this trade monopoly are significant (see also Zerner and Thorburn, forthcom-
ing). On the international market the price is paid in US dollars. The traders
however, paid the villagers in Indonesian rupiahs and so benefited from the
plunging exchange rates. Profits at the village level were therefore far below
what they could have been if the controlled harvest of top shells in sasi areas
had been legal and villagers had direct access to the foreign market.
5.4 Sasi institutional and organisational arrangements
Nolloth was one of the villages where sasi was still strong. Here, the practice
of sasi dates back at least to the colonial period (Huliselan 1996, pers. comm.).
The two main objectives of sasi were said to be protection of the harvest and
theft control. Sasi rules in Nolloth, whether implemented by kewang, church
or the village government, are based on adat or customary law. In the absence
of a formal and legal mandate to manage the marine village territory, adat
provides village authorities with the legitimacy to undertake resource man-
agement and collect resource rents, both within and outside of sasi (Hualopu
1991). The adat rules are in effect the constitutional rules of the sasi institu-
tion. Under adat law, the rights, authority and obligations of the kewang are
defined, as well as the boundaries of the village territory and the marine sasi
area. The rights of villagers to enter common property areas and utilize natu-
ral resources are recognized and supported. Some of these de facto rules and
customs were written down, while others were not like the decision-making
process (see for Nolloth sasi rules Appendix 6, in Novaczek et al. 2001).
In Nolloth, the traditional sasi institution (sasi adat) was complemented with
a type of sasi controlled by the church (sasi gereja) that was applied on coco-
nuts. These arrangements too were not written down.
On land, sasi defines what areas belong to which families and thus manages
the resources as a private property system under constitutional rules. The
sea, on the other hand, by its nature is seen as a common property resource
with defined access rights in the sasi area. Within the village territory, lo-
cal residents and their non-resident children have rights of access and with-
drawal for all living marine resources except those under sasi or other village
regulation (see Table 5.2). Adat allows sasi authorities (the kewang and village
government) to exclude outsiders from fishing in the village territory, or at
least require that they ask permission and/or pay for access rights.
SASI INSTITUTIONAL AND ORGANISATIONAL ARRANGEMENTS 93
Collective-choice rules under sasi concern what types of activities may be con-
trolled in the village, define a process and confer authority on certain leaders
to resolve land and resource disputes. These rules also define the structure
of marine sasi as an institution that regulates access and withdrawal rights in
the marine sasi area. Examples of collective-choice rules are that the respon-
sibility for patrolling the sasi area lies with the kewang, or that sanctions for
stealing sasi resources are applied by the village head and the police.
TABLE 5.2 – Products whose harvest times are determined under land sasi
Land sasi operational rules
During closed sasi it is prohibited to:

• Harvest coconuts (kelapa), pineapple, mango, durian, jackfruit, banana, nutmeg,
areca nuts, and kanari nuts;
• Cut sugar palm, and to cut sago leaves for roof construction; and
• Cut fruit trees and harvest young fruits.
Various sets of operational sasi regulations control the harvest of certain com-
mercially important marine resources and terrestrial crops. These operation-
al sasi rules were written down.
TABLE 5.3 – Operational rules on marine products

Marine sasi operational rules
During closed sasi it is prohibited to:

• Harvest sea cucumber, top shell (Trochus niloticus), Turbo spp, and caping-caping
shells in the sasi area;
• Swim in the sasi area (except when given permission);
• Use gillnets and poisons in the sasi area at any time; and
• Take sand, coral and rocks (except when given permission).
Non-sasi fisheries rules in the village territory
• Outsiders (non-residents) must have permission to fish in the village territory.

• The harvest of sea cucumbers and top shells outside the sasi area is regulated.
• Gillnets can be used only with a permit from the village head.
• Blast-fishing and the use of poisons is prohibited in the village territory.
Some rules were rather specific: The harvest of coral and large rocks was
limited to what is needed to build a house, with a maximum of 2m³ per per-
son. However, even though most people knew that these rules existed, there
was confusion over exactly where the rules were applicable. Some rules were
embedded in formal government rules. For example, for larger amounts of
coral, according to the village government, a permit from the sub-district
level was required. However, when asked about coral harvesting, the sub-dis-
trict office declared that they would never grant a permit because officially it
was prohibited to harvest any coral at all (!).
In other cases the operational rules could be overruled by the village head,
who has the authority to make decisions based on constitutional rules (adat).
In emergencies, when individuals asked to open sasi on their own land, per-
mission was usually granted to harvest some products. For marine sasi, a
communal resource, individuals could not be granted access rights. Howev-
er, in exceptional cases the prohibitions on diving and harvesting were lifted.
Two occasions may illustrate this. First, in 1997, a research team from the
Department of Fisheries in Jakarta was allowed to harvest top shells for an
aquaculture project. Later, an ICLARM-Hualopu research team was allowed
to enter the sasi area to carry out a biological survey. However, this was only
possible under the supervision of the kewang and after permission from the
village head.
In addition to the official sasi area, a part of the village marine territory north
of Umisini (Figure 5.1) was also managed for top shells and sea cucumber.
The ban on net fishing, diving and swimming was not exercised here. After
the sasi harvest was complete and if the KUD had agreed to it, Butonese or
Madurese divers were usually permitted to enter after having paid a fee to the
village head.
Aside from the sasi rules, other formal operational rules existed. Gill net fish-
ing, for example, was allowed only after explicit permission from the village
head and the payment of a Rp 100,000 fee. Blast fishing and the use of poisons
were banned. These regulations were applied to all villagers and outsiders.
5.4.1 Marine sasi: the players

Decision-making was carried out by those who according to adat had the
mandate to do this i.e. the raja (who was also village head), the tuan negeri
(who also happened to be the head of the KUD) and the kewang. Marine sasi
was operationalised by the kewang in close collaboration with the village gov-
ernment. Both the kewang and the government were recognized by villagers
as fundamentally adat-based organisations.
Because marine sasi in Nolloth had evolved into an institution for collecting
resource rents for the village government, it was the village head who held
the key decision-making role. Although he conferred with other authorities,
it was really he who decided when and how often the sasi area would be
opened. Also, if thieves were apprehended it was the village head who im-
posed and collected the fine and who decided whether to turn the offender
over to the police.
The kewang’s main role was to patrol the area but they did not have the man-
date to punish offenders (see below). The kewang also monitored the size of
the shellfish and sea cucumbers in the sasi area. When the products under
sasi were big enough to be harvested, the kewang members informed the
head of the kewang who reported to the village head. In a meeting with the
harvesters (in this case the KUD), the traditional authorities, and the church
minister, a date was set to open the season.
Although the church played a part in land sasi and prayers accompanied ma-
rine sasi ceremonies, the minister was not among the decision-makers or
enforcers for marine sasi. As villagers explained, fish is too important to be
under church sasi because an infringement of the rules would be punished
by God and this would be too hard on people who are dependent on fish for
food.
The KUD had no decision-making role, but had an economic interest, espe-
cially when it organized the harvest and division of the catch. The KUD of-
ficials and the members (to a lesser extent) shared in the catch/revenues. The
common villagers played no active role in sasi and were merely recipients of
the indirect benefits derived from sasi.
Sasi was clearly a village-based institution. Outside organisations were not

involved in sasi or decision-making. The police only interfered on request of
the village head.
5.4.2 Ceremonies for marine sasi

The decision to close sasi was made by the village head and the head of the
kewang. To close sasi, the kewang gathered in the house of the pakter (kewang
leader), then they went to the village head’s house and from there to the
Baileo or community house. At each street corner, a kewang member blew
the sea-shell, while the head of the kewang announced the sasi regulations
(specific products and places). After the sasi signs (palm fronds tied to a stick)
were put up, the ceremony was proclaimed over and sasi was closed.
When sasi was opened, there was a communal prayer in the office of the vil-
lage government where they awaited the arrival of the attendants for ‘buka
sasi’. The real ceremony to open marine sasi took place at the sea-shore near
the sasi area. With the village officials and kewang in attendance, the tuan
negeri made a speech explaining how important sasi is and how the kewang
are responsible for guarding the area. This was followed by a prayer by the
minister. All the players (village government, traditional and religious lead-
ers, and the kewang) then went out to sea, where the minister prayed again
for a rich harvest. The village head uttered an invocation in the traditional
language and then sprinkled fresh water over the sea as a symbolic gesture.
Sasi was declared open. Skin-divers, hired through the village cooperative,
harvested at least three top shells and there was a break during which eve-
ryone rested and ate a traditional feast (patita) provided by whomever had
won the auction for harvest rights. Then the divers continued their work (see
Figure 5.3-5.14).
FIGURE 5.3 – Traditional authorities
and kewang members go to the sasi
area for the opening ritual
FIGURE 5.4 – People arrive at the

sasi area (see fig. 5.1 for situation)
FIGURE 5.5 – People gather on the

beach
FIGURE 5.6 – Kewang members await the ritual
FIGURE 5.7 – The traditional authorities pronounce the opening of sasi

FIGURE 5.8 – Then there are prayers
FIGURE 5.9 – The village head utters ceremonial

words and sprinkles water over the sea
FIGURE 5.10 – The first diver enters the water

and comes up with the first Trochus shell
FIGURE 5.11 – Then other

divers may enter the water
FIGURE 5.12 –
Processing of the
Trochus shells
FIGURE 5.13 –
People gather on
the beach where
the food is pre-
pared
Photos: Ansye Sopacua
FIGURE 5.14 – The ritual ends with a feast

5.4.3 The harvest

In the past, sasi on top shells was opened every three years and all villagers
who wanted to could participate in the harvest. Top shell was valued as a
food source. In the late 1960s, top shells became a commercially interesting
commodity and in 1968, the harvest was brought under government control.
Later, in 1978, the village government, with consent of the people, decided
to sell the right to the sasi harvest to outsiders in order support the village
administration. The result was that common villagers saw their rights of ac-
cess and extraction being exchanged for a system where they would get only
indirect benefits.
Profits from top shell and sea cucumber can be attractive. However, during
the 1980s, a former village head opened sasi every six months. The result was
that the harvest dropped dramatically from 1200 kg in 1988, to only 50 kg in
1994 (Evans et al.1997). In 1995, with the new village head Huliselan, they
went back to a longer closed season (appr. 2 years). Sasi was closed through-
out 1995 and opened near the end of 1996 and again in January 1998.
Formerly, the right to harvest in the sasi area was sold to the highest bidder.
This could be an outsider (e.g. Chinese traders from Ambon) or a local who
hired clan-members and friends to dive for the top shells. It also happened
that a villager was ‘sponsored’ by a Chinese trader to buy the rights. Com-
mon villagers without connections were excluded from the harvest. However,
resistance against this style of business grew and the villagers objected to
the sale of harvest rights to outsiders. To have more control over the harvest
and more benefits for the villagers, in 1995 after his installation, village head
Huliselan decided to arrange the harvest and sale of top shell through the
village cooperative (KUD).
The harvesting was done by selected KUD members (skin divers). In 1998,
they received Rp 5000 per kg of shells, which is about third of the final sale
price. Once the harvesters and other expenses had been paid, the profits were
split evenly between the village government and the KUD. The village head
then contributed a part to the church and the kewang. The money for the vil-
lage treasury was meant to redistribute the benefits to the village population
in the form of development projects.
The total revenues from marine sasi can be considerable. The price per kilo
(3-5 large shells) in 1996 was Rp 14,000 (6 USD, 1996 rate) and in 1997
Rp17,000 (7 USD, early 1997 rate). Before the currency crisis, that meant
that a 1000 kg harvest could yield about Rp 14 million or up to 6000 USD
gross returns. In January 1998, sasi was officially opened again. The total
catch of 460 kg of top shells and 67 kg of sea cucumber was larger than in
former years, but lower than expected. Previously, the divers had reckoned
that a harvest of over a 1000 kg was feasible, but when they entered the shal-
lows, most of the large shells were gone. Villagers believe the top shells were
probably stolen during the Christmas activities in the village. The catch was
sold for Rp 19,500/kg for the high quality shells (300kg) and Rp 9,500/kg
for the rest. The total yield was approximately 7.3 million Rupiah, which was
with the 1998 exchange rate only 730 USD.
Since trade in sea cucumber had proven lucrative as well, the village head was
studying the feasibility of sea-cucumber culture at Tinauw in the sasi area.
The villagers were planning to have a holding area of stakes, planks and nets,
feed the young ones with mangrove leaves and harvest every six months.
5.4.4 Enforcement
Enforcement of sasi on land crops has traditionally been in hands of the ke-
wang. Traditionally, Nolloth had two kewangs (one from each clan group).
Each had a leader – or head of the kewang – and both were under the au-
thority of a man called the pakter. The 40 kewang members were selected
from particular families. The kewang had one secretary, one treasurer, and
two marinyo (news-bearers).
When informed of an offence, the kewang would immediately go and try to

make an arrest. They tried to be fair in their approach and not cause bad feel-
ings (and so maintain their legitimate position). When a thief was caught,
the fine money went to the kewang. Every villager was obliged to report sasi
violations to the elders or the kewang. However, cases that concerned family
and friends were complicated matters and often went unreported. Villagers
themselves played no role in enforcement.
Where there was a difficult problem with a persistent violator of land sasi,
the kewang would ask the village head to help with enforcement or punish-
ment. In the past, people were publicly sentenced and would serve as an
example. For instance, they could be made to wear a sign around their neck
that said ‘Do not do what I did’. Later, offenders could be forced to work in
the village (road construction, cleaning of the village) or would face corporal
punishment at the hands of the village head. Serious offenders and especially
outsiders were not prosecuted locally, but reported to the police in Saparua
Kota.
The marine sasi area was guarded by the kewang members who stayed in their
two guardhouses. They took turns in guarding the area. Armed with knives
and bamboo sticks they patrolled along the beach. However, the kewang
lacked equipment such as motorboats, communication devices and modern
weapons. Also, the remoteness of the sasi area made it hard to control. In the
case of thefts of top shells from the sasi area, the village head imposed large
cash fines directly. Since the proceeds of sasi went to the village, the village
head felt this was his responsibility although it was the kewang who guarded
the area. Just before the time of our study, Butonese intruders were caught in
the marine sasi area and punished to serve as an example.
Enforcement based on adat was supplemented by the power of the church.

The role of the church was mainly to perform the prayers for sasi to facilitate
religious sanctions. In the past, thieves have been known to give themselves
up to the church when overcome with fear of spiritual sanctions.
Where, as in Nolloth, the village head plays a key role in enforcement of

marine sasi, his legitimacy is crucial. If the person is not trustworthy or not
from the royal clan (raja), his position as enforcer is weak. Such was the case
with a former village head. During his term, intrusion into the sasi area was
more common than was the case under Huliselan. This was in part because
he himself neglected the rules. When he opened sasi too often, depleting the
resource for what appeared to be personal gain, he undermined the kewang
and, thus, sasi. However, before sasi could collapse, this leader was replaced
by Huliselan, a raja who had a strong position in the village and was very
strict. His legitimacy allowed him to enforce the regulations and he passed
the news to neighbouring villages that he was determined to deal with of-
fenders vigorously.
5.4.5 Compliance
Every month the kewang caught one or two locals who were stealing coconuts
from the village gardens. These were usually poorer villagers or people that
indulged in greed. As income was said to depend for a large part on the per-
sonal efforts of people, those who steal were usually considered ‘just lazy’.
Thefts from the marine sasi area also occurred. Within six months there had
been two cases of intercepted thefts of top shells from the sasi area by out-
siders (none by Nolloth villagers). In addition, there was the unconfirmed
suspicion of a major theft of top shells over the Christmas holidays of 1997,
just before sasi was opened. It is likely that such thefts were most common
in the six months leading up to a harvest, when the top shells were relatively
large and plentiful.
5.4.6 Significance of sasi and local knowledge

At the time of our study, the sasi knowledge base shared by the head of the
kewang and village elders was still strong. Common villagers had general
knowledge of sasi and conformed to the regulations, but detailed knowledge
was exclusive to adat elders. Village head Huliselan, who grew up in Ambon,
was initiated into the sasi rituals by his predecessor and the head of the ke-
wang. The latter shared only such knowledge as was appropriate. He was very
careful to guard his knowledge because it was sacred. At the same time, the
head of the kewang and other village elders expressed concern that they would
not live long enough to pass on the knowledge to suitable descendents. The
son of the head of the kewang, for instance, seemed not interested in the in-
formation and thus was not ready to receive it. To keep the tradition alive, it
is essential that knowledge is passed on to the younger generation.
Most villagers had little practical knowledge about sasi. To them, sasi was part
of the tradition and people just ‘did what the ancestors did.’ What was clear
to them though, is that sasi did have certain benefits. For example, it was
mentioned that sasi protected the reef from being damaged by blast fishing
and nets. Otniel Patty, a Nolloth fisherman explained: ‘Sasi helps to protect
the area from people’ and ‘to keep the fish big and many’. Most villagers and
all fishers interviewed agreed that sasi was important because it prevented
people from stealing or destroying the resources. Sasi thus not only ensured
that the products were ripe when harvested, but also that the yield was maxi-
mal. This worked for forest products and certain marine products, but was
not applied to fish because ‘people have to live’ and a prohibition on catching
fish would have been unacceptable (Otniel Patty, pers. comm.). In the sea, con-
servation in the form of sasi regulations was only applied on resources that
were not essential for people’s livelihood and that had a considerable market
value, i.e. top shells and sea cucumbers.
To most women, marine sasi was less relevant than land sasi. The women
gathered shells in the sasi area but there were no sasi rules that directly ap-
plied to the species that they harvested. Apart from the share of the top shell
yield, which they got if they were KUD members, the women, since they
could not work as harvesters, got no direct benefits from marine sasi.
From our interviews it appeared that younger respondents generally valued

sasi and they believed that traditional village leaders should protect it. They
explained that as long as the relationship between the village government
and the people is good, and as long as everybody collaborates in the manage-
ment and implementation of sasi, it would be continued. However, to keep
young people involved in sasi, it is necessary that they understand the pur-
pose of sasi and get benefits from it.
5.5 External institutional and organisational arrangements
The external institutional and organisational arrangements are the linkages

between the village (government) and outside political organisations or gov-
ernment structures, and other external agencies.
5.5.1 Link with higher government bodies

The link with external government agencies was tenuous. Apart from the
family visits from a sub-district representative, government officials were
rarely encountered in the village. Neither have there been any meetings nor
workshops related to marine resource management organized by higher gov-
EXTERNAL INSTITUTIONAL AND ORGANISATIONAL ARRANGEMENTS 105
ernment levels. The village head was meeting every three months in Saparua
Kota with other village authorities to exchange information. Fisheries issues
however were not discussed here. Fisheries regulations were not high prior-
ity in the village; people were more concerned about developing the fishery.
Besides, there was no government assistance for monitoring and there was
no patrol boat for enforcement. For the village head, the most reliable sources
of information on fisheries regulations besides the radio and TV, were the
Ambon-based NGO Yayasan Hualopu and friends in the university.
5.5.2 Links between the community and government fisheries management

The regional Fisheries Agency (Dinas Perikanan Tingkat II Maluku Tengah)
was involved only in licensing the pole and line boats, which were licensed
for two years at a time. The fisheries officers dealt only with the boat owners.
They had no contact with the crew and did not give out information to them
or make inquiries concerning the fishery.
5.5.3 Collaboration with other institutions

Yayasan Hualopu has carried out an extension program in Nolloth that aimed
to inform people on customary laws and sustainable resource use. They also
assisted with the evaluation of management activities. Before, information
on marine issues and on marketing possibilities of other marine products
was provided through their publication ‘Marinyo’.
5.5.4 External economic influences

The decline in clove prices in the 1990s had a negative influence on the
village economy. Consequently, fishery and the trade in top shell and sea cu-
cumber became more important. When in February 1998 the governments’
monopoly on clove was lifted, it initially had a positive impact on the clove
price but later in the year this was nullified by low harvests due to a drought.
In 1998, the monetary crisis played an important role of which, at the time of
our research, the full effects were not yet known.
5.5.5 Infrastructure and development projects

There were no major constructions in or around the village. Within the vil-
lage, there were small-scale development projects (infrastructure, small-en-
terprises). In the sea, there were plans to establish sea cucumber aquacul-
ture.
5.6 Incentives to cooperate
The keys to resource management were enforcement of and compliance with

fisheries rules and regulations. However, various contextual variables affect-
ed the individual’s inclination to participate in and be governed by sasi.
5.6.1 Spiritual significance of sasi

Compliance and legitimacy were closely related to respect for the ancestral
spirits and God. People in Nolloth believed that neglecting traditional rules
or pledges resulted in illness or even death. Ceremonies were essential to win
the ancestor’s approval and to keep harmony, and they needed to be carried
out in the proper, prescribed way and by the appropriate people. Fear and
respect for the ancestor’s powers therefore were profound. ‘Sasi is something
from the ancestors, it needs to be followed.’ (Otniel Patty, pers. comm.).
5.6.2 Legitimacy
The sasi rules in Nolloth were the result of a collective process nested in
adat and therefore highly legitimate. Adat, the traditional customary law, pro-
vided the constitutional basis of sasi as an institution. The village officials
explained: ‘Adat is important, and adat cannot be changed. People acknowl-
edge adat and this is their incentive to accept the rules and regulations that
come with it.’
The overlap between formal and traditional village authorities in Nolloth was
very high compared to other villages. The village government was therefore
seen to be highly legitimate. The legitimacy conferred upon the village head
through his association with sasi and adat was an incentive for him to sup-
port and participate in sasi.
Sasi could and did evolve through time, as seen in Nolloth. With the increas-
ing involvement of the church, the sasi institution became both more com-
plex and even more legitimate in the eyes of the people. On the other hand,
the minister also came to share the legitimacy and respect of adat through
his association with sasi.
5.6.3 Status
There was no clear answer to the question why Nolloth still had sasi while it
had been lost in many other villages. But although the villagers could not give
an explanation for the strength of sasi, they felt it was important to have sasi.
They were proud to be a sasi village and not in the least because of the atten-
tion of researchers, NGOs, and tourists that are attracted to the village. This
pride and status accrued to all the (traditional) village officials and kewang
members.
INCENTIVES TO COOPERATE 107
5.6.4 Economic benefits

Village leaders made decisions concerning the harvest and sale of sasi re-
sources: a position that was not only prestigious, but also allowed them cer-
tain power and economic benefits. The kewang members earned little in the
way of economic benefits, but for them the status made up for their efforts
and the time they had spent guarding the sasi area and village.
Whereas land sasi benefited the individual landowners because they could
keep their harvest, the profits from marine sasi were for the whole communi-
ty and disappeared into the village treasury. The KUD, harvesters, the kewang
and church got direct shares, but the other villagers only benefited indirectly
(through village development). The money was spent at the discretion of the
village government and the villagers had neither knowledge of nor control
over the expenditures. However, because the village head was well respected
people did not complain about the lack of transparency. Like most Mollucan
villagers, Nolloth people believed that their leaders would act for the common
good. This belief was an incentive to cooperate.
Most fishers interviewed, however, thought that the people should benefit
from sasi directly. They argued that the revenues from sasi ought to be shared
among those who are excluded from the fishery. Several respondents (Ca-
tharina Huliselan, Frederik Matatula, Augustina Lohenapessy) indicated that
under the arrangement in place ‘the rich benefited more than the poor.’ From
this it is clear that if the people do not feel they benefit, they will have less
incentive to support sasi.
In our survey of 30 fishers, the majority (53%) disagreed with the sale of re-
source harvest rights to outsiders. Therefore the move by the village head to
sell the harvest rights to the local KUD rather than to outsiders was politically
wise. At that moment, the enforcement of sasi regulations was strong and
compliance was high. However, if in the future the people would not support
sasi any longer because they perceive it to be too unfair, some might encroach
the area as soon as the power of the kewang declines.
Individual incentives to comply with sasi rules depended on well-being, in-

come, fish catches and agricultural yields, in relation to economic needs.
These needs included food and housing, school fees for children’s education
and capital to invest in alternative, additional or improved livelihood activi-
ties. In the case of fishing, fishers saw the need for new boats, engines and
modern fishing gear. At moments when these needs were difficult to meet
(start of school, monetary crisis, etc.), the temptation to trespass the sasi area
increased.
5.6.5 Sanctions
The sanctions and enforcement by the village head and kewang were an im-
portant incentive for people to comply. The kewang was impartial and vigor-
ous in applying the rules, and therefore respected. The kewang’s authority
and the fear of social or religious sanctions was amplified by the involvement
of the church in sasi. ‘Even if the kewang is strong, the people are very clever
and escape. God however is everywhere, and the presence of the church helps
the people to obey the rules’ (Otniel Patty, pers. comm.).
5.6.6 Social Pressure

In a small village like Nolloth it is difficult to move unseen. The 40 kewang
members lived all around the village, the government and church representa-
tives kept an eye on their fellow villagers, and besides, there was peer group
pressure from within the church organisations. It was thus hard to commit
an offence without being spotted, and the social pressure to comply with the
rules was likewise strong.
5.6.7 Conservation of scarce and valuable resources

Nolloth has valuable resources, i.e. top shell and sea cucumber, for which
there was strong market demand. These initially provided the incentive to
institutionalise and then strengthen marine sasi as a means of collecting re-
source rents. The continuing success of sasi in providing sustainable harvests
in the face of virtual extinction of these resources in other areas was an in-
centive to maintain the institution. Nolloth people had already experienced
the dramatic decline in harvests that follows when sasi is opened too often,
as happened under the former village head in the 1980s. This experience has
helped them appreciate the importance of careful management of the sasi
area.
5.6.8 Acknowledgement of problems in the fishery

The acknowledgement of fisheries problems differed more between young
and old people than between males and females. Over-fishing was a problem
particularly mentioned by older fishers. Many younger fishers had limited
knowledge of management issues and were not too concerned. This was also
the case with women who had a strong idea that sea resources could not be
depleted because they were a ‘gift from God’. Therefore, although some peo-
ple thought it was important to protect the resources, the idea that marine
resources are infinite was still strong, and young men especially tended to
think in terms of intensifying rather than managing the fishery.
5.6.9 Attitudes
Laziness and greed were often mentioned as a reason for people to non-com-
ply. Most offences committed by young people involved theft of coconuts,
simply because they were ‘greedy’. Another reason for non-compliance was
the tendency towards individualism as the result of modernization. Sever-
PATTERNS OF INTERACTION 109
al respondents mentioned that people need education on natural resource

management and must become aware of the fact that natural resources need
to be protected. This was believed to be one way of increasing compliance.
5.7 Patterns of interaction
The history of sasi in Nolloth shows that the system is a common property re-
gime of which the access rights and the rights of withdrawal have changed. In
the late 1960s when top shells became a commercially interesting commod-
ity, government officials realized that the sasi system offered an institutional
and legal means to control the top shell harvest and its profits (Zerner 1995).
In Nolloth in 1968, Mr. Matatula, the village-level government head issued
a proclamation declaring the existence of sasi on top shells within commu-
nity waters and asserted control over sasi on behalf of the local government
(Matatula in Zerner 1995). Thus, from a common pool resource where, at set
times, the whole community could harvest, the rights of extraction became
limited to a defined group within the community (the divers appointed by the
village cooperative).
The benefits were divided amongst the appointed harvesters, the KUD, and
the village government. It was stressed that the benefits were for the com-
munity as a whole in the form of village development. The villagers thus
benefited indirectly and some villagers benefited more than others (e.g. KUD
members). Also, common villagers no longer had the rights of extraction or
the rights of access. In theory, the resource was still managed as a common
property, but as soon as the benefits flew to the village government, in prac-
tice, the property rights regime changed from communal property to private
property. The benefits were for the community, but it was the village leader
who made the decisions on how to spend the revenues for village develop-
ment.
This is an important issue in the functioning of sasi and compliance to the

sasi rules. In Nolloth, compliance to sasi and other fisheries rules depended
for a large part on the position of the village leader. At first, when the former
village head controlled the benefits from sasi, villagers complained and com-
pliance was said to decline. However, before sasi could collapse, the new vil-
lage head took his seat in the village government and based on his highly
traditionally legitimate position and a strong kewang system, the sasi rules
then were complied with.
Compliance, however, must also be seen in the light of marine resource use
in general. The sasi area was only a small part of the total fishing area used
by the fishers. Nolloth’s artisanal fishers had always ventured far to sea in
their small boats to catch skipjack, tuna and other pelagic species. This re-
duced pressure on the sasi area and also decreased any incentive to break sasi
rules.
In the past (20 years ago and more) most fishers targeted reef fish within the
village marine territory, and fish were both abundant and cheap. However,
with the introduction of nylon gill nets, the area became too crowded with
nets and fish were rapidly depleted. Fishers moved increasingly into the pe-
lagic fishery. In response, the village government instituted rules to limit the
use of gill nets on the inshore reef by imposing access fees. In this case, the
rule was developed outside of sasi and applied to the entire village territory.
There was a general agreement, especially among village elders, that the de-
pletion of the reef fish stocks was caused by over-fishing. People were be-
coming more environmentally aware and sasi was said to be important for
protection of natural resources. Even so, management in the form of a closed
area and regulated harvest was applied only to several sedentary species in
the sasi area.
For the pelagic fishery, the village government followed the general policy set
out by the national government – which was to try and further expand the
fishery (Budiman 1982 and Hannig 1988 in Mantjoro 1996). Nolloth fishers
were involved in government programs that supplied motorboats and larger
nets with fine meshes. Although the village government saw the need to ad-
dress the decline in the fishery, regulations limiting the number of fishers or
types of gears allowed were not part of the strategy. The importance of fish as
a primary source of income and food impelled the village government to opt
for intensification instead of management. The results (higher yields) were
‘promising’. At a meeting, the village officials explained: ‘It has already be-
come better since they became motorized and can go further to get the fish.’
It thus is clear that compliance within a limited area – whether communal
property or private property – is easy when there is a state governed ‘open ac-
cess’ area where fishers have unlimited access.
5.8 Outcomes
5.8.1 Equity
The role of fishers in management

The role of fishers in management was seen as having improved compared
to the past, but was expected to remain stable in the future (Table 5.4). Some
fishers mentioned education as enabling them to partake in discussions.
However, the hierarchical structure in the village kept fishers from direct in-
volvement in decision-making and this was not likely to change in the short-
term. Compared to the other villages, Nolloth had the smallest proportion of
OUTCOMES 111
fishers (33,3%) who actually wanted to change the fisheries rules. The major-
ity (56,7%) agreed with the current regime.
When asked about power-sharing, 60% of fishers thought the government

had most or total responsibility for fisheries management, 33% thought the
people shared responsibility equally with the government, and the remaining
7% felt the community had more responsibility.
Access to resources
Fishers’ individual access to fisheries resources had significantly declined
and they expected more restrictions in future. The respondents explained
that this was caused by the fact that there were more and more regulations
and the requirement of permits. Over 50% of the fishers thought it was ac-
ceptable to ask for dispensation to enter the sasi area. This did not mean that
it would be granted (because it would not), but reflected the fishers’ wish to
have flexibility in the application of rules.
Distribution of means of production

The distribution of means of production among Nolloth fishers was perceived
to be much fairer compared to the past, and it was expected to improve fur-
ther. Ownership of fishing gear was seen to be related to personal ambition
and willingness to work. Therefore, fishers argued, everybody who wanted
to could work for fishing gear etc. Besides, there were the government pro-
grams that included the fishers and helped them generate money.
Income distribution
When asked about the level of economic disparities between the villagers,
fishers reported that conditions had remained the same. The village women
distinguished three social classes: the rich, the medium (who were just able
to send their children to school in Ambon), and the poor (who lived on a sub-
sistence level). Social status was easily recognized in the housing situation of
the villagers. Fishers appeared to be mostly in the middle and lower classes.
Contact between the different classes seemed limited. One fisher mentioned
that the drop in clove prices had positively influenced the level of economic
disparities, because, although it had had a dramatic effect on Nolloth’s econ-
omy, it had levelled out the incomes of people in the village. Increasing ‘in-
dividualism’ was mentioned as causing people to look only for their personal
advancement, resulting in competition.
Although in the minds of fishers, sasi appeared to provide more benefits to

the rich than to the poor, it was not identified as a factor contributing to eco-
nomic disparity. This was probably because sasi applied to a limited area, and
not to the larger fishery that supported most fishing families.
5.8.2 Efficiency
Communal decision-making
The degree to which fishers have been able to communally make decisions
with regard to the fishery had decreased and future expectations were nega-
tive. Many fishers (77%) saw the style of decision-making in the village as
being a process of common or majority agreement. The other fishers felt that
the village head with village government staff made all the decisions. In fact,
whether or not the people were involved in decision-making at all depended
mainly on the village leader.
A number of factors may have had an effect on decision-making. It could

have been that the introduction of modern fishing gears caused divisions
among harvesters Also, some fishers had seen their access and harvest rights
in the sasi area being decreased in favour of fishers who were members of the
KUD. The introduction of national fisheries rules directed to the village from
Jakarta possibly added to a feeling of alienation. Finally, the soa system, in
which the community members were represented through their clan leader,
had been replaced by the dusun system. This could have disrupted traditional
decision-making units.
All in all, only 10% of the respondents felt that local groups had no role in
decision-making at all. Most respondents (87%) said that outsiders had no in-
fluence in village decision-making, but all agreed that all stakeholders should
be involved in decision-making.
Ease of entry (costs)

Entry into the fishery was perceived to be on average more difficult because
of rising costs. Fishers expected costs to rise even more in the future. In Nol-
loth, fishing had become more expensive because people could not fish in the
sasi area. They had to go further out to reach pelagic resources and had to buy
new types of gear in order to have good catches. Increasing prices of fuel and
the currency devaluation made fishing and the purchase of fishing gear and
engines even more expensive.
Control over access

Government control over access to the fishery had increased was expected
to become stronger in the future. This was especially the case where it con-
cerned the enforcement of sasi. Over 50% of the fishers felt that they should
be able to ask for and get harvesting rights in the closed sasi area if needed.
Strikingly, relatively many fishers (43%) found it no problem to sell rights to
outsiders. In contrast, our key informants had stated that fishers/villagers
strongly objected to the sale of harvest rights to the Chinese because they
wanted to keep the benefits for themselves.
OUTCOMES 113
Compliance
Compliance with fisheries rules as perceived by our respondents was said to
be relatively high (score 7.47) and had not changed significantly over time.
This was contrary to the fishers in the key informant interviews who stated
that compliance had become better now that there was a new village head
who was trustworthy. There were no changes in compliance to be expected
in the future.
5.8.3 Social sustainability
Family well-being
Generally, family well-being was moderate compared to other villages and
had remained stable over the years. No changes were expected in the future.
Income
The actual income of people had not changed dramatically, but individuals
noted an up or downward change depending on whether they had seen their
catches increase (fishers with modern gear) or decline (artisanal fishers).
Tradition of collective action

Most fishers perceived the tradition of collective action in Nolloth to be stable
over time. Many fishers rated past performance very high (score 9-10). The
comments that some fishers made about this question indicated a percep-
tion that people’s interests were shifting towards individual profits due to
economic pressures. Still, the church and the village government collabo-
rated closely in organizing the villagers. The decision to sell the sasi harvest
rights to the KUD instead of to outsiders was a good example of cooperation
between the leading village institutions.
Discussion of village issues

Discussion of village issues was perceived as being relatively high (score 8).
There were no significant changes over time. From the interviews it became
clear that management problems of the fishery in the village area were not
publicly discussed.
Village harmony
Village harmony was highest compared to other villages (score 6.20) and had
not changed significantly over time. Conflicts generally arose over land, sago
and cloves. Alcohol abuse was also mentioned. On the village level conflicts
were more apparent, especially in cases where outsiders tried to illegally har-
vest sasi products. Others, however, had the opinion that conflicts in the com-
munity were less compared to the past. An important role was played by the
village head, who was perceived as legitimate and trusted by the people. Also
the harvest rights and boundaries of the sasi area were generally accepted.
TABLE 6.4 – Results of performance analysis in Nolloth using chi square tests (average conditions)
and paired t-tests (within group differences between past-present-future).
Indicator Average Average change Average future
condition in through time expected change
1997-98 on (statistical (statistical
scale of 1-10 significance) significance)
Equity
1 Role of fishers in management 7.63 1.2667** +13% 0.1000ns +1%
2 Access to marine resources 6.60 -1.6667*** -17% -0.8667*** -9%
3 Fair distribution of fishing gear 7.63 1.7333*** +17% 0.4667* +5%
4 Economic equality 6.67 -0.4333ns -4% -0.5667ns -6%

Efficiency
5 Communal decision-making 6.77 -0.8667* -9% -0.5333** -5%
6 Ease of entry into the fishery 7.20 -1.0333* -10% -1.000*** -10%
7 Control over access to fishery 7.30 1.1667* +12% 0.4000* +4%
8 Compliance with fishery rules 7.47 0.4333ns +4% -0.5000ns -5%

Social sustainability
9 Family well-being 7.13 0.7333ns +7% 0.0333ns +0,3%
10 Income 6.23 -1.0667ns -11% -0.3667ns -4%
11 Tradition of collective action 7.53 -0.8333ns -8% -0.4667ns -5%
12 Discussion of village issues 8.00 0.6667ns +7% 0.0333ns +0.3%
13 Community harmony 6.20 -1.1667ns -12% -0.7667* -8%

Biological sustainability
14 Marine resource health 5.63 -3.1333*** -31% -1.5333*** -15%
15 Fish catch 5.23 -3.7667*** -38% -2.0333*** -20%
N = 30 heads of fishing households. Ns = trend not significant; * = p<0.05, ** = p<0.01, *** = P<0.001
SYNTHESIS 115
5.8.4 Biological Sustainability
State of the marine resources and fish-catches

The general condition of the marine environment had declined drastically.
In 1997-98, fishers perceived an average 31% decline over the foregoing 15
years, and they expected conditions to decline another 15% in the future (see
also section 5.1).
Fish catches
Fish catches too had reduced drastically. The average drop noted was 38%
and the fishers expect a further decline of 20% in future. In Nolloth, the main
problems causing both general decline of the resources as well as declining
fish-catches were said to be: 1) pollution, 2) intensification of the fishery and
3) the use of modern gear.
Nevertheless, biological surveys indicated that Nolloth had better than aver-
age living coral cover compared to other Saparua shores (Chapter 3). Also,
fishers reported that the fishing was better in the sasi area than elsewhere,
suggesting that the management system did have a positive effect on the
state of the inshore resource.
5.9 Synthesis
Nolloth is an example of a village that has been successfully integrating tra-

ditional and formal government structures. Decisions were made by the vil-
lage government, but with implicit consent of the villagers who trusted the
government to make the right decisions for them. The village head had a
powerful position, but he was legitimate, respected, and trusted not to abuse
that power. The political structure theoretically allowed participation or open
discussions, but the common villagers (women and the poor in particular)
were effectively excluded from decision-making. In some cases they could
work through clan leaders who were government officials to get their point
to the village government.
Not everybody was selected to partake in the government programs that

aimed to improve the livelihood of poor villagers. The ones not included felt
that the village government did not address their concerns. These people,
who represented the lower social classes in Nolloth, had less confidence in
the village government and said that ‘they took care of themselves.’
Women in the village were marginalized and have a dependent attitude. Com-
munication among women seemed minimal also where it concerned village
issues or problems. This was possibly a result of the village organisational
structures that were hierarchical and left little space for internal discussions.
Common women had no voice and were not well represented within the
women’s organisations. When it came to village affairs and decision-making,
the women generally showed a lack of interest.
Nolloth had a relatively strong local resource management system because it

had a strong village government and an organisational structure that includ-
ed traditional authorities. The village had clearly defined operational rules
that were written down, executed according to accepted collective rules and
based on adat constitutional rules. Compliance to the rules was high, not in
the least because of an active and functional kewang system. Nolloth did face
difficulties defending its territory against outsiders. In these cases the Sapa-
rua police force could be counted on to assist, but only if the kewang caught
the offenders first.
The Nolloth form of sasi conferred certain economic benefits to the village
in general and to the ruling elite and their associates in particular. Leaders
associated with the institution were also rewarded with high social status.
However, the institution cannot be said to have been inclusive or democratic.
In fact, the originally common property regime had become a system with
private property rights.
The village government used the financial benefits from marine sasi for de-
velopment projects and infrastructure. The villagers thus benefited indirect-
ly. Nevertheless, to the villagers sasi was meaningful, especially in regulating
theft and destruction of resources. It was considered as something relevant
and important to village life and ‘people are used to it.’ The cooperation of
traditional and government authorities and the church in the context of sasi
served as a model for cooperation in village life and contributed to social
sustainability.
Fishers as a group did not participate in the development of sasi and other
fisheries regulations, and there was mild resentment over the fact that the
system of selling harvest rights seemingly benefited the rich more than the
poor. The sasi system thus proved not very equitable, but it was still highly le-
gitimate. On the other hand, sasi in Nolloth was certainly efficient: decisions
were made with a minimum of fuss by a respected central authority and the
rules were enforced at no cost by volunteers in the kewang. The biological out-
comes were also positive. Despite the severe general resource degradation,
the sasi area had relatively healthy resources. Sasi rules were only applied to
two commercially interesting products in a small area and sasi therefore had
little impact on the larger fishery.
Although the ladder survey indicated strongly that marine resources (and fish
catches) were in decline, fishery problems in the sense of over-fishing were
not generally acknowledged. Pollution and the use of modern fishing-tech-
SYNTHESIS 117
niques were seen as having a major impact on the fishery but interventions
to deal with these were not suggested. Although they needed to go further
and further for their daily catch, most fishers still caught enough to cover
their daily needs. The impact of the decline was also obscured by the fact
that fish prices had increased and thus rewards were still good. The species
caught had changed dramatically over the years. From inshore fishing on
demersal fish, the fishery had become nearly fully geared towards pelagics
in the open sea.
However, there were no plans for enhanced fisheries management outside

of the sasi regulations. The sub-district, regional and provincial levels of gov-
ernment did not support monitoring or enforcement of fisheries regulations
in Nolloth. Since sasi regulations were limited in scope and area of applica-
tion, there was a need for more elaborate fisheries management. Collabo-
ration between village and outside organisations such as Yaysan Hualopu
were therefore deemed important. Collaborations with other institutions was
found important to be developed to: 1) educate people and complement peo-
ple’s knowledge on the environment to facilitate resource management; 2)
support a process to monitor sasi; and 3) to facilitate productive activities (ad-
ditional income) to support sasi. A need was also identified for higher govern-
ment levels to provide more information, suitable legislation and support.
119
6 Presence, performance, and institutional

resilience of sasi�
Despite its profound cultural embeddedness, sasi has adapted and changed
under influence of trade (the spice wars), colonization (by respectively the
Portuguese, the English, and the Dutch), religion (Christianity and Islam),
and the imposition of nationally defined government structures in the 1970s.
This chapter presents the results of a study performed in 1997-98 on the
presence, performance and institutional resilience of sasi. The presence and
functionality of sasi in 63 villages was determined by way of structured key
informant interviews that explored the existence of sasi ceremonies, presence
of written rules and sanctions, level and consistency of activity over time, area
of application of rules, and governing authorities. Performance (expressed
in terms of biological and social sustainability, efficiency and equity) was
measured in 11 villages with strong sasi and 11 villages where it was weak. A
number of factors were identified that contributed positively to the resilience
of sasi as a local institution. The results of this study can be useful in the
revitalization of traditional institutions or the establishment of new institu-
tions in the context of decentralisation and co-management in Indonesia and
elsewhere.
6.1 Inventory
6.1.1 Distribution of sasi on land crops and marine resources

In 1997, out of 63 central Maluku villages surveyed, 47 (i.e. 75%) had some
form of sasi institution (Table 3). Ambon island villages had the least sasi.
Two thirds of the sasi villages investigated on Seram had written rules and
half performed adat ceremonies. Haruku Island had the largest proportion of
existing adat sasi and was also unique in that every village had some form of
sasi. Saparua, a predominantly Christian island, was exceptional in that over
half of all villages had marine sasi, and a further four villages lost this form of
sasi in living memory. Nusa Laut was entirely Christian, and the villages were
uniformly small. Church sasi prevailed. Adat sasi persisted in only one village
and marine sasi and village sasi had died out entirely.
*Published as: I.H.T. Harkes and I. Novaczek (2002) Presence, Performance, and Institutional
Resilience of Sasi, a Traditional Management Institution in Central Maluku, Indonesia. Ocean &
Coastal Management, 45: 237-260.
120 PRESENCE , PERFORMANCE , AND INSTITUTIONAL RESILIENCE OF SASI
TABLE 6.1 – Inventory of 63 Central Maluku villages in 1997
# Village Island Dominant Size Sasi area Type of sasi Sasi river species
religion class managed
V L S R A C O
1 Nolloth Saparua Christian 3 + + + - + + - top shell, sea cucum-
ber, gillnet fishery
on reef
2 Haruku Haruku Christian 3 + + + + + + - pelagic fish
3 Kabau Haruku Muslim 3 + - + - - - + pelagic fish, sea cu-
cumber, ornamental
fish
4 Pelauw Haruku Muslim 4 + + + - - - + inshore net fishery
5 Makariki Seram Christian 2 + + + - - + - inshore net fishery
6 Ihamahu Saparua Christian 2 + + + + + + - inshore net fishery,
corals, ornamental
fish, sea cucumber,
top shell, giant clam
7 Siri Sori Saparua Muslim 3 - - + - + - - top shell, (sea
cucumber?)
8 Itawaka Saparua Christian 3 + + + - + - - mangroves, top
shell, sea cucumber,
caping-caping
9 Paperu Saparua Christian 3 + + + - + + - sea cucumber
10 Porto Saparua Christian 4 + + + - + + - top shell, sea cu-
cumber, piring shells,
giant clam, batu laga
11 Morela Ambon Muslim 3 + + + - - - + top shell, sea cu-
cumber
12 Seith Ambon Muslim 4 + + - - - - + all species in sasi
area
13 Tengah- Ambon Muslim 3 - + + - + - - inshore net fishery,
Tengah sea cucumbers
14 Rutah Seram Muslim 3 - - - - - - - none
15 Soahuku Seram Christian 4 - + - - - + - none
16 Batu Dua Ambon Muslim 4 - - - - - - - none
17 Hitulama Ambon Muslim 4 - - - - - - - none
18 Tiouw Saparua Christian 2 - - - - - - - none
19 Eri Ambon Christian 4 - - - - - - - none
20 Seilale Ambon Christian 4 - + - - - + - none
21 Iha Saparua Muslim 1 - - - - - - - none
22 Ouw Saparua Christian 1 - - - - - - - none
23 Booi Saparua Christian 2 - - - - - - - none
24 Saparua Kota Saparua Christian 4 - - - - - - - none (lost)
25 Tuhaha Saparua Christian 2 - + - - - + - none (lost)
26 Hulaliu Haruku Christian 2 - + - - - + - none (lost)
27 Seri Ambon Christian 2 - - - - - - - none (lost)
TABLE 6.1 – Inventory of 63 Central Maluku villages in 1997

Presence of sasi is indicated by +. Each institution in categorized by the area where rules are
applied and the type of governing authority. Sasi area: V = village; L = land; S = sea; R = river; Type
of sasi: A = adat; C = church; O = other. Size class: 1 = population <1000; 2 = 1001-2000; 3 = 2001-
3000; 4 = >3000. Religion M = Muslim, C = Christian.
INVENTORY 121
28 Hutumuri Ambon Christian 4 - - - - - - - none

29 Kariu Haruku Christian 2 - + - - - + - none
30 Kailolo Haruku Muslim 3 + + - - + - - none
31 Rohmoni Haruku Muslim 3 + + - - - - + none
32 Oma Haruku Christian 2 + + - - + + - none
33 Wassu Haruku Christian 2 + + - - - + - none
34 Aboru Haruku Christian 3 + + - - - + - none
35 Sepa Seram Christian 3 + + + - + + - top shell, sea cucum-
ber, reef fish, shell-
fish, corals
36 Hatusua Seram Christian 2 - + + - + + - inshore fishery (inac-
tive)
37 Waisamu Seram Christian 3 + + - - - + - None
38 Amahai Seram Christian 3 + + + - - + - mangrove, corals,
inshore pelagic fish,
sea cucumber, top
shell
39 Tial Ambon Muslim 3 + + - - + - - none
40 Airlouw Ambon Christian 4 - + - - - + - none
41 Amahusu Ambon Christian 4 - - - - - - - none
42 Rutong Ambon Christian 1 - + - - - + - none
43 Leahari Ambon Christian 1 - + - - - + - none
44 Latuhalat Ambon Christian 4 - + - - - + - none
45 Hila Ambon Muslim 4 + - - - - - - none
46 Mamala Ambon Muslim 3 + + - - - - + none
47 Haria Saparua Christian 4 - + + - - + - mangrove, top shell,
sea cucumber, orna-
mental fish, coral
48 Wakal Ambon Muslim 4 + - - - - - - none
49 Ulath Saparua Christian 2 - + + - - + - top shell, sea cu-
cumber
50 Kulur Saparua Muslim 2 - - - - - - - none
51 Akoon Nusa Laut Christian 1 - + - - - + - none
52 Ameth Nusa Laut Christian 2 - + - - - + - none
53 Abubu Nusa Laut Christian 1 - + - - + + - none
54 Leinitu Nusa Laut Christian 1 - + - - - + - none
55 Sila Nusa Laut Christian 1 - + - - - + - none
56 Nalahia Nusa Laut Christian 1 - + - - - + - none
57 Titawai Nusa Laut Christian 2 - - - - - - - none (used to be on
sea cucumber, top
shell, other shells)
58 Hitu messing Ambon Muslim 4 - - - - - - - none
59 Mamoa Ambon Muslim 1 + - - - - - - none
60 Waitomu Ambon Muslim 1 + - - - - - - none
61 Toisapu Ambon Christian 2 - - - - - - - none
62 Sameth Haruku Christian 1 + + - - + + - none
63 Sirisori Saparua Christian 2 + + - - - + - none
Amalatu
Sasi applied to land crops occurred in 41 villages and was most common in
Christian villages and on Haruku and Nusa Laut. Marine sasi on the other
hand, occurred only in 17 villages. It occurred equally in Muslim and Chris-
tian communities but its distribution varied significantly with village popu-
lation. It was most common in villages with 2001-3000 people and absent
from villages with fewer than 1000 people.
Occurrence of marine sasi also varied significantly from island to island, be-
ing most common on Seram and Saparua (over 50% of villages sampled on
each of these islands had marine sasi). In 18 cases, villagers indicated that
marine sasi used to be practiced but had died out in living memory. There-
fore, we can say that historically, over half of the villages in the study area
practiced some form of community-based marine management.
In 14 villages, informants attached to the local government expressed a desire

to reintroduce or reinvigorate some form of land or marine sasi. In some
cases, definite plans and time lines had been developed.
6.1.2 The governing authorities: adat, church and local government

The sasi rules and the structure of the institution vary in each village. In cases
where respect for adat is very strong, adat leaders play a prominent role in de-
veloping and enforcing sasi rules (sasi adat). We found 4 villages having land
sasi that was purely adat, and 3 villages with marine sasi that was adat.
In six Muslim villages people did not describe their sasi institution as adat
sasi. These are tabulated under the name ‘other’. Here, the role played by adat
leaders, if any, is not clear. Funds generated from sasi harvests may be shared
with the local mosque or Muslim leader, but religious authorities also have
no defined role in decision-making or enforcement.
In church sasi it is the church that plays the most visible role. Prayers per-
formed publicly by villagers at the time of the closing of an area to harvest-
ing, function as a deterrent to potential rule-breakers. There were 22 villages
that had only church sasi on land, and 4 villages where church sasi applied
to marine resources. Church and adat sasi occurred together in 10 villages.
All of these had land sasi, and four also had marine sasi. The recent history
of the sasi institution in Central Maluku is characterized by a movement of
authority from adat to church leaders and (since 1979) to newly defined vil-
lage governments.
The type of sasi (adat, church or other) did not vary significantly with island or
village size class (Chi Square test, p>0.05) but of course was correlated with
religion, as both church and ‘other’ sasi are specific to one religious group.
INVENTORY 123
6.1.3 Written rules, sanctions and ceremonies

Written rules were found in 42% of sasi villages and existed in villages of all
sizes, on all islands and both religions. Written rules were most commonly
found where adat and church sasi coexisted and in Muslim villages with ‘oth-
er’ sasi. They were least common in villages having only church sasi. Written
rules, application of sanctions and performance of ceremonies tended to go
together (i.e. all correlation coefficients were highly significant).
The use of sanctions varied with the type of sasi. The use of physical pun-
ishment and financial fines is the rule for adat and ‘other’ forms of sasi. In
church sasi, participants make a common commitment through prayer to
obey the sasi rules and it is God who punishes offenders. Where adat is still
strong or where village government controls sasi, the role of the church is
limited to providing support through a prayer at sasi ceremonies.
Traditionally, the opening and closing of harvest times and fishing grounds
under sasi was accompanied by adat ceremonies. Now, the ceremony may be
restricted to a prayer, although villagers in Haruku and Nolloth still perform
more elaborate adat ceremonies. Regardless of their size, island or religion,
roughly a third of sasi villages carried out ceremonies. Ceremonies were most
common in villages that had both adat sasi and church sasi. In the majority
(75%) of cases, however, fewer than 100 people attended.
6.1.4 Function and scope of sasi in resource management

Our study focused on sasi applied to marine resources. However, the strength
and resilience of marine sasi is intimately related to and influenced by land
sasi (Novaczek et al. 2001). Sasi as applied to land crops is generally in the
form of a harvest prohibition on fruits that are unripe. Coconut is the most
common crop regulated.
There is often a village kewang (local enforcement agents) to keep an eye on

the crops under sasi and protect them from theft. The division of the harvest
depends on the type of sasi implemented. Usually sasi is applied to village
lands in general so that all people harvest at the same time (e.g. Nolloth). In
other cases, groups of people harvest in rotation. In some villages the com-
munal harvest is placed under the control of a tuan sasi (traditional authority)
who, after paying a fee to the village government, organizes the harvest and
sale of the crop.
What villagers called marine sasi covered a number of different types of ma-
rine management arrangements. The sasi rules may or may not be written
down and the kewang, usually responsible for monitoring and enforcement,
may be active or dormant. There were always rules restricting access to the
village territory. There may or may not be closed seasons or closed areas. Al-
most all village institutions had bans on destructive gear types. In most cases
this supported the national ban on blast and poison fishing. In several cases
other gears (lift nets, fine mesh nets, certain fish traps destructive to coral)
were also regulated. In none of the community-controlled fishing areas was
there any limit on total catch. Instead, sasi rules controlled harvest intensity
by limiting the number of persons having access to the village territory and
sasi area, by defining the length of the harvest period, by restricting the size
of individual fish or shellfish that could be landed and by banning destructive
gear types (Table 6.2).
TABLE 6.2 – Fisheries rules and marine management scores in Central Maluku: differences be-
tween villages according to the presence, absence, or history of having sasi
Attribute/activity Marine sasi Lost marine Any sasi No sasi All villages
n=17 sasi (land, sea or village) n=17 n=63
n=20 n=46
Local fisheries rules 17 8 33 3 36

other than ban on 100% 40% 72% 18% 59%
bombs and poisons
Avg # species affect- 4.3 1.4 2.6 0.9 2.1

ed by local rules (sasi,
lelang or other rule)
Non-sasi auction of 0 3 3 0 3
harvesting rights 0% 15% 7% 0% 5%
Non-sasi fees for re- 4 8 13 3 16

source access rights 24% 40% 28% 18% 25%
Gear ban 16 13 37 11 48
94% 72% 83% 65% 77%
Management score 7.35 3.05 4.95 1.83 3.97

(+ standard error) ±0.30 ±0.55 ±0.45 ±0.41 ±0.38
Every village regulated different species, and in many cases, only one or two.
The most common species managed under sasi were top shell (Trochus nilo-
ticus), sea cucumbers and small pelagic fishes. On average, a sasi village had
rules affecting four of the following groups of marine organisms: corals,
mangroves, pelagic fish, ornamental fish, reef (food) fish, sea cucumbers or
shellfish. Over half of the sasi villages sold or auctioned harvesting rights for
one or more species.
When there is an access restriction and the time comes when sasi is declared
open, the resources may be harvested in a number of ways: by individual
fishers living in the community (e.g. Ihamahu), by the whole community in a
single communal harvest (e.g. Haruku), or by individuals from within or out-
side the community who have paid for the privilege of access and withdrawal
(e.g. Nolloth, Itawaka, Kabau, Pelauw).
PERFORMANCE 125
In a majority of villages, the national ban on blast and poison fishing was
supported, either formally (i.e. written as a legal village or sasi regulation) or
informally (by verbal decree of the village leader). In sasi villages, support for
this rule was particularly strong. In villages that had only land or village sasi,
fisheries rules were still relatively common compared to villages with no sasi
at all. Overall, the average marine management score for Central Maluku
was low because some villages had few or no rules affecting the fishery. Also,
because sasi was applied to relatively small areas and few species, there was
no comprehensive area or species management in place anywhere.
From the inventory we see that in many villages marine sasi, land sasi, or both
have disappeared. Interestingly, the village leaders who were interviewed for
the inventory were unfailingly positive about sasi, even if it was no longer
functional in their village. It was generally valued for economic reasons: it
benefits the people by securing a maximum harvest and controlling theft.
However, some respondents mentioned environmental benefits, for example
a village authority in Amahai who stated: ‘Sasi has to be preserved because
it is a positive force. The population is rising and people want to take every-
thing which will ruin the resources.’
6.2 Performance
6.2.1 Equity and efficiency of management

Equity in terms of access to resources regulated under sasi is not a major is-
sue for family food security or family income because sasi covers few species
and small areas. Most income is derived from the deepwater pelagic fishery
and agro-forestry, while daily protein is commonly gleaned by women target-
ing species not covered by sasi. Indeed, respondents often remarked that it
would be impossible to apply sasi to essential food fish, because people would
have to break the rules in times of need, and then would suffer grievous
consequences out of proportion to the crime. Where marine resources under
sasi are harvested as a communal crop and distributed equitably among the
population (for example, in Haruku) fishers accept this as fair and do not
complain about restrictions to their individual rights of withdrawal.
However, fishers do have concerns about equity in cases where harvest rights
are sold or auctioned, whether this happens under sasi or by any other ar-
rangement. Fishers prefer a system where direct benefits of a management
arrangement are shared and they find the sale of harvest rights to people
outside the village to be particularly objectionable. If benefits are not seen to
be fairly distributed or if they accrue to outsiders, this can lead to non-compli-
ance to management rules. On the other hand, where the decision-makers
are respected, a rental, auction or purchase arrangement can be very efficient
and also reasonably equitable in that the profits are used for the benefit of all
through community development.
Although sasi has no measureable effect on distribution of fishing gears or

on the degree of perceived economic disparity within a village, control over
resource management is perceived by fishers to be tighter in sasi villages, and
compliance to fisheries rules is perceived to be greater. The communal deci-
sion-making process is also perceived to be stronger and more stable. That
said, western concepts of what constitutes a legitimate consensual process do
not necessarily pertain.
Although the level of representation of interest groups varies from village to

village, our research reveals sasi to be fundamentally male dominated and
paternalistic. Although decisions affecting the marine village territory, for
instance gear type restrictions, are said to be made ‘by the community’, the
voices of fishers may or may not be heeded, and women are excluded from
decision-making. Sasi is therefore not equitable in this sense. On the other
hand, the hierarchical structure and minimal bureaucracy makes decision-
making very efficient. Where the leadership is seen to be legitimate, the gen-
eral populace does not question that all is being arranged for the greater pub-
lic good and according to traditional law and culture. Therefore, even though
they may play no active role in the decision-making, villagers in a sasi village
that has stable and respected leadership will report that decisions are arrived
at by general consensus.
6.2.2 Social sustainability

Sasi has significant positive impacts on social sustainability. Sasi villages have
higher levels of interaction around community issues, a stronger tradition of
collective action and less conflict. Fishers in villages practicing sasi enjoy the
same standard of living as fishers in other villages. There is no demonstrable
economic benefit to them but neither do they suffer economically from sasi.
6.2.3 Biological sustainability

Sasi rules that restrict access and limit harvest times clearly have the potential
to provide ecological as well as social and economic benefits. Limited biologi-
cal surveys performed inside and outside of sasi areas suggest biological ben-
efits to certain managed species (Novaczek et al. 2001). Also, grazing areas
of dugong (Dugong Dugon) along the coast of the Lease Islands coincide with
those areas that are actively managed under sasi (H. de Iongh, pers. comm.
1998). However, problems such as poaching and blast fishing, do occur even
in villages where the kewang is active, as in Haruku and Ihamahu. Protection
efforts and in particular efforts to control fishers from outside the village,
are hampered by the kewang’s lack of legal status, equipment and financial
support.
The possible impact of sasi on the broader (pelagic) fisheries resource is not
clear. In seeking to document the impact of the sasi institution on fisheries,
one significant problem is the general lack of ‘fit’ between the sasi institu-
tion and the modern fishery that is geared to deep-water pelagics. Fishers’
perceptions of declining stocks pertain to the impact of all forms of resource
management as it exists in Maluku and not specifically to sasi. Fish catches of
artisanal and small scale fishers are in decline throughout the study area, sig-
naling the failure of centralized fisheries management regulations (Novaczek
et al. 2001), to conserve resources and fairly allocate resource withdrawal
rights in Maluku.
It is unlikely that, through protecting small areas of coral reef and sea grass
bed, the sasi institution provides even an incremental and indirect benefit to
the larger fishery, unless these inshore areas happen to be critical spawning
or nursery habitat for pelagics. However, the ethic underlying adat and sasi,
and the example of management provided by functional marine sasi may well
have positive psychological impacts on fishers. Through their familiarity with
sasi, villagers are led to embrace fundamental and important management
concepts packaged in a culturally acceptable way.
The 1970s, at the eve of the introduction of the new formal government struc-
ture, was one period of decline of sasi (Table 6.3 and 6.4). This decade was
one of rapid economic growth, poverty alleviation programs in the villages
and social change. A fundamental factor in the loss of sasi was confusion or
conflict in the village or between village authorities. Political instability and
a dysfunctional kewang invited non-compliance and led to abandonment of
operational rules. Sasi being taken over by the church, either because of such
conflicts or in an attempt to improve compliance, was a common scenario.
The church, interested only in land sasi on coconuts, did not get involved in
marine sasi, which in some cases then declined.
TABLE 6.3 – Attrition of sasi institution (i.e. total loss of all forms) on each island. Note: one village
in Ambon never had sasi
Sasi institution lost in Ambon Seram Haruku Saparua Nusa Laut Total
percentages (n=19) (n=11) (n=1) (n=0) (n=6) (n=1) (n=19)
lost in 1990s 16 5 0 16 5 42
lost in 1980s 11 0 0 0 0 11
lost in1970s 16 0 0 5 0 21
lost earlier 16 0 0 10 0 26
Total 58 5 0 32 5 100
The 1980s was a period of relative stability. Villages where sasi was alive and
functioning remained stable. In some villages there was a tendency to revital-
ize sasi. The 1990s is a period of further decline of sasi. The period between
the 1970s and 1990s covers one generation. Modernization and commer-
cialization as a result of improved communication infrastructure and educa-
tion and the expansion of market relations, influence the local culture and
especially younger generations. The generational change, together with the
rapid rate of social, economic and political change in Maluku in the 1990s is
most likely the reason why sasi is now suffering such relatively rapid losses.
TABLE 6.4 – Attrition of sasi institution in villages of various sizes and religion. Note: the village
that never had sasi is a village of Butonese immigrants, size class 4 (>3000 people)
Sasi institution lost in Size class Size class Size class Size class Muslim Christian
percentages ≤1000 1001-2000 2001-3000 >3000 (n=9) (n=10)
(n=19) (n=5) (n=5) (n=1) (n=8)
lost in 1990s 11 16 5 10 21 21
1980s 5 5 0 0 5 5
1970s 5 0 0 16 5 16
Earlier 5 5 0 16 16 11
Total 26 26 5 42 47 53
The case studies underscore the inventory evidence that contemporary de-
cline of sasi stems often from conflicts (see Novaczek et al. 2001). Conflicts
can in some cases be related to the social change that resulted from the in-
troduction of the new village structure by the national government. Also, the
election system has opened up possibilities for opportunists with vested inter-
ests to take the position of village leader. On the other hand, where traditional
authorities merged into the new government, adat and sasi have remained a
significant aspect of village life. Overlap between the traditional and formal
governments proved to be essential in the prolongation of sasi.
The continuing presence of sasi is affected by village size and proximity to

a large urban center. This is clearly illustrated by the early and rapid losses
of sasi recorded on Ambon Island, which historically has been the govern-
ment center and most densely populated island in the study area (Table 6.4).
Ostrom (1990) writes that the likelihood of users designing successful com-
mon property institutions will be improved if the group is relatively small
and stable, and if it is relatively homogeneous. Our research confirms this,
for sasi is most resilient in homogeneous villages of fewer than 3000 people.
Villages close to the capital, where sasi no longer functions, have exceeded a
critical size, become heterogeneous and shifted from subsistence fishing and
farming to large-scale fishing and urban employment.
Of all the forms of sasi, marine sasi, though less generally prevalent, appears
to be relatively robust. Whereas sasi generally has suffered severe losses in
recent years, marine sasi has been relatively stable and even shows signs of
revitalization in the 1990s. This revival comes basically out of the heartfelt at-
tachment of people to adat in general and sasi in particular, but also the com-
mercial value of marine products such as Trochus niloticus, other shellfish
and sea-cucumber for foreign markets is an important incentive to keep or
reinstitutionalize sasi. The process is further being facilitated and reinforced
by intervening NGOs, government and academic supporters who see the po-
tential value of sasi as a resource management system.
Where the people do not expect to benefit directly, they seem not interested
in revitalization of sasi. A lack of transparency in distribution of benefits fur-
ther hampers the process. There is a risk that in villages where sasi is being
used as a tool to extract resource rents that sasi then turns into ‘a government
thing’ controlled by local elites. This is a disincentive for fishers to follow the
new sasi rules.
Church sasi is the most common type of land sasi in Christian villages. The
church also has the potential to play an important role in marine sasi. Church
sasi derives it strength from the strong religious beliefs of rural villagers. The
church is more stable than ever-changing village governments. Church sasi,
when applied to coconuts, provides direct individual benefits to the people
and so is valued. Past shifts of authority over land sasi from adat to the church
helped to shore up the effectiveness of the institution when the kewang lost
enforcement capacity. In many cases, villagers believe that the threat of sanc-
tion by God is a more powerful deterrent than the sanctions imposed by the
kewang. As seen from the inventory, where sasi is taken over by the church,
adat sasi as well as marine sasi may be lost. However, Haruku and Nolloth
provide examples where introduction of church sasi actually strengthened
the local institution. Therefore, in sasi systems that are being revitalized, the
church can play an important supporting role.
In some Muslim villages, sasi has evolved away from adat. Ceremonies and
inherited positions have been abandoned, and religious leaders also have not
developed a direct role in the institution. Sasi has become more of a com-
mercial transaction between the village government and whoever wins the
auction for resource harvesting rights. Nevertheless, this also appears to be
a stable and resilient institution. The benefits and drawbacks of this form of
sasi require further investigation, but the performance analysis did show that
this sort of arrangement leads to problems in compliance when local fishers
see benefits accruing only to elites.
It was clear that sasi flourishes where the village leader is legitimate (from the
raja family line) and where he collaborates harmoniously and honestly with
adat leaders and the church. Ostrom (1990) mentions reciprocity and trust
as important conditions for successful common property institutions. From
our study we would add legitimacy as another key factor for success. Appar-
ently, the discrepancy between the theory of formal administrative structure
and the de facto power structure that involves traditional authorities, makes
village politics susceptible to manipulation and instability. Amendment of
the law on village government (No. 5, 1979) may be required to accommodate
the need for legitimate adat authority figures in rural villages and increase
stability of local government.
Because the constitutional rules of sasi are part of adat, and ‘adat is some-
thing that can not be changed’ as village officials in Nolloth stated, the proc-
ess of revival concerns the re-establishment and adaptation of operational
rules (harvest regulations, access rules) and collective level arrangements (re-
establishment of the kewang). Adat still forms the basis of sasi, but a redefi-
nition of responsibilities and involvement of non-adat institutions, i.e. the
church, the police and higher government levels, is possible. Such adaptation
of the constitutional rules carries certain risks and must be advanced with
care and tact.
6.4 Conclusion
Sasi, the local resource management institution in Central Maluku, has a

long history. Traditionally sasi was governed and enforced by adat authori-
ties. Nowadays, this institution can also be governed by church or local gov-
ernment officials or even by private individuals holding harvest rights. In
Christian villages, the church is an important supporter, whereas the role of
Muslim leaders in sasi appears to be much more limited. As an institution,
sasi has never been static but has changed with the times and been used by
different proponents for different economic and social reasons, not simply
for resource management. Sasi and the underlying adat culture have waxed
and waned over time, absorbing and reflecting the impacts of colonialism,
war, economic development and social change (Riedel 1886; Volker 1925;
von Benda-Beckmann 1995). However, despite past predictions of imminent
demise (Cooley 1962) sasi and adat persist and are therefore resilient.
Berkes and Folke (1998) explain that there are social mechanisms behind
social-ecological practices that deal with disturbances and so enhance institu-
tional and ecological resilience. Various social-ecological practices they men-
tion are found in sasi, e.g temporal restrictions of harvest, intergenerational
knowledge, role of stewards, taboos and regulations, sanctions and ceremo-
nies etc. However, our study shows that these mechanisms are components
of the institution itself, and as a consequence apt to change. What makes the
institution, including all these components, strong (and thus resilient) is that
CONCLUSION 131
which links these components i.e. legitimacy, trust, collaboration, transpar-

ency, etc. Additionally, relations between those who benefit from the institu-
tion and those who manage it need to be sincere and transparent.
The majority of central Maluku villages still retain some form of local sasi
institution. Within living memory, half of the villages covered by the inven-
tory had local marine management rules. Yet, by 1997-98, only a quarter of
them had rules pertaining to marine management. The traditional sasi style
of resource management, involving ceremony, volunteerism and inherited
status, is most common in homogeneous villages in the 1000-3000 popula-
tion range. Marine sasi is most common in villages of 2000-3000 people and
is most usually administered by adat or local government leaders, with the
church playing only a supporting role. Marine sasi is least evident on Ambon
Island, close to the largest regional urban center and a rapidly developing
consumer culture.
The sasi institution thus is in decline and in many villages has disappeared
(for more details see Chapter 7), but the need for effective conservation and
management is more urgent than ever. In the study area there are overall
declines in social interaction and cooperation, compliance to fisheries rules,
fish catches, and environmental health. Yet, the majority of villagers are still
directly or indirectly dependent on the fishery. Collapsing inshore fish catches
have driven subsistence fishers ever farther out to sea. Their fishing grounds
now overlap the area utilized by commercial and industrial fishers and con-
flict between the sectors is inevitable if management and conflict resolution
arrangements are not set in place.
The existence of sasi means that certain important management concepts are
widely known and valued as part of local culture. Village leaders’ perceptions
of sasi are that it is a useful institution. From this we can see that using sasi
as the basis for development of a modern management institution can be
considered to be efficient because through sasi these core concepts are gener-
ally known and seen to be legitimate. This reduces potential costs of public
education and enforcement.
Additionally, the promulgation of non-sasi fisheries rules at the village level

has clearly been influenced by the sasi institution. Not only do active marine
sasi villages have the most rules in place, the villages where marine sasi has
been lost or where land or village sasi persists, are more active in managing
local marine resources compared to villages that have no sasi at all. The pres-
ence of sasi (active or not) thus positively influences the potential for develop-
ment of modern marine management institutions.
Application of sasi to marine resources has always been limited in scope and
some modern forms of marine management date back only a few decades
(Zerner 1994a). Sasi practices vary from village to village. In no case is man-
agement under sasi comprehensive; only small areas of shallow water and
few species are regulated. Nevertheless, the existence of sasi means that cer-
tain important management and consevation concepts are widely known and
valued as part of local culture. These include:
• The concept of open and closed areas / open and closed seasons.
• The concept of community tenure rights over a marine area.
• The concept of limiting access to resources.
• Controlled harvest and distribution of benefits.
• Locally developed and agreed upon regulations. These may be specific to
the village (limitation of gear types, size of fish or shellfish harvestable) or
may reinforce national laws (prohibition of blast fishing, use of poison).
• Local wardens or enforcers (the kewang) who have defined rules of proc-
ess as well as prescribed sanctions to impose.
• A responsibility shared by all residents to report violations of sasi rules.
• Methods in place for advising all residents at regular intervals of the sub-
stance of sasi rules.
• An overall goal of improving or maintaining community welfare which,
being rooted in adat or the concept of the unity of man with nature, is
consistent with modern concepts of sustainable use.
• A hierarchical institutional structure wherein various tasks are divided
among clearly defined bodies (i.e. the village government, the kewang, or
the church).
• Low or no financial cost to formal government i.e. kewang members and
church leaders involved are not paid wages, although they may receive a
share of harvests. Local government offices may also receive income from
the sale of harvesting rights for communal resources.
• Resiliency and the ability to evolve.
Sasi thus offers a solid foundation for resource management in the region.
It provides a structure that is culturally embedded, a functional enforcement
mechanism, and a set of rules and regulations that are acceptable to most.
The familiarity with management concepts, the acknowledgement of a need
to protect natural resources, perceived benefits and general appreciation of
sasi makes it highly legitimate. With a formally acknowledged kewang who
have access to funds, training and a network, enforcement of regulations can
be carried out locally in a legitimate way. With the assistance of NGOs, scien-
tists and government, (co-) management structures could be established that
include the principles and components of sasi.
From our study we identified the following factors that contribute positively
to the resilience of sasi as a local institution and therefore should be consid-
ered during the process of revitalizing and modernizing the institution:
CONCLUSION 133
1 A legitimate village leader, descending from the traditional royal raja line
or being a traditional authority. Legitimacy contributes positively to the
execution of his authority with regard to sasi.
2 A village head elected with a large majority. Fragile leadership and politi-
cal instability hampers sasi.
3 A large overlap between the traditional and formal authorities in the vil-
lage government leads to prolongation of traditional structures including
sasi.
4 Critical for the process of revitalization is acknowledgement of the tradi-
tional village authorities within the new structure.
5 Retain traditional titles and structures as well as elements of ceremony,
to provide a strong spiritual and cultural basis for resource management,
but not alienate new generations of fishers.
6 Acknowledgement of institutions such as the kewang leads to effective
enforcement of sasi regulations. Rights and mandates between informal
and formal structures (police) should be clearly defined.
7 Collaboration between management institutions and stable religious au-
thorities (church and Muslim institutions) lead to higher resilience of
sasi.
8 The support and participation of the younger generation for sasi as part of
a value system (adat) that needs to be adaptive to modern times.
9 Direct (equitable) benefits for villagers and control over revenues of re-
source management. This also leads to incentives to comply with the
regulations.
10 Acknowledgement of powers and responsibilities within the framework
of provincial and national legislation. This would provide local institu-
tions with more capacity to deal with external threats and allow them to
be involved in the planning, execution and evaluation of fisheries develop-
ment projects and formal fisheries laws.
Collaboration, trust and legitimacy are a function of a village size and ho-
mogeneity. When the population exceeds 3000 people and/or the village
becomes heterogeneous, the cohesive mechanisms break down. In these vil-
lages another type of management institution i.e. not traditional sasi, needs
to be established.
In conclusion, we find that sasi has demonstrable benefits to society, embod-

ies important principles that are recognized in modern fisheries manage-
ment and, although limited in scope and application, has the potential to
protect and conserve valuable commercial species and coastal habitats. In
order for it to fulfill its potential, however, this traditional institution and the
communal tenure rights on which it is based, need to be formally recognized
by the government of Indonesia because in the absence of government sup-
port the institution is in danger of disappearing.
Other researchers and policy makers have suggested that sasi could be the
basis for decentralized regional management bodies (Zerner 1994; Nikiju-
luw and Susilowati 2000; Thorburn 2000). Our findings suggest that this
could indeed be a fruitful approach to the development of a more effective,
adaptive and culturally embedded system for fisheries and coastal zone man-
agement in eastern Indonesia. However, it is also recognized that sasi has its
limitations, that it is neither a homogeneous nor comprehensive institution,
and that the relative roles of traditional and religious leaders, local governing
elites and other participants in some future co-management arrangement
have yet to be defined. This will not be a simple task.
135
7 Institutional resilience of marine sasi�
Even though sasi has been in place over 400 years, in some parts of Central
Maluku it is disappearing. While in many villages on the Lease Islands, Am-
bon and Seram sasi, or remnants of it, are still present, entirely functioning
systems are becoming rare. Sasi is dynamic through time and has adapted
and changed under influence of trade (the spice wars), colonisation (by re-
spectively the Portuguese, the English, and the Dutch), religion (Christianity
and Islam), and the imposition of nationally defined government structures
in the 1970s. Current threats to the system are commercialisation, moderni-
sation and a general loss of traditional values. Interestingly, some villages
have been able to maintain a strong and functional sasi system both on land
(sasi darat) and water (sasi laut). In 1996-98 a study was carried out to study
the presence of sasi, the degree of activity and the reasons for loss or survival
of sasi. The results of this study can be useful in the revitalisation of tradi-
tional institutions or in the process of institution building in the context of
co-management.
7.1 Introduction
People refer to sasi as fundamentally adat, gereja (church) or ‘other’. In the

past, the distinction of church sasi (sasi gereja) from adat sasi referred to the
dominant governing authority in the local institution, but in modern times
the partnership of local government with these authorities is implicit. In
cases where respect for adat is very strong, adat leaders play a prominent
role in developing and enforcing sasi rules (sasi adat). In church sasi it is
the church that plays the most visible role. In general, a shift in authority
from adat leaders to church leaders and to newly defined village governments
(since 1979) characterizes the recent history of the sasi institution in Central
Maluku. In several Muslim villages people did not describe their sasi institu-
tion as adat sasi; these are tabulated under the name ‘other’. The role played
by adat leaders, if any, is not clear. In these villages, where sasi is applied to
marine resources it is a commercial agreement between local government
and a harvester who pays a fee for harvesting rights (sasi lelang).
Based on: I.H.T. Harkes and I. Novaczek (2003). Institutional Resilience of Marine Sasi, a Tra-
ditional Fisheries Management System in Central Maluku, Indonesia. In: G.A. Persoon, D.M.E.
van Est, and P. Sajise (eds.) Co-management of Natural Resources in Asia: a Comparative Perspective.
NIAS Press, Copenhagen, pp. 63-85.
136 INSTITUTIONAL RESILIENCE OF MARINE SASI
Various scientists have studied sasi (Zerner 1994; von Benda-Beckmann et al.
1995; Nikijuluw 1995; Thorburn 2000). Yet, the existence of sasi and its dy-
namics have never been studied on an overall scale. Our research project cov-
ered most islands and villages in Central Maluku. The results are described
in this paper which tries to analyse where and when sasi – or aspects of sasi
– disappeared, which factors caused it to decline, but also which factors made
it endure over time and/or stimulated villages to re-establish sasi. Under-
standing this process and the factors behind it will help to develop, maintain,
or revitalize sasi and other fisheries management systems.
The first part of this paper presents the general patterns of decline of sasi in
the region and marine sasi in particular. The second part goes deeper and
based on case studies tries to uncover the changes and reasons for break-
down or strengthening of sasi. In the conclusion the results of the two studies
are synthesized and factors identified that play a role in the continued exist-
ence of sasi.
7.2 Institutional resilience defined
A social institution consists of all the structural components of a society (e.g.

patterns of behaviour) through which the main concerns and activities are
organized and social needs are met (Goddijn et al. 1980, Marshall 1994).
This general definition can be narrowed down when we look specifically at
resource management systems. Berkes and Folke (1998) distinguish two ma-
jor functions of a resource management institution: 1) to control access to
the resource to exclude outsiders; and 2) institute rules among users to solve
conflicts between individual and collective interests in order to divide the re-
source benefits. The first is called the exclusion problem, the second the sub-
tractability problem. A useful definition then is the one by North (1993) who
describes an institution as the formal and informal constraints or rights and
rules and their enforcement characteristics. Examples of formal constraints
are rules, laws and constitutions, while informal constraints can be norms of
behaviour, conventions and codes of conduct.
Resilience can be defined as the degree to which an institution or system can

cope with change without collapsing, or, the ability of a system to absorb per-
turbations by actively adapting to an ever changing environment (Folke and
Berkes 1995). Reduced resilience means that vulnerability increases, with
the risk that the system crosses a threshold and collapses (Folke and Berkes
1995). Community management institutions should be understood as dy-
namic social interventions, shaped by local experience and influenced by
external factors (Bailey and Zerner 1992). Change is inherent to such institu-
tions. Yet, if adaptability of response to changing conditions is insufficient,
management institutions can break down, leaving the resource unregulated.
PATTERNS OF LOSS OF SASI SINCE THE 1940 S 137
Important attributes that relate to institutional resilience are the enforcement

mechanisms for the regulations and the changes that result from internal
and external influences.
7.3 Patterns of loss of sasi since the 1940s
The villages surveyed were not expected to be homogenous. Therefore, to dis-

play the information, the villages have been grouped by: dominant religion
(Muslim and Christian), population size (class 1 = ≤1000 people, class 2 =
1001-2000, class 3 = 2001-3000, and class 4 = >3000) and island (to indicate
the distance to the urban centre, Ambon city).
7.3.1 Loss of the entire sasi institution

Of the 63 villages studied, 19 had lost their entire sasi institution (Table 7.1).
Most losses occurred in the 1990s and on Ambon and Saparua. On Haruku
Island, by contrast, some form of sasi has survived in every village.
TABLE 7.1 – Attrition of sasi institution (i.e. total loss of all forms) on each island.
Note, one village in Ambon never had sasi.
Sasi institu- Seram Ambon Haruku Saparua Nusa Laut Total
tion lost
lost in 1990s 1 3 0 3 1 8 (42%)
lost in 1980s 0 2 0 0 0 2 (11%)
lost in1970s 0 3 0 1 0 4 (21%)
lost earlier 0 3 0 2 0 5 (26%)

Total 1 11 0 6 0 19 (100%)
TABLE 7.2 – Attrition of sasi institution in villages of various sizes and religion. Note, the village
that never had sasi is a village of Butonese immigrants, size class 4 (>3000 people).
Sasi institution Size class 1 Size class 2 Size class 3 Size class 4 Muslim Christian
lost (≤1000) (1001-2000) (2001-3000) (>3000)
lost in 1990s 2 3 1 2 4 4
1980s 1 1 0 0 1 1
1970s 1 0 0 3 1 3
Earlier 1 1 0 3 3 2
Total 5 5 1 8 9 10
Losses have been steady in both Muslim and Christian villages (Table 7.2),
but there is a clear difference when you consider village size. Losses have
been greatest in size class 4 (>3000 people) and much less in size class 3
(2001-3000). Apparently, there is an optimum size for villages with regard
to sasi.
7.3.2 The erosion and loss of marine sasi

Active marine sasi institutions are hard to find. Out of 63 villages, only 17
had some form of marine sasi and a number of these were not functioning
(Novaczek et al. 2001). Before, marine sasi was much more prevalent. We
documented 18 villages that lost marine sasi in living memory (Table 7.3)
meaning that at one time at least 35 villages (56%) had this institution. In
four villages (Seith, Ouw, Seri, and Rutah) information was contradictory;
while the survey did not indicate presence of marine sasi, one or more fish-
ers interviewed thought sasi was either in force or had been in place at one
time. Nevertheless, these villages were added to the 24 villages where either
marine sasi never existed or had been forgotten.
In over half the cases where marine sasi has been lost, the loss occurred prior
to 1970 (Table 7.3, 7.4). Since then, marine sasi has been relatively stable
compared to land sasi. Most losses in the 1970s to 1990s have been in either
size class 1 (≤1000) or size class 4 (>3000) villages (Table 7.3), and in the
1990s the only recorded loss was on Ambon Island (Table 7.4).
TABLE 7.3 – Attrition of marine sasi in relation to village size and religion
Marine sasi Size Size class 2 Size Size Muslim Christian Total
lost class 1 (1001-2000) class 3 class 4
(≤1000) (2001-3000) (>3000)
1990s 0 0 0 1 1 0 1
1980s 3 0 0 0 0 3 3
1970s 2 1 0 1 0 4 4
Lost earlier 2 4 1 3 3 7 10
Subtotal: lost 7 5 1 5 4 14 18
Number still 0 4 10 3 5 12 17
existing
Never had 6 7 6 9 11 17 28
marine sasi
Total 13 16 17 17 20 43 63
FACTORS INFLUENCING ACTIVITY OF SASI 139
TABLE 7.4 – Attrition of marine sasi per island

Marine sasi lost Seram Ambon Haruku Saparua Nusa Laut Total
1990s 0 1 0 0 0 1 (6%)
1980s 0 2 0 0 1 3 (17%)
1970s 0 1 0 2 1 4 (22%)
Earlier 1 2 2 2 3 10 (56%)
Total 1 6 2 4 5 18 (100%)
7.4 Factors influencing activity of sasi
The level of activity of marine sasi was measured in every village using in-
dicators for the presence of sasi (rules), closures (open and closed season),
consistency of application (frequency over previous 3 years) and local effort
(signage and enforcement). The maximum activity score is 12. Using this
system we find that land sasi is significantly more active in villages with a
population size between 2001-3000 (ANOVA, p≤0.01).
In Maluku, fishing villages are most often overwhelmingly Christian or Mus-

lim. The seven villages where marine sasi was most active (score 10-12, see
Table 7.5) were all homogeneously Christian or Muslim, i.e. with at least 95%
of the population being of the dominant religion. Out of 17 cases of marine
sasi, three were inactive (score 3) and another three were weak (score 6-7).
One of the cases of inactive marine sasi occurred in a relatively non-homo-
geneous village and a second case was in a Christian dusun (hamlet) of a
predominantly Muslim desa (village). Cultural homogeneity can thus be im-
portant to the resilience of this traditional institution.
TABLE 7.5 – Factors related to activity of marine sasi in central Maluku

Village Dominant Homo- Administrative Size class Activity score
religion geneity status for marine sasi
Land Marine
Nolloth Christian 1 Desa 3 12 12
Haruku Christian 1 Desa 3 11 12
Pelau Muslim 1 Desa 4 12 12
Siri Sori Muslim 1 Desa 3 n.a. 12
Morela Muslim 1 Desa 3 11 12
Itawaka Christian 1 Desa 3 11 10
Amahai Christian 1 Desa 3 12 10
Kabau Muslim 1 Desa 3 n.a. 9
Ihamahu Christian 1 Desa 2 12 9
Tengah-Tengah Muslim 1 Desa 3 12 9
Hatusua Christian 2 Desa 2 9 9
Porto Christian 1 Desa 4 10 7
Paperu Christian 1 Desa 3 9 6
Ulath Christian 1 Desa 2 6* 6*
Makariki Christian 2 Desa 2 12 3
Rohua Christian 1 Dusun in a 3 12 3

Muslim desa
Haria Christian 1 Desa 4 8** 3**
Homogeneity status: 1 = 95-100% is of dominant religion, 2 = 60-80% is of dominant religion. * Sasi moved to
church in 1992; ** Sasi moved to church in 1995.
The persistence of marine sasi appeared to be linked to the presence of other

types of sasi; villages with marine sasi, for example, usually have active land
sasi. Resilience of marine sasi depends also on the interplay among governing
authorities. It has been stable in the Muslim villages where the institution is
governed neither by adat authorities nor religious leaders (Table 7.6). In a
number of cases sasi on marine resources was abandoned (e.g. Akoon, Am-
eth, Leinitu) or weakened (e.g. Haria, Ulath) when adat sasi was taken over by
the church. Compared to marine sasi that is of the adat or ‘other’ type, marine
sasi in villages with church sasi is less active. Where adat sasi has survived,
losses of marine sasi are fewer compared to villages where only church sasi
remains (Table 7.6).
REASONS FOR LOSS OF SASI BETWEEN 1940 AND 1997 141
TABLE 7.6 – Type of sasi in villages that have or had or never had, marine sasi
Current status of village Adat sasi village Church sasi village with Muslim sasi village
(n=15) no adat sasi (n=21) (n=6)
Has marine sasi now 10 (67%) 4 (19%) 3 (50%)
Lost marine sasi in living 2 (13%) 7 (33%) 0 (0%)

memory
Historical occurrence of 12 (80%) 11 (52%) 3 (50%)

marine sasi (ever had it)
Never had marine sasi 3 (20%) 10 (48%) 3 (50%)
Percentage of loss in rela- 17% 64% 0%

tion to occurrence
7.5 Reasons for loss of sasi between 1940 and 1997
During the inventory of the 63 villages, we asked whether our informants

could remember when some aspect of sasi changed or was lost, and why this
had happened. Explanations were often quite explicit and included contextual
information pertaining to the evolution of socio-political systems in Maluku
(see Novaczek et al. 2001 for details). The comments were merely applicable
to villages where sasi actually was lost or transformed.
Weak leadership and conflicts seem to be key elements in the erosion of sasi.
Reasons that villagers gave for the partial or complete loss of the institution
were: conflicts within the village government, conflicts between the village
leader and adat authorities, conflicts between the village leader and the ke-
wang, conflicts among church organisations, and conflicts over land. Con-
flicts between adat leaders and the village government leading to erosion of
sasi were reported only in Christian villages and never on Nusa Laut.
Confusion over land and rights was in some cases due to changes in govern-
ment unit boundaries. Changes in administrative boundaries and the effects
of World War II were most prevalent on Ambon and Nusa Laut. In addition,
pressure from worsening economic conditions has been mounting since the
collapse of the clove price in the early 1990s. Crop failure and decline of the
resource were also mentioned as causing sasi to collapse.
The lack of effective enforcement, in combination with economic needs, po-

litical turmoil, and urbanisation provided the incentives for people to non-
comply. Non-compliance and subsequent problems with the kewang led in
several cases to breakdown of sasi, for example in Hulaliu. Compliance and
enforcement problems were most prevalent in Christian villages, particularly
on Ambon Island. In eight cases, the village government delegated the au-
thority over sasi to the church, in many cases causing sasi adat and marine
sasi to decline. As of 1997, 12 of the remaining sasi villages were affected by
political or religious conflicts. In other words, in about a quarter of remain-
ing sasi villages the institution is under strain.
7.6 Results of the comparative case-study
The findings from the in-depth interviews conducted as part of the institu-
tional analysis in the six villages, underscore the link between the different
components (objectives, rules), the players and the external context of the sasi
institution, and illustrate the interactions among these through time.
Although Nolloth and Haruku villages both have a strong sasi institution, the
types of sasi are distinct. Whereas Nolloth can be described as a system de-
signed primarily to provide resource rent for the village government, Haruku’s
sasi has more to do with fair distribution of fish resources and conservation.
Nolloth is a stable village, with legitimate leadership and strong representa-
tion of traditional authorities. The kewang is functional and, together with
the village head, serious in the prosecution of offenders. The harvest rights
of sasi are reserved for the village cooperative (KUD) and income accrues to
the village government and the harvesters. Other villagers benefit indirectly
through village development. In Haruku, a more important role is ascribed
to the kewang and relatively less to the village head, except when he is also a
traditional authority. Kewang members feel a strong responsibility towards
sasi. The harvest is communal and distributed among the villagers. Recently,
the villagers in Haruku have become divided as a result of the installation of
a new village head. This leader, elected with a slender majority, supports sasi
but also favours mining development that threatens the resources under sasi.
This has led to confusion and a dysfunctional village government, a situation
that in turn poses a threat to sasi.
In Hulaliu, conflicts between the village head and kewang, and in particular
problems with accountability for the use of resource rents in the past, lie at
the root of the decline of sasi. The current leader is trying to revitalize sasi, but
his position is unstable because he lacks the support of a large part of the vil-
lage population. The revitalization process is thereby threatened. In Tuhaha
there have been problems in the past between formal and traditional authori-
ties. There is also a tendency to revitalize sasi, but the relationship between
the village government and traditional authorities first needs to be restored.
The village government, which is currently only partly functional, has to be
reorganized before a kewang can be installed.
RESULTS OF THE COMPARATIVE CASE - STUDY 143
In Toisapu-Hutumuri and Seri, sasi is lost and fisheries management is mini-

mal or lacking. Traditional village structures are to a large extent replaced
by formal structures at the desa (village) level, although less so at the dusun
(sub-village) level. Artisanal fishers have to compete directly with large-scale
fishers. Both villages lie on Ambon and close to regional markets and hence
are more in contact with modernization and urban processes.
In the remainder of this section we describe the various elements of sasi and
provide an analysis of how sasi functions and persists under different condi-
tions.
7.6.1 Objective of sasi

The general objective of sasi as articulated by villagers is to protect resources
from theft and destruction. Theft is prevented through active monitoring and
enforcement. In Nolloth, for example, there are lengthy closed seasons and
a minimum legal size for top shells (Trochus niloticus) harvested. In Haruku,
destructive and overly efficient gear types are banned. Thus in these cases sasi
does have a conservation objective. In addition, kewang leaders in Haruku ex-
pressively identify equitable distribution of fish, particularly to support the
village poor, to be an objective of their revitalized sasi institution. The use of
sasi for economic purposes, which has a long history in Maluku (von Benda-
Beckmann et al. 1995), is also illustrated by Nolloth. The harvest rights of top
shell were being auctioned off by the village government when they became
more commercially interesting in the 1960s. This was to the dismay of some
villagers who saw their personal direct benefits decrease.
A shift from communal harvests to the sale of marine harvest rights has oc-
curred in most villages where sasi was revitalized by a local government. Al-
though in most villages the principles of sasi are valued and sasi is perceived
as ‘a good thing’, many fishers we interviewed object to the auctioning of
harvest rights, especially to outsiders. In both Tuhaha and Hulaliu, village
heads plan to auction the harvest rights and use sasi revenues for village de-
velopment. However, fishers declared that they would respect sasi only if they
would get direct benefits from a communal harvest.
Villagers may be kept satisfied with village development projects, but there
may be problems when village income and revenues are not transparent. For
example, in Nolloth in the 1980s profits appeared to be used for the personal
benefits of the village head at the time, rather than for the public good. As a
result, sasi nearly broke down.
7.6.2 Rules and regulations

Nolloth, Haruku and Hulaliu have written sasi regulations. There are various
types of rules. The operational rules specify the marine species under sasi,
gear restrictions, and the timing of the harvest. These operational rules are
the base on which the fishers make their day-to-day decisions about compli-
ance. Collective-choice rules define the decision-making process for closures,
access, and enforcement. The third level, the constitutional rules, is defined
through adat. Adat prescribes which persons are involved in sasi and what
their role is, e.g. who or which clan is responsible for decision-making, con-
flict resolution, execution of ceremonies and enforcement (see also Ostrom
1990).
The process of decline involves non-compliance to operational rules but this

in turn is directly dependent on the effectiveness of the collective-choice
rules. In Hulaliu a conflict between the village head and kewang in which the
kewang’s rights were neglected (i.e. a collective level problem), was the root
cause for sasi to decline. Subsequent problems with compliance (operational
level) were secondary. Adat as part of the village culture, however, persisted,
and thus the constitutional rules remained intact.
Over the last decades operational rules have been modified. Boundaries of sasi
areas, frequency of open and closed seasons, division of benefits, restrictions
on gear use, etc. all may and do change. In practical management terms, this
affects the function of sasi, but does not threaten its continued existence. On
the other hand, where the constitutional rules were challenged, e.g. a shift of
authority from the kewang to the church, the loss of the kewang, the introduc-
tion of police as enforcers, or the promulgation of national fisheries legisla-
tion, then the structure or legal basis of the sasi institution changed and this
can lead to disappearance of part or all of a local sasi institution. Adaptation
of constitutional rules may also, however, strengthen sasi. For example, in
Haruku where marine sasi is enforced by the kewang, the people requested
the church to become involved in land sasi in a period when theft was sig-
nificant. Since that time, the church functions complementary to the kewang,
who are still mainly responsible for marine resources.
Because operational and collective-choice rules seem to break down more

easily, they, as particular entities, are less resilient than constitutional rules.
However, the fact that operational rules, and to a lesser extent the collective-
choice rules, can be changed or abandoned and then revived is an important
feature contributing to the adaptiveness and resilience of the larger institu-
tion.
7.6.3 Role of traditional institutions

In 1979, a new government structure was introduced (Law No. 5, 1979)
through which authority shifted from traditional leaders to a formally elected
village head and government. Even though the implementation of this law
was expected to have caused confusion in the village, in the perception of
ordinary villagers it had no dramatic and immediate impact. In all villages
there is some degree of overlap between formal and traditional authorities.
RESULTS OF THE COMPARATIVE CASE - STUDY 145
Apparently, the requirements of the law, i.e. replacement of the traditional

government structure by a formal one, were often implemented at a pace and
in a manner suited to the local situation. In most cases the local government
basically incorporated the traditional structure into the formal structure, and
thus change was not clearly visible.
Our study shows that the degree of overlap is decisive for the continuation
and stability of sasi. However, some villages have been more successful in
combining the formal and traditional government structures (i.e. Nolloth)
than others where traditional authorities became marginalized (i.e. Tuhaha).
Where newcomers entered the village government through elections, vil-
lages became politically unstable. The villages where sasi ceased to function
had problems with village leaders who did not successfully collaborate with
traditional authorities. In Nolloth, where the traditional authorities function
within the new system, the sasi institution is strong.
The rituals and knowledge of sasi are traditionally passed on from father to
son within certain lineages, for example, through that of the head of the ke-
wang. The rituals are secret and involve an almost extinct indigenous lan-
guage (bahasa tana). In order to preserve traditional sasi, it is imperative that
the process of passing down of knowledge is perpetuated. Many youngsters,
however, have lost interest in sasi. The process of ‘modernisation’ acceler-
ates as the younger generations leave to study in Ambon city where adat is
regarded as a superstitious belief. There is a risk that when ‘the keepers of
sasi knowledge’ die, they will take their knowledge with them. The support
and participation of the younger generation, therefore, is necessary for the
success of sasi as a viable management institution.
7.6.4 Leadership
Before 1979 the position of village leader was hereditary; nowadays the vil-
lage head is elected by the people. Where government officials lack knowl-
edge and are poorly informed about village issues, decision-making may
rest almost exclusively with the village head. In principle, the village head
is elected for four years. Yet, elections can be subject to manipulation and
in other cases the people automatically ‘elect’ the legitimate (traditional) vil-
lage head. The modern village head may therefore hold a very powerful and
authoritarian position and as such he is also a key decision-maker in the sasi
institution.
Our results support those of Riedel (1886) and Volker (1921) who maintained
that compliance to sasi rules depended largely on strong and tactful leader-
ship. The village head must be honest and respected or sasi is undermined.
Local legitimacy is very important and this still stems largely from being part
of the raja family line. In Haruku, for instance, the village head is not a long-
term resident of the village and suspected to represent the interests of the
pro-mining lobby (see section 7.7). Hence, although he is formally elected, he

lacks the legitimacy to play a leading role in sasi. Nolloth, on the other hand,
is a fine example of a situation where the village head was elected because he
is the raja. This allows him to lead the formal village government and to also
be fully and legitimately involved in traditional ceremonies.
External interests may influence the election of a village head, as was report-
ed in Haruku and Hutumuri. Elections can be manipulated either in favour
of or against traditional leaders. Under the Indonesian system, all candidates
must be screened and approved by the government. At this stage, popular
candidates may be disqualified, or some votes may simply be neglected dur-
ing the election process. So, on one hand lingering adat structures may make
nonsense of the concept of democratic elections, while on the other tradi-
tional leaders with broad popular support may also be vulnerable.
7.6.5 Boundaries
Marine sasi is generally applied to shallow inshore areas. Outside the sasi
area, other parts of the village territory, including deep water beyond the
fringing reef, may be rented out to outsiders. Generally, boundaries of the
sasi and other rented areas are clearly defined, have remained largely the
same over the years, and are generally acknowledged. Fishers may accept ar-
eas of restricted access without complaint, but they do have reservations. For
some non-sasi rented areas, the lack of legitimacy is compensated by a strong
enforcement mechanism. Crucial in acceptance of boundaries of restricted
areas are legitimacy of the leaders, direct benefits for the excluded users and
the presence of a kewang (local enforcers).
7.6.6 Enforcement and compliance

Enforcement of sasi regulations is carried out by the kewang, the police, and/
or the village government. In Nolloth and Haruku the kewang is strong and
plays an important role in the enforcement of regulations. In coastal villages
there is still a firm belief that ancestral spirits and God guard the sasi regu-
lations and even in cases where the village government is responsible for
enforcement, traditional sanctions can still play a role. ‘The offender can be
lucky and escape from the kewang or the police, but he still may get sick. Be-
fore long, he will seek the church minister or tuan negeri [in more traditional
villages] to confess his mischief, because only a prayer or ceremony can re-
lieve him from his burden (Abraham Pattypelu, fisherman from Tuhaha).
The traditional kewang is highly legitimate and not in the least because they
enforce the law without showing favouritism. The police have the formal au-
thority to implement the rules, but they are felt to act arbitrarily and therefore
not trusted by the people. The effectiveness of the police is also hampered by
the fact that they reside far from the village and when needed, they take too
long to arrive. In villages that have no active kewang enforcement is difficult.
Formally, enforcement authority has shifted from the traditional enforcers to

the village government. In some Christian villages they sought support from
the church. In Nolloth, for example, the village head and the kewang closely
collaborate with the church minister who is present at adat ceremonies in-
cluding those of marine sasi. In non-sasi villages the church was not seen to
play a role in supporting enforcement of fisheries rules.
Where sasi is functional, compliance with fishing rules in general is higher

than in non-sasi villages (Novaczek et al. 2001). Non-compliance by local vil-
lagers is not usually a threat to the sasi institution, but is a sign of decline
which is likely based in problems at the collective-choice or constitutional lev-
els. Non-compliance may also be directed at an authority figure rather than
at the sasi institution per se. Non-compliance by either locals or outsiders and
which is not effectively controlled by the kewang is a threat to sasi because it
is an incentive for people to abandon local management. Although usually
intrusion in sasi areas is low, in times of economic and political stress the rate
of non-compliance can increase.
7.6.7 Externalities
In and out-migration and (limited) tourism have no impact on village de-
mography and appear to pose no threat to traditional institutions. Tourism
in Haruku, stimulated by sasi ceremonies, may even help support the institu-
tion. Compared to the villages on Ambon, the communication and transpor-
tation links of the villages on Haruku and Saparua are limited. By contrast,
Ambon Island villages (Seri and Hutumuri) are heavily influenced by their
proximity to Ambon city. It is here that the loss of adat ideology and tradition
is largest and appreciation of sasi the least. Apparently, the greater involve-
ment of people in the process of modernisation and globalisation affect the
appreciation that people have for sasi and traditional structures. This is an
important aspect to take into account when reinstitutionalising sasi or devel-
oping a comparable management institution that must be widely applicable.
Pollution and resource degradation resulting from modern development also

pose a challenge to local resource management. The villages on Ambon see
their resources decline due to pollution from fish processing and plywood
factories. The environmental impacts of these operations, however, are such
that they would be beyond the control and influence of a traditional style vil-
lage kewang. Revitalized local institutions require information management,
networking skills and links to government departments that have jurisdic-
tion in environmental protection.
An example of the impact of large-scale development is Haruku, a village

that is influenced by mining exploration for copper, silver and gold. This en-
terprise seriously affects the political stability in the village and also empha-
sizes the limits of a village-based management institution that is not linked
to higher levels of government. The sasi institution does not offer villagers
the ability to intervene in regional development planning and licensing of
mining operations. The kewang is powerless to prevent pollution from min-
ing activities affecting sasi resources, and there is no provincial or national
management body to which they can appeal.
National laws and programmes are implemented through the provincial, dis-
trict and sub-district government offices, but information on fisheries and
environmental law rarely reaches the village level. Knowledge of fisheries
regulations is fragmented and generally fisheries regulations are poorly im-
plemented. There are no government patrol boats in the area, and where it
comes to protection of fishing rights, the villages are left to their own devices.
This may motivate people to work together in defence of local resources. On
the other hand, if sasi as an institution remains disconnected from govern-
mental power centres, people may give up local operational rules because
they are ineffective against externalities.
7.7 The revival of sasi in Central Maluku
At this moment, fisheries management is not yet a burning issue in most

villages because reduced catches are compensated by high fish prices. Few
village respondents have any clear idea of what fisheries management would
entail, and rather think that the answer to declining catches is to upgrade
their boats and gear. Nevertheless, all fishers in sasi villages said that sasi is
useful and important, as did 90% of fishers in villages where sasi is being
revived and 70% of fishers in non-sasi villages (Novaczek et al. 2001). In 14
villages, respondents expressed their desire to reintroduce sasi (land, marine
or both), or strengthen existing sasi practices. Plans for revitalization were
found in villages of all sizes and on every island.
The tendency to revitalize sasi is fed by the appreciation of sasi by the people,
not just as a management system, but as a cultural phenomenon. In Nolloth
and Haruku, where sasi is still strong, people explained: ‘Sasi has a spirit,
and everybody carries it because it is adat and part of our culture.’ It is at the
constitutional level that sasi as an institution has its strongest resilience. The
constitutional rules of sasi are based on and part of adat, and because they
cannot be separated from the local culture, it is at this level that sasi as an in-
stitution has its strongest resilience. The embeddedness in adat explains why
sasi is still spiritually and ideologically significant, even where the practical
execution of sasi has vanished.
In Hulaliu and Tuhaha the village elites are seriously attempting to revitalize
sasi. In both cases the reason for revitalising sasi has less to do with its spir-
itual significance than with the possibility of controlling common property
THE REVIVAL OF SASI IN CENTRAL MALUKU 149
resources to generate government income (see also von Benda-Beckmann et

al. 1995).
In analysing the revitalisation processes, it pays to look back to what caused

the loss of operational sasi in the first place. The main reasons for the col-
lapse of sasi in both Tuhaha and Hulaliu were political problems, lack of trust
among village leaders, and the subsequent withdrawal of the kewang. How-
ever, even though the practical execution of sasi was abolished, sasi remained
part of the village ideology. The process of revitalisation builds on this cul-
tural base and re-establishment involves reinstallation of the traditional au-
thorities and reactivation of collective-choice and operational rules. Kewang
members have to be chosen and inaugurated, tasks delegated between the
formal and traditional authorities and operational rules designed. To be suc-
cessful, however, the proponents of sasi renewal will have to pay attention to
history and be careful to avoid past practices that led to breakdown.
In recent years local NGOs, such as Yayasan Hualopu, have been working
in the Lease Islands. They provided villagers with information on sustain-
able fisheries development and encouraged local leaders to embark on the
management of village territorial waters. In 1997, for example, Yayasan Hua-
lopu was engaged in a program of mapping village marine territories and
facilitating the development of local management plans. In this work they
tried to capitalize on the basis that sasi provides and encouraged the rein-
stallation of kewangs and the revival of the island-level institutions (latupati)
with an emphasis on conflict resolution and management planning. They
were supported by a number of academics from Ambon-based universities,
some Fisheries Agency staff, and others from the government research in-
stitute LIPI, also based in Ambon. The general plan was to promote develop-
ment of a new law at the provincial level which could give legal recognition
to the right of villages to enter into marine resource management and erect
kewang-style management organisations. The aim of these supporters of sasi
is clearly resource management and conservation.
Hence, in the process of revitalization there are three streams of thought that
must be reconciled: the wish of the village fishers to preserve adat culture
and share in the benefits from fisheries resources while protecting their ter-
ritories from outsiders; the desire of local governments to extract resource
rents; and the push by academics, environmentalists and managers to de-
velop viable local fisheries conservation and management.
7.8 Conclusion
Before the 1970s a large number of villages lost sasi due to post World War
II social, administrative and economic change, internal village conflicts and
other reasons that were difficult to trace (Novaczek et al. 2001). The more re-
cent breakdown of sasi has occurred in two distinct periods and villagers are
able to articulate reasons for decline in their village.
The 1970s, at the eve of the introduction of the new formal government
structure (Law No. 5, 1979), was one period of decline. A fundamental factor
in the loss of sasi was confusion or conflict in the village or between village
authorities, which undermined the legitimacy of the village leader or the in-
stitution itself. This decade was one of rapid economic growth, poverty alle-
viation programs in the villages and social change. Political instability and/or
a dysfunctional kewang invited non-compliance and led to abandonment of
operational rules. Sasi being taken over by the church, either because of such
conflicts or in an attempt to improve compliance, was a common scenario.
The church, interested only in land sasi on coconuts, did not get involved in
marine sasi, which in some cases then declined.
The 1980s was a period of relative stability. Villages where sasi was alive and
functioning remained stable. In some villages there was a tendency to revital-
ize sasi.
The 1990s is a period of further decline of sasi. The period between the 1970s
and 1990s covers one generation. Modernization and commercialization as
a result of improved communication infrastructure and education and the
expansion of market relations, influence the local culture and especially
younger generations. The generational change, together with the rapid rate
of social, economic and political change in Maluku in the 1990s is most
likely the reason why sasi is now suffering such relatively rapid losses.
The case studies underscore the inventory evidence that contemporary de-
cline of sasi stems often from conflicts (see Novaczek et al. 2001). Conflicts
can in some cases be related to the social change that resulted from the in-
troduction of the new village structure by the national government. Also, the
election system has opened up possibilities for opportunists with vested in-
terests to take the position of village leader. On the other hand, where tradi-
tional authorities (saniri negeri) merged into the new government, adat and
sasi have remained a significant aspect of village life. Overlap between the
traditional and formal government proved to be essential in the prolongation
of sasi.
The continuing presence of sasi is affected by village size and proximity to

the urban center Ambon. Ostrom (1990) writes that the likelihood of users
CONCLUSION 151
designing successful common property institutions will be improved if the

group is relatively small, stable and homogeneous. Our research confirms
this, for sasi is most resilient in homogeneous villages of fewer than 3000
people which are found in the outer region (Seram, Saparua, Haruku and
Nusa Laut). Villages close to the capital Ambon, where sasi no longer func-
tions, have exceeded this critical size, become heterogeneous and shifted
from subsistence fishing and farming to large-scale fishing and urban em-
ployment.
Of all the forms of sasi, marine sasi, though less generally prevalent, appears
to be relatively robust. Whereas sasi generally has suffered severe losses in
recent years, marine sasi has been relatively stable and even shows signs of
revitalization in the 1990s. This revival comes basically out of the heartfelt at-
tachment of people to adat in general and sasi in particular, but also the com-
mercial value of marine products such as Trochus niloticus, other shellfish
and sea-cucumber for foreign markets is an important incentive to keep or
reinstitutionalize sasi. The process is further being facilitated and reinforced
by intervening NGOs, government and academic supporters who see the po-
tential value of sasi as a resource management system.
The church also has the potential to play an important role in marine sasi.
Church sasi derives its strength from the strong religious beliefs of rural vil-
lagers. The church is more stable than ever-changing village governments.
Church sasi, when applied to coconuts, provides direct individual benefits to
the people and so is valued. Past shifts of authority over land sasi from adat
to the church helped to shore up the effectiveness of the institution when the
kewang lost enforcement capacity. In many cases, villagers believe that the
threat of sanction by God is a more powerful deterrent than the sanctions
imposed by the kewang. As seen from the inventory (Novaczek et al. 2001),
where sasi is taken over by the church, adat sasi as well as marine sasi may
be lost. However, Haruku and Nolloth provide examples where introduction
of church sasi actually strengthened the local institution. Therefore, in sasi
systems that are being revitalized, the church can play an important support-
ing role.
In some Muslim villages, sasi has evolved away from adat and become more
of a commercial transaction between the village government and whoever
wins the auction for resource harvesting rights. Ceremonies and inherited
positions have been abandoned, and religious leaders also have not devel-
oped a direct role in the institution. Nevertheless, this also appears to be a
stable and resilient institution. The benefits and drawbacks of this form of
sasi require further investigation, but the performance analysis (Novaczek et
al. 2001) did show that this sort of arrangement leads to problems in compli-
ance when local fishers see benefits accruing only to elites.
Where the people do not expect to benefit directly, they seem not interested
in revitalization of sasi. A lack of transparency in distribution of benefits fur-
ther hampers the process. There is a risk that in villages where sasi is being
used as a tool to extract resource rents that sasi then turns into ‘a government
thing’ controlled by local elites. This is a disincentive for fishers to follow the
new sasi rules.
Because the constitutional rules are part of adat, and ‘adat is something that
can not be changed’ as village officials in Nolloth stated, the process of revival
concerns the re-establishment and adaptation of operational rules (harvest
regulations, access rules) and collective level arrangements (re-establishment
of the kewang). Adat still forms the basis of sasi, but a redefinition of respon-
sibilities and involvement of non-adat institutions, i.e. the church, the police
and higher government levels, is possible. Such adaptation of the constitu-
tional rules carries certain risks and must be advanced with care and tact.
It was clear that sasi flourishes where the village leader is legitimate (kepala
adat) and where he collaborates harmoniously and honestly with adat leaders
and the church. Ostrom (1990) mentions reciprocity and trust as important
conditions for successful common property institutions. From our study we
would add legitimacy as another key factor for success. Apparently, the dis-
crepancy between the theory of formal administrative structure and the de
facto power structure that involves traditional authorities, makes village poli-
tics susceptible to manipulation and instability. Amendment of the law on
village government (No. 5, 1979) may be required to accommodate the need
for legitimate adat authority figures in rural villages and increase stability of
local government.
The 1990s appear to be a critical decade, i.e. sasi must adapt to modern soci-
ety or it may, at the operational level, cease to function. According to Ostrom
(1990) well-functioning local management systems are dependent on the en-
forcement and protection and legal recognition of local rights by higher lev-
els of government. As a village organisation active in enforcement, the kewang
is more functional than the police. However, the kewang has never obtained for-
mal enforcement powers. In cases where the kewang is being revitalized, their
mandate needs to be formalized, and the kewang and police need to collaborate
within a legal construction under provincial law. One possible model is that of
Itawaka village, where as a result of a village proclamation in 1995, the kewang
became part of the official government. On the other hand, an arms length re-
lationship with local government also has certain advantages. Various models
need further investigation. Wherever the local institution is placed, it will still
require legal recognition and support from higher government levels.
A shared notion of the relevance of the institution stimulates a common ob-

jective to maintain it, in spite of external influences and in a situation where
CONCLUSION 153
the temptation to abuse the system for personal benefits is strong. The extent
to which external factors affect the social structure in the village depends
on the feedback mechanisms, i.e. the degree to which the local institution
itself can mitigate the effects of external perturbations. Holling (in Berkes
and Folke 1998) speaks in this context of adaptive management. Sasi has al-
ready outlived repeated predictions of imminent demise (Volker 1925; Cooley
1962) and is clearly both adaptive and resilient. There is therefore hope of
rebuilding the institution in the form of a modern element in co-manage-
ment, in which the needs and aspirations of the various proponents (fishers,
local governments, adat leaders, environmentalists, fisheries managers) can
be successfully accommodated.
155
8 Fisheries Management in Central Maluku*
In 1997-98, research into the status of sasi in Central Maluku revealed that
the management institution was under stress and facing threats that could
conceivably cause its demise (see Chapter 7). As part of the work of char-
acterizing the context of and outside influences on the local management
institution, data were collected concerning the activities and attitudes of gov-
ernment departments having jurisdiction over various aspects of fisheries
management and development. At that point in time, President Suharto was
still in power and formal fisheries management was primarily the domain
of a highly centralized national power structure. Since then, Suharto has
been removed from power and in 1999 dramatic legislative changes were
set in place that in theory devolve powers of management of coastal waters
to the provinces and districts (Thorburn 2000). These current changes are
described in Chapter 9 of this thesis.
8.1 Formal jurisdiction over marine waters prior to the

passing of Law 22/1999
Under national law, the sea and all its resources are considered to be the prop-
erty of the national government of Indonesia. In 1997-98, national fisheries
and coastal management consisted of rules and regulations administered by
more than 20 largely uncoordinated ministries (Nikijuluw 1996c; Kusuma-
Atmadja and Purwaka 1996). The consequences of poorly organized man-
agement structures at the national level could be seen in terms of confusion,
lack of information, and poor motivation at provincial and regional levels. Ef-
forts to redress the problems included the establishment of a national, mul-
ti-ministerial body (DKN) charged with coordinating marine development
and conservation policy. There was pressure towards decentralisation and
the national government was encouraging provinces to back up national law
by developing more detailed and locally appropriate provincial legislation.
Under Act No. 24/1992 on spatial planning, regional governments had been
given the mandate to zone coastal areas and to establish management plans
in consultation with village level governments. In 1997, policy-makers were
attempting to clarify whether the zonation of territory could be extended into
the sea, giving the province powers to zone marine waters for various com-
mercial and conservation purposes, but as of 1998, consultation with the vil-
lage level on coastal zonation and planning had barely begun. Also, for most
*Based on: I. Novaczek, J. Sopacua and I.H.T Harkes (2001) Fisheries Management in Central
Maluku, Indonesia. Marine Policy, 25: 239-249.
156 FISHERIES MANAGEMENT IN CENTRAL MALUKU
national laws pertinent to coastal management, comprehensive operational

rules at the provincial level were lacking. Yet, Maluku province had had de-
veloped some regulations, for instance those prohibiting the mining of coral,
the cutting of mangroves and the capture of dolphins.
8.2 National laws affecting artisanal and small-scale

fisheries
National level laws that, if enforced, affected Maluku’s artisanal fishers stem
largely from two pieces of legislation: Law No. 9/1985 on Fisheries and the
Agriculture Minister Decree No. 607/1976 concerning fishing zonation.
Consequent to these laws, the use of destructive gear types such as explosives
and poisons were prohibited. An inshore fishing zone was designated for use
by small-scale and artisanal fishers, and mesh sizes of nets were regulated.
All meshes had to be over 25 mm, whereas seine nets for tuna and skip-
jack were to exceed 60 mm. Fish habitats including coral reefs, mangroves
and sea-grass beds were specifically protected under the Biological Resource
Conservation Act No. 5/1990. Forty eight marine mammals, birds, crabs,
shellfish and coral species were declared protected species, including some
that were at that time commonly harvested in Maluku, e.g. turtles, dugong,
coconut crab, top shell, giant clams and a number of other edible shellfish.
A few marine protected areas were also set up, including Pombo Island in
Haruku Strait in Central Maluku. However, the majority were ‘paper parks’
with little or no effort made to manage or protect them.
8.3 Key management issues
In spite of its huge marine territory, before 1999, Indonesia had no separate
Department of Fisheries. It was a division under the Department of Agri-
culture. The country was divided into nine fisheries resource management
areas, two of which were in Maluku province. For each area there was an an-
nual exercise of setting the Total Allowable Catch (TAC), which was in turn
linked to the standard fisheries management concept of Maximum Sustain-
able Yield (MSY). There was also an attempt underway to determine the MEY
(Maximum Economic Yield) and MSOY (Maximum Social Yield).
Officially, the Fisheries Agency was in favour of responsible fisheries, but in

reality there was tremendous pressure to increase fishery-based income and
employment as rapidly as possible, especially through increasing the indus-
trial fleet targeting pelagic fish in the deep-water Exclusive Economic Zone
(EEZ), (V. Nikijuluw, pers. comm. 1998). The 1997 MSY estimate for the na-
tion was 6.1 million tonnes, and government statistics suggested that catches
amounted to only 40% of this potential yield. Also, according to government
KEY MANAGEMENT ISSUES 157
FIGURE 8.1 – Fishermen mending nets
statistics, Maluku province alone had a standing stock of fish and shrimp
totalling 2.74 million tonnes. MSY, calculated as 50% of the stock, was there-
fore estimated to be 1.37 million tonnes. Total catch in 1997 was only 24.4%
of the theoretical MSY leading the national government to promote expan-
sion of the industrial fishery.
However, the reliability of the government figures at the time can be ques-
tioned. One major problem with the national expansionist policy and with
the process of setting catch limits was that calculations of potential yield were
extrapolations from stock assessments conducted in the early 1980s. These
old data were augmented with catch statistics that were limited in their cov-
erage and often of unknown or suspect quality (Proceedings of the National
Conference on the Role of Communities in Coastal Resource Management
in Indonesia, 1996).
LIPI, the national research institution, had plans to develop and introduce a
system at some future time, but as of 1998 Maluku had no coherent, compre-
hensive and reliable system for collecting catch data (Purnomo 1996). It was
widely acknowledged that fishing boats from other provinces and countries
frequently failed to land their catches in Maluku, preferring to trans-ship
at sea. Thus these catches would go unrecorded. Hence, despite having, in
theory, a large available fish biomass, several important commercial stocks
were in fact already over-fished and declining in Maluku (Governor Latukon-
sina, pers. comm. 1998).
A second key issue was the lack of enforcement power to defend Indonesia’s
vast EEZ from illegal fishing by foreign and domestic boats, including live
fish traders using potassium cyanide. This illegal fishing also contributed to
the total of unrecorded fish catches (Fox 1996).
A third key issue was one of allocation: the need to balance industrial scale
fisheries serving export markets with the need for local food security and
employment for coastal communities. In the Agriculture Ministry Decree
No. 607/1976 Indonesian waters were divided into zones in an attempt to
reserve inshore waters for the artisanal and small-scale sectors. Under this
law, vessels over 5 GT were prohibited from fishing within 3 miles of shore;
vessels over 25 GT had to operate over 4 miles from shore; and vessels over
100 GT had to stay 5 miles from shore. Small boats were free to enter the
offshore fishing grounds at will. However, as this law was not effectively en-
forced, clashes between the industrial sector and coastal communities were
increasingly common (Galanggajir 1996). Those behind the drive for further
expansion of industrial fleets failed to acknowledge this problem.
8.4 Agencies involved in fisheries management and

development in Maluku
The regional planning board, BAPPEDA, is a coordination institution below

the national planning board BAPPENAS. In 1998, BAPPEDA held a strate-
gic position for coordinating development of various sectors in the region,
including fisheries, and had offices at both provincial and district levels. The
AGENCIES INVOLVED IN FISHERIES MANAGEMENT AND DEVELOPMENT IN MALUKU 159
provincial office of BAPPEDA was also the governor’s office. The provincial
governor held two positions: he was head of the provincial government as
well as the provincial representative of the Minister of Internal Affairs. BAP-
PEDA had a close working relationship with the Department of Internal Af-
fairs.
BAPPEDA had to that point largely concerned itself with the expansion of
fisheries rather than with management or conservation. The department was
also in charge of environmental impact assessment (EIA). However, assess-
ments that did occur were typically very narrow, not cross-sectoral.
In Maluku, attempts to rationalize fisheries development policy led BAPPE-

DA to develop the concept called ‘Gugus Pulau and Laut Pulau’. Under this
scheme the province was divided up into eight clusters of islands (the Gugus
Pulau), with the Laut Pulau being the areas of open sea between these clus-
ters. In 1998, these divisions were still only poorly defined areas on paper,
and were not operational management units. One problem that provincial
planners faced was that administrative boundaries of districts and sub-dis-
tricts did not coincide with ecological boundaries.
Among its many tasks, BAPPEDA had to oversee fisheries development

project planning. However, much of BAPPEDA’s energy tended to be direct-
ed to large international development projects rather than to smaller pro-
grams for fisheries development. Once the planning of a fisheries project
had been completed by BAPPEDA, implementation would be left to the Fish-
eries Agency, which also had economic development as its first priority. So,
in practice, there was no coordinating body focused on coastal and marine
resources management and protection.
The various agencies and institutions involved in the fishery resource man-
agement system in Maluku could be classified into two major groups; both
groups were coordinated through BAPPEDA (Table 8.1). Group I was the
group of institutions directly involved in the fishery activities and dealing
with the supply of skilled human resources in the marine and maritime are-
as; the supply of maritime facilities such as ships, harbours, and other equip-
ment; facilitating training; and the provision of necessary funding (according
to formal regulations). Group II was a group of institutions that dealt with
marine and fishery problems as a subset of their duties. In addition there
was the national research institute LIPI which was to provide information to
policy makers. LIPI had a regional research centre in Ambon.
Twenty-six key respondents from various governmental institutions at

provincial and lower levels were interviewed to identify their roles in fisheries
development and management, and the strengths and weaknesses of each
agency (Table 8.2). Roles were tabulated under the following management
TABLE 8.1 – Government bodies involved in fisheries management at the provincial level (1997-98)
BAPPEDA
Group I Group II
Fisheries Agency (Dinas Perikanan) Dept. Internal Affairs (Dep. Dalam Negeri)
Dept. Transport (Dep. Perhubungan & Dept. Forestry (Dep. Kehutanan & Dirgen
Dirgen Perhubungan Laut) PHPA)
Navy (TNI Angkatan Laut) Environment Bureau (Biro Lingkungan

Hidup)
Police (Polisi Republik Indonesia) Law Bureau (Biro Hukum)
functions: 1) information gathering and provision, 2) project planning, 3)

project implementation, 4) evaluation of projects (physical and legal aspects),
5) enforcement of fisheries law, 6) funding of projects, 7) routine fisheries
policy implementation, and 8) issuing permits and licenses and collection of
taxes and fees.
The interviews revealed that information gathering and dissemination was

performed by all agencies with the exception of the police. The planning of
fisheries development projects involved BAPPEDA, all levels of the Fisheries
Agency, the Law Bureau, and village government heads. Depending on the
type of project, provincial and district levels of the Department of Transport
and the resource conservation section of the Department of Forestry could
also be involved. Interestingly, the Environment Bureau did not identify this
as one of their areas of activity. They only became involved during the imple-
mentation of a project, along with BAPPEDA, the Department of Forestry, the
Department of Transport, the Fisheries Agency, and regional, district, and vil-
lage government heads. In general, the Environment Bureau was a very weak
player, not least because its area of jurisdiction relative to the environment
section of BAPPEDA was unclear. Most agencies (except for the Environment
Bureau and Law Bureau) had responsibility for evaluating physical and legal
implications of projects, but evaluation and feedback into new project plan-
ning was also an area of extreme weakness in the system.
Formally, enforcement was a shared responsibility of the police, the navy and
the Fisheries Agency. The Department of Transport played a role in enforcing
licensing regulations, whereas various government offices facilitated report-
ing of offences or, in the case of village chiefs, applied sanctions available
under local government and sasi rules.
AGENCIES INVOLVED IN FISHERIES MANAGEMENT AND DEVELOPMENT IN MALUKU 161
Funding for fisheries development came from BAPPEDA, the Fisheries

Agency and Department of Forestry, or was supported out of local govern-
ment coffers. Most agencies performed routine management tasks, while
licensing and collection of fees and taxes were the special purview of the
Fisheries Agency and Department of Transport. The Environment Bureau,
Department of Forestry and provincial and district government offices were
not directly involved in day-to-day fisheries management tasks. The conclu-
sion of these findings was that there was a clear need for communication and
coordination among agencies.
Key findings from the interviews of government staff were as follows:
• There was no special institution to manage coastal and fishery resources.

The management aspects were divided among a range of institutions.
This caused difficulties in coordination.
• Authority seemed to be an important factor in the management process.
Because of the top-down approach, determination of limits of authority
had to precede any decision and often nothing was done without explicit
approval from a higher level.
• Limited human resources and poor motivation very much affected all lev-
els of the management system.
• Staff persons in every agency and at every level revealed a lack of knowl-
edge of fisheries law and management principles.
• Limited equipment, facilities and funding hindered management and en-
forcement functions. Budgetary problems were most critical at the lower
(sub-district) levels, which greatly hindered both enforcement and the
transfer of training and information to the village level.
• Sustainability of resources and habitat were low priorities compared to
expansion and development of fisheries.
• Better scientific data and greater cooperation with research institutions
and universities were deemed to be essential in order to support the man-
agement system.
• Technical guidelines from the national level were inadequate. For exam-
ple, national instructions to collect taxes on shellfish were not accompa-
nied by instructions on implementing such a tax.
• Since the village could carry out many fisheries resource management
functions, it meant that in theory the village held an important role in the
management process. However, a legal basis for the village role, and in
particular for the adat institution sasi, was not explicitly provided. Govern-
ment staff persons acknowledged the strategic position of local govern-
ments as implementing agents but also tended to see village chiefs as be-
ing incompetent in resource management.
• Fisheries management issues were not of central concern to village chiefs,
who had heavy workloads and were mostly concerned with economic de-
velopment.
• Control by the navy was difficult because they were found only at the pro-
vincial level and tended to focus on international piracy and deep-water
fisheries infringements.
• Cooperation between the navy and the police as well as with the army
(Babinsa who may be present in villages) was not optimal.
• The enforcers (police and navy) were important players. In many cases
infractions that were not dealt with properly caused other problems to
arise (for instance bad relations with community leaders) which ham-
pered management.
8.5 Implementing fisheries policy
Implementing fisheries policy included two central activities: 1) the process

of establishing a plan for a development project, and 2) the process of pro-
ducing a fisheries law.
8.5.1 The process of establishing a development project plan

As stated in the Governmental Decree on coordination of development plan-
ning in the regions (PP No.6/1988), BAPPEDA had to integrate all of the
development planning within the region so as to minimize environmental
impacts and ensure sustainability of resources. In the planning process,
called P5D, BAPPEDA coordinated the macro planning, whereas technical
institutions established the micro plans. A proposed project that could disad-
vantage a community and which offered no appropriate compensation, could
be rejected by the provincial or district government.
The establishment of the Regional Development Management and Planning

Orientation (P5D) started with the collection of ideas from village govern-
ments and proceeded as follows:
1 Village level. Various village stakeholders had the chance to suggest their
ideas through the Village Development Deliberation (Musbangdes). These
could include ideas for development of fisheries.
2 Sub-district level. Ideas from the village were introduced to the Permanent
Work Region Unit (UDKP), which would select ideas for project develop-
ment.
3 District level. Representatives from relevant sectoral institutions (such as
the Fisheries Agency) presented their planning, including suggestions for
coastal development at a Development Coordination Meeting (Rakorbang
I).
4 Provincial level. At a higher level, Development Coordination Meeting (Ra-
korbang II) proposals from all of the districts and from the province were
reviewed to ensure that provincial and district level projects supported
one another.
IMPLEMENTING FISHERIES POLICY 163
5 The final work programs were reviewed by the Regional House of Rep-
resentatives (DPRD) and if approved, were announced as development
projects.
Because the process started at the village level it seemed a bottom-up ap-
proach. In reality this was not the case. What was finally approved after the
lengthy rounds of selection and project development could be far from the
original proposal. Ideas from a village could even be dropped entirely. Anoth-
er problem was that only formal government structures were involved and no
informal ones. At the Musbangdes level input from local stakeholders was co-
ordinated by the formal village structure (LKMD) assisted by a representative
from the sub-district level. Traditional leaders and kewang members involved
in a local sasi institution could be invited by the village government to discuss
and participate in the planning process as individuals. However, even though
it was the kewang who specifically dealt with the village resources, they could
not formally represent their position as an institution.
8.5.2 The process of producing a fisheries law

The process would start with an academic draft put forward by the appropri-
ate technical institution – which in this case was the Fisheries Agency (at
the provincial or district level). To establish the draft, the Fisheries Agency
consulted with other government institutions. Again, because the traditional
law enforcers (the kewang) were not recognized by the government there was
no room for them to instigate the process or draft ideas.
Once the academic draft was completed, the Fisheries Agency would propose
it to the Governor, routed through the Head of the Law Bureau (Department
Dalam Negeri) for legal examination. In the review process the Law Bureau
considered higher-level regulations related to the proposal, assessed the ad-
vantages and disadvantages, and then invited the Fisheries Agency to coop-
eratively present the proposal. In the next stage the Law Bureau would call
for a meeting with the Regional Regulations Pre-planning Reviewing Team1
(Tim Pembahasan Pra Rancangan Perda) to discuss the proposal.
After several rounds of examination, the team would decree the proposal as a
Regional Regulation Plan (Rancangan Perda) to be sent to the regional House
of Representatives (DPRD) for approval. With a Letter of Introduction from
the Governor the proposal was sent to the DPRD who would then form a
1 The Team was led by the Regional Secretary (Sekwilda) and consisted of the following mem-
bers: Sekwilda assistants, BAPPEDA, Social Politic Directorate, Finance Bureau, Economy Bureau,
Environment Bureau, Government Bureau, Fishery Agency (Dinas Perikanan) and other related
institutions as required.
Special Committee (Pansus) to process the Rancangan Perda further into a

decreed Regional Regulation (Perda).2
8.6 Licensing
Access to particular fishing grounds was arranged through fishing licenses.

Foreign and domestic industrial vessels over 30 GT deployed in Eastern In-
donesia could obtain fishing licenses directly from the national government
in Jakarta. Vessels of 10-30 GT were licensed by the Fisheries Agency at the
provincial level. Smaller boats (under 10 GT) were dealt with at the district
level.
Artisanal fishers did not need a license to fish with hand-lines, spears, traps
or simple nets. Commercial operators had to obtain permits from the De-
partment of Transport. This department regulated the placement of floating
lift nets (bagan) and fish aggregating devices (FAD or rumpon) and issued
permits for boats to operate out of a particular harbour. Interviews with staff
in the Department of Transport revealed that in general they simply stamped
forms and collected fees. There was little attempt to consciously manage or
control where and how commercial boats operated.
Decree No. 51/1997 of the Minister of Agriculture defined the rules for the
deployment of fish aggregating devices (referring to both FADs and lift nets).
FADs within 3 nautical miles from shore were regulated by the district gov-
ernment; devices between 3 and 12 miles offshore were regulated by the prov-
ince; and deep water FADs by the national Directorate of Fisheries.
8.7 Enforcement
Because of the immensity of the coastline, the national laws as well as pro-
vincial regulations were often effectively unenforceable. This was a major
problem in Maluku with its multitude of small islands. Fish and turtle trad-
ers exploiting endangered species or using prohibited gear types could easily
bribe enforcement officials or simply operate in places where the patrol boats
never went.
Enforcement was officially in the hands of the navy (which operated at a pro-
vincial level) and the police. There was a special water police squad to deal
with fisheries offences. In theory, the police could rely on the navy for assist-
2 If the Fisheries Agency was in urgent need of a Law, they could ask the Governor (for Level I
purposes) or the District Head/Bupati (for Level II Purposes) to give out a decree/statement that
could be used as a law in principal for their urgent need.
COMMUNICATION AND COLLABORATION 165
ance with infrastructure (e.g. speedboats) but in practice our interviewers

were told that the agencies did not work together. Problems noted were that
the boundaries of jurisdiction and responsibility were not clear to the staff
in district offices; the level of awareness and concern of the police regarding
fisheries issues was minimal; and infrastructure and funding were extremely
limited. Any action taken was reactive, not proactive.
Another problem with the police was that they were rarely present in a fish-
ing village to patrol or to arrest offenders. Furthermore, the police were com-
monly perceived by villagers to be less legitimate, less impartial and thus
trustworthy than local traditional enforcement agents (kewang) or the village
government.
8.8 Communication and collaboration between village and

higher levels of management
Although there appeared to be a form of co-management, in reality the gov-

ernment departments and village level institutions (village government, sasi
authorities) operated in isolation from one another. Sometimes information
trickled down from the national level to the village, but there was no mecha-
nism for feedback, so communications on fisheries issues between the na-
tional and local level were limited. National prohibitions against blast fishing
and the use of poisons were reasonably well known at the village level but
other regulations, including the identity of endangered and prohibited spe-
cies and the boundaries of marine parks and protected areas, were virtually
unheard of.
Also, when it came to fisheries issues, relationships between the village, dis-
trict and provincial levels were not close. The Fisheries Agency had extension
staff (three on Haruku, two on Saparua, and one on Nusa Laut) whose job
it was to convey information to the village level. However, they usually acted
in response to a request rather than proactively. They assisted commercial
operators to renew their licenses, but in our interviews with artisanal fish-
ers we found that they were virtually invisible to this sector. Extension staff
had attempted to influence fishers to stop using destructive fishing gears
but in their own estimation, this program had failed to make any difference.
Instead, they felt that providing gear and motors to groups of fishermen and
promoting aquaculture were the ways to effect change. Their ability to de-
liver such assistance was, however, very limited. The extension service was
strapped for funds and found it difficult even to cover transportation costs
for field visits.
According to our respondents (officials), the village government and in par-

ticular the village head (kepala desa) should have had a formal role in manage-
ment (Table 8.2). In many cases, however, management at the local level was
hampered by a lack of means, time and motivation. In a political climate of
top-down decision-making, many local leaders were reluctant to be proactive,
preferring to act only when directed by a higher authority. Thus, very little
was likely to happen outside of the official, centrally programmed activities.
At that time, in the Suharto era, there was no approval for any non-govern-
mental, grassroots fishers’ organisation or union whose activities may have
filled the vacuum.
The importance of community institutions in resource management was

only acknowledged in the early eighties, when environmental awards were
presented to the villages of Ihamahu (1982) and Haruku (1984) in recog-
nition of their local sasi institutions. However, this was not followed up by
concrete action to formalize a role for community traditional institutions in
resource management.
While not entrenched in formal law, the traditional management rules of

sasi were often allowed and encouraged to flourish because fisheries staff
recognized that official means were not sufficient to control Maluku’s huge
marine territory. Fisheries Agency personnel had positive opinions of sasi as
an institution and wanted to see some move towards formalizing the rights
and responsibilities of local management bodies through development of a
provincial law (Perda). They also attested that in their dealings with commer-
cial operators, they would insist that these fishers respect local sasi rules and
pay whatever access fees were imposed by local governments.
From a government perspective, the involvement of the kewang would have

been an efficient and cost-effective arrangement. The kewang had intimate
knowledge of the local area and of the character of the fishers being regulated;
they provided an enforcement service to the government without cost, and
lived next door to the resource that was under protection or management.
In addition, many of the government staff originated from coastal villages
and valued the traditional ways. However, it was also true that in the opinion
of Fisheries Agency staff interviewed, the competence of the average village
head, in terms of education level and experience, was very limited. This ap-
parent degree of condescension and lack of appreciation for local knowledge
no doubt hindered any effective move towards power sharing.
8.9 Conclusions
When documented in 1997-98, Indonesian fisheries management was com-

plex, multi-agency, and top-down. Ultimate power was retained at the na-
tional level and provincial and lower levels were unable either to manage
resource exploitation or to conserve resources.
CONCLUSIONS 167
The national government was faced with the difficult task of controlling a vast
marine area and multitudes of islands and offshore reefs. Yet, enforcement
of national fisheries regulations was lax and there were serious deficiencies
in government management agencies in terms of motivation, coordination,
knowledge, infrastructure and funding support. At the same time, fisheries
exploitation and marketing systems encouraged over-fishing and the use of
destructive gears (Novaczek et al. 2001). There was no provincial body that
focused specifically on marine resource management and conservation and
that had power to coordinate the many agencies bearing management re-
sponsibility. BAPPEDA, which could have played this role, had many other
sectoral responsibilities. Besides, it was focused on development rather than
management and conservation; it was weak in areas of evaluation and inter-
sectoral coordination, and it had no presence below the district level. Also,
among the other agencies, limits of power and jurisdiction were often un-
clear.
Even though government staff generally agreed that the role of the local com-
munity in fisheries management was essential, there were no legal provisions
for them to actively participate. Legal researchers pointed out that under vari-
ous national laws the village heads had responsibility to ensure that local re-
sources were managed to provide an optimal income for the community. Yet,
traditional management systems (sasi) were not recognized. The kewang and
other traditional authorities long involved in enforcement and management
had no legal position and were effectively isolated from regional and provin-
cial management structures and planning. The development of fisheries pol-
icy and regulations were largely controlled from the centre and passed down
to provincial, district and sub-district levels. Development schemes focused
on intensification of resource exploitation, not on sustainability. Suggestions
for management developed on the village level (Haruku) could hardly get
through to the national level.
Over-fishing of several key stocks and drastically declining artisanal catches

(Novaczek et al. 2001) indicate a clear need for a strong management system.
Otherwise, both Maluku’s potentially rich fisheries as well as the village level
institutions would be strained and threatened with collapse. Since 1998, con-
ditions at the village level have become much worse, and civil strife has liter-
ally removed whole fishing villages from central Maluku. However, at the na-
tional level, advances have been made in devolving powers over management
of inshore marine waters down to the provincial and district levels (Thorburn
2000; Nikijuluw 2000). It remains to be seen whether an effective co-man-
agement regime, one that respects local tenurial rights and identifies a legal
space for village level institutions, can emerge from this troubled region.
TABLE 8.2 – Government agencies involved in fisheries management in Maluku province
168
Results of interviews with various agencies involved in marine resource management and development in Maluku. Management functions as follows: 1)
information gathering and provision; 2) project planning; 3) project implementation; 4) evaluation of projects (physical and legal aspects); 5) enforce-
ment of fisheries law; 6) funding of projects; 7) routine fisheries policy implementation and monitoring; 8) licensing and collection of taxes and fees.
Institution Level Management function Strengths Weaknesses

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
BAPPEDA Provincial * * * * * * • The only coordination • Limited capacity for cross sectoral impact as-
(Planning body at the provincial sessments
Board) level • Focus on large development projects
District * * * * * * • The only coordination • Limited capacity for cross sectoral impact as-
body at the district level sessments
• Focus on large development projects
Fisheries Provincial * * ** ** * * * * • Human resources avail- • Limits of authority not clear
Agency (Dept. able • Means and operational budget limited
FISHERIES MANAGEMENT IN CENTRAL MALUKU
Agriculture) • Staff not highly skilled

District * * ** ** * * * * • Human resources avail- • Authority unclear; not autonomous from provin-
(Kotamadya) able cial office
District * * ** ** * * * * • Human resources avail- • Authority unclear
(Kabupaten) able • Budget and means limited
• Autonomous (in theory) • Scientific data limited
Sub-district * * * * * • Close to the field pro- • Authority limited
grams and projects • Means limited
• Budget limited
• Human resources limited (quantity and quality)
• Top-down system
• Staff motivation poor
Institution Level Management function Strengths Weaknesses
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Police Province * * • The only investigation body • Limits of authority unclear relative to Navy
and (KUHAP) • Motivation low
District • Human resources available • Means limited
• Operational budget small
CONCLUSIONS
Sub-dis- ** * * • Officers available at the village level • Authority unclear

trict • Motivation low
• Means limited
• Human resources limited (quantity and
quality)
Navy Provincial * ** * * • Human resources available • Operate only at the provincial level
• Full authority (SK Pangab) • Patrol deep water areas, not inshore
• Means available • Collaboration and coordination with police
• Budget available weak
• Good reputation in the community
Dept. of Provincial * * ** ** * * * • Human resources • Motivation poor
Transport • Operational budget available • Supporting means limited
(Perhubungan • Authority (supported by law)
Laut)
District * * ** ** * * • Authority • Motivation poor
• Means limited
• Human resources weak
Sub- * * * * • Close to the activities • Authority insufficient
district • Money and means limited
• Human resources inadequate
169
Institution Level Management function Strengths Weakness
170
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Environment Provincial * * • Human resources inadequate
Bureau • Weak laws
• No role in coordination
• Jurisdiction and authority unclear
• Relationship with environment
section of BAPPEDA confused
Dept. Forestry Provincial * * * * * • Direct authority under CITES to • Budget and means limited
(Resource conser- protect endangered species • Motivation weak
vation section) • Jurisdiction unclear
• Limited to protected species and
national parks; no input into
fishing quotas
Law Bureau Provincial * * • Works well with Fisheries Agency
FISHERIES MANAGEMENT IN CENTRAL MALUKU
and other agencies

Regional and Provincial * * * * • Human resources available • Authority unclear relative to
district government (Governor); • Motivation provincial offices of national de-
head offices District • Close to the activity partments
(Bupati); • Budget and means limited
Sub-district • Extremely busy
(Camat)
Village government Village * * * ** * * * • Motivation • Authority unclear
offices (Kepala desa) • Direct access to fishers • Budget and means limited
• Traditional institutions in place • Heavy workload
(partial) • Top down system
• Social and cultural legitimacy • Adat institutions lack legal
standing
171
9 Current legislation and policy framework

for resource management in Indonesia
The previous chapter described the legislation and policy framework in In-
donesia until 1998. Right after this period Indonesia, and Central Maluku
in particular, was in great turmoil and economic crisis resulting in major
changes during a period of reformation, or ‘reformasi’ in Indonesian lan-
guage. This section will explain the process after 1998, the implications for
fisheries and coastal management in Indonesia and Maluku province and
future prospects.
Since the fall of President Suharto in 1998 there has been a growing de-
mand for transparency, honesty and especially autonomy from the central
government (Patlis et al. 2001). The central government has responded with
a series of laws shifting both the political power and financial control from
the central government to the regional level. The demand for transparency,
honesty, and autonomy was met by the enactment of new legislation against
corruption, collusion, and nepotism. The result is nothing less than what
Patlis et al. (2001) call a revolution in governance. The changes also signal a
shift in the management of natural resources with profound implications for
the rights and roles of local communities (Thorburn 2002). Decentralisation,
however, is still in its initial stages and brings with it a host of new worries
and problems which often have roots in the previous regimes (Peluso 2002;
Thorburn 2002).
9.1 Decentralisation of management authority
President Suharto’s ‘New Order’ regime (1966-1998)1 was characterised by

heavy resource extraction for economic development and a weakening of
many local traditional institutions that mediated access and use of local re-
sources (Thorburn 2002). The post-New Order period is bringing changes
to many aspects of governance, including decision-making and natural re-
source management.
During the brief presidencies of Suharto’s successor Habibie (1998-1999),

the government passed a number of reform measures committing the gov-
1 Presidents of Indonesia since 1945: Sukarno (1945-1966); Suharto (1966-1998); Baharuddin

Jusuf Habibie (1998-1999); Abdurrahman Wahid (1999-2001); Megawati Sukarnoputri (2001-
2004); Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono (2004-…).
172 CURRENT LEGISLATION AND POLICY FRAMEWORK FOR RESOURCE MANAGEMENT
ernment to a course of administrative and financial decentralisation. With

the enactment of Law No. 22/1999 and Law No. 25/19992 regional autonomy
has become a fast reality as they create the legal and financial framework for
governance primarily by the districts, with assistance from both provincial
and central levels of government (Patlis et al. 2001).3 Marine and coastal man-
agement has been boosted by the creation of the National Maritime Council
(NMC)4 and the new Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries in 1999 – the
DKP.5
The resource management implications of this new framework of govern-

ment are profound. Territorial sea up to 12 nautical miles from the coastline
is under the jurisdiction of the province (art. 10.2). The district may establish
jurisdiction over one third of the provincial waters or 4 nautical miles from
the shoreline. Two notable exceptions are (1) the seabed underneath the sea
territory that still falls under the authority of the central government and, (2)
that the territorial sea does not restrict traditional fishing rights (Dahuri and
Dutton 1999; Patlis et al. 2001; Satria and Matsuda 2004). The central gov-
ernment also maintains direct responsibility over the maritime areas within
the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ).
The role of the central government is primarily one of indirect action rather
than direct regulation and control. Yet, the central government retains au-
thority to develop policy regarding natural resource management and to take
administrative action against a regional government that fails to implement
existing laws or regulations (Law No. 25/2000, art. 7), (Patlis et al. 2001). The
province is responsible for: (a) exploration, exploitation, conservation and
management of the sea, (b) administrative affairs, and (c) law enforcement.
District and municipal governments are now empowered to set resource use
and spatial planning policy, and to manage revenues and budgets. District
and provincial assemblies (DPRD) must issue scores of new regulations and
decrees to administer these new responsibilities (Thorburn 2002).
2 Law No. 22/1999 on regional autonomy/management authorities and its implementing Regu-
lation No. 25/2000.
Law No. 25/1999 on financial relations between the centre and regions and its implementing
Regulation No. 104/2000.
3 Government levels: Province (Propinsi); District (Kabupaten); Municipal (Kotamadya);
Sub-district (Kecamatan); Village (Desa).
4 The National Maritime Council consists of politicians, private sector representatives, NGOs and
government officials. The ministry has five directorate generals: Coastal and Small-island Affairs,
Research and Technology, Enforcement and Surveillance, Capture and Culture Fisheries, and In-
stitutional and Capacity Development. The office of the secretary general provides expertise on law
and governance (Dahuri 2001).
5 DKP: Departemen Kelautan dan Perikanan.
FINANCIAL ARRANGEMENTS AND DIVISION OF BENEFITS 173
At the same time, there is an ongoing struggle to revise the decentralisation

laws of 1999 (F. & K. von Benda-Beckmann 2002). After the major problems
in various parts of the country and under pressure of certain groups, Wa-
hid (1999-2001) agreed to revise Laws No. 22 and 25 in order maintain the
‘unitary state’. President Megawati Sukarnoputri was pursuing the review,
including the reestablishment of the government hierarchy (Down to Earth
2001). A more powerful standpoint and continuation of the decentralisation
process is expected from the newly elected president, Susilo Bambang Yud-
hoyono. He also has got to play a pro-active role in the reduction of tension
and conflicts (Jones 2004).
9.2 Financial arrangements and division of benefits
Law No. 25/1999 recognizes two basic budgets for governance: central gov-
ernment and regional budgets. The regional budgets consist of original rev-
enues, loans and equilibrium funds. Part of these funds come from natural
resource use. The central government gets 20% of the revenues from natural
resources (forestry, mining and fishing), while the regional governments get
80%. The central government additionally allocates 25% of its budget to the
regional government. Of this general allocation, 10% goes to the provinces
and 90% to the district governments. A third part comes from special alloca-
tion funds from the central government. Under the decentralised scheme,
central government allocations are being greatly reduced, forcing provincial
and district governments to generate a larger portion of their own revenue
(Thorburn 2002).
Currently it is expected that most of the regional funding will be devoted to

administrative expenditures. Additional funding is needed to provide oppor-
tunities to engage in coastal management programs. The central and provin-
cial government would also require additional funding. Possibilities are for
the Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries (DKP) to dedicate a portion of its
own budget to coastal management or to use specific allocation funds under
the equilibrium fund (Patlis et al. 2001).
Article 11 (Reg. No. 104) relates to revenues from the fishery. Section 2 states
that the revenues ‘shall be distributed in equal sums to regencies through-
out Indonesia.’ This is a fundamental difference compared to other natural
resources of which the revenues are distributed primarily to the region of ori-
gin. It highlights the fact that fisheries are treated as true commonly owned,
i.e. national resources to be shared by all (Patlis et al. 2003). The good thing
about this arrangement is that it removes much of the financial incentives for
the districts to sell of the fishing rights, as they are already doing with con-
cessions in the forestry sector (Patlis et al. 2001; Tien Wahyuni pers. comm.
March 2004).
9.3 Shortcomings in the current system
As much of the income is derived from natural resource use, revenue distri-
bution will vary enormously from region to region (Brown 1999 in Patlis et
al. 2001). In some parts of Indonesia, up to 86% will go to pay civil service
salaries (MacClellan 2001 in Patlis et al. 2001). Very little thus will probably
go to development projects and resource conservation. Besides, the districts
being largely responsible for their own budget, have a strong incentive to
increase resource extraction as opposed to management. In order to supple-
ment government coffers, district and village governments rush to convert
resource capital into cash. Thorburn (2002) calls this the ‘local revenue ob-
session’ (see also Pye-Smith 2001; Resosudarmo and Dermawan 2001).
Indeed, observers are beginning to question whether decentralisation could

lead to even more exploitative, inegalitarian and environmentally harmful
practices (Thorburn 2002). Many provincial and district governments aspire
to ‘develop’ their territories and have as objective to increase government
revenues and stimulate employment. Large-scale operations and resource ex-
traction do require an environmental impact assessment (EIA). In Indonesia,
however, an EIA assesses not only the environmental impacts but also social
benefits in terms of employment. Most projects therefore are approved while
the environmental impacts that occur are mitigated later. In East Kalimantan,
for example, after the coal has been extracted, the open-pit mines are filled
up with water and converted into lakes (Tien Wahyuni pers. comm. March
2004).
Although a lot of progress has been made, the current legal framework is not
(yet) adequate to deal with resource management. The existing legal regime
governing natural resources is sectoral, meaning that they are not managed
as a whole, but as individual elements. At the moment, coastal resources fall
under approximately 20 different acts (Putra 2001 in Patlis et al. 2001). To
make things worse, Indonesian law is characterised by conflicts, gaps and
overlaps: they are vague and broad, there is no consistent application of the
laws, and the rule of interpretation of the acts is extremely weak (Diantha
2001 in Patlis et al. 2001). In coastal management, these issues become even
more apparent. For example, there are conflicts and overlap in definitions,
particularly of terms that define protected areas (Dahuri and Dutton 1999).
There are also conflicting laws with respect to enforcement which thoroughly
complicates its execution as well as prosecution. But a very clear illustration
form the discrepancies between the laws of Fisheries and those of Conser-
vation of Natural Resources: Act No. 9/1985 on fisheries has an extremely
broad definition of ‘fish’ that can be harvested, including sea turtles, ma-
rine mammals, sea cucumber and corals, while Act No. 5/1990 on resource
conservation explicitly states that fish and wildlife that are threatened with
extinction are protected (Patlis et al. 2001).
THE ROLE OF THE CENTRAL GOVERNMENT 175
The implementation of Law No. 22/1999 on regional autonomy has led to

confusion. The national government has failed to communicate the meaning
and implications of the law well to lower government levels. The actual im-
plementation of the law through detailed regulations has been delayed leav-
ing space for various interpretations of the law, especially where it concerns
‘management authority’. The case of Lombok Barat described by Satria and
Matsuda (2004) shows how the district government acts on the basis of ‘trial
and error’ because guidance from the national government for fisheries man-
agement is lacking. So far, the new policies (on licenses and resource fees)
seem to work satisfactory. Also the customary local institution awig awig (lit.
a local rule) is being revitalized to combat destructive fishing practices. Nev-
ertheless, the authority over the marine park is still in hands of the national
government that seems reluctant to hand over authority. A first step would
be to move it from the Ministry of Forestry to the Ministry of Marine Affairs
and Fisheries.
9.4 The role of the central government
The new role of the central government under Law No. 22/1999 is to devel-
op guidelines and policies, rather than direct management and control. The
question is if the central government can require adherence to these guide-
lines and policies if management authority rests with the regencies? National
policy has little meaning or respect in the regions and with budgetary and fi-
nancial matters being exercised at regional level, national policy is likely to be
given less attention (Patlis et. al. 2001). Additionally, regional interpretations
of the national policy makes consistent enforcement difficult. Therefore, to
increase the effectiveness of a national coastal management program, Patlis
et al. (2001) suggest that it should be voluntary in nature as it would be more
easily accepted by the communities and it would increase the chances of ac-
tually being implemented. This has already been demonstrated in Northern
Sulawesi where people adopted ordinances they themselves drafted (Patlis et
al. 2001). The other advantage of a voluntary program would be that it allows
the various levels of government to delegate different responsibilities and ac-
tivities among each other based on their respective strengths and weaknesses
(Patlis et al. 2001).
To make this work, the national government would have to provide incentives
to the provincial and district level governments to adopt coastal management
programs through financial and technical assistance, advice and training. At
the same time, the provincial and district level governments would have to
meet certain standards and criteria (Patlis et al. 2001). Requirements would
include obligations by international treaties to which Indonesia is a party and
requirements that are in the public interest.
9.5 Role of the provinces
Aside from their authority in the 4-12 mile coastal zone, provinces have au-
thority to manage cross-jurisdictional issues involving multiple districts.
They are also responsible for the evaluation and analysis of environmental
impact assessments (EIA or AMDAL). Furthermore, the province may act in
place of the district if it does not yet have the capacity to carry out their new
authority or where the district, in mutual agreement, hands it back to the
province. This happens through a formal process.
The provinces are the wild card in the new decentralized regime. On the one
hand they have got a minimum role in the new power structure with funding
nearly completely bypassing them. On the other hand, since the province is
responsible for any activity that involves more than two districts (and it will
be hard to find an issue in natural resource management that does not cross
the jurisdiction of more than one district) they potentially have a broad area
of authority. Yet, to actually enjoy that authority may prove difficult as finan-
cial resources are lacking (Patlis et al. 2001).
As a result, the role of the provinces will, almost as a matter of default, take
on a tone of guidance rather than actual management (Kaimudin 2000).
On cross-boundary issues they may have a stronger hand in shaping poli-
cies, coordinating activities and settling disputes, yet it is doubtful that it will
amount to more than that. As their authority under the regional autonomy
laws is ambiguous, the role of the provinces would need to be defined explic-
itly. Patlis et al. (2001) therefore suggest as the main responsibilities for the
provinces to:
1 Prepare guidelines and standards to elaborate on the central government

guidelines.
2 Review regency plans and package them to facilitate central government
approval.
3 Serve as the liaison or middleman for technical assistance to help imple-
ment the coastal management programs at the local level.
4 In addition, the province can manage the coastal resources either in lieu
of or in collaboration with the regency.
In reality, it is likely that the role of the provinces will be decided on a case-to-
case basis, where strong governors may very well take advantage of the law’s
ambiguity and try to secure significant amounts of authority, while weaker
ones will not be able to resist the general push towards district-level manage-
ment (Patlis et al. 2001).
THE ROLE OF THE LOCAL COMMUNITY 177
9.6 Role of the (sub-)district government
The district government has authority for all decision-making within their
jurisdiction, unless otherwise stipulated by central government regulations
or where the provincial government has authority. Within the framework es-
tablished by the central government, districts should develop the necessary
procedural mechanisms for coordination and collaboration and ensure that
the necessary substantive requirements outlined in the national guidance are
satisfied (Patlis et al. 2001). Unless issues of national interest are violated,
districts can manage coastal resources as they see fit, independent of any
national program.
Compared with central and provincial governments, the district offices are
best positioned to develop coastal management programs tailored to local
contexts, resource supplies, public aspirations and values. District offices are
close enough to the resources and its users at the local level and yet they are
still large enough to coordinate among neighbouring villages (Patlis et al.
2001). The district can also decide to engage in a coastal management pro-
gram sponsored by the central government. Once completed and approved,
the program should be carried out in collaboration with sub-district (kecama-
tan) and village (desa) level.
Of the 332 districts in Indonesia, 245 have a coastline.6 It is hoped that most
will engage in a voluntary coastal management program. In any event, the
number could potentially become enormous, which would create a tremen-
dous logistical challenge for the national government. Here, the provincial
governments may have a potentially important role (Patlis et al. 2001).
9.7 Role of the local community
The government has issued a number of national laws promoting traditional

communities’ welfare and resource rights, including community participa-
tion in spatial and land-use planning. According to Thorburn (2002) so far,
these laws have been ineffective, lacking implementation of regulations or
clear delegation of authority. Adat law and community control seem to have
been drowned out in the commotion over delegation of political authority and
administrative responsibility. Nowadays, a common utterance in many parts
of the archipelago to describe the excessive greedy and self-serving behaviour
of those in power is ‘one has forgotten adat’. Thorburn (2002) further states:
‘The silence surrounding the topic of adat during this critical period is all the
6 The number was 360 according to Thorburn (2002), but with the introduction of the new laws
of 1999 which channel funds and resource revenues to the districts the number has gone up to
more than 400 (Schulte Nordholt 2003).
more surprising given the role that adat plays in defining Indonesian state
and nationhood […] along with the identification of adat with social justice
and wise resource stewardship […].’
The lack of recognition of customary institutions and adat and the margin-
alisation of the local communities is tackled in decentralisation Law No. 22,
1999. The law grants villages so-called ‘natural autonomy’ and village heads
are no longer civil servants. The LKMD whose primary purpose was to carry
out the state mandated developments programs has been replaced by a Vil-
lage Representative Board (BPD). According to the new law (Section 11, Art.
104) the function of the BPD is ‘to protect local customs and traditions, make
village regulations, gather and channel community aspirations, and super-
vise organisation of village governance.’ Articles 110 and 111 stress that the
district level (kabupaten) must involve the village government and BPD in
planning and that they must acknowledge and respect village rights, customs
and traditions (Thorburn 2002).
In many villages this law is leading to radical transformations of the politi-

cal landscape. A positive example is Gorontalo (Sulawesi) where a fishing
community has succeeded in regaining control over their traditional fishing
grounds (Down to Earth 2001). In other areas, however, the process has been
hijacked by the entrenched political elite. Nonetheless, the concept of autono-
mous village governments signals a major shift in state-village relationships
in Indonesia. Particularly in areas where adat practices ‘managed to survive
three decades of force-fed development programs’ the potential for develop-
ing or reviving local resource management regimes is greater now than ever
(Thorburn 2002). Probably the greatest hope to conserve Indonesia’s dwin-
dling natural resource lies in individual communities’ success in resuscitat-
ing and adapting customary resource management practices.
9.8 Conclusions
Law No. 22/1999 intends to enhance democracy, community participation,

equitable distribution and justice while taking into account the regions’ po-
tential and diversity. In reality, however, the process is characterized by pow-
erful centralized agencies trying to retain power and budgets, while most
regional governments lack the skilled personnel or management structures
to assume the new responsibilities (Thorburn 2002). Indonesia’s continuing
economic crisis further complicates the process.
A shortcoming in the new financial decentralisation scheme is the freedom

of the regional governments to use natural resource revenues for any pur-
pose whatsoever (Patlis et al. 2001). A short-sighted regional government will
extract natural resources to the point that they are depleted or over-exploited,
CONCLUSIONS 179
thus destroying its future revenue stream and depriving future generations
of meeting basic needs through these resources. A new requirement in the
law should be that regional governments use a specific percentage of their
revenues for resource conservation and management.
The establishment of the Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries and the
National Maritime Council are the first steps in the development towards set-
ting up new structures (Patlis et al. 2001; Sinaga 2002). The new legislation
encourages horizontal and vertical integration among government agencies.
To further enable lower levels of government to function, authority of district
and provincial governments needs to be clearly demarcated. District govern-
ments also require the provision of technical guidelines on resource manage-
ment and transboundary issues in fisheries (Satria and Matsuda 2004).
To make decentralisation more effective, it is necessary to operationalise Law

No. 22/1999 further and to legitimize and empower local institutions. Hav-
ing lived in a centrally organized state for decades, many local communities
and governments still expect the national government to manage resources.
New legislation is being developed to facilitate the flow of technical assistance
and resources to the communities in order to require the skills for resource
management independent of the central government (Dahuri 2001).
To coordinate existing laws and resolve legal discrepancies, Patlis et al. (2001)
identify the need for a new umbrella law in a nationwide coastal management
program. This could also support the growing number of community-based
natural resource management projects in Indonesia and provide formal
guidance to regional governments and communities on the new approach in
managing resources. While regional differences must be accommodated, ba-
sic principles relevant for coastal management in all regions can (and should
be) be applied, including an ongoing adaptive process for resource manage-
ment specifically addressing coordination and integration of different activi-
ties and groups (Cicin-Sain and Knecht 1998).
Another key for effective coastal resource management is the development of

a procedural mechanism for coordinating management and ensuring appro-
priate budgetary decisions, such as an interagency council (Patlis et al. 2001).
Successful implementation of a national coastal resource management pro-
gram must also involve an interdepartmental coordinating body with a dis-
pute resolution mechanism.7 This will support the process of decentralisation
as it enlarges accountability and transparency and supports more democratic
principles (Agrawal and Ribot 1999).
7 Inter-departmental coordination on marine conservation and resources management is one of

the obstacles to the implementation of the new legal framework (Dutton, draft).
181
10 Decentralisation and Coastal Resource

Management in the Philippines and
Indonesia*
In response to a call for better management of natural resources, there is a

widespread move towards decentralisation of management authority to re-
gional and local communities. Decentralisation is the way forward, but also
has its setbacks. Current experiences in Indonesia show massive exploitation
(especially in forestry) now that resources fall under district governments
(Sudana 2004). In other countries, such as the Philippines, decentralisation
has lead to more positive results (Sajise 1995). A discussion about decentrali-
sation is relevant because there is already a tendency to turn away from it
due negative experiences. This would be very unfortunate as, despite the cur-
rent setbacks, decentralisation presents the highest hope for establishing the
conditions for sustainable resource use and a more equitable and efficient
social political system in the long-term. This chapter describes the process
of decentralisation in Indonesia and the Philippines in relation to coastal
and fishery resources. It reviews the process and explains how failure can be
avoided or at least halted. It further describes the forms of decentralisation in
both countries and its rationale. Through comparing the process within the
two different contexts, we hope to distil some key factors that make decen-
tralisation successful.
10.1 Introduction
Scientists today urge the governments of Southeast Asia to better conserve

and manage their coral reefs. Throughout the region, coastal resources and
coral reefs in particular are heavily degraded; an estimated 88% of the reefs
are severely threatened (Burke et al. 1998; Burke et al. 2002; Amor 2002a;
Clifton 2003). Most threatened are the Philippine reefs, which rank the sec-
ond largest in the region and where as much as 98% is at risk (Amor 2002b).
Indonesia with its 81.000 km long coastline accounts for 51% percent of the
coral reefs in the whole of Southeast Asia. They support one of the largest
marine fisheries in the world, generating 3.6 million tons in 1997 alone
(Amor 2002c). Yet, even though Indonesia’s coral reefs are among the most
biologically rich in the world and contain the greatest diversity of reef fish,
86% is in a critical state.
*I.H.T. Harkes, Robert S. Pomeroy and Gerard A. Persoon (in prep.) Decentralisation and Coastal
Resource Management in the Philippines and Indonesia.
182 DECENTRALISATION AND COASTAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT
World wide, among the major marine fish stocks or groups of stocks for which
information is available, an estimated 26% are underexploited or moderately
exploited, about 48% of stocks are fully exploited and another 16% are over-
exploited. The remaining 10% of stocks have been depleted or are recovering
from depletion (FAO 2001). Approximately 70% of the world production of
food fish is now caught or produced in developing countries (ICLARM 1999)
and the increasing international trade in fishery products is raising questions
about the supply of food fish for poorer people in developing countries.
In countries such as Indonesia and the Philippines, close to 50% of people’s

animal protein intake comes from fish consumption (FAO 2003). For many
poor communities aquatic resources represent a crucial rural safety net that
not only bolsters household food security, but gives families a way to earn ex-
tra cash selling on the local markets (FAO 2003). Degradation of natural re-
sources, reduced access to markets and lack of political power to reverse these
processes thus pose a severe threat to people’s livelihoods (Wrong 1997).
Causes of environmental degradation are sought primarily in human activi-

ties such as over-exploitation, destructive fishing, and sedimentation and pol-
lution from land-based sources (Amor 2002a). Increasing competition and
conflicts over scarce resources further stress fisheries management systems.
Over the years, centralized management systems have largely focused on fish
production, while they failed to address local issues and resource manage-
ment. By its nature, centralized management provided the conditions under
which fishers maximized their efforts. Only where property rights are estab-
lished and where fishers have the responsibility over their resources incen-
tives are created to sustainably use resources (Charles 2001; see also Chapter
11). In response to the decrease in global fish production and a call for better
management, there is a widespread move towards decentralisation of man-
agement authority to regional and local communities (Pomeroy 2001).
A discussion about decentralisation, power and potential for local man-

agement is both interesting and relevant because despite some important
steps forward, there are negative developments at the local level that hamper
the process. In Indonesia some places show massive exploitation now that
resources are ‘managed’ by local authorities. This is especially the case in
forestry in East Kalimantan where logging is rampant now that natural re-
sources fall under the district government (Sudana 2004). Because of these
negative experiences there is already a tendency to turn away from decentrali-
sation (von Benda-Beckmann and von Benda-Beckmann 2002, Ribot 2002).
This would be very unfortunate as despite the current setbacks, decentralisa-
tion presents the opportunities for local people and those working at lower
government levels to gain the authority and therewith the incentives, institu-
tional structure, legal and judicial powers and political will, to manage local
resources. It is also a way to refine the role of the national government, both
OBJECTIVE AND RATIONALE OF DECENTRALISATION 183
in addressing global issues and in playing a supportive and enabling role

with regard to local processes. Therefore it is important to not obscure the
important changes that are being made towards the establishment and condi-
tions for sustainable resource use and a more equitable and efficient social
political system in the long-term.
This chapter describes the process of decentralisation in Indonesia and the

Philippines in relation to coastal and fishery resources. The process is re-
viewed to see what is happening and how failure in terms of corruption,
a non-democratic structure, rampant exploitation of resources, and the for-
mation of elites may be avoided or at least halted. It describes the forms of
decentralisation in both countries and its rationale. Decentralisation will be
assessed in terms of level of authority transferred, type of power passed on,
responsibilities of local actors, and the accountability structure (cf Wrong
1997). Through comparing the process within the two different contexts, we
hope to distil some key factors that make decentralisation successful.
10.2 Objective and rationale of decentralisation
Since the early 1980s, decentralisation has emerged as a valued political and
economic goal in many developing countries (Agrawal and Ribot 1999; Cas-
son 2001). Decentralisation refers to the systematic and rational dispersal of
power, authority and responsibility from the central government to lower or
local level institutions (Pomeroy and Berkes 1997). It involves the authority
to make decisions over natural resources and control over resource benefits.
One of the primary arguments for decentralisation is that since local condi-
tions vary, management approaches are required that are more closely tai-
lored to the environmental, socio-economic, and political conditions at the
local level (Lowry 2002). In co-management, which requires a clear com-
mitment on the part of the government to the sharing of authority with local
users and lower government levels, decentralisation is critical.
Agrawal and Ribot (1999, 475) write:
‘Most justifications of decentralisation are built around the assumption that

greater participation in public decision-making is a positive good in itself or
that it can improve efficiency, equity, development and resource manage-
ment […].’
The assumption is that when people at the local community and local govern-
ment level gain the authority – and therewith the institutional structure, legal
and judicial powers to manage their resources – they will have an incentive
and greater political will to manage resources in a more sustainable way. The
deployment of power and resources to the community will enhance com-
munity and economic development (Pomeroy 2001). Another assumption

of decentralisation is that greater participation and efficiency through more
involvement of people at the lower political levels and in the decision-making
processes and procedures that affect them, will ultimately lead to local auton-
omy and wider political participation. In this way, decentralisation gives force
to democratic ideals such as greater transparency and a fairer distribution of
political and economic power, i.e. equity (Pomeroy and Berkes 1997; Agrawal
and Ribot 1999; Pomeroy 2001; von Benda-Beckmann and von Benda-Beck-
mann 2002; Ribot 2004).
In order to achieve these objectives, decentralisation requires the devolution

of real powers, including those over the disposition of productive resources
(Agrawal and Ribot 1999). Thus far, however, most decentralisation efforts
seem to end up without increasing the powers of local communities or au-
thorities. In many cases, people lack the authority to make decisions locally
and profitable resources are still controlled by the government. Benefits are
retained by the state or captured by local or outsider elites and income dis-
tribution is often uneven (Casson 2001). As a consequence, after initial en-
thusiasm and support for decentralisation, local communities become disil-
lusioned and discouraged (Shakleton et al. 2002).
The reasons why powers are often not transferred or decentralisation is in-
complete are various. First of all, there is the unwillingness of politicians to
allow greater democratisation of the political system. They may be reluctant
to relinquish their authority (or part of it) in order to protect their power and
position. Some policy choices that have been made may actually not even con-
stitute decentralisation (Agrawal and Ribot 1999). Secondly, there is doubt,
also sometimes within the environmental agencies, about whether resource
users can be trusted or are capable to manage their resources. Sometimes
there is a lack of skills or appropriate institutions to which powers can be suc-
cessfully devolved (Berkes 1989, Lowry 2002; Ribot 2004). But often, people
are simply marginalised, especially where it concerns ethnic groups. Where
on the one hand in Indonesia ethnic diversity is valued, on the other ethnic
groups are perceived as a threat to the unity of the state. Ethnicity is therefore
often turned into folklore and not into the empowerment of people (Schefold
1998; Eindhoven 2005).
Fortunately, the relevance of fishers’ knowledge and the importance of their

participation in management of resources is more and more acknowledged
(Salim 1995). In countries such as the Philippines, decentralisation has lead
to positive results and sustainable resource use (White et al. 1994; Sajise
1995; Katon et al. 1998; Katon et al. 1999; White et al. 2002; Pasicolan 2003).
These cases prove that local people are willing and able to manage resourc-
es, provided property rights are in place and benefits accrue to them. This
strengthens the arguments for decentralisation as an alternative to failing
THE FORMATION OF LOCAL ELITES 185
government management. Especially in those places where there is a his-

tory of collective self-management, of which there are various examples in
Indonesia, traditions can be effectively revived and strengthened for contem-
porary management (Hviding 1991, 1996; Ruddle et al. 1992; Novaczek et al.
2001; Lowry 2002, and this thesis).
10.3 Shifting power
World wide an increasing number of post-colonial states are moving from

conditions of basic inequalities and centralised government systems towards
more political freedom, equity and democracy (F. and K. von Benda-Beckman
2002). Positive developments fuel the high expectations that are connected
with decentralisation and democracy, especially in the context of resource
management. Empowered, representative authorities are seen as the hope
for the future. The process to achieve this is, however, not without obstacles
as is illustrated by a number of authors (Casson 2001; van Klinken 2002; Pe-
luso 2002; Agrawal and Ribot 1999; Knight and Lowry 2003; Ribot 2004).
‘Presently, insufficient and inappropriate powers turn most decentralisation

reforms into charades’ writes Ribot (2004). Local decision-makers rarely
receive meaningful discretionary powers.1 Responsibilities are usually ac-
companied by excessive oversight and most powers can easily be taken back.
These insecure transfers are a formula for manipulation from above (McCa-
rthy 2004; Ribot 2004). On the other hand, in cases where power is actually
transferred, it creates new issues and challenges. If power over important re-
sources changes hands, it sometimes falls under the authority of people who
are not committed to the basic values and goals envisaged in decentralisation,
leaving room for abuse. The stakes are high and so are the interests. Changes
in authority pose a threat to the position of urban elites, those with com-
mercial interests, and government administrators (Hadiz 2004). The shifts
in power also undermine entrenched patronage relations previously enjoyed
by the highest-level central officials, local merchants and local bureaucrats.
What happens is that even in cases where significant devolution of authority
was intended, local politics and power relations intervened to prevent this
and obstruct more democratic control (Shakleton et al. 2002).
10.4 The formation of local elites
At many sites, problems occur because of local elites seizing control (Shack-
leton et al, 2002). It is, however, not right to simply associate the formation
of new elites with the process of decentralisation or expect these elites to not
1 For more on power, see Lukes (1986).

exist or to not capture control. Experiences from countries like India, which
has faced similar transitions, teach us that so-called identity politics can sim-
ply be viewed as an added level of complexity (van Klinken 2002). Elites have
always played a role in hierarchical systems, either as essential parts of it or
as parasites, depending on which view one takes. In Indonesia, the ‘power-
elite’ just has taken a rather extreme form. If we look at history, we can learn
that modernisation and democratisation are processes that were certainly not
promoted by those who controlled power, but by enlightened middle class
elites (van Klinken 2002).
The ‘new’ elites that currently play a role in Indonesia are local elites who do
not necessarily aspire national leadership, but who want power at the level of
the province. In order to achieve this they have to maintain relations upwards
with representatives in the capital, as well as downwards with their chosen
constituencies (van Klinken 2002). What is new about these elites is that
they build on pre-colonial structures and claim to represent local chiefs, tra-
ditional authorities, and landlords thereby mobilising parts of the population
that were not involved before. The role these local elites play can be extreme
and varies from excessive resource extraction and abuse in some places to the
channelling of funds to their constituents.
The process towards democratisation in Indonesia thus takes very different

forms. Van Klinken (2002) suggests looking at the process of democratisa-
tion as arenas of domination and resistance. He illustrates this by compar-
ing Central Kalimantan, where elites caused serious mayhem without Jakarta
being able to intervene, to the situation in East Kalimantan where elites got
enough funds from the central government to multiply district budgets.
From the above it is apparent that within a country or even within a prov-
ince, there are separate power arenas. Between countries the variability thus
will be even larger. It is therefore important to deconstruct the process and
look at these different arenas, including the political context and opportunity
structure of the different political actors (van Klinken 2002). It is also clear
that viable institutions are required to restrain elites in achieving their anti-
democratic goals.
10.5 Getting the institutions right
Case studies from around the world indicate that the institutional arrange-
ments necessary to bring about decentralisation are rarely established (Ribot
2004). In order to counter the power of local elites, the best candidates to re-
ceive decentralised powers are democratically elected institutions. Elections
give people the opportunity to judge the performance of an institution, and if
elected officials cannot justify their decisions they can be voted out of office
(Dupar and Badenoch 2002). However, elections alone are not sufficient to
GETTING THE INSTITUTIONS RIGHT 187
ensure adequate representation of local people’s interests. Sometimes, can-

didates are selected by political parties and thus represent the interests of
these parties rather than those of the local people (Agrawal and Ribot 1999).
To make the councils democratic requires admitting independent candidates
in local elections.
While ‘getting the institutions right’ probably leads to better outcomes, there
are two major obstructions. The first are the groups that fear losing power
and thus pose strong resistance to adequate policy making and implementa-
tion – the process we described earlier. The second is that sometimes the
institutions chosen to counter the negative effects of decentralisation are in-
appropriate. Institutions imposed from outside, for example, even if they in-
clude democratically elected authorities and restructured political processes,
may have no grounding in the local culture and lack legitimacy (Ribot 2004).
It is therefore important to identify the groups of actors, to assess the power
arena, and to define which local institutions are in place that actually can play
a role in the decentralisation process.
Democratic participation needs to include customary authorities. However, a

number of scientists have expressed apprehension about working with those
institutions. Ribot (2004) writes ‘When governments, donors, and NGOs
arrange public inclusion through customary authorities, they subjugate lo-
cal people to these authorities and their forms of belonging which are often
highly unequal and usually severely gender biased.’ Also Schulte Nordholt
(2003) stresses the fact that many traditional systems are based on exclusion
since only people of certain origins, ethnicities, lineages or religious identi-
ties are allowed to partake in the political process. In their view the legiti-
misation of these authorities thus undermines the formation of democratic
institutions.
It is important to be aware that, in our search for democratic principles like

representation and equity, we often condemn structures that are locally ac-
cepted, have a high level of legitimacy, and are functional within the political
and cultural context (Shackleton et al. 2002). What Ribot overlooks in his
analysis, for example, is the high degree of legitimacy that these traditional
authorities and structures often have – legitimacy which is based on and em-
bedded in the local culture, including the position of women. It is true that
transparency and participation are not per definition characteristics of tradi-
tional decision-making processes, but again this does not necessarily have to
be a problem as it can be a legitimate and accepted situation (see Chapter 6).
Besides, in-depth studies in feminist anthropology show that where women
are not represented directly in the public sphere, they often have indirect
ways of exerting power, through informal structures (Moore 1988). Likewise,
the strongly hierarchical process of decision-making in Maluku, for example,
may not be highly equitable, but it definitely makes these institutions highly
effective (Novaczek et al. 2001).
Where efforts are made to establish (co-)management structures that hold

the principles of participation and equity high, the absence of structures that
allow for greater participation can become an obstruction. Yet, mistakes can
also be made where governments choose to hand over power to new institu-
tions which base inclusion on participatory processes or membership in cer-
tain organisations, such as fishing committees or fishermen’s associations.
Not only do these organisations pose problems on the longer term as they
cannot be easily scaled up or sustained, they often lack local legitimacy. As a
result these interventions are usually short-lived.
Other means that ensure that the dealings of institutions will be transparent
and responsive to the public interest also need to be considered carefully be-
fore being implemented (World Bank 1999, 2001 in WRI 2003). Open elec-
tions, for example, are considered as a mechanism to ensure accountability.
However, if the structures to prevent this are not in place, elections can be
stage-managed (Crook and Sverrisson 2001 in WRI 2003, see also Novaczek
et al. 2001). In order to enhance transparency and responsiveness it is im-
portant to stimulate open forums and deliberations and to have open media
coverage of events. Local government performance needs to be monitored
and evaluated, people need to have access to legal resources, and financial
records need to be auditable (World Bank 2003 in WRI 2003). Local people
should be able to challenge the rules and decisions, as well as the way they
are implemented and enforced by those who hold the power (Agrawal and
Ribot 1999).
10.6 Approach
Between the theory of decentralisation and its practical execution exists an

immense gap. A number of case studies illustrate the process of decentrali-
sation in various countries (Torell et al. 2002; Tulungen 2003; Delgado and
Barriga 2003; Balgos and Ricci 2003; Wyckoff-Baird 2003). Most authors,
however, do not use a structured approach to study the extent and effects of
decentralisation while a cross-continent comparison would be very interest-
ing. An interesting framework is presented by Ribot and Agrawal (1999) in
their study of decentralisation in Senegal, Mali, India and Nepal. It forms an
interesting basis to study the process and make comparisons. In this article,
we apply the factors that Agrawal and Ribot present as well as a few others
that we find relevant to the process of decentralisation in Indonesia and the
Philippines. The purpose is to make structured comparisons and improve
our understanding of the mechanisms at play in the process of decentralisa-
tion.
APPROACH 189
Pomeroy and Berkes (1997) distinguish various types and forms of decen-
tralisation that coincide with categories used by various scientists working
on this issue:
• Deconcentration: The transfer of authority and responsibility from the

national government department and agencies to the regional and local
offices. This is referred to as administrative decentralisation. It usually
concerns a sectoral approach with upward accountability
• Delegation: The passing of some authority and decision-making powers
to local officials, but where the central government retains the right to
overturn local decisions and can, at any time, take these powers back. Ac-
countability here is both upwards and downwards.
• Devolution: The transfer of power and responsibility for the performance
of specific functions without reference back to central government. The
nature of transfer is political (by legislation) and the approach is geo-
graphical. Those in power are accountable to the population in their juris-
diction.
• Privatisation: The transfer of responsibility for certain governmental func-
tions to non-governmental organisations, voluntary organisations, com-
munity associations and private enterprises. Here accountability is down-
wards too.
Decentralisation thus does not necessarily imply total devolvement of all au-
thority to local and lower government levels. Authority granted may ebb and
flow over time as it is transferred to lower levels and recaptured by higher
government levels. And, in reality, decentralisation often proceeds in a se-
quence from deconcentration to administrative delegation, then to political
devolution and finally, to popular privatisation (Helmsing 1991 in Pomeroy
and Berkes 1997). In a way, decentralisation can thus be seen as a continu-
um.
Accountability is a second important issue. For decentralisation to be equi-

table and efficient there must be a clear line of accountability from decision-
makers to the local population (Ribot 2004). Only when empowered local
actors are downwardly accountable will the presumed benefits become avail-
able to local populations (Agrawal and Ribot 1999). Perceived benefits as
well as initial benefits are important in enhancing involvement of the local
population and participation (Pollnac and Pomeroy 2005; this thesis). There-
fore accountability is an essential element in evaluating the effectiveness of
decentralisation.
A third aspect to take into account are the actors, defined as those who ex-
ercise powers over public resources. This can be traditional leaders, the lo-
cal government, NGOs, donors, the private sector, or people’s organisations.
Actors may be differentiated from each other by their beliefs and objectives,
the internal structure of their organisation, and the laws to which they are
subject (Agrawal and Ribot 1999; Shakleton et al. 2002). Each actor is posi-
tioned in particular relations of accountability depending on the historical,
socio-economic and political constitutions of the powers of each actor. As
each actor is positioned at a different level of social action and is part of a
playing field including within-community interests and power relations, it is
relevant to describe the so-called actors’ field.
Power is a fourth important aspect to analyse as the transfer of power is one

of the principles that makes decentralisation effective. In understanding de-
centralisation, four powers of decision-making are crucial (Agrawal and Ri-
bot 1999):
1 The power to create rules or modify old ones (legislative).

2 The power to make decisions about how a particular resource or opportu-
nity is to be used (executive).
3 The power to implement and ensure compliance to the rules (executive).
4 The power to adjudicate disputes that arise in an effort to create rules and
ensure compliance (judicial).
The four case studies on forestry of Agrawal and Ribot (1999) show that
rarely all types of power are decentralised to the local level. In forestry, de-
centralisation to the local actors included only the transfer of authority over
forest products that are important for subsistence, while the Forest Depart-
ments retained significant control over the commercial benefits from the sale
of timber. In Mali, for example, it is through its influence over forest man-
agement plans and the quota fixing process the Forest Service can set how
much, where, when, how, and with which management obligations exploitation
will take place. In other words, operational rules are delegated to the local
level, while decisions on the collective-choice level remain in the hands of
the government.
Also, the powers to enforce are transferred to administrative branches of the

state rather than to representative local governments at the same level. Yet,
without the transfer of powers to enforce them, the devolution of author-
ity to make decisions and rules is virtually meaningless (Agrawal and Ribot
1999). Whether such a transfer of power still leads to effective decentralisa-
tion depends on the nature of accountability relations, as well as on the mix
of powers a certain actor holds, and horizontal relations among actors at the
same level.
The last important dimension of decentralisation is accountability. Down-

ward accountability broadens participation and enhances the responsiveness
of empowered actors. Agrawal and Ribot (1999) suggest that if powers are
decentralised to actors who are not accountable to their constituents, or who
DECENTRALISATION IN COASTAL MANAGEMENT 191
are accountable only to themselves or to superior authorities within the struc-

ture of the government, then decentralisation is not likely to accomplish its
stated aims. It is only when constituents come to exercise accountability as a
countervailing power, that decentralisation is likely to be effective.
Vertical and horizontal ties among branches of government can shape the
relation of accountability between local government actors and their constit-
uencies (Agrawal and Ribot 1999). Similarly, relations between customary
authorities and their administrative superiors can shape their downward ac-
countability. Actors can be held downwardly accountable to local constituen-
cies by, for example, electoral processes. However, often elections are not
sufficient. Other mechanisms to increase downward accountability are hear-
ings, procedures for recall, referenda, advisory groups, third party monitor-
ing, controllers, auditing, and the creation of opportunities for community
consultation (Crawford et al. 2003). Aside from these formal mechanisms,
local officials are often in other ways accountable to friends, colleagues, kin
and local citizens (Lowry 2002).
It is all these aspects that we will include in our analysis of decentralisation

in fisheries and coastal management in the two countries.
10.7 Decentralisation in coastal management
The process of decentralisation in the context of coastal and fisheries man-

agement involves the restructuring of national laws, national fisheries agen-
cies and bureaucracies. New laws and policies need to include specific ref-
erence to the security of local level tenure and property rights over coastal
resources. It is important that these new or revised laws are compatible and
consistent with the existing laws and policies in other sectors as well as with
the overall administration. Also national agencies and bureaucracies need to
adapt in order to take on the new responsibilities and functions (Pomeroy and
Berkes 1997). The decision on what fisheries management functions should
be handled at which level, could be taken jointly by local representatives and
fisheries agencies. The government may further provide a forum or formal
administrative structure for the various parties to interact. It has an impor-
tant role in overseeing local arrangements and in dealing with abuse, conflict
management and appeals. Finally, the government can provide assistance
and services to support local organisations and institutional arrangements.
Depending on the capabilities of local-level organisations and their increas-
ing experience, the handing over of responsibilities and functions could be
phased (Pomeroy and Berkes 1997). The most common approach currently
promoted in decentralisation is adaptive management, or ‘learning-by-doing’
including flexibility and feedback loops.
10.8 Regional case studies of decentralisation
There is no ‘best’ form of decentralisation. Decentralisation can occur as a

broad administrative mandate in which fisheries are included, as in the case
of the Philippines, or it may occur for specific management functions. The
form of decentralisation depends on country specific conditions such as the
socio-cultural context, the economic situation, and the political history of a
country, especially in the case of post-colonial states (Pomeroy and Berkes
1997; Pomeroy 2001). It also depends on the history that people have in rela-
tions with the state and with conservation agencies (Wyckoff-Baird 2003).
But mostly of all it depends on the qualities, aspirations, visions, possibilities
and incentives of those who are involved or those who will be.
10.8.1 The Philippines

In the Philippines, the process of decentralisation came about as a reaction
to governance problems (Pomeroy and Berkes 1997). In 1991, the Philippine
government enacted the Local Government Code (LGC) which granted local
governments (municipalities) a number of powers, including the manage-
ment of nearshore waters – defined as all waters within 15 kilometres from
the coastline. Another important operative principle is a provision that Lo-
cal Government Units (LGUs) may group themselves and coordinate their
efforts, services and resources for purposes commonly beneficial to them
(DENR 2001). LGUs also have the power to create sources of revenue and
they have the exclusive authority to grant fishery privileges in municipal wa-
ters and levy taxes, fees and charges. The objective is to enable LGUs to at-
tain their fullest development as self-reliant communities and make them
more effective partners in the attainment of national development and social
progress (DENR 2001).
The Philippine form of decentralisation thus is devolution. The LGUs and

local communities have certain privileges and preferential rights. LGUs may
enter into joint ventures and other cooperative arrangements with People’s
Organisations (POs) and NGOs to engage in the delivery of certain basic
services, capability building and livelihood projects, and to develop local en-
terprises designed to, among others, diversify fisheries (Section 35), (DENR
2001).
The second legislative measure was the passage of the Fisheries Code of
1998 which incorporated Integrated Coastal Management (ICM) as one of
its policy approaches. It reinforced the active participation of local fisherfolk
and coastal communities through the establishment of municipal Fisheries
and Aquatic Resources Management Councils (FARMCs), (DENR 2001).
The codification of this law facilitates enforcement, local legislation, and
project implementation. New provisions include prohibitions against destruc-
tive fishing. Under this law, enforcement is assigned to LGUs who can ask
REGIONAL CASE STUDIES OF DECENTRALISATION 193
BFAR2 for assistance in the training of a local taskforce or Bantay Dagat. The
municipal government has the right to enact ordinances in accordance with
the National Fisheries Policy. They are further authorised to prohibit or limit
fishing and establish reserves and sanctuaries.3 The law further provides for
coordination and consultation with adjoining municipalities for the manage-
ment of larger resource systems.
Other important acts are the National Integrated and Protected Area System
(NIPAS) act of 1992, which allows the government to identify and segregate
defined areas of land and/or waters and classify them as protected areas for
various purposes (e.g. National Parks, Wildlife Reserves). And the Agricul-
ture and Fisheries Modernisation Act (AFMA) of 1997, which provides an
overall framework for industrialisation of agriculture in the country, includ-
ing fisheries. Under international treaties, such as CITES, local governments
are required to prevent the collection and trade of species listed.
This legal framework has opened up opportunities for community-based

fisheries management which has proven successful in terms of resource re-
habilitation as well as empowerment of local people (White et al. 2002).4 Cur-
rently, the Philippines are experiencing a rapid expansion of coastal initia-
tives at local and national scales (Yambao et al. 2001; Balgos and Ricci 2002).
Ahead of most countries, conditions in the Philippines are now favourable
for the wider application of Integrated Coastal Management (ICM). The In-
tegrated Coastal Management Sustainability Research Project (2001-2002)
supported ICM activities through research, project assistance and capacity
development. The Coastal Resource Management Project (CRMP) which
lasted from 1996-2004 provided technical assistance and training to coastal
communities, local government units, non-governmental organisations, and
national government agencies to promote improved management of coastal
resource in the Philippines. However, many local governments endowed with
the authority to manage coastal resources, are lacking financial and technical
resources to effectively carry out this mandate. Therefore, municipalities are
looking up to higher government levels for assistance.
2 Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources.

3 In the granting of fishery privileges in municipal waters, priority is given to resident fisherfolk
and/or their cooperatives and organizations.
4 The first-ever marine sanctuary in the Philippines was established in 1974 on Sumilon Island
(Cebu). This case has served as an example for other reserves such as Apo Island (Negros) which
was established in 1985, Balicasag and Pamilacan Islands (Bohol), Mabini (Batangas) and San
Salvador Island (Zambales), (White 1988; Parras 2001; White et al. 2002; Walmsley and White
2003). These initiatives are often cited and serve as international examples.
FIGURE 10.1 – Map of the Philippines (map: Micheal Waber)
Based on experiences in Negros Oriental province, recently three provin-

cial-level coastal management pilot projects were initiated (Balgos and Ricci
2002). For each of these projects, ICM working groups were established
which, on the longer term, will become permanent units within the offices
of environment and management. They are funded through annual alloca-
tions from the National Economic Development Fund. The main functions
of these units are: 1) formulation of provincial plans (in collaboration with
municipalities), 2) developing an coordinating mechanism on province lev-
el, 3) extend technical skills in planning, implementation and enforcement,
4) facilitate the expansion of ICM, 5) conduct environmental education and
training, and 6) assist municipalities in monitoring and evaluation of ICM

plans and programs (Balgos and Ricci 2002). The successes thus far point to
a paradigm shift wherein provinces play a greater ‘facilitation-coordination-
replication’ role in ICM.
The following sections present two case studies to illustrate how Coastal Man-
agement under a decentralised scheme can actually work out in practice.
Murcielagos bay (based on PIPULI 2002, Panorel 2004)

Murcielagos Bay lies on the northern coast of Mindanao and contains pro-
ductive mangroves, seagrass beds and coral reef systems. Migrant settlers
from the Visayas occupied the area of which the Subanen were the original
inhabitants. Nowadays approximately 3400 households reside in the area of
which 40% are directly dependent on fishing (PIPULI 2002). Over the past
years, fish catches declined drastically from 11 kg in 1985 to 1 kg in 2000.
Illegal fishing was rampant and of the 27 types of fishing gear used in 2001,
12 were considered destructive. Fish corrals and fine meshed nets result in
growth overfishing. With the introduction of compressor diving, big fish have
become very vulnerable. The harvest from these gears was double to that of
the non-destructive gears.
As Murcielagos Bay crosses various political boundaries within two different

provinces and two different regions, attempts at joint development in the ef-
forts did not progress due to poor coordination and low priorities on coastal
protection. As in other parts of the Philippines, communities were regarded
as subjects of national and local governments and as such did not participate
in the formulation of laws and development programmes. The majority of
the community were not politically aware and during elections would simply
sell their vote to the highest bidder (PIPULI 2002).
However, in the late 1990s, the communities at Murcielagos Bay became

involved in a community-based coastal resource management (CBCRM) pro-
gram. As they were fragmented, most activities were geared towards commu-
nity organising, capacity building, networking and advocacy. PIPULI, a Phil-
ippine NGO, was the catalyst in establishing stakeholder cooperation. The
main stakeholders were the poor fishers in the 24 coastal barangays (villages),
the local government and other government agencies, a number of NGOs,
and church based organisations. The process was also supported by aca-
demic institutions and international organisations such as the International
Marinelife Alliance (IMA). As the fishers were very keen on seeking solutions
for their concerns, organising the fishers proved an effective strategy. The
initiative was institutionalised at the level of the barangay, the municipality,
and Murcielagos-wide through the establishment of Resource Management
Organisations (RMOs). In the mean time networking and advocacy was a
strategy in building a broader support base for pursuing the necessary policy
changes. The parallel activities led to the establishment of the Murcielagos

Bay Multi-Stakeholder Management Body which ensured active participation
of all resource users.
The first Stakeholders Conference was held in November 2000 and led to
agreement on approach, cooperation, goals and strategies. A series of meet-
ings led to the forging of a Unified Fisheries Ordinance (UFO) that embodies
policies and acts that provide for the conservation, development and manage-
ment of Murcielagos Bay. The UFO covers a number of activities that are im-
portant in the context of decentralisation: 1) it combines both scientific and
local knowledge for decisions on fisheries management, 2) a Resource Us-
ers Assembly (RUA) revalidates the decisions of the majority of fishers and
thus is an important mechanism for accountability, 3) an Inter-Stakeholder
Conference is a representative body on a higher level which supports deci-
sion-making, 4) fund counterparting and a Technical Working Group (TWG)
are mechanisms to carry out the decisions, 5) lobbyists ensured that the UFO
is passed as a Municipal Ordinance, and 6) the ordinance is implemented
through the resource management organisations and Bantay Dagat.
Naturally, there are disputes and conflicts, but the communication structures
help to reach negotiations. Fish corral owners and dynamite fishers agreed to
use legally prescribed nets. Also the length of the closed season was negoti-
ated and agreed upon through an assembly of resource users. Delays in the
release of the counterpart funds by the bureaucratic systems of the Internal
Revenue Allotment have led the local organisations to pressure the authori-
ties to look for other means to comply with the agreed commitments.5 So
in that respect these organisations are actively involved and do have certain
powers.
There is still tension between fishers and authorities with regard to the power
to decide over specific issues, such as the ban period for fishing. Government
officials insisted on scientifically based limit, while the fishers asserted their
local knowledge. A last point is the fact that those in authority are dominant
in discussions, giving the fishers little opportunity to speak.6 But good facili-
tation and preparation of fishers overcomes this tension. The biggest threat
to the system is external support for the existing institutional arrangements
which are still weak.
5 The scheme for fiscal decentralisation of the government as mandated under the Local Govern-
ment Code allows an Internal Revenue Allotment (IRA) sharing that provides little income for less
populated areas, like Murcielagos. Marine resources are not included in the IRA computation,
much less in the local development prioritization of the government.
6 In contrast to Panorel, the document of PIPULI states that fishers find it difficult to assert their
rights because they do not see themselves as active participants in resource management. How-
ever, this information is of an earlier date than that of Panorel.
The case illustrates that Murcielagos Bay is well on the way to form a decen-
tralised management structure. Major shifts of power have occurred, deci-
sion-making forums and umbrella organisations are established to negotiate
conflicts and enhance accountability and participation. Issues raised by PIP-
ULI in 2002, such as compartmentalised fisheries management and resource
users that were not united and felt disempowered, were dealt with. The proc-
ess was strongly supported by a number of NGOs, academic institutions, and
foreign organisations. Issues currently dealt with have to do with power, but
no longer to the point where the government authorities automatically win.
The local groups assert their rights and defend their knowledge. This is an
important move forward towards integrated management of the fisheries in
Murcielagos Bay and a good example of a local process that includes impor-
tant mechanisms to enhance participation and democratic principles.
Bohol, Philippines (based on Mayo-Anda 2004, Indab and Suarez-Aspilla 2004)

Bohol is the easternmost island in the Central Visayas region in the Phil-
ippines. At least 60% of the coastal residents are either full-time or part-
time fishers. The coral reefs were suffering from blast-fishing and the use of
sodium cyanide (Parras 2001). The Environmental Legal Assistance Centre
(ELAC) started community-based coastal resources management through
education and extension of legal assistance. The local government was open
to multi-sectoral initiatives. In 1997, a year before the Fisheries Code was
promulgated, the ‘Bohol Environmental Summit’ was held where pressing
coastal issues were discussed. There was also a ‘Bohol Covenant for Sustain-
able Development’ signed by People’s Organisations (POs) and NGOs work-
ing in the area, and in 1998 a comprehensive environmental code was draft-
ed. Dissatisfied with the way the summit addressed coastal issues, NGOs and
some government representatives formed the multi-sectoral ‘Bohol Coastal
Resource Management Task Force’ and ‘Coastal Law Enforcement Councils’
in every district. This clearly illustrates the organisational and institutional
capacity in the Philippines.
The Enforcement Councils, composed of representative from government,7

villages, FARMCs,8 police and coast guard, were formalised thorough a
Memorandum of Agreement signed by the municipalities of Bohol, the na-
tional government and the ELAC. A group of advisers assist the councils in
their work, i.e. the formation of an enforcement team, drafting of enforce-
ment plan, procurement of budget allocations and logistics, capacity building
plan, the standardisation of policies, and coordination with local LGUs. The
last two tasks are very important as one of the predicted pitfalls in Philip-
7 DENR: Department of Environment and Natural Resources; BFAR: Bureau of Fisheries and
Aquatic Resources.
8 FARMCs or Fisheries and Aquatic Resource Management Councils were established under
Executive Order No. 240 to institutionalize participation of fishers in resource management.
pine decentralisation is the large number and overlap in laws (Van Weerd,
pers. comm. 2004; Plutz, pers. comm. 2004). Again, in these activities all
important government departments and enforcement agencies are actively
involved including the Provincial Board who donated 3 patrol boats. During
2000-2003 a large number of illegal fishing activities were reported and of-
fenders prosecuted.
Of course, there are problem areas too and the most eminent ones, as in
most cases discussed, were inadequate funding, logistics and support from
government agencies and NGOs. Lack of education of the people was also
mentioned as an obstruction. Corruption and lack of assets (equipment and
boasts) undermined enforcement and even when offenders are caught under
capacity leads to weak prosecution. MPA management in the Bohol Sea is
still fragmented.
Factors that enhance success are strong support from political leadership,
community participation and networking among sectors. An important les-
son is that enforcement leads to greater success of community management
of natural resources. Management involves a multi-sectoral and multi-agency
approach that has both a ‘hard’ (actual patrolling) and a ‘soft’ component
including IEC activities (information, education and communication). More
collaboration between LGUs is required and municipal waters need to be
delineated. Finally, municipal ordinances need to be harmonised.
This case study that shows that in the Philippines the process is away from
merely community-based initiatives. There are more horizontal and vertical
linkages established. These linkages are important in creating accountability
structures and forums for appeal. They also help in getting real authority over
resource management as enforcement is in local hands with legal back-up.
10.8.2 Discussion Philippines

The Philippines have put in place an institutional basis and legal framework
to facilitate devolution and support local autonomy. In various provinces, lo-
cal governments have adopted CRM on their own merit (Yambao et al. 2001).
There are a number of factors that motivate people to collaborate in CRM,
such as the recognition of a resource problem and the need for conservation.
The recognition that management is a way to address poverty on the longer
term, and the realisation that technical support is important and increases
the political will for coastal management. Skills and knowledge of the people
have vastly improved and local resource users have gained a more positive
attitude towards coastal management. They have developed new perspectives
and are actively involved in local committees and organisations. The involve-
ment of People’s Organisations also creates opportunities for advocacy. Em-
powered local organisations can make their needs known and ask for assist-
ance or demand effective government services. They can also lobby for more
favourable policies and allocations, and oppose measures that they consider
detrimental.
The two cases show that the process of decentralisation and transfer of au-
thority to local government and partners is definitely taking shape. In Murcie-
lagos bay, a few important building blocks to local resource management are
in place like representative bodies and umbrella structures as mechanisms to
ensure accountability and representation. Local organisation do have certain
powers that enhance their autonomy. The case of Bohol shows the develop-
ment of a sound organisational and institutional capacity to deal with the
new powers. Standardization of policies will help to counter the overlap of
laws and policies and improve the legal framework that forms the basis for
coastal resource management.
However, despite the sound legal framework and clear commitment of the
Philippine government to empower local communities and support them in
the management of resources, the implementation of policies and laws and
remains weak (PIPULI 2002). This is due to legal and jurisdictional conflicts
which arise from the plethora of legislation and administrative issuances af-
fecting different types of economic activities in the coastal area (DENR 2001).
Conflicting interpretations of these laws and poor dissemination of infor-
mation contribute to difficulties in implementation. Another factor is the
multiplicity of institutions at the national and local levels with mandates in
coastal management as it complicates the lines of authority over resources
and sometimes results in fragmented management initiatives.
At the same time, successful projects move the process forward and are rep-
licated elsewhere or scaled-up there were favourable conditions are in place.
Scaling up of the model for coastal management can take two forms: 1) in
terms of area and population involved, and 2) in kinds of tasks performed or
diversification. Scaling-up requires careful planning, groundwork, and ex-
periments. Important is not to rush the process under the pressure of donors
and funding (Balgos and Ricci 2002). Currently, the process of scaling-up
is taking place in Leyte-Samar (Region 8) covering 6 provinces under the
auspices of Leyte State University, the Philippine Council for Aquatic and
Marine Research and Development and the University of Rhode Island. In
2002, discussions were held involving numerous stakeholders about the role
in terms of support of the provincial government, NGOs and academic insti-
tutions. At this moment, the role of the provinces is being further defined,
as well as that of other (research) institutions. This institutional set-up is
expected to solidify and push forward devolution towards long-term effective-
ness and success (Balgos and Ricci 2002).
10.8.3 Indonesia
The ‘New Order’ regime of president Suharto (1966-1998) was characterised
by heavy resource extraction for economic development and a weakening
of many local traditional institutions that mediated access and use of local
resources (Thorburn 2002). After the fall of autocratic Suharto regime in
1998 and in response to a greater demand for transparency, honesty and au-
tonomy, a series of laws shifting both the political power and financial control
from the central government to the regional level have been drafted (Casson
2001; Patlis et al. 2001). This so-called ‘post-New Order’ period signals a shift
in the management of natural resources that has profound implications for
the rights and roles of local communities and regional governments. Decen-
tralisation, however, is still in its initial stages and brings with it a host of new
worries and problems that often have roots in the previous regimes (Peluso
2002; Thorburn 2002).
During the brief presidency of Suharto’s successor, president Habibie (1998

– 1999), the government passed a number of reform measures committing
the government to a course of administrative and financial decentralisation.
Law No. 22/1999 on regional autonomy and Law No. 25/1999 on financial
relations created the legal and financial framework for governance primarily
by the districts, with assistance from both provincial and central levels of
government (Dahuri and Dutton 1999; Patlis et al. 2001).9 In the same year,
both the National Maritime Council (NMC) and the new Ministry of Marine
Affairs and Fisheries, the DKP10 were established.
The implications of these legal changes for resource management are pro-
found and entail a larger role for the regional governments (province, district
and sub-district). The province has jurisdiction over the territorial sea up to
12 nautical miles from the coastline (art. 10.2), while the district may estab-
lish jurisdiction over one third of the provincial waters or 4 nautical miles
from the shoreline. There are two exceptions: 1) the territorial sea should not
restrict traditional fishing rights and 2) the seabed underneath the sea terri-
tory still falls under the authority of the central government (Patlis et al. 2001;
Satria and Matsuda 2004). The central government also maintains direct re-
sponsibility over the maritime areas within the Exclusive Economic Zone
(EEZ). In contrast to other resources from which revenues are allotted direct-
ly to the district of origin, benefits from fisheries are redistributed in equal
sums to all regencies throughout Indonesia (Reg. 104/2000, Art. 11(2)). This
highlights the fact that fisheries are regarded as commonly owned (Patlis et
al. 2003).
9 Government levels: Province (Propinsi); District (Kabupaten); Municipality (Kotamadya);

Sub-district (Kecamatan); Village (Desa).
10 DKP: Departemen Kelautan dan Perikanan.
Instead of direct regulation and control, the role of the central government
has become primarily one of indirect action. However, the central govern-
ment retains authority to develop policy regarding natural resource manage-
ment and to take administrative action against a regional government that
fails to implement existing laws or regulations (Law No. 25/2000, art. 7),
(Patlis et al. 2001). The province is responsible for: a) exploration, exploita-
tion, conservation and management of the sea, b) administrative affairs, and
c) law enforcement. District and municipal governments are now empow-
ered to set resource use and spatial planning policy, and to manage revenues
and budgets. District and provincial assemblies (DPRD) must issue scores of
new regulations and decrees to administer these new responsibilities (Thor-
burn 2002).
After the major problems in various parts of the country and under pressure
of certain groups Wahid (1999-2001) agreed to revise Laws No. 22 and 25 in
order maintain the ‘unitary state’. President Megawati Sukarnoputri was pur-
suing the review, including the reestablishment of the government hierarchy
(Down to Earth 2001). A more powerful standpoint and continuation of the
decentralisation process is expected from the newly elected president, Susilo
Bambang Yudhoyono (cf Maas 2004b, 2004c).
The two following sections describe the process in the field and show recent
developments in coastal resource management in Indonesia.
Minahasa, North Sulawesi (based on Tulungen 2002, Patlis et al. 2003)

Minahasa district comprises 150 villages along a 260 km long coastline. The
district was one of the first to create a legal framework for community-based
integrated coastal management (ICM). The law is a culmination of a 5-year
effort by the Coastal Resources Management Project (CRMP) or Proyek Pesisir
funded by USAID and implemented by the National Development Planning
Agency (BAPPENAS) with support of the University of Rhode Island and
other agencies11 (cf. Crawford et al. 1998; Crawford et al. 2003). Strategies
centred upon the development of enabling frameworks and the documenta-
tion and institutionalisation of good practices to enable replication. This was
done through a combination of legal instruments, guidebooks and training.
11
USAID and the Coastal Resources Center of the University of Rhode Island (USA) have been
responsible for a number of long-term field programs that work to build local and national capac-
ity to effectively practice coastal governance. Other sites with field programs are Balikpapan Bay
in East Kalimantan, Lampung Province in South Sumatra, and Bintuni Bay in Papua (see Patlis et
al. 2003). Another project implemented to counter coral reef degradation is COREMAP funded by
the WorldBank, ADB, AusAID and LIPI.
FIGURE 10.2 – Proyek Pesisir field locations (photo: Brian Crawford)
The formulation of the new district law or Perda involved bottom-up com-
munity participation and involvement of the private sector, NGOs and Sam
Ratulangi University (UNSRAT) in Minahasa. It sets out the key principles,
goals, benefits and priorities for community-based management, transpar-
ency, and accountability. It also recognises traditional rights. An Integrated
Coastal Resources Management Board oversees the process of preparing and
approving community plans to integrate the different concerns among stake-
holders – government, private sector and community – as well as the coor-
dination of the different sector interests within the government institutions
themselves. The Minahasa Fisheries and Marine Office has been assigned
the role of providing technical assistance to villages.
The community based approach builds on four village-based pilot projects

carried out earlier.12 These projects had already resulted in locally approved
plans and village ordinances to implement marine reserves, no-take zones,
mangrove conservation and reforestation, shore erosion control measures,
and supplementary livelihood activities. In turn, the district supported these
efforts. The law now provides an important new level of institutional com-
mitment for upholding local regulations, as well as for carrying out non-
regulatory measures. Adoption of the new law also makes financing village-
initiated plans easier. By 2003, 24 coastal villages in Likupang sub-district
at the northern tip of North Sulawesi were involved (Crawford and Kasmidi
2004).
12 In Blongko, Talise, and Bentenan-Tumbak village.

FIGURE 10.3 – Capacity building and project activities in Blongko (photo: Brian Crawford)
The drafting of the law was a process that involved local experts who prepared
a ‘white paper’ for discussion. The academic draft that followed was distributed
and discussed in a variety of meetings, also international. Central government
agencies were also consulted, including those of Fisheries and Marine Affairs.
Finally, in 2001, the regulation was submitted to the Minahasa House of Rep-
resentatives to enter the enactment process. The process followed the formal
mechanisms in legislature and included the establishment of a special task
force, public hearings, and final meetings to enact the regulation.
In order to fully utilise or enforce the law, however, it is essential that the con-
stituency which was mobilised to pass the law continues to remain engaged
in the integrated Coastal Resources Management Board in promoting its use
by Minahasa’s villages and evaluating its implementation.
Proyek Pesisir is now assisting Minahasa as it begins to implement the new

law. This includes operating the Integrated Coastal Resources Management
Board which was established in 2003, and working with the Fisheries Office
to prepare a plan for getting budget appropriations. They are also helping to
meet the demand for technical assistance by villages. Basic elements in the
law are: 1) definitions of key terms such as ‘coastal area’ and ‘participation’,
2) clarification of authorities and responsibilities among agencies and gov-
ernment levels, 3) creation of mechanisms and programs for coordination,
education, training and outreach, 4) identification of basic criteria for coastal
management for villages, and 5) it mandates funding for implementation.

The new law stand as a model both in terms of the process in developing the
law, as well as in the substance of the law.
Keys to success were the de-politicization of the process (by inviting repre-
sentatives of all political parties), 2) the signing of letters of intent to enhance
commitment, 3) extensive public participation, 4) sound documentation and
explanation of the process, and 5) a media campaign which increased public
awareness. Important was also that the law is not overambitious. A primary
lesson is the flexibility to adapt to comments and revise the draft Perda as it
went through the process thereby increasing its legitimacy. Shortcomings
were the lack of documentation of initial public consultations, the timing of
the background material, including the ‘white paper’, and the lack of engage-
ment with the administrative offices of the Bupati (district head) until near
the very end of the process.
This case study shows how with adequate support, local resource manage-
ment can become a reality. The case of Minahasa, however, is an exception in
Indonesia and its success is largely due to strong financial and institutional
support of foreign donors for this program. However, the case provides a
possible format for similar initiatives elsewhere in the region and provides
an example of how local autonomy and the development of a sound legal
framework can become a reality.
Maluku (based on Kissya and Dwisasanti 2004)

In Central Maluku local resources are managed under sasi, a traditional regu-
latory system geared towards sustainable use (Benda-Beckmann et al. 1995;
Novaczek et al. 2001). Here, the effects of decentralisation also become vis-
ible. During the reformasi, the area was in great turmoil due to a period of
civil strife that lasted from 1999 to 2003 (cf van Klinken 1999; Goss 2004).
During the riots, in many villages the social structures were no longer ad-
hered to and laws or rules neglected or violated. Exacerbated by the economic
crisis and humanitarian tragedy this tendency led to habitat destruction and
resource depletion.
When the riots ended, villages re-established resource regulations. Interest-

ingly, in Haruku village where sasi is deeply rooted, customary law (adat)
really helped and supported the process of conflict resolution and recovery
(Kissya and Dwisasanti 2004).13 The revival of sasi regulations and customary
13 The revival of adat and a second traditional system which creates alliances between villages
called pela are seen as two important building blocks in ensuring stability and peace all over Cen-
tral Maluku (Welsh 2003). In this respect, van Klinken (1999) mentions the restructuring of the
government, i.e. replace the nepotistic connections (often based on religion) for accountable and
transparent structures.
practices was strongly supported by the local traditional taskforce called ke-
wang and community members. In November 2003, when for the first time
after the period of civil strife sasi was opened again, more participants than
ever came to witness the rituals (Rumaruson 2003).
FIGURE 10.4 – Head of the kewang Elli Kissya with Binny, Meentje and myself in 1998.
Efforts are being made to put into place a national and provincial agenda
to acknowledge sasi as a model for effective community-based governance.
Proposed components of this agenda are: 1) to extend the power of the sasi
authorities (traditional, church or mosque) to a broader level so that they
can deal with outsiders, 2) to provide a legal basis at the provincial and lo-
cal level for customary laws and property rights, and 3) to urge government
officials to open and transparent decision-making, including policy. It is fur-
ther suggested that local traditional authorities participate in seminars and
conferences as to promote this model and improve it. This would provide a
learning forum for indigenous leaders, CBCRM practitioners and facilitators
and could lead to the formation of solidarity groups engaged with effective
community-based governance.
The case of Haruku shows the enormous potential of traditional resource

management institutions in coastal management and their vital role in con-
flict resolution and the re-establishment of local rules and regulations, even
in the case of major upheavals. The strong community commitment and
presence of organisational structures form an important basis for capacity

building towards autonomy. Noted must be though that Haruku is one the
very few villages in Maluku with a strong sasi system and a well-known repu-
tation for traditional resource management. How villages where sasi is less
prevalent survived the period of conflict and social breakdown is not clear.
The current efforts to draft a district law (Perda) meaning to reintroduce adat
village structures (Soselisa pers. comm. 2004) may have a positive effect on
the functioning of this traditional management system and its revival.
10.8.4 Discussion Indonesia

In countries that are in transition from an authoritarian regime to a more
democratic system, such as post-New Order Indonesia, the transition often
has great impact on social structures and local institutions. The success of de-
centralisation is location specific and dependent on the manoeuvring space
for local governments, the presence of the army,14 and the type resources and
subsequent business interests (Spyer, pers. comm. 2005). In West Sumatra,
for example, decentralisation has not only rearranged the political and eco-
nomic relationships between the centre, province and districts, it has also led
to a reorganisation of village constitutional structures and institutions (von
Benda-Beckmann and von Benda-Beckmann 2002). In Central Kalimantan,
decentralisation involves ethnic conflicts instigated by local elites who use
their ethnicity to attain a powerful position (Snyder 2000). In other areas, the
introduction of the new laws on local autonomy, has led to an increase in the
exploitation of natural resources, pollution and degradation as a result of the
eagerness of local government to earn local revenues (Casson 2001). So what
should have been a chance for improved governance has become an actual
threat to local systems and regulations (van Klinken 2002).
The case of Minahasa illustrates one of the very few successful cases of decen-
tralisation in Indonesia. With strong support and international funding, the
CRMP program has become a showcase that offers opportunities for replica-
tion and inspiration. The program has contributed to the development of a new
district law on integrated coastal zone management, including the principles of
transparency and participation. A similar law is now apparently being drafted
for Maluku. The case of Haruku provides another positive example as it shows
how customary law (adat) and traditional institutions such as the kewang as well
as support of the community can help to sustain local resource management
systems, even after major impacts (Chapter 7). These cases provide important
14 The army (and police) are mentioned as playing an important role in the local power arenas
in Indonesia, especially as the army is represented from national to village level and use security
issues to generate an income. Various experts on Indonesia mention their critical role in decen-
tralization (Schulte Nordholt 2003, Spyer (2005) pers. comm.; Jones 2004) but also in the recent
regional conflicts. This complex issue will not be further dealt with in this paper, but for more
detailed information I recommend to read the above authors.
BOTTLENECKS AND OPPORTUNITIES 207
building stones for the formulation of new laws and the acknowledgement of
local traditional resource management systems such as sasi (Salim 1995).
The inclusion of local traditional management structures adds extra com-

plexity to the drafting of a new district law, but is vital to effective coastal zone
management and in creating wider political stability (Crawford pers. comm.
2004). However, two important aspects should be kept in mind. One is that
in areas where customary law (adat) is weak or dysfunctional it does not pro-
vide a sound basis for local resource management. In West Sumatra, for ex-
ample, von Benda Beckmann and von Benda-Beckmann (2002) describe a
situation where the Adat Village Council could rarely come to consensual
decisions. The second aspect concerns the role of traditional elites. Where
on the one hand decentralisation creates opportunities for those who aspire
to increase their personal power, on the other some traditional elites will not
be able to adapt to more democratic structures. In both cases, mechanisms
to enhance a more democratic system such as more transparency and repre-
sentation are likely to fail.
10.9 Bottlenecks and opportunities
Freedom of the regional governments to use natural resource revenues at

their discretion, potentially leads to unbridled resource exploitation as is hap-
pening in certain forest areas in Central Kalimantan. Also the role of power-
ful new elites who are trying to retain power and budgets is a potential threat.
Ribot (2004) explains how some projects in the context of decentralisation
use people as mere labour rather than empowering them and that if there
happens to be a transfer of authority, it often does not include lucrative op-
portunities. These experiences lead us to question to what extent the process
of decentralisation is effectively taking place.
It is not surprising that some researchers are developing a sceptical view.

The cases described in this chapter, however, provide us with an opportunity
to bring in some nuances and distil the aspects that do work. Key aspects in
decentralisation that, if not properly dealt with, can lead to problems are: ac-
countability, funding, property rights, the legal framework, the institutional
structure, and external support.
Aside from a few exceptions such as the Inuit fishery in the Canadian Arctic
and Japanese fisheries (Kearney 2004) most political structures concerning
resource management are in the top down direction. Accountability struc-
tures thus are upward. Most institutions currently being chosen to receive
powers over natural resource management are not accountable to the local
population and therefore susceptible to elite capture, as is currently happen-
ing in Central Kalimantan. It is thus necessary to redirect these structures
and create downward accountability. This is, however a difficult process.

An analysis by workshop participants on Fisheries Co-management from 11
different countries concluded that even where decentralisation efforts were
sincere, accountability structures were still upward (pers. obs. IAC training
course 2004).15 Only in a few places, like the case studies in this chapter, are
mechanisms that ensure downward accountability in place. Their general
establishment and implementation throughout the country, especially in In-
donesia, are an important next step.
In order to effectively handle decentralised powers at the local level, certain

conditions have to be met such as adequate funding. The lack of budgets, ade-
quate staff, and skills cause the local governments to face serious challenges in
handling their new responsibilities (Lowry 2002; Crawford et al. 2003; Knight
and Lowry 2003; WRI 2003). Again this issue is common in many countries
and forms one of the major obstacles towards effective decentralisation (pers.
obs. IAC training course 2004). This is also why local elites and district offices
under the new law in Indonesia grab the opportunity to increase their income
by the issuance of licences for forest concessions. The rampant exploitation of
forest resources is, however, not likely to occur to the same extent in fisheries
as the revenues of marine resources cannot be claimed by the individual dis-
trict offices but are being redistributed all over Indonesia.
The transfer of burdens without resources has not only led to scepticism,
but has also increased the vulnerability of local people. This vulnerability can
increase when property rights are not well-defined. For example, if the com-
munity is required to draft complex management plans to arrange exclusion
while large-scale commercial interests enter and use the resources with per-
mits acquired from the national government (Ribot 2004), decentralisation
is likely to fail. Specified and secure user rights are a prerequisite for local
support for management and the development of a positive attitude towards
conservation and sustainable resource use (Chapter 11). It is the task of the
central government to establish conditions for the specification, legitimiza-
tion and enforcement of property rights and fishers’ rights to organise and
develop rules for management (Pomeroy 2001).
Law itself is one of the foundations of society as it shapes the behaviour and
activities of its citizens, write Patlis et al. (2003). In order to sustain and insti-
tutionalise the concepts of integrated coastal management and good govern-
15 Every year, the International Agricultural Centre (IAC) of the University of Wageningen organ-
izes a training course on Fisheries Co-management. Last year, the course was entitled ‘Fisheries
Management: Perspectives, Information, and Co-management’ (4 Oct-19 Nov 2004). Participants
came from Angola, India, Italy, Mozambique, Nigeria, the Philippines, Senegal, Sri Lanka, Tan-
zania, Uganda, and Zambia. My lecture and exercise on co-management and decentralization,
and in particular on accountability structures and obstacles towards decentralization, lead to the
insights written above.
BOTTLENECKS AND OPPORTUNITIES 209
ance, they have to be internalised through the legal system. The drafting of a
law itself is a process that can enhance understanding and support democrat-
ic principles such as participation and transparency and in this way increases
legitimacy. A flexible, consultative process and realistic objectives help in the
adoption and practical application of a new law. The law itself should include
the authority and functions delegated under the existing legal framework,
including developmental, regulatory, revenue generating and other activities
associated with effective coastal management (Knight and Lowry 2003).
Problems with the new legal and institutional arrangements are common.
The laws at the local level are so manifold that they overlap and lead to confu-
sion. Local governments can pass ordinances that are not necessarily in line
with those of neighbouring villages or municipalities. Regulations are also
apt to change as with elections new leaders and parties may very well change
the ordinances again (van Weerd, pers. comm. 2005). If no mechanisms are
in place to halt this or where people are not capable to oppose these changes
– as is the case in remote villages around Murcielagos Bay where people are
not politically aware and depend on authorities – this situation can lead to
insecurity and short-term perspective of local resource users. It is therefore
that political empowerment, capacity building and social preparation as ap-
plied by the MREP program are so significant.
It is also important to study the role and position of the traditional authori-
ties in a community and define to what extent there are possibilities to work
with these institutions under a decentralised regime. Where traditional in-
stitutions exist that are locally supported, legitimate and capable to deal with
resource management responsibility, power should be handed over to tra-
ditional authorities. If a functional, democratic local government is present
this would be the appropriate authority to become engaged in the process.
What we would argue against, is the handing-over of power to newly estab-
lished institutions such as fishing committees that have neither the political
nor cultural grounding to function long-term. Often these organisations lack
the legitimacy that is required or the scope to operate at a wider level. Most
important, however, is the fact that these new structures often provide op-
portunities for local elites and outside powerful actors to play a major role in
resource management.
The Philippines are ahead in scaling-up and dealing with resource manage-
ment at a wider scope than the local community. Coordination of efforts in
the province or region is important as fishermen face similar issues (Caasi in
LeaRN Newsletter 2004). It is important therefore that local structures allow
for scaling-up to province wide or regional management. Fishers’ organisa-
tions or LGUs may therefore not always be the proper institutions as they are
limited in membership and scope. There is more potential in working with
NGOs as they can operate on wider level and often have the financial and
technical support that are required (PIPULI 2002). In Indonesia, however,

large-scale NGO intervention may not feasible because, if at all present, there
is a history of distrust between NGOs and local people (Crawford et al. 2003).
Other structures need to be devised to deal with resource management on a
larger scale.
Transparency and responsiveness are important aspects in decentralisation

but may not be easily achieved in a country like Indonesia where govern-
ment control and manipulation of the media has been unbridled. Even now
that there is a political willingness to create an atmosphere of openness and
transparency, it seems impossible to shed off the harness of the past. After a
period of relative freedom of press, the Indonesian government is again pull-
ing the ropes of control with the incarceration of the chief-editor of Tempo,
a renowned national newspaper, after the publication of allegations against
a politically important businessman (Maas 2004a). The outcome of a court
case dealing with this issue will be decisive for the role the government plays
in controlling the media. Nevertheless, the little faith in media coverage that
people may have built up over the past years is probably seriously undermined
and it will take more than time to re-establish that confidence. Only on the
long term will processes like the drafting of district laws involving multiple
parties and the establishment of transparent, accountable structures in the
villages enhance democratic principles.
On the national level, large international organisations such as the World

Bank or the Asian Development Bank play a key-role in the move towards
decentralisation (Persoon and van Est 2003). International donors can help
to push the process of decentralisation through political pressure, or simply
offer new approaches, ideas and input for sustainable resource management.
Also on the local level, external agents such as German Technical Cooperation
(GTZ) and the Japan Official Development Assistance are active in providing
training, technical assistance, in offering a new approach in decision-making
and conflict resolution, and in creating political awareness (GTZ 2001, 2003,
2004). Funding from donors is critical in financing the development and
facilitation of decentralisation. The case of North Sulawesi and the MREP
program shows how important sustained financial input and technical assist-
ance is in developing and establishing sound local management systems.
10.10 Conclusion
The process of decentralisation is slow and sometimes painful. Setbacks lead

to discouragement and especially those who are threatened by decentralisa-
tion are quick to declare its failure (Ribot 2004). However, the assessments
in terms of negatives currently being made, obscure many important chang-
es that are taking place. F. and K. von Benda-Beckmann (2002) say: ‘Politi-
CONCLUSION 211
cal ideals, such as democracy, do not provide a good standard for evaluating
actual political processes. The risk is that they create a selective and inevitably
negative assessment as they do not measure the actual (past) conditions and
change.’ For Indonesia, the reference to evaluate change should be the op-
pressive and exploitative Suharto regime, its systematic corruption and its
minimal room for political discussion and critique. So what has changed?
In Indonesia, since 2002 at least 15 districts and 30 provinces have drafted dis-
trict and provincial coastal management laws or Perdas.16 At numerous case
study sites (Balgos and Pagdilao 2002; Shakleton et al. 2002; Ribot 2004),
local governments have demonstrated capacity and initiative in natural re-
source management. Local people have been empowered and local councils
increased their revenues from resource use. Marginal and disadvantaged
groups are playing a greater role and are benefiting from newly set-up man-
agement schemes. Both in Indonesia and the Philippines, positive effects are
clear with the local communities taking up responsibility for management,
the drafting of new district laws, the revival of traditional institutions, and the
scaling-up of local efforts to province-wide management.
The new financial decentralisation scheme has certain shortcomings. Free-

dom of the regional governments to use natural resource revenues at their
discretion, potentially leads to unbridled resource exploitation as is happen-
ing in certain forest areas in Central Kalimantan. Also the role of powerful
new elites who are trying to retain power and budgets is a potential threat.17
Therefore, the role, mandate and authority of the district and provincial gov-
ernments need to be clearly demarcated. To make decentralisation more
effective it is necessary to further operationalise Law No. 22/1999 and to
legitimise and empower local institutions. The development of an umbrella
law, procedural mechanisms and an interdepartmental coordinating body
are suggested to support a nationwide approach that allows for local manage-
ment and to enhance coordination and effectiveness of various agencies.
There is no blueprint formula for decentralisation. Each country will need to

develop a strategy based on its own needs, conditions, and experiences. From
the above we can learn that the type, form and process of decentralisation is
very much dependent on the local conditions and context. Decentralisation
should be viewed as an evolving process that adjusts and matures over time.
It will move from one type to the next as more knowledge and experience is
16 The number of provinces has increased from 26 to 32, and the number of districts from 360
to 450. The reason for this formation is the opportunity to benefit from local resource revenues, as
well as the delivery of central government services. The risk of this development is pemekaran or
administrative fragmentation (Jones 2004).
17 The mapping out of the power arena is an important tool in dealing with these parties and in
setting out strategic moves to undermine their power (Shackleton et al. 2002; Ribot 2004).
gained by the government and the political will for decentralisation increases
(Pomeroy and Berkes 1997). Mistakes and setbacks are unavoidable, espe-
cially in a country like Indonesia where the process was pushed and decen-
tralisation laws executed at a faster rate than the lower government levels and
local population could handle.
From the cases we can learn important lessons. Important in Murcialagos

Bay is the establishment of local assemblies, inter-stakeholder conferences,
umbrella organisations and other mechanisms that support accountability.
The local organisations are actively involved and have adequate powers to
make local decisions and rules, albeit within the limits set by the local govern-
ment. In Bohol, policies were standardized and coordinated with local LGUs
which was an important move in countering the large overlap of local laws
and ordinances. There is a task force in place to deal with enforcement, and
actions are coordinated on district level. From Minahasa we can learn that
with sufficient external support decentralised local resource management is
possible. The development of the new district law was a sound process with
a positive outcome that can serve as an example for other districts. Ongoing
support, however, is necessary to sustain these efforts (Crawford 2004, pers.
comm.). From Maluku we learn that traditional institutions can play a strong
role in resource management and help to rebuild social structures even in
the case of a major disruption.
To get ‘the institutions right’ requires a thorough analysis of the existing

political structures, the role and position of traditional authorities, and the
appropriateness of these institutions to deal with new management require-
ments. Where local communities themselves lack expertise – and not eve-
rywhere do local people have sustainable resource practices – they need as-
sistance from government line agencies, NGOs, or the private sector (WRI
2003). Large donors and international organisations play an important role
in providing the funds and expertise for large projects. Their support and
training help to establish management regimes that form important exam-
ples and can be replicated at other sites or scaled-up to bay-wide or province
wide management regimes.
In conclusion, we can say that even though perhaps scattered, there are posi-
tive experiences in the setting up of local resource management systems un-
der decentralisation. A first lesson is to give decentralisation time. Especially
for countries with a history of colonisation and dictatorship, such as Indone-
sia, expectations should be realistic. With a legacy of corruption, nepotism
and fraud power structures, little or no individual responsibility, a large de-
gree of distrust between communities and government, the shift towards a
decentralised and, in the long run, more democratic state is immense and
will take generations. Other countries, such as the Philippines, provide an
inspiring example in achieving this goal.
213
11 Conditions Affecting the Success of

Fisheries Co-management: Lessons from
Asia*
The purpose of this chapter is to present results from the first five-year phase
of the Fisheries Co-management Research project implemented by the In-
ternational Center for Living Aquatic Resources Management (ICLARM)
and the Institute of Fisheries Management (IFM), with national partners in
Asia and Africa. More specifically, the chapter will present results of condi-
tions which affect the success of co-management as identified through the
project’s research activities in Asia. A brief discussion on the data sources for
this chapter is presented in section 3.9. Next, the eighteen conditions identi-
fied as being of high importance for success are presented, grouped into
three categories: supra-community level, community level, and individual
and household level. The chapter will finish with a discussion of policy impli-
cations for fisheries co-management.
11.1 Introduction
Over the last fifteen years, research undertaken at different locations around
the world has documented many cases, both successful and unsuccessful, of
co-management in fisheries and other coastal resources (Jentoft and Kristof-
fersen 1989; Smith and Walters 1991; White et al. 1994; Berkes et al. 1996;
Hoefnagel and Smit 1996; DeCosse and Jayawickrama 1998; Normann et
al. 1998). From the results of this research, conditions are emerging which
are central to developing and sustaining successful co-management arrange-
ments (Pinkerton 1989; Pinkerton 1993; Pinkerton 1994; Pinkerton and
Weinstein 1995). The list is long and varied, and is growing. Research and
practical experience is continuing to reveal more about co-management ar-
rangements and the factors affecting their successful implementation and
performance. It should be noted that these conditions are not absolute or
complete. There can still be successful co-management without having met
all of the conditions. However, consensus is growing that the more of these
conditions that are satisfied in a particular situation, the greater the chances
for successful implementation of co-management.
*Based on: R.S. Pomeroy, B.M. Katon, I.H.T. Harkes (2001) Conditions Affecting the Success of
Fisheries Co-management: Lessons from Asia. Marine Policy 25: 197-208.
214 CONDITIONS AFFECTING THE SUCCESS OF FISHERIES CO - MANAGEMENT
11.2 Conditions Affecting the Success of Fisheries

Co-management
The conditions are grouped according to three categories of contextual varia-

bles identified by Pollnac (in Pomeroy et al. 1996). The three categories are:
1 Supra-community level – Supra-community conditions affecting the suc-

cess of fisheries co-management include those that are external to the
community, including enabling legislation and supportive government
administrative structures at the national level, and markets. They can also
include demographic factors and technological change.
2 Community level – Community level conditions affecting the success of
fisheries co-management include those found within the community and
include both the physical and the social environment in terms of potential
relationships with fisheries and coastal management.
3 Individual and household level – The individual is responsible for making
the decision to carry out co-management. Individual and household deci-
sion-making and behaviour is thus central to the success of co-manage-
ment.
It should be noted that this is not a comprehensive list of conditions, but

reflects those conditions that the authors feel, based on the research, are of
high importance for success of fisheries co-management in Asia.
11.2.1 Supra-community level
Enabling policies and legislation

If co-management initiatives are to be successful, basic issues of government
action to establish supportive legislation, policies, rights and authority struc-
tures must be addressed. Policies and legislation need to spell out jurisdic-
tion and control; provide legitimacy to property rights and decision-making
arrangements; define and clarify local responsibility and authority; clarify
the rights and responsibilities of partners; support local enforcement and
accountability mechanisms; and provide fisher groups or organisation the
legal right to organize and make arrangements related to its needs. The legal
process formalizes rights and rules and legitimizes local participation in co-
management arrangements.
If supportive legislation and policies are in place, partners tend to have less
difficulty in asserting their rights and roles, particularly if the judicial system
is fair and objective. The legal basis for the resource user’s participation in re-
source management is vital and must address fundamental concerns, which
include: 1) who has the right to use the resource; 2) who owns the resource;
and 3) what is the legal framework for implementing co-management ar-
rangements. The arrangements may be undermined in the absence of a legal
CONDITIONS AFFECTING THE SUCCESS OF FISHERIES CO - MANAGEMENT 215
basis. The role of the government in establishing conditions for co-manage-

ment is crucial, particularly in the creation of legitimacy and accountability
for institutional arrangements and the delineation of power sharing and deci-
sion-making (Pomeroy and Berkes 1997).
In the Philippines, the enactment of the Local Government Code of 1991

(LGC) ushered in the formal devolution of powers and responsibilities from
the central government to the local government units and people’s organi-
sations. The changed administrative arrangements resulting from the LGC
have created a supportive environment for co-management to prosper (Katon
et al. 1997). An administrative power shift placed local governments at the
forefront of coastal resource management (Katon et al. 1998). At the local
level, the passage of complementary ordinances and the integration of sus-
tainable resource management in local policies and plans have further en-
hanced co-management efforts. The Fisheries Code of 1998 further defined
and strengthened these authorities and responsibilities.
External agents
External change agents are often needed to expedite the co-management
process. Change agents may come from NGOs, academic or research institu-
tions, religious organisations, government agencies and project teams (Katon
et al. 1997; Baticados and Agbayani 1998; Katon et al. 1998; van Mulekom
and Tria 1999). These external agents assist the community in defining the
problem; provide independent advice, ideas and expertise; provide training
and technical assistance; guide joint problem-solving and decision-making;
and assist in developing management plans. External agents fill a special
role in terms of drawing out insights with a participatory style of facilitation,
processing the insights, and guiding the community in reaching its goals.
Their willingness to live in the community to work with local people, ability
to focus on community objectives and their linkages with donors and other
supportive organisations are among the factors which favor their catalytic
role.
The external agent should be objective and serve a catalytic role in the devel-
opment process. The external agent should not directly interfere in the proc-
ess, but may guide or provide information on how to proceed in the process
or with a policy. Documented experiences underscore the role of external
agents in setting in place a process of discovery and social learning. These
catalysts open the eyes of resource users, stakeholders and partner organisa-
tions to pressing issues, urge them to search for appropriate solutions, and
challenge them to take collective action (Katon et al. 1997; Katon et al. 1998;
Baticados and Agbayani 1998; van Mulekom and Tria 1999). The external
agent should have a temporary relationship with the co-management proc-
ess, serving their particular function and then phasing out. However, the
recruitment of external agents, such as NGOs, may not always be ideal in
establishing co-management. The staff may be young and may not readily be
accepted by traditional societies. Some of them may have ideological views
on development that may not be acceptable to the community or the govern-
ment. Others may be reluctant to involve the government and the business
community even though they are stakeholders in resource management.
They may also lack funds to finance continuing operations.
11.2.2 Community Level
Appropriate scale and defined boundaries

The scale for co-management arrangements may vary a great deal but should
be appropriate to the area’s ecology, people, and level of management. This
includes the size of the physical area to be managed and how many members
should be included in a management organisation so that it is representative,
but not too large, so as to be unworkable. Decisions on physical scale include
not only the boundaries of the area to be managed, but also the species or
ecosystem level to be managed. The scale of the management unit should
be appropriate to human resources and the ecology of the area. Boundaries
should be distinct so that the fishers have an accurate knowledge of them,
can easily observe them, and are of a size which fits with available fishing
and monitoring and surveillance technology. The boundaries of the area to
be managed are often established based on political criteria, but where pos-
sible, should also reflect ecosystem considerations. In terms of members,
it is observed that small groups are more manageable than larger groups
(Calumpong 1996). In co-management, where a great number of people may
be involved, it is wise to divide them into smaller groups to facilitate and
enhance supervision, control and management. In general, a limited scale
(both in terms of membership and jurisdiction) will support participatory de-
mocracy and therefore enhance co-management given that the management
structure has appropriate stature and power to initiate the process. Expan-
sion of scale is easier once initial activities succeed and are sustained, that is,
start small and simple and show results early (Buhat 1994).
Membership is clearly defined

The individual fishers or households with rights to fish in the bounded
fishing area, to participate in area management, and to be an organisation
member should be clearly defined. The numbers of fishers or households
should not be too large so as to restrict effective communication and deci-
sion-making. In Bangladesh, membership in the lake fisheries teams of the
Oxbow Lakes was clearly defined to include those fishers living around the
lake (Khan and Apu 1998).
Group homogeneity
The fisher group or organisation permanently resides near the area to be
managed. There is a high degree of homogeneity, in terms of kinship, ethnic-
ity, religion or fishing gear type, among the group. Group size, in terms of the
number of individuals involved in the management arrangements, is rela-
tively small. There were many communities in Vietnam, Thailand, Indonesia
and the Philippines where successful co-management was dependent on the
high level of socio-economic and cultural homogeneity of the community.
This does not mean, however, that co-management projects cannot succeed
in socio-economically and culturally heterogeneous communities (Pomeroy
et al. 1996). In the Oxbow Lakes of Bangladesh, Muslim and Hindu fishers
were able to work together on the lake fisheries teams (Khan and Apu 1998).
In the village of San Salvador in Zambales, Philippines, successful co-man-
agement occurred despite marked differences in ethnicity and fishing gear
(Katon et al. 1997).
Participation by those affected

Most individuals affected by the co-management arrangements are includ-
ed in the group that makes decisions about and can change the arrange-
ments. In the Oxbow Lakes of Bangladesh, the lakes fisheries teams allowed
all members to have equal voting rights in making management decisions
(Khan and Apu 1998). In San Salvador Island and Malalison Island, Philip-
pines, all members of the fisher organisation were involved in making and
changing the rules (Katon et al. 1997; Baticados and Agbayani 1998).
Leadership
Local leadership is a critical condition for success of co-management. Local
leaders set an example for others to follow, set out courses of action, and
provide energy and direction for the co-management process. While a com-
munity may already have leaders, they may not be the correct or appropriate
leaders for co-management. Local elites may be the traditional leaders in a
community, but they may not be the appropriate leaders for a co-manage-
ment effort. Leaders may need to be drawn or developed from the ranks of
the community, including resource users. These individuals may be more ac-
ceptable and respected by their peers. In Bangladesh, the local leaders of the
lakes (baor) were identified and elected by the fishers. Leader’s term of office
were limited so as to give others the chance to gain leadership skills and to
reduce the possibility of corruption (Khan and Apu 1998). Reliance on one
individual as a leader can be a problem. In certain Philippine cases, projects
failed when the leader died, left political office, or left the area because there
was no one to take the leader’s place (Katon et al. 1998). The external change
agents must not act as leaders because the community will become depend-
ent upon them. The community must look inward to develop local leader-
ship itself. Training and education efforts must strive to build and develop
leadership skills among a variety of individuals in the community so that
the co-management activity does not become dependent on any one person.
Documented experiences affirm that locally recruited and trained leaders,
both formal and informal, are a potent force in mobilizing residents for col-
lective endeavours, spearheading awareness campaigns and outreach efforts,

and motivating stakeholders to take action (Katon et al. 1996; Pomeroy et al.
1996).
Core group formation is strategic in identifying and developing leaders

(Buhat 1994). Core groups, a sub-unit of a larger community organisation,
should be established early in the co-management process. The members of
the core group may be drawn from committed individuals in the community
who consistently participate in co-management activities and who share a
concern for sustainable resource management. Core groups normally take
responsibility for the initial implementation of co-management strategies or
for specific activities. From their ranks, capable leaders often emerge to guide
present and future undertakings
Empowerment, capacity building and social preparation

The economic and political marginalization of coastal communities has led
to the problems of poverty and resource degradation. Addressing marginali-
zation requires empowerment of community members and the transfer of
economic and political power from a few to the impoverished majority. By
transferring the access and control of resources from a few to the commu-
nity at large, the community is gradually empowered in the economic realm.
Simultaneously, political empowerment ensues as community management
and controls over the resource are effectively operationalized (Addun and
Muzones 1996). Empowerment allows communities to be free from many of
the bureaucratic requirements of government’s central administrative agen-
cies.
Individual and community empowerment is a central element of co-man-

agement. Empowerment is concerned with capability building of individuals
and the community in order for them to have greater social awareness, to
gain greater autonomy over decision-making, to gain greater self-reliance,
and in establishing a balance in community power relations. Empowerment
covers a range of actions including enhancing community access to informa-
tion and services, ensuring community participation, consciousness raising
of the people, business and enterprise management skills, and gaining con-
trol over the utilization and management of natural resources. Empower-
ment can be considered as an individual and a community desire for change.
Individual empowerment leads to community empowerment. The empower-
ment process must be balanced since it may have differential impacts on the
community leading to not a balance of power but simply a redistribution of
power elites. There is a tendency for rural power structures to gain control
over resources. The shifting power holders can easily hijack co-management.
Empowerment reduces social stratification and allows groups in the commu-
nity to work on a more equal level with the local elite (Khan and Apu 1998;
Thompson et al. 1998).
Empowerment is only functional if it is based on the socio-cultural and politi-

cal context of the community. The co-management process needs to adopt a
gender-balanced perspective, and must acknowledge the position of women.
Women should be given the opportunity to develop themselves and actively
participate in the co-management process (Foltz et al. 1996).
Empowerment at the individual and collective levels is enhanced by capacity

building through education and training efforts that raise the level of knowl-
edge and information of those involved in the co-management process. In-
adequate investment in capacity building may condemn the co-management
effort to failure. Co-management often requires a conscious effort to develop
and strengthen the capability of the partners for collective action, coopera-
tion, power sharing, dialogue, leadership and sustainable resource manage-
ment. Coastal villagers may not always have a tradition of collective action.
Functioning organisations of resource users may not be in place. Moreover,
the range of skills and knowledge required to address the complex dimen-
sions of resource management might not be adequate. In these cases, capa-
bility building is a must.
To reverse the effects of destructive fishing practices, change non-sustainable

practices, or provide viable alternatives; people must learn new management
skills and new technologies. Partners need to be equipped with knowledge,
skills and attitudes to prepare them to carry out new tasks and meet future
challenges (Pomeroy et al. 1996). Capacity building must address not only
technical and managerial dimensions but also attitudes and behavioural pat-
terns. Training and education may include leadership, situation analysis and
problem solving, consensus building, value reorientation, basic biology and
ecology, technology application, livelihood and enterprise management, con-
flict management, advocacy, facilitation, networking, ecological and socio-
economic monitoring and evaluation, and legal/para-legal, among others. In
the Philippines and other Asian countries, the experience affirms that capa-
bility building strengthens the confidence and sense of empowerment of re-
source users and partners. Providing opportunities to visit communities with
successful resource management projects also helps create the enthusiasm
and the motivation to embark on similar activities in their own community
(Katon et al. 1997). Capacity building, moreover, enables local residents to
sustain resource management interventions and pursue new initiatives.
Linked to empowerment is social preparation and value formation. The inabil-

ity to sustain co-management may be partly attributed to the insufficient time
allocated to the social preparation phase of the process and to rapport-building
and value formation in the community. Social preparation should always pre-
cede technical and material interventions. Cutting corners during the social
preparation phase to yield to pressures to produce material accomplishments
is likely to weaken the foundation for self-reliance in the community. Good so-
cial preparation is manifested in positive attitudes toward collective action and

in the readiness of community members to take on responsibility for resource
management and decision-making (Pomeroy et al. 1996).
Community organisations
The existence of a legitimate community or people’s organisation is vital
means for representing resource users and stakeholders and influencing the
direction of policies and decision-making. These organisations must have the
legal right to exist and make arrangements related to their needs. They must
be allowed to be autonomous from government. The organisation will need
to be recognized as legitimate by the community members and stakeholders,
not just be a government established organisation, to carry out its mandate.
In the Philippines, the formal recognition by the government of the role of

resource users as valuable partners in co-management is established through
the Local Government Code of 1991 and the Fisheries Code of 1998. People’s
organisations are formally allowed to enter into partnerships with local gov-
ernment units on a broad range of activities (Katon et al. 1997). The more
successful co-management projects in the Philippines were those where or-
ganizing is not a prerequisite, but rather the community organisation evolved
after the people recognized the need for it to address a collective concern
(Sandalo 1994).
Long-term support of the local government unit

The cooperation of the local government and the local political elite is impor-
tant to co-management. There must be an incentive for the local politicians
to support co-management. There must be political willingness to share the
benefits, costs, responsibility and authority for co-management with the
community members. Co-management will not flourish if the local political
‘power structure’ is opposed in any way to the co-management arrangements.
The case studies in the Philippines, for example, show this quite clearly. In
those communities where the political elite were not included in the process
or were opposed to the project for some reason, the interventions failed to
be sustained after the project ended (Pomeroy et al. 1996). In addition to the
political elite, local government staff must endorse and actively participate
in the co-management process. Local government can provide a variety tech-
nical and financial services and assistance to support local co-management
arrangements such as police, conflict management, appeal mechanism, and
approval of local ordinances.
Property rights over the resource

Property rights, either individual or collective, should address the legal own-
ership of the resource and define the mechanisms (economic, administrative,
collective) and the structures required for allocating use rights to optimise
use and ensure conservation of resources, and the means and procedures for
enforcement. The case studies in the Philippines show that when user rights
are specified and secure (such as with a mangrove certificate of stewardship
contract), there is a change in the behaviour and attitude of the resource user
toward conservation and a much greater chance that the intervention will be
maintained. Without legally supported property rights, resource users have
no standing to enforce their claim over the resource against outsiders. In
most cases, local initiatives require active collaboration with government to
protect and enforce user rights (Pomeroy et al. 1996). Local interventions
were sustained where property rights existed, were clear, and were enforced
(Pomeroy et al. 1996).
Adequate financial resources/budget

Co-management requires financial resources to support the process. Funds
need to be available to support various operations and facilities related to plan-
ning, implementation, coordination, monitoring and enforcement, among
others. Funding, especially sufficient, timely and sustained funding, is criti-
cal to the sustainability of co-management efforts (Segura-Ybanez 1996). In
many instances, resource user organisations are unable to continue existing
programs or start new ones due to limited financial resources that members
can raise on their own. Often co-management projects which are initiated
and funded from outside sources fail when the project finishes due to the
inability of the partners to fund the activities. Funds also need to be made
available on a timely basis to sustain and maintain interventions. The co-
management arrangements must be supported and accepted so those part-
ners will be confident enough in the process to invest their own funds and
time. Co-management must be designed from the start with a secure internal
budget source. Community members will need to invest their own financial
resources in the process. Too much dependence on external sources will im-
pact upon sustainability of the arrangements (Carlos and Pomeroy 1996).
Partnerships and partner sense of ownership of the co-management process

Active participation of partners in the planning and implementation proc-
ess is directly related to their sense of ownership and commitment to the
co-management arrangements. Partners involved in co-management need to
feel that the process not only benefits them, but that they have a strong sense
of participation in, commitment to and ownership of the process. External
agents working to plan and implement the co-management arrangements
must allow the partners to recognize themselves as the owners and directors
of the process. Early and continuous participation of partners in planning
and implementation of co-management is related to success (Pomeroy et al.
1996). It allows partners to demonstrate their commitment to the process.
Not only does this type of involvement serve to adapt activities to local needs,
but partners also gain a better understanding of the problems involved in
implementation and a greater sense of empowerment and confidence. Objec-
tives need to be developed jointly by the partners and external change agents.
Partnerships in co-management must grow out of a mutual sense of com-

mitment (Segura-Ybanez 1996). Adequate coordination, communication
and consultation are necessary, especially with multiple partners. It is impor-
tant to have clarification about each other’s role, goals, purpose, operation,
style and limitations (Carlos and Pomeroy 1996). The process of clarification
must take place through equitable dialogue and partnerships. When the ac-
tions of collaborating partners are not synchronized and consistent, resource
users see too many ‘role players’ and this may lead to misconceptions and
wrong expectations, and eventually hamper success. Thus, an appropriate
operational structure and agreement should always be developed based on
the needs of co-management arrangement so that coordination between part-
ners will be effective without being too costly to the structure.
No co-management arrangement can survive unless a relationship of trust

and mutual respect is developed and maintained between the partners. The
establishment of trust between partners usually takes a long time to develop
and takes concerted effort by the partners. There is some risk involved by
the partners in participating in co-management. Fishers usually have a low
level of trust of government, for example. Trust will require the development
of good communication channels and open and ongoing dialogue. Meeting
objectives and mutually agreed targets enhances trust. These actions reduce
risk and stimulate partner cohesion that will have a positive effect on build-
ing trust. This can be started in the early stages of the co-management proc-
ess and strengthened over time. At the Oxbow Lakes of Bangladesh, trust was
developed among the fishers by upholding the rules. Those individuals who
consistently disobeyed the rules were dismissed from the fisher organisation
(Khan and Apu 1998).
Providing forums for discussion are fundamental to developing trust among

partners. A process must be developed to understand needs and expectations
of all partners. Decisions must be made in a context of mutual respect where
the partners respect each other’s concerns needs and knowledge. In some
cases, needs and expectations may not be straightforward. Values held by
different groups, including cultural, religious and traditional beliefs, must
be respected. Public discussions that encourage a free and non-threatening
exchange of information foster effective communication. Dialogue clarifies
an understanding of needs, expected roles, extent of responsibility sharing
among partners and expected benefits and costs in the short-term and long-
term, among others (Baticados and Agbayani 1998).
Accountability
Co-management means having a process in which business is conducted
in an open and transparent manner. All partners must be held equally ac-
countable for upholding the co-management agreement. The partners have
common access to information. Venues are provided for public discussion of
issues and to reach consensus. There needs to be accepted standards for eval-
uating the management objectives and outcomes. Without strong accounta-
bility, decision-making can become corrupt and arbitrary (Sandalo 1994; Yap
1996). A body outside of the community, such as government or an NGO,
may need to monitor and evaluate the co-management process. This outside
body can serve to provide checks and balances to make the process more
accountable in a formal way. Formal agreements will require a structure for
legal accountability among the partners.
Conflict management mechanism

Arbitration and resolution of disputes are imperative when conflicts arise
over co-management and institutional arrangements. If resource users are to
follow rules, a mechanism for discussing and resolving conflicts and infrac-
tions is a must. There is a need for a forum for resource users to debate and
resolve conflicts and to appeal decisions. Conflict management should be
conducted at the local level where solutions can be found quickly. It is often
useful to have a mediator who can objectively assess and propose solutions
to the conflict. While the government can act as an outside mediator for local
conflicts and as an appeal body, heavy reliance on the government to resolve
conflicts is not good. Co-management thrives in a situation where forums
and appeal bodies are available for deliberation and conflict resolution. The
Philippine and Bangladesh experiences show that conflict management tends
to be less problematic when the resource users are involved in rule formula-
tion and enforcement and when sanctions are imposed on the rule violators
(Khan and Apu 1998; Baticados and Agbayani 1998; Katon et al. 1998).
Clear objectives from a well-defined set of issues

The clarity and simplicity of objectives helps steer the direction of co-manage-
ment. Partners need to understand and agree on the issues to be addressed,
know what must be achieved, where the activities are headed and why. Clear
objectives developed from a well-defined set of issues are essential to success.
Those involved in the co-management process must see and agree that the is-
sues are important to their daily existence. The co-management process may
involve multiple objectives and multiple implementation strategies. These
should be prioritised, and linked where possible.
Fundamental to co-management is a common understanding of the situa-

tion, comprehension of the root causes of the problems and the issues, and
an agreement on appropriate solutions to the identified problems. Fisheries
tend to be better managed when resource users, stakeholders and partner
organisations have a good grasp of why they are managing the resource and
what results are envisaged (Katon et al. 1997).
One of the major reasons for failure of certain community-based manage-

ment projects in the Philippines is lack of problem recognition by resource
users. This may sound like a simple issue but due to the top-down approach
of many co-management projects, the resource users are really not active but
passive recipients of project interventions. The project objectives are concep-
tualised outside the community and without true community participation.
As such, the resource users may not fully recognize the problem in the same
way as the external change agent. The resource user may also work with the
project only for what they can get out of it, not fully participating for long
term success. Of course, this is not always the situation. In some cases, the
resource users recognize that there is a problem and take the initiative for
action themselves.
Management rules enforced

The management rules are simple. Monitoring and enforcement are effected
and shared by all fishers. The research found that enforcement of manage-
ment rules was of high importance for success of co-management. In San
Salvador Island, Philippines, the fishers shared responsibility for guarding
the marine sanctuary which led to high levels of enforcement of rules (Katon
et al. 1997).
Vigorous, fair and sustained law enforcement requires the participation of all
partners. Enforcement can be carried out separately by an enforcement unit,
or in collaboration between local informal or traditional enforcers (church,
senior fishers, local leaders) and formal enforcers (police, coast guard). Com-
munity sanctions – teaching, example, social pressure – are important and
can be useful in increasing compliance. Local enforcement efforts may need
to be backed up by government enforcement bodies to ensure objectivity. It
may be necessary to have government law enforcement agencies involved in
dealing with outsiders in order to have better cooperation.
The motivation to comply with regulations depends upon rational decisions

where the expected benefits of violating the rules are measured against the
risk of getting apprehended and fined. It is also linked to socio-cultural
mechanisms that regulate behaviour (fear of ancestral spirits, social exclu-
sion, moral obligation). A key variable for determining compliance is the
individual perspective of the fairness and appropriateness of the law and its
institutions (Kuperan et al. 1996). The willingness to comply is linked to
the perceived legitimacy of the authorities charged with implementing the
regulations. Local enforcers (bantay dagat in the Philippines, kewang in Indo-
nesia) can be very effective provided they are formally legitimised (Novaczek
et al. 2001). Rules should be simple so those affected by them can easily un-
derstand and comply. There needs to be good communication between the

enforcement unit and the resource user group. The co-management process
is put in jeopardy if even one partner fails to comply, even in part, with the
agreement.
11.2.3 Individual and household Level
Individual incentive structure

The success of co-management hinges directly on an incentive structure
(economic, social, political) that induces various individuals to participate in
the process. Such individuals may include a resource user, a resource stake-
holder, a government fishery manager, or a politician. Individuals must have
a sense that the rules in place are equitable and there must be sharing of
costs and the benefits. Individuals must feel that the benefits to be obtained
from participation in the co-management arrangements, including compli-
ance with rules, will be greater that the costs of such activities. The co-man-
agement process often involves giving up individual short-term benefits for
real and perceived longer-term benefits. For the individual, the costs of deci-
sion-making, especially in terms of the time involved, cannot be too high or
participation will fall. Often, the short-term costs are high in terms of lost
income or voluntary labour. For a poor fisher with a family to feed, the incen-
tive structure to support and participate in co-management must be clear and
large. Risk is involved for the individual in changing management strategy.
The fisher must understand and agree to the co-management arrangements.
The fisher must recognize an incentive for co-management before the process
begins and/or need information to further develop their understanding and
recognition of the incentive. The recognition of resource management prob-
lems may take the form of a progressive decrease in fish catch, disappearance
of valuable species, declining mangrove stands, and existence of resource use
conflicts. An impetus is needed to propel co-management forward (Pomeroy
and Berkes 1997). In successful cases of co-management in the Philippines,
awareness of resource-related problems prompted stakeholders to enter into
collective action, particularly in communities that are heavily dependent on
coastal resources and are vulnerable to non-sustainable resource uses (Katon
et al. 1997; Baticados and Agbayani 1998; Katon et al. 1998). This is largely
due to the threats to survival, economic livelihood and food security that de-
teriorating resource conditions bring about.
The incentive may start as simply as hope for a better tomorrow, but usually
‘matures’ as the individual gains more information and as the process de-
velops over time. It is often easier and faster to implement co-management
arrangements where the resource user recognizes an incentive for participa-
tion on their own and undertakes action rather than when an incentive is
presented to a resource user by an external agent. One method to measure
that an incentive structure for participation and action does exist in a com-
munity is when the community members invest their own resources (labour,
money) in the project.
Different incentive structures appeal to different individuals. For an individu-

al resource user, the incentive may be economic, primarily in terms of higher
income, food availability or protection of livelihoods (Khan and Apu 1998;
Thompson et al. 1998). It may also be social, in the form of higher prestige
among peers or legitimate access to coastal resources (Segura-Ybanez 1996;
Katon et al. 1997; Baticados and Agbayani 1998). Co-management arrange-
ments that offer an improvement in these areas are likely to be appealing.
Economic incentives are also important to resource stakeholders, such as
fish traders and processors, who are directly dependent on a steady supply
of fish products for their livelihood. For resort owners, dive tour operators
and managers of tourist-related businesses, the preservation of coastal eco-
systems and the maintenance of clean coastal waters are vital because these
have a direct bearing on the earnings they derive from those who patronize
their businesses.
Other resource stakeholders may be motivated by different incentives. The

concern for stable ecosystems, food security for present and future genera-
tions, improved living conditions, and equitable property rights often under-
lie the motivation of development advocates, external agents, and individual
members of resource management councils. The reduction of conflicts and
the streamlining of plans and policies through co-management arrange-
ments may motivate government administrators, planners and policy-mak-
ers to support co-management.
For politicians, the incentive to support co-management may be rooted in the

desire to be recognized for their achievements in governance and resource
management. Such achievements strengthen their capacity to win more
votes from a broader base of constituents and improve their chances of being
re-elected to positions of power and influence.
11.3 Policy implications for fisheries co-management
The conditions discussed in the section above are those that have been iden-
tified from Asian experience for the successful implementation of commu-
nity-based co-management. As mentioned earlier, this is not a comprehen-
sive list. These conditions are meant to serve as a guide in the planning and
implementation of co-management. The conditions must be viewed in the
distinct political, biological, cultural, technological, social and economic con-
text of the Asian region and the individual countries. We need to bear in
mind the role these unique characteristics play in shaping the process and
implementation of co-management in Asia. They are different from those in
POLICY IMPLICATIONS FOR FISHERIES CO - MANAGEMENT 227
Western societies and reflect the so-called ‘Asian values.’ Resource manage-
ment systems must be viewed in the context of the complex interactions of
these characteristics that have shaped past and present situations and that
have a capacity for influencing the future. These characteristics include the
small-scale, subsistence based fisheries, the local community traditions, the
social and political structures, the political and economic restructuring that
is occurring in the region, and the need for food security.
Some of the conditions can be met by means internal to the community,

while others require external assistance. The number and variety of condi-
tions illustrates that the planning and implementation of co-management
must be conducted at several levels. These levels include the individual (i.e.
individual incentive structure); the stakeholder (i.e. stakeholder involvement,
local political support); the community (i.e. fit with existing and traditional
social and cultural institutions and structures of the community); the part-
ners (i.e. partnerships, coordinating body and agreements); the government
(i.e. government agency support, enabling policies and legislation); the exter-
nal agent; and the overall process (i.e. trust, networking and advocacy, leader-
ship, organisation, financial resources).
None of the conditions exist in isolation, but each supports and links to an-
other to make the complex process and arrangements for co-management
work. In addition, all of the parties (resource users, stakeholders, external
agents, government) have different but mutually supportive roles to play in
co-management. The role of government in co-management is often associ-
ated with the passage of enabling policies and legislation, vigilant and effec-
tive enforcement, arbitration of disputes among partners when these cannot
be resolved by the parties themselves, provision of financial and technical
assistance to sustain co-management activities and promotion of a stable
political and social environment. The role of the external agent involves ini-
tiating a process of discovery and social learning, guiding problem-solving,
building local capabilities and advocating appropriate policies. Resource us-
ers and stakeholders are largely responsible for the day-to-day management
of resources, participation in consultations, design of appropriate resource
management measures and assistance in monitoring and law enforcement.
The fulfilment of these complementary roles is crucial to the operation and
sustainability of co-management.
Implementation is often a balancing act to meet these conditions as tim-

ing and linkages in the co-management process and arrangements are im-
portant. For example, developing trust between partners is associated with
effective communication and come before the development of contractual
agreements between partners. The recognition of resource management
problems is associated with the development of clear objectives from a set of
well-defined issues.
229
12 Project Success: Different Perspectives,

Different Measurements*
Within Southeast Asia, the government of the Philippines has been a leader
in decentralising management of natural resources to the local level. Between
1984 and 1994, more than a hundred community-based resource manage-
ment (CBRM) projects were undertaken. According to Pomeroy et al. (1996),
the time, funds, and collective effort put into these projects have allowed
implementers and participants to accumulate valuable knowledge in the area
of CBRM. An overall evaluation by Pomeroy and Carlos (1997) revealed, how-
ever, that less than 20 per cent of these projects were identified as being
successful. The criteria used to evaluate success were that the community
organisation still existed and that at least a single project intervention was
maintained after the project terminated. It may have been that the project
components (alternative livelihood programmes, the installation of a pro-
tected area, or technology for increased fish production) were implemented
at a time when the people were not ready for them, or that for the people the
project components were not relevant, but why the majority of projects failed,
is not clear. It is, however, not the scope of this chapter to discuss project fail-
ure, but to discuss how to measure failure, or, in that respect, project success.
Indeed, a more in-depth study by Pomeroy et al. (1996) showed that while
projects could be unsuccessful in the eyes of the implementers, the project
participants did not necessarily perceive the projects as failures at all.
This chapter is in the form of a review and attempts to shed light on why the
perceptions of project staff and beneficiaries are contradictory, and how we
can revise the methodology of evaluation in order to capture the impacts of a
project from both perspectives. The chapter begins to explain the discrepancy
in project evaluation with an illustration from the above-mentioned study
by Pomeroy et al. (1996). Then it takes a step back in time and explains why
conventional development projects shifted to people-centred resource man-
agement. It explains the difference between the perspectives of the project
participants and those of outsiders, and the consequences of this for percep-
tions of project success. How the ‘inside perspective’ can be measured objec-
tively, and what should be measured and when, is discussed as well as the
methodology. Finally, the chapter describes the obstacles to include the extra
measurement in CBRM and co-management project evaluations.
*Based on: I.H.T. Harkes (2001) Project Success: Different Perspectives, Different Measurements.
In: B. Vira and R. Jeffery (eds.) Analytical Issues in Participatory Natural Resource Management.
Palgrave Publishers, pp 128-144.
230 PROJECT SUCCESS : DIFFERENT PERSPECTIVES , DIFFERENT MEASUREMENTS
12.1 Success or failure?
The in-depth analysis by Pomeroy et al (1996) covered nine project sites that
were part of the Central Visayas Regional Project-1 (CVRP-1) and the Coastal
Environmental Programme (CEP) in the Philippines which started in 1984.
The study showed that, while projects could be unsuccessful in the imple-
menters’ eyes, the project participants perceived them as largely successful.
To be more precise, the analysis suggested that the community-based coastal
resource management projects evaluated were successful despite partial or
complete failure (or destruction by natural events) of some project objectives
such as mangrove planting, artificial reefs, fish aggregating devices, and shell-
fish culture.
Illustrative are two cases: Calagcalag and Tiguib, in the municipality of Ay-
ungon region, Negros Oriental. Impacts were measured on two levels: (1) the
independent variables (project variables and context variables) and (2) the
dependent variables (achievement of intermediate objectives and impacts on
‘well-being’ of the coastal ecosystem). The first set of independent variables is
less relevant because these variables are comparable for both cases. The latter
most clearly underline the argument in this chapter. Calagcalag is presented
as a successful case, while Tiguib is classified as being unsuccessful. The first
subset of dependent variables included both material objectives (see above)
and non-material objectives such as training and institution building. The
second subset (well-being of the ecosystem) included both human and ‘natu-
ral’ components. For a more elaborate description see Pomeroy et al. (1996).
12.1.1 Calagacalag
The artificial reefs (ARs) installed as part of the material intermediate project
objectives, were ineffective and partly destroyed by typhoons, as happened
with the Fish Aggregating Devices (FADs) that were installed. However, both
are being reinstalled. Mangrove reforestation was a failure because apparent-
ly an improper species was selected, as was the case with an oyster-farming
project. The goats introduced as alternative livelihood died or were not very
useful –in fact, the very idea of goat milk amused many respondents. From
the intermediate objectives, only the seaweed culture as part of the sea farm-
ing and the installation of a marine sanctuary were successful.
From the organisational and institutional perspective, the Fishermen’s Or-

ganisation was active, but not widely supported – membership being benefi-
cial to those who wanted access to the mangrove plantings, ARs and FADs,
or to the alternative livelihood programmes. Activities concerning use rights
and management efforts (community-based monitoring and enforcement),
were successful in the sense that most respondents from the fisher commu-
nity knew why the sanctuary and other regulations were installed, namely, to
protect the fish habitat and breeding area. Generally, the perceived impacts
SUCCESS OF FAILURE ? 231
(ten in total) on the ecosystem were positive, except for access, which was
related to removal of fishing area by the installation of a sanctuary.
Pomeroy et al. (1996) suggest that it is important to note that this overall
perception of positive change exists despite partial or complete failure (or
destruction by natural events) of some project objectives. They write further
that the early involvement of the fishing groups in the project gave them a
better understanding of the difficulties that came with the introduction of
new technologies. Additionally, the adaptive nature of the project, the will-
ingness of the project staff to listen to beneficiary complaints and institute
changes in implementation procedures, resulted in the participants’ feeling
that they, in part, influenced project success (ibid.). This was also the case
in less successful projects, where an overall perception of positive change
existed despite partial or complete failure of some project interventions. This
is clear from the next case.
12.1.2 Tiguib
As in Calagcalag, the ARs and FADs in Tiguib were destroyed or deteriorated,
but in contrast to the first case never reinstalled. The fish sanctuary was not
installed at all. The mangrove reforestation survival rate was only ten per cent
and livestock dispersal was limited. Apparently, sea farming was not part of
the project. The Fishermen’s Association has had its ‘ups and downs’, but
at the moment of the evaluation was active – the interest of the members
mainly in mangrove reforestation and access rights to ARs and FADs, despite
the fact that these were reported as destroyed at the time. The Fishermen’s
Association was reactivated as a means of obtaining a milkfish fry collection
concession. In this village there was a clear difference in the understanding
of the use of creating rules, ARs, and FADs, between the members of the
Fishermen’s Association and the non-members.
The Tiguib near shore component of CVRP-1 was considered to be less than
successful by project staff. From the perspective of the fisher households in-
terviewed, however, statistically significant improvements were perceived in
seven of ten impact indicators. The three remaining impacts were perceived
as improving, but were not statistically significant. Again, it is important to
note that this overall perception of positive change exists despite partial or
complete failure of some project interventions. Fisher people noted an in-
creased level of knowledge of project objectives and a high level of participa-
tion in project planning and changes in the project. They may have felt a
sense of empowerment because while the original association failed, a new
association was formed to take advantage of an economic opportunity. This
indicates that when the right circumstances existed, the residents of Tiguib
demonstrated that they can work together.
From the study it appeared that project staff were focusing more on easily
observable impacts, for example, functioning fishermen’s organisations, area
of mangrove successfully replanted, etc. The fishermen, however, felt a sense
of empowerment and increased knowledge. They had more information with
which to make decisions and improve their life, they had more skills, and
they felt more integrated into the economic and political mainstream. How-
ever, although the general project approach was bottom-up, indicators for
project success were solely defined by the project implementers or outside
evaluators.
The bottom-up approach implies a highly participatory form of planning,

action and evaluation, that is, one which involves a high degree of input by
the local participants (IUCN/UNEP/WWF 1991). Hence, evaluations by both
project staff and beneficiaries are important, and it is also important to un-
derstand that they reveal different results based on different criteria of suc-
cess or failure. In fact, it is the evaluation by the community members them-
selves that will influence their subsequent behaviour and thus the potential
sustainability and success of the project.
12.2 From development to people-centred resource

management
Evaluation of intermediate objectives is basic to any project evaluation. It is

a matter of determining stated objectives from project planning documents,
and determining whether or not the objectives have been met (Pomeroy et al.
1996). It is clear from the above, however, that this way of assessing project
success is inadequate, but then, why are such indicators still used? In order
to understand this, we have to review the historical practice of development
project implementation.
Indicators commonly used to measure success of development projects were

designed at a time when most projects aimed to increase the well-being of the
local population by intensifying their (agricultural) production. Local people
were merely recipients of advice and training to increase their harvests. The
top-down, blueprint development approach stimulated neither people’s affin-
ity with nor their sense of responsibility over the projects. Failure of many of
these projects in the 1960s and 1970s led to a shift in development thinking,
of which Chambers’ Farmers First (1989) is an enlightened example. Attention
shifted from strictly production to farming systems research and extension.
It was acknowledged that without the support, consent and participation of
the target population, a project was likely to fail (Korten 1986). Technology
and production, however, were still regarded as keys to development.
SHORTCOMINGS IN EVALUATION 233
The ever-increasing exploitation of natural resources, however, led to their

degradation and over-exploitation. In the early 1980s, it became clear that
sustainable resource use and conservation were the only options to reverse
the process of decline (Rio Summit; Our Common Future, WCED 1987; Car-
ing for the Earth, IUCN/UNEP/WWF 1991). The efforts of centrally organised
conservation projects, such as massive reforestation projects, to combat over-
exploitation and degradation and to improve monitoring, control and surveil-
lance, however, also proved ineffective (see also Persoon and Sajise 1997).
Governments were often unable to implement or enforce the regulations that
were issued for the management of natural resources. At the same time, local
communities did not have the means and mandate to participate, even if they
had a traditional management system. Slowly the idea emerged that it was
not the government institutions, but the people who were the true resource
managers (Korten 1986; Poffenberger 1990; Bromley 1992).
Community-based Resource Management (CBRM) strives for more active

people’s participation in the planning and implementation of natural re-
sources management. Its central concern is the empowerment of groups
and social actors and to create a sense of self-reliance. It starts from the ba-
sic premise that people have the innate capacity to understand and act on
their own problems (Ferrer and Nozawa 1997; Rivera 1997). However, it has
also been realised that the government is a crucial partner in resource man-
agement to provide enabling legislation, information and other assistance
(Pomeroy and Berkes 1997). This form of management is called co-manage-
ment, a partnership between government and community.
A wealth of literature has been written on Community-based Resource Man-

agement and Co-management (for instance, McCay and Acheson 1987; Jen-
toft 1989; Pinkerton 1989; Berkes 1990; Ostrom 1990; Poffenberger 1990;
Bromley 1992; and Pomeroy 1994, 1998). Many lessons have been learned
and conditions for success defined, but how to measure this success, or
rather, the true perception of success, is still unclear. Although the approach
has changed over the years, and more components are included to enhance
project success, the indicators used to measure this success have not been
changed.
12.3 Shortcomings in evaluation
The question therefore is: what kind of indicators do reflect project success?
For the answer, we have to look at the structure of CBRM and co-manage-
ment itself. In order to shift from the role of resource users to the role of
resource managers, project participants in CBRM required different skills
and capabilities. A new set of methods were designed, called participatory
methods, through which the local population would not only have a voice,
but would also be able to participate in all project components.
A few examples currently in use are: PRA (Participatory Rural Appraisal)

which focuses on interaction based on communication means which are lo-
cally understandable PTD (Participatory Technology Development) a method
which includes local production techniques in agricultural development;
and RAAKS (Rapid Appraisal of Agricultural Knowledge Systems) a method
which is used to learn about a local situation and, through dynamic interac-
tion, works at problem resolution, in, for example, agricultural settings (Kidd
1979; Korten 1986; Uphoff 1986, 1992; Engel et al. 1994). In addition to the
use of participatory research methods, in many projects, a training compo-
nent is added to increase local capacity. People need to acquire communica-
tion skills, the ability to formulate project goals, to plan and delegate tasks,
solve problems and other abilities necessary to be partners in executing a
community-based management project, a process usually referred to as ca-
pacity building.
If we take a look at the general process of implementing a CBRM project, var-

ious phases can be distinguished. In his article on CBRM, Pomeroy (1998)
distinguishes three project phases: the pre-implementation phase, the imple-
mentation phase and the post-implementation (or phase-out) phase. The first
phase (sometimes overlapping with the second) is usually the phase in which
the community members develop their ‘management skills’. This phase of
community development is also referred to as the ‘social preparation process’
(Pomeroy 1998).
The Philippine experience shows, as do other cases, that the social prepara-
tion process is time-consuming. It was concluded that for a truly participa-
tory project, the time required for people to master new skills for CBRM
would be at least three to five years, but probably longer (Borrini-Feyerabend
1996, Pomeroy et al. 1996; van Mulekom 1999). In reality, however, many
projects are planned for a shorter time span, even if they do include a social
preparation process! The result is that the material project interventions are
carried out while the beneficiaries are still in the process of developing the
skills needed to actually understand the project interventions, and are not in
a position to implement them. Consequently, at the end of the project life
– which is not necessarily the end of the developments in the field – project
interventions are not (or not fully) implemented or sustained. In these cases,
the project is deemed to be a failure. However, it is entirely possible that if the
participants had been given more time, chances are that in the longer run,
project objectives may have been accomplished.
Not only is the timing to measure project success essential, it is also impor-
tant to know what to measure. The fact is, that even though community-
EMIC AND ETIC 235
based resource management is people-centred, in most cases project evalua-

tion does not include the personal achievements of the participants. Despite
the personal development of the project beneficiaries, project evaluation has
remained focused on quantitative and material indicators of project success.
The less tangible results of the project such as changes in attitudes, beliefs
and values of the project participants, or their sense of empowerment, which
was important in the case-studies mentioned earlier, were and are not meas-
ured.
From the above, it can be concluded that the reason why projects are often
evaluated as being unsuccessful is because neither the timing of the evalua-
tion, nor the criteria used to measure success are appropriate. Chances are
that the criteria that are measured are those that the project implementers
feel are important, while overlooking those representing the experience of
the participants. The obvious solution to this deficiency is to re-define suc-
cess and to develop new criteria to measure project results. This is, however,
only possible if those who evaluate the projects are aware of their limited
perception of reality, and recognise that the local community may evaluate
project success differently to the researcher or evaluator him- or herself.
12.4 Emic and etic
The disparity between what is actually measured and the people’s perceived
impacts of the project can perhaps be understood using some theoretical
ideas from Anthropology. Harris (1991) for example writes: ‘The problem
is that both the thoughts and behaviour of the project participants can be
viewed from two perspectives: from that of the participants themselves and
that of the observers. In both instances, scientific, objective accounts of the
mental and behavioural fields are possible. In the first instance, the observers
employ concepts and distinctions that are meaningful and appropriate to the
participants; in the second instance they employ concepts that are meaning-
ful and appropriate to the observers. The first way of studying culture [or
perceptions of success] is called emics and the second way is called etics.’
Borrowed from linguistics (Pike 1954), phonemic refers to what a sound sig-
nifies in the minds of the users. Phonetic on the other hand refers to scien-
tific descriptions of sound with no reference to meaning, that is, from the
outside. Etic categories are those that the researcher employs for the purpos-
es of scientific classification, analysis, and understanding of human-environ-
mental interactions (Lovelace 1984). Emic is concerned with the elements,
aspects, and interpretations of the belief system as perceived or conceived
by the members of the culture or society under consideration (see also de
Groot 1992 on the use of emic and etic in the perception of environmental
problems).
The problem is that even though many projects claim to value the participa-
tion of the local people, they tend to neglect emic categories. Project output is
expressed in concrete, technical terms; evaluations focus exclusively on etic
observations. However, strictly etic assessments are inadequate for projects
that have socio-cultural impacts. ‘During the process phase it is meaning-
ful to determine how the people perceive the natural environment, the local
problems, the alternative solutions, their abilities to intervene, but most im-
portantly, their capabilities to do this collectively’ write Pomeroy and Carlos
(1996). In the absence of emic considerations, it is impossible to discover
these local conceptions and perceptions.
This does not mean that etic measurements cannot be used to measure suc-
cess. On the contrary, the physical aspects (that forms part of the etic en-
vironment connected to the values and views of the project implementers)
are important project results. However, they need to be measured in a later
phase. It is essential that the two types of project evaluation take place at the
appropriate time. As long as the social preparation phase is ongoing, there
is no need (or use) to measure material output even though they are part of
project activities. This is the moment for emic considerations. Only after the
project has phased out and when the community has had the time to actually
carry out project interventions, is it appropriate to measure according to etic
standards.
12.5 Subjectivity objectified or: emic becomes etic
The purpose of the discussion of emic and etic is not only to elucidate the
difference in perspective, it also touches on issues such as objectivity and va-
lidity. What we have seen is that not only the timing, but also the decision of
what to measure is crucial in the evaluation of project success. Until a more
pluralistic approach is widely accepted, what is measured depends for a large
part on the demands and requirements of donors and/or the implementing
agency (see also Anderson et al. 1998). The prevailing positivist mind-frame
of researchers – who often design or are involved in implementation of the
projects – evokes a natural preference for easily observable results that can
be quantified and measured (Leurs 1996). However, it is a false assumption
that only empirical observations lead to valid and objective measurements.
The non-material, subjective, personal experience of the project participants
can also be transformed into observable facts.
De Groot (1992) explains in his environmental science theory how people

form conscious structured pictures in their heads based on facts from the
outside world. He concludes that if we externalise this subjective picture – by
putting it onto paper, measuring it and testing it – it becomes objective. Dur-
ing the social preparation process of a project, people not only learn, but
SUBJECTIVITY OBJECTIFIED OR : EMIC BECOMES ETIC 237
become conscious of their personal progress and capacities. This personal

development needs to be translated into ‘pictures’. With the right set of in-
dicators and methodology people’s perceptions can be captured, hence, their
experience can be externalised and measured. This is exactly what is foreseen
in an emic evaluation: the subjective, emic experience becomes an objective,
etic observation that can be measured and analysed in a scientifically valid
way.
There is another advantage to this approach. During the social preparation

process, it is expected that people’s perceptions will change and that their
awareness concerning environmental problems will grow. People will real-
ise that not only do they cause environmental problems, but they also can
play an active role in solving them. At the moment when this consciousness
becomes part of their conceptual framework, we speak of internalisation: the
process in which behavioural codes originating from others become part of
the personality of an individual (Wilterdink and van Heerikhuizen 1985). The
measurement of people’s perceptions and experience at an early stage stimu-
lates the process of internalisation and the project beneficiaries become more
self-aware. Instead of following passively what is prescribed by the project,
people will start acting based on personal considerations.
Increased self-awareness further enables project participants to contribute

and join the process as equal partners in sessions where project goals are
developed with the project implementers. This is extremely important dur-
ing the pre-implementation phase of co-management, because it is often in
this phase that a resource problem is recognised by the resource users and
stakeholders, followed by an open discussion about the problem, negotiation,
consensus building and the development of agreement on a plan of action
and strategy (Pomeroy 1998). At this stage, the community may seek assist-
ance from outside agencies such as government, NGOs and others.
In the next phase, the implementation phase, field workers and community
organisers generally conduct meetings to discuss the concept of co-manage-
ment and discuss the project. Baseline data is collected and participatory
research conducted. Once the community feels comfortable with the com-
munity organisers, a community problem-, needs- and opportunity assess-
ment is conducted, information is shared, and management and develop-
ment objectives are defined in a communal process (Pomeroy 1998). This
is, of course, in an ideal situation where there is consensus and where there
is common ground to define the project objectives. If this is the case and the
outcomes are the result of a communal activity, it may be assumed that that
the physical objectives of the project as perceived by the beneficiaries (emic)
and the implementers (etic) coincide. The second measurement of these
physical outcomes, right after the project phases out, thus will represent an
objective, etic perception of project success.
12.6 What to measure and when?
Two important components of the social preparation phase are ‘communica-

tion-mechanisms’ and participation. Communication mechanisms are used
to clarify and define the roles of participants, that is, local people and project
representatives, in the different phases of the project. Exercises can help peo-
ple to understand principles of adult learning and community participation.
Trainers and participants become aware of preconceptions about each other;
they learn about group behaviour and role perceptions (see for example the
FAO Handbook for Participatory Evaluation 1988; UNDP Toolbook 1993).
These exercises and other tools enhance participation. They help to estab-
lish a working climate that stimulates involvement of various stakeholder
groups and allows people to partake in decision-making. The communica-
tion-mechanisms thus provide the prior conditions for active participation
and stimulate capacity building.
From several studies and experiences, one criticism of participatory methods

is that, despite the attempts to develop a methodology which creates equity,
PRA and other participatory methods still imply an imbalance of power (pos-
sibly because of funding) and control (due to lack of accountability) (Leurs
1996). The construction of local knowledge (and the emic picture) is strongly
influenced by existing social relationships, in particular by relations of gen-
der, power, and by the PRA facilitators themselves (ibid.). This means that
these methods need to be applied critically.
Several studies, guidelines and training manuals for a participatory approach

provide possible indicators that represent community attributes, such as
awareness and capability (UNDP Toolbook 1993; Pretty 1994; Pomeroy et al.
1996; Borrini-Feyerabend 1997; IIRR 1998). These indicators allow a meas-
urement of project success on different levels: the personal/individual level
and the community level. It is recognised that these indicators are predefined
and, in this sense, contradictory to what we actually want, that is, develop-
ment of indicators in the field. However, in the absence of a more adequate
method, this seems a good basis for the measurement of project results. It
is hoped the discussion in this chapter and the growing recognition of the
need for a more pluralistic approach (Anderson et al 1998) will stimulate the
development of new tools for evaluation.
Possible indicators that represent project beneficiaries’ personal achieve-

ments and benefits are listed below in Table 12.1.
WHAT TO MEASURE AND WHEN ? 239
TABLE 12.1
INDIVIDUAL INDICATORS FOR PROJECT SUCCESS
• Involvement: in the project design; in decision-making; in management; in defining

boundaries; in rule development;
• Capability: to express an opinion; to make decisions; to prioritise issues; to participate in
a meeting; to write a proposal; to speak in public; to work in committees;
• Control: over the process; over resources; over people’s own life;
• Access: to knowledge; to meetings; to resources;
• Skills: to repair and maintain technical equipment; to manage a project; to solve prob-
lems;
• Personal change: in awareness; in sense of responsibility; in self confidence; in initiative;
in self respect; in generating new ideas; in willingness to deviate from customs and com-
munity values; in willingness to take risks.
With these indicators, differences within the community can be measured

(in terms of class and gender, for example). For the community as a whole,
success will be defined in a different way because achievements other than
the purely personal are also important. The community viewpoint is natu-
rally more concerned with general benefits and accomplishments. A set of
indicators to identify changes on the community level is listed in Table 12.2.
TABLE 12.2
COMMUNITY INDICATORS FOR PROJECT SUCCESS
• Communication: commitment of stakeholders; recognition of stakeholders; understand-

ing between stakeholder groups; expression of different viewpoints; level of open disa-
greement;
• Representation: of various stakeholders; of various social groups; of women; of socially
marginalized groups;
• Collaboration: between individuals; between neighbourhood groups; between various so-
cial (differentiated) groups;
• Trust: between staff members; between staff and government; between staff and project
beneficiaries;
• Support: of higher government levels; of the local leaders; of a NGO; of the project staff;
of village based organisations.
It should be apparent that this list is not exhaustive. Furthermore, it is likely

that selection of indicators will be useful depending on the local situation.
However, with such indicators emic evaluation can be attempted. The early
emic evaluation has the advantage that it allows the project to adapt over
time and thus prevent possible failures (see also Pollnac 1989). Since the so-
cial preparation process often takes place during the implementation phase
when physical project activities have also started, it maybe an option to in-
clude material and physical project indicators in the preliminary evaluation
(see list below). This evaluation typically focuses on the process of project
development in terms of material achievements. It will show whether the
project goals are appropriate, need to be modified, adapted, or skipped alto-
gether. The advantage of this early measurement of physical indicators is that
it enhances the self-esteem and awareness of participants, and also reveals
the priorities of the project participants. Hence, it further stimulates inter-
nalisation of project objectives, which makes it more likely that the selected
activities are actually carried out.
It is only in the last phase of the project, the post-implementation phase, that
the final etic evaluation of the project takes place. Not only are the physical
outputs of the project measured in a quantitative way, but also the organi-
sational, non-material, success factors are quantified, such as the intensity
of group involvement and the functioning of the management system and
enforcement mechanism, see Table 12.3.
TABLE 12.3
PROJECT INDICATORS OF SUCCESS
• Success in terms of material output: size of yields; catches per unit effort; hectares of pro-
tected areas; hectares of mangroves/forests replanted; occurrence of destructive prac-
tices by local people.
• Success in terms of human involvement: number of people attending the training; numbers
of participants in project; frequency of staff-meetings; size of the network.
• Success in terms of project benefits: division of benefits; economic opportunities; well-being
in terms of health; well-being in terms of income; flow of investments; education level.
• Success in terms of management structure: management institution designed and active;
management plan and regulations designed and implemented; enforcement structure in
place; conflict solving mechanism in place; leadership.
• Success in terms of participation: type of participation; dimension of participation.
Ideally, the indicators would be selected by the project participants during

the implementation phase of the project. In reality, however, many indicators
are predefined in a project proposal drafted by the implementing or fund-
ing agency. Even though this may be the case, it is still advisable to lead all
project participants through a process in which the goals and objectives are
discussed and prioritised. This is essential because if the project goals are lo-
cally derived and internalised – and not imposed on the people – the definition
PROPOSED METHODOLOGY 241
of success for both the implementers and the participants can be expected to
be similar. This final evaluation then, will truly represent project success.
12.7 Proposed methodology
The last question to be answered is: how should project success be measured
and by whom? The emic and etic measurements require a standard meth-
odology that is valid and allows comparison. The core of project evaluation
is people’s perceptions. It is essential to use the right method to measure
these perceptions, especially since for a number of these indicators no base-
line data is available. The measurement of people’s perceptions is complex.
Perceptions cannot simply be measured by asking people ‘what they think’,
as happens in many studies. These kinds of questions do not reflect the com-
plexity of people’s thoughts and the subconscious. Emic indicators (such as
perceptions and attitudes) are non-material and qualitative yet quantifiable
and demand a certain approach in order to be measured (Bernard 1994).
There are various ways to measure project success and to operationalise the
indicators. The methodology to measure people’s perceptions of success de-
pends largely on whether the evaluation is action oriented or is part of an
academic exercise. In the latter case, each indicator needs to be thoroughly
operationalised and studied. This could be done, for example, through an-
thropological fieldwork directed at the development of a set of indicators.
This would lead to scientifically valid outcomes, but can be time-consuming,
especially when it concerns a long list of indicators.
Where time is limited because action is required, or where funds and the
availability of skilled researchers are limited, alternative methods need to be
used. One example of such a method is a visual self-anchoring ladder scale
used in the ICLARM-IFM Fisheries Co-management Project (Pomeroy et al.
1996). This base-line independent method allows for the use of non-para-
metric statistical techniques and makes use of the human ability to make
graded ordinal judgements. Fishermen are asked to answer questions about
the state of the resource, fish-catches, personal well-being, income, occur-
rence of conflicts, collective action etc. by using a picture of a ladder with ten
rungs as a visual aid. The lowest rung represents the worst possible condi-
tion; the highest rung represents the best. In the study, fisher peoples’ per-
ceptions were recorded of past conditions, current conditions and degree of
optimism for the future. The technique deals with variability in perceptions
over time and facilitates analysis of the perceived project impacts.
TABLE 12.4 – PRA Techniques (adapted from Jiggins and de Zeeuw 1992; Pido et al. 1996)
1 Visual scoring and ranking systems can be used to measure changes in wealth and well-be-
ing, development of skills, representation of social groups etc.
2 Time lines can be used to represent significant changes in the village, but also on the
individual level.
3 Seasonal patterns can be used to show the relative magnitude of workload, they can also
illustrate project activities and extent of involvement in the project.
4 Venn- and linkage diagrams are useful to represent social relationships or the importance
and influence of different individuals or institutions.
5 Visual estimations and quantification record such things as yields and prices, but can also
be used to measure skills, initiative, commitment etc.
This is only one example to show the use of participatory techniques to meas-
ure project impacts. Other methods, such as participatory evaluation meth-
ods, may also be useful (FAO 1988). These techniques allow a great deal of
input from participants and are very useful for rapid assessment of the local
situation (Chambers 1991, Drijver 1993; Mosse 1994; Blauert and Quinta-
nar 1997). The exercises can be adapted to measure personal change and
development accruing from the project, and outcomes can be quantified and
compared (see Table 12.4). For more easily quantifiable indicators of project
success, relatively straightforward methods could be used, such as observa-
tions, enumeration (census) and surveys.
12.8 Conclusion
Over the last decades, development projects have shifted their approach from
development to a people-oriented approach. An important concern of CBRM
and co-management is the empowerment of groups and social actors. These
approaches require extensive participation and the development of local ca-
pacity. Project participants need to develop the skills required to manage
their resources. However, the personal development of project participants
is often not evaluated and project evaluation remains exclusively focused on
material outputs.
Project success depends largely on what is actually measured, when, and

by whom. In order to evaluate project success from the perspective of both
participants and implementers, we need to adapt the indicators used to evalu-
ate the project. The personal development of the participants in terms of
increased involvement, access, control, capability, skills, and personal change
can be reflected in an emic evaluation. These skills are largely acquired during
the social preparation process and the appropriate moment to measure these
non-material project impacts is directly after the implementation phase.
CONCLUSION 243
The early emic evaluation has the advantage that it allows the project to adapt
strategies and adjust project goals, and thus prevent possible failures. It also
provides a picture of the performance of the project over time, which may
result in a more accurate assessment of what the project has achieved. In
this way the chances of project success will not only increase, but it is also
more likely that after the project terminates, the participants will continue
the project’s activities.
The fact that the material project goals are defined collectively with the assist-
ance of government, NGOs and donor agencies, leads to the internalisation
of these material project goals by all parties. Since the project outputs are
agreed upon and based on collective decision-making, it is more likely that
the physical objectives of the project as perceived by the beneficiaries and the
implementers will coincide and will be actually carried out. A second meas-
urement at the post-implementation phase, focusing on the material project
outputs, thus can be seen to be objective and would truly represent project
success.
There are three critical points in this discussion: (1) the acknowledgement of
a social preparation process, (2) the need to define project goals communally,
and (3) intermediary measurements of various sets of project indicators. Cur-
rent development structures, however, make no allowance for the extra set
of indicators needed to evaluate project success at the emic level. Targets are
usually set by those outside the community. Only in a few cases do the opin-
ions of the participants play a major role in project design, implementation
and evaluation. Furthermore, in many cases projects are carried over in too
short a time, without a clear or long enough social preparation process, and
with material interventions started too early. Hence, it is not surprising that
the material interventions are either not sustained or never implemented
at all. Consequently, the project fails to measure the non-material successes
that may actually be experienced by the participants.
Without emic assessments, the evaluation of a project is not complete. But

this is only possible when donors are prepared to change their approach away
from predefined, entirely material project goals. The implications for donors
are significant. It means a restructuring of project proposals to include a
longer preparatory process, a redefinition of project goals, and possibly a
longer implementation period. This has financial consequences, but more
importantly, changing the approach would imply a drastic shift in author-
ity and control over the project. Numerous evaluations and studies of failed
projects are a clear indicator that these changes are required to increase the
likelihood of project success in the short term, and thus to ensure sustainable
resource use over the longer term.
245
13 Discussion and Conclusions
World-wide decline in fish catches, deterioration of the eco-system and loss

of biodiversity has led governments to rethink their approach towards man-
agement and conservation. These considerations paved the road towards a
more decentralised approach to natural resource management including the
transfer of management authority to local and lower government levels. Co-
management is but one of the alternative strategies, but one that facilitates
and stimulates locally based management with a supporting and facilitating
role of the government. In places where there is no history of local manage-
ment, new structures need to be set-up and substantial groundwork needs
to be carried out in order to prepare the local government, villagers and or-
ganisations to deal with their new responsibilities. The Philippines provide
an example where the implementation of community-based resource man-
agement (CBRM) has proven successful both in terms of biological sustain-
ability and in the empowerment and increased capacity of people to manage
their marine resources (White et al. 2002). In this country, co-management
is a widely adopted strategy which, despite certain local setbacks, difficulties
and obstacles to be tackled, is progressively being scaled up to province-wide
management schemes. The system has increasingly strong horizontal and
vertical links, leading to an effective management strategy and providing an
important and inspiring example for other villages and countries in the re-
gion.
Some countries have traditional forms of resource management that poten-

tially form a basis for local management, like the Pacific inshore fisheries de-
scribed by Johannes (1978, 1998). Especially now, the new legislative frame-
works gearing towards decentralisation and regional autonomy offers great
opportunities to acknowledge and formalise these systems. Scepticism over
the functionality of traditional management, including the role and capabili-
ties of traditional institutions (Fegan 2004) is countered by the example of
sasi in Maluku Province, Indonesia. As part of the international ICLARM-
IFM Fisheries Co-management Research Project, this local traditional man-
agement system was studied in 1997-98 to identify to what extent the institu-
tion actually was active and functional, and whether it had positive outcomes
in terms of sustainability (biological and social), equity and efficiency. Also
sought were insights in the mechanisms that make such a system strong and
able to deal with disruptions and externalities without breaking down. By
identifying the mechanisms behind its resilience and functionality, sasi was
assumed to provide insights and serve as an example for newly to be set-up
management systems, a process which has become actualised in the route
246 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
towards decentralisation and regional autonomy that is currently taking place

in Indonesia.
In search for successful resource management and the conditions under

which this can take place, this study is highly pragmatic in that it is based
on an existing system with the objective of drawing lessons and learn from
it in order to increase the functionality of resource management systems
in Central Maluku and elsewhere. The overall study on co-management in
Southeast Asia of the Fisheries Co-management Research Project (Chapter
11) aimed to identify conditions to enhance success of local resource manage-
ment. Some of the findings are relevant to current processes such as decen-
tralisation. The mechanisms that play a key role in institutional resilience, for
example, coincide with the factors described as fundamental to the process of
decentralisation, such as transparency and accountability. These results may
be helpful to those working in the field of policy as well as to practitioners
in the field. The study is embedded in Common Property Theory and some
findings either support, contradict or complement the work of Ostrom and
others who with their theoretical insights built up over the years are disman-
tling Hardin’s Tragedy of the Commons (1968) by proving that under the
right circumstances local people use their knowledge and abilities to design
resource management strategies for sustainability, equity and efficiency (Os-
trom et al. 1999; Dietz et al. 2002; NRC 2002). Finally, this study provides
some insights in the role of the anthropologist in the study of environmental
behaviour and local institutions, but foremost in communicating local per-
spectives to the other parties involved such as the government and external
agents in order to establish a certain degree of understanding and mutual
respect.
13.1 Sasi
Sasi in Central Maluku has been in place for over 400 years and indicates
that rules pertaining to gear types, access, closed areas and seasons can be
successfully developed and applied at the local level by villagers independent
of external influences and government intervention. In the place of a science-
based rationale for management, we find an ethic of working together for
the benefit of the community, attachment to a cultural tradition (adat), and
the tendency to comply with sanctions based on religious beliefs. These have
combined to form the basis of a resilient and, within its narrow scope of ap-
plication, demonstrably effective institution.
The most significant outcomes of the sasi study, which was carried out from
1997-98, are on the level of social sustainability. In sasi villages, people expe-
rienced a higher level of communal action and reduced conflicts. In addition
to the perception that sasi is a ‘good thing’, these aspects created important
SASI 247
incentives to comply with the rules. Compliance was further positively af-
fected by a sense of ‘control over access’, i.e control on who was entering
the water. This was particularly the case in sasi villages where people trusted
their leader and felt more involved with management issues. In those vil-
lages people also had a more positive outlook for the future, for example on
fish catches. In terms of efficiency and equity, there were no significant dif-
ferences between sasi and non-sasi villages. Sasi provides effective structures
and decision-making processes that may not be very equitable in the sense
that all villagers are actively participating, but that were, particularly where
traditional authorities were involved, perceived as highly legitimate.
The environmental benefits of sasi were limited as sasi covers only limited
resources and species. Yet, species such as sea cucumber and top shells (Tro-
chus niloticus) only seemed to occur in protected sasi areas, and without sasi
these valuable and commercially interesting species are bound to disappear.
Important aspects of sasi related to resource management are:
1 An internalised attitude regarding resource management:

• A cultural value attached to the protection of resources in order to
conserve them, but also for strict commercial purposes (coconut) and
to avoid theft.
• The realisation that people are responsible for the resources under
their governance (based partly on fear for the wrath of ancestral spirits
and God).
• A concept of the unity of man with nature which is rooted in adat and
consistent with the modern concept of sustainable use.
2 The concept of community tenure rights over a marine or terrestrial area:

• Locally developed and agreed-upon regulations on gear types and size
of species harvested, as well as regulations that reinforce national laws
such as prohibitions on blast fishing and the use of poison.
• A shared responsibility of all villagers to report violations of sasi rules.
• Local enforcers (kewang) with defined structures and prescribed sanc-
tions to impose.
• A hierarchical institutional structure wherein various tasks are divided
among clearly defined bodies, i.e. village government, kewang, church,
etc.
• Communication mechanism in place to advise all residents at regular
intervals of the substance of sasi rules.
3 The concept of limiting access to resources:

• Open and closed areas.
• Open and closed seasons.
• The ability to exclude outsiders from a particular area.
• The possibility to rent out or auction certain parts of the village marine
territory.
4 The concept of ‘investing’ in resource management:

• Controlled (i.e. delayed) harvest and distribution of benefits to all vil-
lagers.
• An overall goal of improving or maintaining community welfare (when
revenues are used for the village).
• Enforcement at low or no financial cost to formal government, i.e. ke-
wang members and church leaders involved are not paid. In fact, local
government offices may sometimes receive income from the control-
led harvest and sale of communal resources.
Additional to these aspects, sasi has shown resiliency and the ability to evolve,
even after major impacts.
In Maluku, of the 63 villages studied in 1997-98, 19 had lost the entire sasi
institution. Where some form of sasi persisted there had often been a partial
loss or a change, for example from adat sasi to church sasi. Of the 35 villages
that used to have sasi on marine resources, 17 villages had some form of it
left. Post-World War II social, administrative and economic change, internal
village conflicts, amongst other reasons, caused sasi to break down. Political
instability or weak leadership was an important cause for sasi to become frag-
ile or disappear altogether. Sasi was strongest and most resilient in villages
with fewer than 3000 inhabitants that were relatively remote from large ur-
ban centres. Village homogeneity appeared important as well as institutional
interplay among the governing authorities. Where the new village structures
under Law No. 5/1979 embraced traditional authorities, the sasi institution
was able withstand political changes while collaboration with religious au-
thorities related to the church or mosque made the institution even stronger.
In villages where sasi was still active, people were strongly attached to it and
saw it as an inseparable part of their culture.
The strength of the sasi institution can be accounted to several factors. Berkes
and Folke (1998) explain that there are social mechanisms behind social-
ecological processes that deal with disturbances and so enhance institutional
and ecological resilience. Sasi comprises a number of these practices, such
as temporal restrictions on the harvest (see former section). From our study
REVITALIZATION OF SASI 249
we concluded, however, that the social-ecological practices in sasi are merely

components of the institution and vulnerable to change as they were abol-
ished or overruled as soon as a conflicting situation arose in a village (No-
vaczek et al. 2001). What kept the institution alive appeared to be the social
mechanisms that glue these components together, like legitimacy, trust, col-
laboration and transparency. The importance of trust (and also reciprocity)
is also mentioned by Ostrom (1990) although she identified these factors
as conditions for successful common property institutions rather than mech-
anisms that reinforce institutions. Others too have come to the conclusion
that social aspects are important in resource management institutions (Rap-
paport 1968; Vayda 1969, Rappaport 1984; Jentoft et al. 1998, Dietz et al.
2002). Interestingly, it is exactly these social aspects that rate significantly
higher in villages that have sasi, while the presence of these mechanisms, at
the same time, forms the basis for the continued existence of the institution.
This realisation has important implications when looking at local resource
management in the context of decentralisation.
13.3 Revitalization of sasi
In 1997-98, various contextual realities were at work toward the revitalization

of sasi as a management institution. Revitalisation primarily concerned the
reestablishment of collective-choice rules and operational rules concerning
the day-to-day use. During times of extreme stress the rituals and practical
execution of sasi were abolished or disappeared altogether. This was not the
case for the constitutional choice rules which stem directly from adat and are
intrinsic to the local culture and which, even where sasi disintegrated, only
became dormant. They never totally disappeared and could, as soon as the
opportunity arose, simply be reactivated.
At the time, the potential to collect resource rents through sasi made reviving
the institution very attractive, in particular for the local government. For fish-
ers the incentives to support revitalisation were linked rather to culture than
the conscious decision to manage resources for sustainability. On the con-
trary, the strong market demand coupled with high dependence on the fish-
ery made villagers extremely wary of any management measures that limited
access or imposed catch limits. Only if they would derive direct benefits from
such measures, would fishers support these restrictions. At the same time,
competition pushed artisanal fishers to organize themselves and demand
clear access and withdrawal rights on pelagic fishing grounds. However, by
the end of 1998 the outbreak of the civil strife and subsequent social disrup-
tion severely impacted the fishery and developments towards revitalisation
of sasi as well as province-wide coordination through traditional structures
(Latupati) were put to a halt.
Only now that the situation in Central Maluku has calmed down and villag-
ers are reorganising their lives and livelihoods, there may be room for some
form of management strategy with a potential role for sasi. Information com-
ing from the area defining the extent of breakdown of villages and village
institutions is scattered, but in 2004 at least one village, Haruku, reactivated
its sasi system and has had, for the first time since the disruption, an opening
ceremony for sasi lompa (Rumaruson 2003). In fact, the sasi institution has
played a vital role in resolving conflicts and the process of recovery (Kissya
and Dwisasanti 2004). This example is inspiring and has great significance
as it illustrates the strength of the institution and might be an indicator of
similar processes towards revitalisation and reestablishment of local man-
agement in other parts of Central Maluku.
13.4 Sasi and the design principles
Sasi has beneficial impacts on marine resource management, but the most
outstanding effect of sasi is on the social level. Jentoft and McCay (2003)
explain how erosion of community qualities like cooperation and solidarity
produces the very conditions under which Hardin’s (1968) ‘tragedy of the
commons’ can take place. Interestingly, it is exactly these ‘qualities’ that sasi
enhances. Other aspects that we find in sasi villages, such as trust, represen-
tation and legitimacy, form the primary mechanisms that keep the institu-
tion functional and resilient over time. These mechanisms, including down-
ward accountability, are also highly relevant if not critical in decentralisation
(Agrawal and Ribot 1999). Additionally, sasi provides and illustrates certain
key conditions for the success of local and/or co-management.
Sasi confirms the applicability of a number of Ostrom’s (1990) design prin-

ciples (see Chapter 11). What we have seen in sasi villages are clearly defined
boundaries and membership, group cohesion, benefits that exceed costs, par-
ticipation by those affected, the enforcement of management rules, coopera-
tion at the community level, and strong legitimate leadership. Sasi is equiva-
lent to the presence of a strong organisation, but also in the villages that
have lost sasi the constitutional rules of adat still form an important basis for
revitalisation. Design principles that are of less importance in sasi are the le-
gal rights to organise (sasi was developed outside a formal legal framework),
decentralisation and the delegation of authority (which may strengthen the
institution, but is not a prerequisite), and the existence of a coordinating
body. It is thus possible for resource management systems to evolve without
(formal) government support.
The design principles of Ostrom (1990) and other scientists who have pur-
sued this line of thinking thus are an interesting point of exit, but only partly
explain the success of management institutions. Most of the conditions men-
DECENTRALISATION 251
tioned are merely characteristics of the community or institution, such as

scale, village size, homogeneity, or the ability to exclude outsiders, and even
though these factors undoubtedly contribute to their functionality, from our
study it has become clear that the real ‘glue’ that keeps an institution alive
over time are the social mechanisms, i.e. trust, legitimacy, and transparency.
All these aspects are important as they form incentives to communally man-
age resources and to build and support a strong management structure that
is able to deal with major disruptions as we have seen in the recent past. In
this way, sasi confirms the proposition of Dietz et al. (2003) that Hardin, with
his theory on human behaviour, oversimplified the situation and that social
groups are very well capable of developing and maintaining self-governing
institutions.
13.5 Decentralisation
In post-New Order Indonesia, in response to a call for greater democratisa-

tion the national government has decided to devolve political and administra-
tive responsibility to lower government levels. Increasing resource degrada-
tion and the incapability of the central government to stop this process was
another driving factor to delegate responsibility for natural resource manage-
ment to local levels. Regional autonomy includes major legislative reforms,
of which Law No. 22/1999 and Law No. 25/1999 on respectively administra-
tive and financial decentralisation (and already under revision) provide new
authority structures and roles for provincial, district and local governments
(Patlis et al. 2001). Presently, there seems to be no identifiable lead agency
dedicated to coastal and fisheries management in Maluku, but this may be a
future prospect as part of the new Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries
(DKP). To what extent the implementation of existing policy and regulations
may work out at the local level is unclear. Even though the practical imple-
mentation of the new laws appears to be a difficult and time-consuming proc-
ess, the effects of decentralisation at the regional and local level are becoming
evident, but not in all respects in a positive sense. Resurgence of local elites,
a renewed interest in cultural identities (including adat) to back-up demands
for property rights over natural resources, and a lack of coherent laws have
lead to conflicts and rapid resource degradation (van Klinken 2002; Thor-
burn 2002).
Resource benefits, now accruing directly to the district governments, are a

major incentive to intensify resource exploitation as happens in places like
Central Kalimantan where the issuance of logging permits and subsequent
forest exploitation are expanding at an unprecedented rate. It is also an incen-
tive for those who have the financial resources and popular support to estab-
lish new districts to create a power base and reinforce existing patron-client
relationships. The violence in Central Maluku and bombings in Bali provide
the context in which decentralisation is to take place. Instead of a single po-

litical process leading to institutional change, we witness an extremely com-
plex and contradictory set of developments with many unexpected outcomes
(Schulte Nordholt 2003; McCarthy 2004). Instead of developing scepticism,
however, it is important to acknowledge the positive changes that have taken
place and the potential of the new legal framework, for example in reviving or
developing local and resource management practices (Salim 1995; Thorburn
2002). On the longer term decentralisation is expected to increase equity
and participation, greater effectiveness of management, downward account-
ability, and responsiveness of government to citizens. It may eventually lead
to the fulfilment of greater ideals, including democracy and responsible and
sustainable use of natural resources.
With the decentralisation process ongoing in Indonesia and the development

of a favourable legal framework for regional autonomy, the revival of sasi may
take a different form than thought at the time of our research. During the
Suharto era, efforts to organise and stimulate local management were not
supported and the formal acknowledgement of local institutions and regula-
tions was hardly feasible. The government was preoccupied with stimulating
the fishery for economic benefits and thus failed to provide incentives for
resource conservation or management. At the village level, enforcement by
higher government levels was patchy or non-existent. Maluku fishers felt cut-
off from higher levels of government and the Fisheries Agency and had a very
low opinion of the police and navy which did not have legitimacy conferred
by association with adat.
The new legal framework, of which Laws No. 22/1999 and 25/1999 are the
most ground breaking ones, opens a window of opportunities. In some plac-
es fishing communities have regained authority over their traditional fishing
grounds (Down to Earth 2001). This formal acknowledgement is crucial for
well-functioning local management systems (Ostrom 1990). Haruku village,
where villagers with support of traditional institutions and authorities have
reactivated sasi, may take the first steps in getting its traditional management
system acknowledged (Rumaruson 2003; Kissya and Dwisasanti 2004). With
access to information on new legal structures,1 a shift in authority to local
government control including traditional institutions, and with support and
services from NGOs, the district or central government, more villages may
choose to revitalise sasi or establish a new (co-) management system and, on
the longer term, may unite their efforts under a coordinated province-wide
management scheme.
1 For example through an ‘e-government’ and Internet as Rose (2004) suggests.

THE POTENTIAL OF SASI AS A MODERN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT INSTITUTION 253
13.6 The potential of sasi as a modern resource management

institution
The perpetuation of sasi (as opposed to the introduction of a totally new insti-
tution), especially if it includes religious leaders, has certain advantages over
new institutions. The structures, rules and regulations are already in place
and authority is largely defined. However, there are certain challenges and
limitations:
• The sasi institution in its current form is neither strong nor comprehen-
sive; it covers only a relatively small area and limited species.
• The institution is vulnerable to (political) conflict and highly dependent
on leadership.
• There is poor coordination among local institutions and knowledge of
legal rights and responsibilities is lacking.
• Marginal village economies and declining income encourage destructive
fishing practices.
• The sasi rules are effective in controlling local residents, but less effective
when applied to outsiders.
• Local institutions such as the kewang are not formally recognised, while
supernatural sanctions (wrath of God) are less effective in modern soci-
ety.
• While traditional leaders are growing old, younger generations lose in-
terest in sasi and the knowledge linked to adat – a process we also see in
other parts of Indonesia (Sakai 2002).
In revamping the institution it may therefore certainly be useful to retain

traditional titles and structures as well as elements of ceremony to provide a
strong spiritual and cultural basis. The involvement of respected traditional
and religious leaders also makes resource users feel secure and this encour-
ages rule compliance. Collaboration requires a shared value system, which
in this case is adat. However, where through modernization the younger
generation develops new values, the institution must adapt. It is important
to ascertain just how important traditional language and ritual is, and how
much needs to be incorporated into a revitalized institution, so as to benefit
from the cultural strength of the traditional institution without alienating
younger fishers.
The subsidiary principle, widely applied in decentralisation and natural re-

source management, holds that decisions should be made at the lowest pos-
sible level. The reason for this is that proximity to resources and consequently
better insight in the local situation, would lead to more appropriate manage-
ment decisions which are better suited to local conditions and hence more
effective. Additionally, local level management reduces the costs related to
planning and execution of management at the national level. It is important
FIGURE 13.1 – Children in Haruku of whom some are members of the mini-kewang
to realise, however, that the most effective decision-making procedures are

not necessarily the most equitable ones. The current hierarchical decision-
making process in sasi for example, is not very equitable, but it is efficient,
cost-effective and highly legitimate. Wider involvement of local people as
foreseen in decentralisation makes planning and decision-making processes
more equitable and inclusive, but it will also render them less efficient. The
sasi study thus shows that efficiency and equity are two sides of the same coin
and that the application of these principles on the local level will always be a
compromise.
Participation is a multi-dimensional concept and its practical execution is

complex. In decentralisation participation usually refers to people’s direct
involvement in decision-making, planning, and other management related
processes. In sasi villages, people do not individually take part in the politi-
cal process, yet they feel involved as they are represented through respected,
legitimate leaders. These representative structures thus provide a viable al-
ternative to direct participation. In villages where these structures no longer
exist, access to the political arena may be obstructed by ‘new elites’ who may,
once they achieved a powerful position, try to fend off intervention from vil-
lagers. The downward lines of command from the Suharto regime have in
many villages created dependent local governments that are not accountable
to the population and that may be susceptible to abusing their newly acquired
powers. These leaders and governments lack legitimacy and support of the
THE POTENTIAL OF SASI AS A MODERN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT INSTITUTION 255
local population and in these cases the creation of structures that enhance
participation or representation of the local community is vital in countering
the formation of elites and commercial undertakings that contribute to the
affluence of leaders at the cost of the long-term prosperity of the village.
Historically, in Indonesia relations between the government and people have

been characterised by distrust and dependency (Sakai 2002; Visser 2004).
Local structures and institutions were overruled by formal government struc-
tures in the 1970s, leaving the villages with either a functional government
where the new structures overlapped with the traditional ones, or a dysfunc-
tional one where this was not the case. Sasi has thus remained active despite
the presence of government agencies rather than because of it. The govern-
ment-promoted national ethic of non-questioning obedience to central au-
thority was a powerful disincentive to village leaders who otherwise might
have instituted reforms or introduced new village-level management struc-
tures. The complete lack of approval for non-governmental and grass-roots
organisations also tempered local initiative. In the new situation, this may
change. Future management institutions initially may need to be supported
at higher government levels and village leaders will need assistance and in-
centives to become proactive and creative. In Central Maluku, aside from the
provision of information and other forms of administrative support, an active
role of the government in management is, however, particularly where local
institutions exist, not required.
As mentioned before, legitimate and respected leadership is of critical im-

portance for success of local resource management and has a positive effect
on the political stability of the village. In the sasi villages where traditional
structures exist, the legitimacy of the village head is directly linked to his
descent from the traditional raja line which makes him kepala adat.2 In vil-
lages where the traditional and formal authorities have merged and where
the kepala adat is also the formal village head (kepala desa) like in Nolloth,
village political structures are perceived as highly legitimate. In this situation,
traditional structures including leadership need to be formalised under the
new law. In villages where these structures are lost, other mechanisms need
to be in place to ensure that leaders are elected in a legitimate way.
Well-functioning local management systems are dependent on the enforce-

ment, protection, and legal recognition of local rights by higher levels of
government (Ostrom 1990). As a village organisation active in enforcement,
the kewang is more functional than the police. Formal recognition of their
mandate will increase local enforcement capacity. Military presence in the
villages (Schulte Nordholt 2003) and the questionable role that the police
2 The kepala adat is the traditional village head. Once the formal village structure (desa) was intro-
duced in the 1970s, the elected village head was called kepala desa.
and the army have played during the civil strife in Central Maluku have re-
inforced existing distrust and local resistance. New decentralised structures
may, however, also include a role for non-adat institutions such as the navy,
police and higher government levels. Their involvement may very well be-
come a sensitive issue and sasi villages need to establish some sort of collabo-
ration between the various actors embedded in a legitimate, locally accepted
structure.
Trust, which is a key condition for successful resource management, can be

enhanced by clear and transparent social processes. The high levels of trust
in the village leaders, characteristic for sasi villages, has a positive effect on
the continued existence of the institution and on rule compliance. Where
trust is lacking and, as a consequence, management structures are dysfunc-
tional, deliberate actions need to be undertaken in order to build trust. This
can be achieved through negotiations in which objectives and targets are set
in mutual agreement as this reduces the risk for those involved in manage-
ment and stimulates cohesion. Also important are discussions and open dia-
logue. If needs and expectations can be voiced and a dialogue can take place
based on respect for different value systems and in a free and non-threaten-
ing environment, effective communication and trust are fostered. This would
also work on a higher level, i.e. between the village population and higher
government levels.
In order to make decentralisation effective the existing accountability struc-

tures need to be redirected downward, so that leaders are accountable to the
population rather than to higher level government structures. Even though
sasi leaders, through the representative structures and detachment from the
formal government, are accountable to the population, their ascribed posi-
tion makes critique of these village authorities very difficult and a dysfunc-
tional leader usually caused the whole institution to break down. Modern
local management institutions will therefore have to ensure that leaders are
elected through procedures that respect traditional lines of command, while
building in a mechanism that allows for the replacement of an incompetent
leader. Downward accountability structures can be strengthened through the
creation of discussion platforms where criticism can be voiced and by the
establishment of procedures that stimulate transparency and openness of
affairs to community members, two aspects that were also found of great
significance in sasi villages.
Village level institutions are important in dealing with local resource man-
agement. Cross-boundary problems, however, such as management of pe-
lagic fish stocks, can only be adequately addressed if these local institutions
are nested into a broader network of larger-scale institutions (Anderies et al.
2004). As management measures cover more than one municipality or dis-
trict, it is important that local institutions have horizontal links with neigh-
ALTERNATIVE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS IN NON - SASI VILLAGES 257
bouring villages and government offices, while vertically nested in a larger

organisation. In Maluku a traditional umbrella organisation of this kind is
present (the Latupati) which could, if formally acknowledged and adapted
to current requirements in terms of accountability, transparency and demo-
cratic structures, form a legitimate and adequate structure for resource man-
agement.
Successful continuation or resurgence of sasi under the new legal framework

requires thus that certain conditions be met. It is necessary to define the sasi
structures, powers and responsibilities within the framework of provincial
and national legislation, but at the same time, build towards local autonomy
and to provide local institutions with more capacity to deal with internal and
external threats. The weakened political structure in the villages allows for
different scenarios varying from village leaders who might abuse the current
situation to achieve a powerful position, to proponents of sasi with a genuine
aspiration to re-establish social stability and economic prosperity. As adat still
forms a strong basis and is meaningful in Central Maluku, there is potential
for a struggle as we have seen in places where leaders back-up local demands
for political sovereignty based on cultural identity (Acciaioli 2002; Hidayat
and Firdausy 2003).
On the district level too, government officials have a choice between sup-
porting sasi and adat institutions or allowing new elites to attain a power-
ful role. The rich resources of Central Maluku may attract outside investors
with a single interest in extracting resource rents. If and how the regional
governments will use their authority and devise electoral mechanisms to re-
strain these new elites from entering the political arena is an open question.
An important provision of the new law (Regulation No. 25/2000) is that the
provincial government can act in lieu of the district if it does not have suf-
ficient capacity (Patlis et al. 2001). As the authority of the province under Law
No 22/1999 is vague, but potentially very broad, it could perhaps be applied
where a district government proves dysfunctional. In any case, the specifica-
tion and practical implementation of this provision is not yet provided for
and under the current arrangements the provincial governments lack the
funds to adequate carry out this authority.
13.7 Alternative management systems in non-sasi villages
Collaboration, trust and legitimacy which support sasi are a function of a

village size and homogeneity. In larger, more heterogeneous villages tradi-
tional sasi therefore may not be a viable option. A logical alternative would be
a modern village institution that provides a transparent, inclusive decision-
making process and mechanisms to change and enforce rules, and which of-
fers direct benefits to the fishers. Perceived benefits as well as initial benefits
once people join a program or activity create a feeling of involvement and in-
crease the likelihood of sustaining the activities (Pollnac and Pomeroy 2005).
Also needed are a funding base (part of which could be generated by village
organisations) and a stable management structure that includes, but is not
dependent upon, the village government. Whether or not the institution is
modelled on sasi, the needs and aspirations of the various proponents (fish-
ers, adat leaders, local governments, fisheries managers, and environmental
NGOs) must be successfully accommodated. Local institutions need to be
involved, not only in local monitoring and enforcement, but also as partners
in planning and implementation, stock assessment and allocation, and li-
censing. In addition, to have a place in negotiating access and withdrawal
rights for artisanal fishers in offshore waters, local institutions will need to
engage or be nested in larger institutions operating on district, provincial and
higher levels.
In 1999, the government has adopted Integrated Coastal Zone Management

(ICZM) as its strategy, indicating a clear commitment to integrating social as-
pects and commercial interests with conservation and management (Dahuri
and Dutton 1999). Devolution, the streamlining of management authority,
and stakeholder participation are important aspects of this approach. For ac-
tual participation of people in discussion forums and decision-making, how-
ever, substantial groundwork is required. In Indonesia, coastal communities
in remote locations such as Maluku have been marginalized and access to
information has been limited. Forced to function under strict government
control and top-down communication, local governments have developed a
dependent attitude and basically lack the skills to handle their newly acquired
powers.
Two important activities in co-management (see Chapter 2 and 10) are em-
powerment and capability building which help individuals to gain greater
social awareness, become more involved in decision-making, increase self-
reliance, and in this way, establish a balance in community power relations.
This last aspect is important as the decentralisation process may have dif-
ferential impacts on the community leading to not a balance of power, but
simply a redistribution of power elites (Pomeroy et al. 2001). Social aware-
ness and other skills that lead to greater autonomy are developed during the
so-called social preparation process that precedes co-management (Pomeroy
1998; Chapter 11). The development of local skills includes value formation,
situation analysis, consensus building, leadership training, conflict manage-
ment, livelihood and enterprise management, networking, and basic biology
and ecology. Especially for the fisheries in Maluku, which are characterised
by high uncertainty, it is important to provide information of good quality on
stocks, flows and processes within the resource systems, as well as the hu-
man impact on it (van Oostenbrugge 2003).
CONCLUSION 259
Good social preparation is manifested in positive attitudes toward collective

action and in the readiness of community members to take on responsibility
for resource management and decision-making (Pollnac 1994; Pomeroy et al.
1996). It is crucial to create structures that enhance legitimacy, representa-
tion or direct participation. Because those changes require time and stimu-
late an increased awareness on biological as well as social and political issues,
the social preparation process needs to be carefully designed and cover an
adequate stretch of time. Furthermore, the process is only functional if it
fits within the socio-cultural and political context of the community and if it
includes marginalized groups and women.
Building trust and mutual respect is a time consuming process and takes
concerted efforts of partners in management. As trust is a key mechanism in
the functioning (and thus success) of management institutions and political
structures, it is important to be aware of changes in the level of trust during
the time it takes to establish these structures and afterwards. Changes in
actors are a good indicator for the effectiveness of decentralisation (Agraw-
al and Ribot 1999). Like in the co-management projects and processes de-
scribed in Chapter 12, in revitalised sasi systems trust can be measured on
various levels and concerns trust between individuals at the local level as well
as trust between local people and the government, NGOs and other external
agents. Other important indicators for success are the individual perception
of being involved in management, increased knowledge and skills, and the
level of participation in project planning (Pomeroy et al. 2001 and Chp 11).
Evaluations can further include social indicators on the level of the commu-
nity such as the degree of collective action and collaboration. Changes at this
level could include aspects like the activities undertaken by various groups
and changes in collaboration between individuals, neighbourhood groups
and otherwise differentiated groups. It may also be interesting to measure an
increase or decrease in collaboration between formal and informal institu-
tions and government agencies.
13.8 Conclusion
Sasi shows an interesting example of how a local institution can contain

or enhance some of the principles important in decentralisation. Sasi also
provides an alternative to the western idea that local management must be
highly democratic. The paternalistic sasi model is potentially very efficient
and cost-effective, putting little demand on the time of busy fishers, farmers
and women, and it is also culturally acceptable. What is important is not to
further entrench current elites by allowing the system to become inflexible,
non-transparent and corrupt. Should democratic ideals one day become the
norm, the management institution must be able to evolve to accommodate
increased need for direct participation.
In villages where the revitalisation of sasi is not an option, new management

structures need to be devised that on the one hand contain the principles of
sasi, and on the other hand contain processes that enhance the social mech-
anisms so important in resilient resource management institutions. Trust,
collaboration, accountability and all those aspects that make sasi and resource
institutions in general functional need to be built into a resource manage-
ment strategy. Co-management is a possible strategy to achieve the goals en-
visaged in Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM). The experiences
from the Philippines and other Southeast Asian countries could serve as an
example and source of inspiration. Close monitoring of the process of decen-
tralisation and developments at the local and district level is required to avoid
the pitfalls encountered in other parts of Indonesia, while assessments of
social change will illustrate its effectiveness.
Whether based upon existing institutions or upon new management struc-

tures, resource management in Maluku will always include underlying prin-
ciples and traditions of sasi and adat as they are an intrinsic part of the cul-
ture. Over the centuries, sasi has proven to be both adaptive and resilient to
external perturbations (Volker 1925; Cooley 1962; Zerner 1994b). The cul-
tural embeddedness of sasi as well as a shared notion of its relevance – ‘sasi
is good’ – has stimulated local villages to maintain it in spite of external influ-
ences and in a situation where the temptation to abuse the system for per-
sonal benefits was strong. Even more recent impacts such as the monetary
crisis and the violence of 1999-2004 within and between villages have not
caused a total breakdown. The feedback mechanisms in sasi seem to have
proven strong enough to mitigate the effects of these disturbances. At least
one village has re-established the sasi institution after the civil strife. There is
therefore hope that the institution can form a modern element in the new de-
centralised government structures, in which the needs and aspirations of the
various proponents (fishers, local governments, adat leaders, environmental-
ists, fisheries managers) can be successfully accommodated.
13.9 Further research
The process of decentralisation that is taking effect in other parts of Indone-

sia seems to be slowed down in Central Maluku (Sopacua pers. comm. July
2005) probably because the islands are still recovering from the civil strife.
As the extent of breakdown (and revival) of sasi over the past years is not clear,
an important research question concerns the impact of the social disruptions
on the presence and functionality of sasi. A revisit including an inventory
would provide important information about in which villages it has survived
and in what form. This would enable us to gain a deeper understanding of
institutional resilience and especially of the role that the social mechanisms
play in the survival or revival of sasi where this is the case. It would also be
THE ROLE OF ANTHROPOLOGY – BUILDING BRIDGES 261
worthwhile to investigate which actions are currently being undertaken to

revive sasi or establish new management structures based on the principles
of decentralisation, and which institutional, legislative and organisational
frameworks are in place to support this process. Whatever form or shape, sasi
is unique and offers great insights in how local resource management can
function under varying conditions, its further study will therefore provide
important insights in adaptive systems theory and institutional resilience.
13.10 The role of anthropology – building bridges
Milton (1996, 53) makes an important point when she says: ‘If the source
of environmental damage is human activity, then an understanding of the
rationale on which damaging activity is based is important as a starting point
for instigating constructive change.’ It is also important to understand what
kinds of cultural interpretations of the world predispose people towards
more environmental friendly practices, if such practices are to be success-
fully adopted and encouraged (see also Zwaal 2003). The identification of
options and motivations is also the starting point of the Problem-in-Context
approach in search for solutions in environmental science.
The study of sasi provides a striking illustration of environmental behaviour

in Maluku both in its ‘destructive’ form where sasi is lost, as in its ‘environ-
mental friendly’ form in the villages that still actively implement it. It was a
unique opportunity to compare the two types of systems in a similar context,
using in-depth case studies and structured research to discover the variables
at work in defining people’s behaviour. The multi-disciplinary character of
the study including biological surveys allowed for (limited) insights in the
feedback mechanisms between the ecological and social system. Without the
anthropological perspective, however, it is questionable whether the cultural
significance of sasi and the social aspects that lie at the basis of its continued
existence would have been brought to the light. In the search for solutions for
environmental problems anthropology, in my view, is thus highly relevant.
With fisheries globally under threat and marine resources depleting, it is ob-
vious that more knowledge and more data on fisheries, stocks and yields
are inadequate to manage marine resources. Slowly, the research field of
environmental management, which until recently was the exclusive domain
of biologists and fisheries scientists,3 is being invaded with insights from
other disciplines. Social sciences have gained recognition in identifying the
3 The dominant view at the time was that ‘nature’ is to be exploited for their human benefits.
As a consequence, the conviction was that environmental problems could be solved by technol-
ogy assuming that physical and biological sciences would identify the problems and appropriate
responses (Milton 1996).
impacts of non-technological (particularly economic and political) factors on

the environment, and vice versa. Scientists like Degnbol (2003) now argue to
shift the focus from quantitative biological data to the social processes that lie
behind management. If we take depletion of fish stocks as an outcome, the
main ‘variable’ in reducing fish catches is the behaviour of fishers, i.e. fishing
effort and management. It is on that level that I agree, the action should be.
Over the years an increasing number of anthropologists has found employ-

ment in research programs and pragmatic studies on environmental man-
agement, e.g. irrigation, forestry and fisheries. I have always felt privileged to
be one of them. In 1996, the project leader of the Fisheries Co-management
Project was innovative in taking on an anthropologist to do research on fish-
eries. ‘Cutting-edge’ research at the time meant to include social aspects into
the analysis. The study on institutional resilience is a good example of what
applied anthropology can contribute in the context of environmental man-
agement and the role of institutions. With the insights from people-oriented
approaches like community-based and participatory management, social sci-
entists in close collaboration with resource users can help to search viable
solutions for resource problems and set up organisations and institutions
that are well-prepared to manage resources for sustainability.
In my work and approach of the past years I seem to have combined two
roles. The first is the one of a researcher studying environmental behaviour,
i.e. the key features in Maluku culture relating to their environment of which
sasi is a strong expression. These features were all included in the institu-
tional analysis used in understanding the local dynamics around resource
management. A second role is to clarify that environmental behaviour to the
outside world, thus, the role of the anthropologist as an ‘interpreter’ between
local communities and others (government officials, NGOs, and researchers
from other disciplines).
In my view, the strength of environmental anthropology in its most practical

form is to study and clarify the different perceptions and interests of various
actors concerning resource management and to represent these views. As
there is often a huge gap between the parties in (co-)management in terms of
culture, language, interests and values, mechanisms and processes need to
be in place through which views can be expressed in order to increase mutual
understanding or respect. The ideas and viewpoints presented may not all be
agreed upon, but as they become clear they can be negotiated upon (Wilson
2003b), and constructive dialogues and discussions support the search for
solutions for environmental problems. The common ground that is formed
can function as a platform on which management decisions can be taken and
conflicts resolved. In other words, anthropology can help to tear down walls
and to build bridges between people.
263
References
Abrahamsz, J. and R. Hetarie (1994) Laporan Investigasi: Penangkapan Ikan Dengan

Menggunakan Obat Bius Pada Perairan Seram Barat dan Sekitarnya. Yayasan Hua-
lopu, Ambon, Indonesia.
Addun, R. and D. Muzones (1996) Community-based Coastal Resource Management:
Tambuyog’s Experience in the Philippines. In: Foltz, C., R.S. Pomeroy and C.V. Bar-
ber, Eds. Proceedings of the Visayas-wide Conference on Community-based Coastal
Resource Management and Co-management. Working Paper No. 4. Fisheries Co-
management Project. ICLARM, Manila.
Agbayani, R. and A. Babol (1997) Institutional Arrangements in the Fisheries Co-man-
agement on Malalison Island, Culasi, Antigue: a Process Documentation Research
Methodology. Working Paper No. 16. ICLARM, Manila.
Agrawal, A. and J. Ribot (1999) Accountability in Decentralisation: A Framework with
Southeast Asian and West African Cases. The Journal of Developing Areas, Vol. 33:
473-502.
Agrawal, A. and C.C. Gibson, Eds. (2001) Communities and the Environment: Ethnic-
ity, Gender and the State in Community-based Conservation. Rutgers University
Press, New Brunswick.
Ahmed, M., K. Kuperan Viswanathan, and R.A. Valmonte-Santos (2004) Collective Ac-
tion and Property Rights for Sustainable Development. Collective Action and Prop-
erty Rights in Fisheries Management. 2020 Vision. Focus 11, Brief 7 of 16, IFPRI
Washington DC.
Akimichi, T. and K. Ruddle (1984) The Historical Development of Territorial Rights and
Fisheries Regulations in Okinawa Territorial Waters. In: K. Ruddle and T. Akimichi,
Eds (1984) Maritime Institutions in the Western Pacific. Senri Ethonological Stud-
ies, No.17. National Museum of Ethnology, Osaka, pp. 37-88.
Amor, A. (2002a) Scientists Call for Better Management of Region’s Coral Reefs. News
Release May 21, 2002. World Resources Institute (WRI), Washington DC.
Amor, A. (2002b) Scientists Call for Better Management of Philippine Coral Reefs.
News Release March 7, 2002. World Resources Institute (WRI), Washington DC.
Amor, A. (2002c) Scientists Call for Better Management of Indonesia’s Coral Reefs.
News Release March 5, 2002. World Resources Institute (WRI), Washington DC.
Anderies, J.M., M.A. Janssen, and E. Ostrom (2004) A Framework to Analyse theRo-
bustness of Social-ecological Systems from an Institutional Perspective. Ecology
and Society Vol. 9(1): 18.
Anderson, J.J. Clément and L.V. Croweder (1998) Accommodating Conflicting Inter-
ests in Forestry – Concepts Emerging from Pluralism. Unasylva 194, Vol. 49(3):
3-11. FAO.
Anonymous (1992, 1995) Maluku Dalam Angka 1992, 1995. Biro Pusat Statistik
Propinsi Maluku.
Anonymous (1993, 1994, 1995) Buku tahunan statistik perikanan. Laporan Dinas Peri-
kanan Maluku.
Anonymous (1994) Rencana Pembnagunan Lima Tahun Keenam Daerah Tingkat 1
Maluku, 1994/1995 – 1998/99.
Anonymous (2002?) Destructive Fishing Practices in South Sulawesi Island, East In-
donesia, and the Role of Mariculture as a Potential Alternative Livelihood. Intro-
duction. A Case Study for the APEC Sub-Project ‘Improving Coastal Livelihoods
through Sustainable Aquaculture Practices’.
Anonymous (2003) Editorial. Ocean & Coastal Management Vol. 46: 225-234.
Andamari, R., B. Irianto, and L. Garces (1993) Coastal Habitats and the Fisheries in
Nolloth, Central Maluku. Ambon Institute for Assessment of Agricultural Technol-
ogy, Indonesia.
Antariksa, G.P., R. Indrawasih and D.S. Adhuri (1993) Aspek-aspek Social Budaya
Masyarakat Maritim Indonesia Bagian Timur. Seri Penelitian PMB-LIPI, No.
3/1993.
Bailey, C. and C. Zerner (1992) Local Management of Fisheries Resources in Indonesia:
Opportunities and Constraints. In: R. B. Pollnac, C. Bailey and A. Poernomo, Eds.
Contribution to Fishery Development Policy in Indonesia. Jakarta: Central Institute
for Fisheries, Min. of Agriculture, Indonesia, pp. 39-55
Balgos, M.C. and C.R. Pagdilao (2002) Provincial and Regional Institutions in the
Philuppines: an Essential Element in Coastal Resources Management and Marine
Conservation. Background Paper for the Workshop on Institutional Frameworks
for Community-based Coastal Resources Management and Marine Conservation in
the Visayas Region, March 14-15, 2000. Leyte, Philippines.
Balgos, M.C. and G. Ricci (2002) The Convergence of Crisis, Political Processes, and
Capacity. Impetus for Local Coastal Resource Management Initiatives. InterCoast
Network 42.
Barfield, T. Ed. (1997) The Dictionary of Anthropology. Blackwell, Oxford.
Baticados, D.B. and R. Agbayani (1998) Case study of Institutional Arrangements in
the Fisheries Co-management of Malalison, Island, Central Philippines. SEAFDEC.
Working Paper No. 34. ICLARM, Manila.
Baticados, D.B., S.V. Siar, and L.M.B. Garcia (2004) The Scale Question in Co-man-
agement: The Experience of Malalison Island and LIPASECU Bay Management
Council, Inc. In the Philippines. Paper presented at the International Fisheries Co-
management Workshop, October 2004, Dhaka, Bangladesh.
Bavinck, M. (2001) [One Sea and Three Contenders] Marine Resource Management:
Conflict and Management in the Fisheries of the Coromandel Coast. Livelihood and
Environment Series, No. 5. Sage Publications, New Delhi.
Benda-Beckmann, F. von, K. von Benda-Beckmann, and A. Brouwer (1995) Changing
‘Indigenous Environmental Law’ in the Central Moluccas: Communal Regulation
and Privatization of Sasi. Ekonesia. A journal of Indonesian Human Ecology, No. 2:
1-38. Program Studi Antropologi-Program Pascasarjana. University of Indonesia.
Benda-Beckmann, F. von, K. von Benda-Beckmann, and A. Aziz Saleh (2000) Legal
Pluralism, Resource Management in Social (In)Security in Indonesia: Reflections
on a Joint Research Project. Paper presented at the Interantioal Conference: Inter-
REFERENCES 265
active North-South Research for Development with Special Attention for Natural
Resource Management, December 16, 1999. Nederlandse Academie van Weten-
schappen, pp 15-27.
Benda-Beckmann, F. von, and K. von Benda-Beckmann (2001) Recreating the Nagari:
Decentralisation in West Sumatra. Working Paper No. 31. Max Planck Institute fro
Social Anthropology, Germany.
Benda-Beckmann, F. von, and K. von Benda-Beckmann (2002) How Bleak is the Pic-
ture? Towards Constitutional Liberties in Indonesia. Paper presented at the Confer-
ence of READ-AGERE, November 14-16, 2002. Rostock, Germany.
Berkes, F. (1986) Local Level Management and the Commons Problem: a Comparative
Study of Turkish Coastal Fisheries. Marine Policy, Vol. 10: 215-229.
Berkes, F., Ed (1989) Common Property Resources: Ecology and Community-Based
Sustainable Development. Belhaven Press, London, 302 pp.
Berkes, F., D. Feeny, B.J. McCay, and J.M. Acheson (1989) The Benefits of the Com-
mons. Nature, Vol. 340: 91-93.
Berkes, F., Ed. (1990) Common Property Resources: Ecology and Community-based
Sustainable Development. Belhaven Press, London.
Berkes, F. and C. Folke (1992) A Systems Perspective on the Interrelations between
Natural, Human-made and Cultural capital. Ecological Economics, Vol. 5: 1-8.
Berkes, F., H. Fast and M.K. Derkes (1996) Co-management and Partnership Arrange-
ments in Fisheries Resource Management and in Aboriginal Land Claims Agree-
ments. University of Manitoba, Canada.
Berkes, F. and C. Folke, Eds. (1998) Linking Social and Ecological Systems: Manage-
ment Practices and Social Mechanisms for Building Resilience. Cambridge Univer-
sity Press, United Kingdom.
Berkes, F.(2003) Can Cross-scale Linkages Increase the Resilience of Social-Ecological
Systems? Paper presented at the RCSD International Conference, Politics of the
Commons, Chiang Mai (Thailand), July 2003.
Bernard, H.R. (1994) Research methods in Anthropology. Qualitative and quantitative
Approach. Sage Publications, London.
Blauert, J. and E. Quintanar (1997) Seeking Local Indicators: Participatory Stakeholder
Evaluation of Farmer-to-Farmer Projects (Mexico). Paper presented at the Interna-
tional Workshop on PMandE: Experiences and Lessons. November 24-29, 1997.
IIRR Campus, Silang, Cavite, Philippines.
Blomquist, A. (1992) Dividing the Waters: Governing Groundwater in Southern Cali-
fornia. ICS Press, San Francisco.
Borrini-Feyerabend, G. (1996) Collaborative Management of Protected Areas: Tailoring
the approach to the context. Chp. 7. IUCN, Gland.
Borrini-Feyerabend, G. (1997) Beyond Fences. Seeking Social Sustainability in Conser-
vation. Chp. 7. IUCN, Gland.
Bowen, R.E. and C. Riley (2003) Socio-economic Indicators and Integrated Coastal
Management. Ocean & Coastal Management, Vol. 46(3-4): 299-312.
Breemer, J.P.M van den (1984) Onze aarde houdt niet van rijst: een cultureel-antro-
pologische studie van innovatie in de landbouw bij de Aouan van Ivoorkust. ICG
Printing, Dordrecht.
Bromley, D.W., Ed. (1992) Making the Commons Work: Theory, Practice and Policy.
ICS Press, San Francisco.
Brosius, J.P. (1999) Analyses and Interventions. Anthropological Engagements with
Environmentalism. Current Anthropology, Vol. 40(3): 277-309.
Brown, T.H. (1999) Economic Crisis, Fiscal Decentralisation and Autonomy: Pros-
pects for Natural Resource Management. Natural Resources management (NRM)
Project.
Bruijn, M. de, and H. van Dijk (1995) Arid Ways. Cultural Understanding of Insecurity
in Fulbe Society, Central Mali. Thela Publishers, Amsterdam.
Buhat, D. (1994) Community-based Coral Reef and Fisheries Management, San Sal-
vador Island, Philippines. In: A. White, L. Hale, Y. Renard, and L. Cortesi, Eds.
Collaborative and community-based management of coral reefs. Kumarian Press,
Connecticut, pp 33-49.
Burke, L., D. Bryant, J.W. McManus and M. Spalding (1998) Reefs at Risk: A Map-based
Indicator of Potential Threats to the World’s Coral Reefs. WRI, Washington.
Burke, L., L. Selig, and M. Spalding (2002) Reefs at Risk in Southeast Asia. WRI, Wash-
ington.
Calumpong, H. (1996) Landscape Approach to Coastal Management in Bais Bay, Ne-
gros Oriental. In: C. Foltz, R.S. Pomeroy and C. Barber, Eds. Proceedings of the
Visayas-wide conference on community-based coastal resources management and
co-management. Working Paper No. 4 of the Fisheries Co-management Research
Project. ICLARM, Manila, pp 50-57.
Carlos, M. and R.S. Pomeroy (1996) A Review and Evaluation of CBCRM projects in
the Philippines: 1984-1994. Research Report No. 6. ICLARM, Manila.
Casson, A. (2001) Decentralisation of Policies Affecting Forests and Estate Crops in
Kota Waringin, Timur District, Central Kalimantan. Case Studies on Decentralisa-
tion and Forests in Indonesia, Case Study 5. CIFOR.
CBS (1995) Statistical Yearbook of Indonesia. Central Board of Statistics (CBS), Jakarta.
Chambers, R., A. Pacey, and L.A. Thrubb (1989) Farmer First: Farmer, Innovation and
Agricultural Research. Intermediate Technology Publications, London.
Chambers, R. (1991) Rapid and Participatory Rural Appraisal. Institute of Development
Studies, Brighton.
Charles, A.T. (2001) Sustainable Fisheries Systems. Blackwell Science, Oxford.
Chauvel, R. (1981) Stagnatie, Exodus en Frustratie. Economische Geschiedenis van
Ambon van 1863 tot 1950. Instituut Umar Lesteluhu.
Cicin-Sain, B. and R.W. Knecht. Integrated Coastal and Ocean Management: Concepts
and Practices. Island Press (1998).
Cleuren, H. (2001) Paving the Road for Forest Destruction. Key Actors and Driving Forc-
es of Tropical Deforestation in Brazil, Ecuador and Cameroon. PhD Dissertation,
Centre of Environmental Sciences, Leiden University.
Clifton, J. (2003) Prospects for Co-management in Indonesia’s Marine Protected Areas.
Marine Policy, Vol. 27(5): 389-395.
Cooley, F. (1962) Ambonese Adat: a General Description. Dep of Southeast Asia Stud-
ies. Yale University.
REFERENCES 267
Cordell, J. (1984) Defending Customary Inshore Sea Rights. In: K. Ruddle and T. Akim-
ichi, Eds (1984) Maritime Institutions in the Western Pacific. Senri Ethonological
Studies, No.17. National Museum of Ethnology, Osaka, pp. 301-326.
Cordell, J, Ed. (1989) A Sea of Small Boats: Customary Law and Territoriality in the
World of Inshore Fishing. Cultural Survival Report 62, Cambridge, Massachusetts.
Costanza, R., F. Andrade, P. Antunes, M. van den Belt, D. Boersma, D.F. Boesch, F.
Catarino, S. Hanna, K. Limburg, B. Low, M. Molitor, J. Gil Pereira, S. Rayner, R.
Santos, J. Wilson, and M. Young (1998) Principles for Sustainable Governance of
the Oceans. Science, Vol. 281: 198-199.
Crawford, B.R., I.M. Dutton, C. Rotinsulu and L.Z. Hale (1998) Community-based
Management in Indonesia: Examples and Initial Lessons from North Sulawesi.
Paper presented at the International Tropical Marine Ecosystems Symposium Aus-
tralia, November 23-26, 1998.
Crawford, B.R., M. Knight, S. P. Ginting, I. Dutton, D. Bengen, S. Tighe, J. Tulungen,
J.J. Wenno, N. Makuniddin, B. Wiryawan, S. Tilley, K. Hidayat, A. Wyana, and J.
Patlis (2003). Navigating a Course for ICM in Indonesia: The Indonesia Coastal
Resources Management Project. Coastal Governance, Chapter 6. Coastal Resources
Center, Univeristy of Rhode Island.
Crawford, B. and M. Kasmidi (2004) Factors Influencing Progress in Establishing Com-
munity-based Marine Protected Areas in Likupang Sub-district of North Sulawesi,
Indonesia. Working Paper. Coastal Resources Center, University of Rhode Island.
Dahuri, R. and I.M. Dutton (1999) Integrated Coastal Zone and Marine Management
Enters a New Era in Indonesia. Building Integrated Coastal Management Capacity
in Indonesia. Contribution to MREP.
Dahuri, R. (2001) The Challenges of Public Policy for Sustainable Oceans and Coastal
Development: new Directions for Indonesia. Oceans and Coast for Rio+10 Confer-
ence Ministry of Marine Affairs Presentations. Paris, December 2001.
Daly, H. (1990) Commentary: Toward Some Operational Principles of Sustainable De-
velopment. Ecological Economics, Vol. 2: 1-6.
Darwin, C. (1859) The Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection.
Dauvergne, P. (1997) Weak States and the Environment in Indonesia and the Solomon
Islands. Paper presented at a workshop of Weak and Strong States in Southeast Asia
and Melanesia – August 1997. The Australian National University.
DeCosse, P. J. and S. S. Jayawickrama (1998) Issues and Opportunities in Co-manage-
ment: Lessons from Sri Lanka. In: Ashish Kothari et al. Communities and Conser-
vation: Natural Resource Management in South and Central Asia. Sage Publica-
tions, New Delhi.
Degnbol, P. and J. Raakjær Nielsen (2002) Educating Fisheries Managers as an Integral
Part of Management. Discussion Note for the IIFET Special Session on Building
Human Capital. Institute for Fisheries Management and Coastal Community De-
velopment (IFM), Denmark.
Degnbol, P., D.C. Wilson, H.A. Grolin, S. Sverdrup Jensen (2003) Spatial Scale in Coa-
stal Zone Management: Current Approaches, Challenges and Possibilities. Paper
Presented at ‘Rights and Duties in the Coastal Zone’ 12-14 June 2003, Stockholm,
Sweden.
Degnbol, P. Knowledge in Co-management (2003). Institute for Fisheries Management

and Coastal Community Development (IFM), Denmark.
Delgado, M.E.M. and A.C.D. Barriga (2002) Towards Sustainable Use of Espírtu San-
to Island Reserve, Baja California Sur, Mexico. InterCoast Network, International
Newsletter of Coastal Management Nr. 42. Coastal Resources Center, University of
Rhode Island.
DENR (2001) Legal and Jurisdictional Framework for Coastal Zone Management. Phil-
ippine Coastal Management Guidebook Series, No.2. Department of Environment
and National Resources, Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources, and Coastal
Resource Management Project, Chp 3.
Dietz, T., N. Dolšak, E. Ostrom, and P.C. Stern (2002) The Drama of the Commons. In:
National Research Council. The Drama of the Commons. National Academy Press,
Washington DC, pp 3-35.
Dietz, T., E. Ostrom, and P.C. Stern (2003) The Struggle to Govern the Commons. Sci-
ence, Vol. 302: 1907-1912.
Donda, S. (2001) Theoretical Advancement and Institutional Analysis of Fisheries Co-
management in Malawi. Experiences from Lakes Malombe and Chiuta. PhD thesis,
Aalborg University.
Down to Earth (2001) Regional Autonomy: Future Uncertain. Newsletter No. 51.
Down to Earth (2001) Coastal Communities Hit Hard by Fishing Industry. Newsletter
No. 51.
Drijver, C.A. (1991) People’s Participation in Environmental Projects in Developing
Countries. Landscape and Urban Planning, Vol. 20: 129-139.
Drijver, C.A. (1993) Participatory Rural Appraisal: A Challenge for People and Protected
Areas. CML Coursebook III, 1994-1995, pp. 235-243. Centre of Environmental Sci-
ence, Leiden
Dupar, M. and N. Badenoch (2002) Environment, Livelihoods and Local Institutions:
Decentralisation in Mainland Southeast Asia. World Resources Institute (WRI),
Washington DC.
Dutton, I. (draft) If Only Fish Could Vote: the Enduring Challenges of Coastal and Ma-
rine Resources Management in Post-reformasi Indonesia. The Nature Conservancy.
Ehsanul, H. 1999. Management of Fisheries, Coastal Resources and the Coastal Envi-
ronment in Bangladesh: Legal and Institutional Perspectives. Working Paper Series
4. ICLARM, Penang, Malaysia.
Eindhoven, M. (2005) New Colonisations? A Story about Identity and Local Govern-
ment in the Post-New Order Mentawai Archipelago. Paper presented at the EURO-
SEAS Conference 2004, Paris. University of Leiden, Netherlands.
Ellen, R.F. (1978) Nuaulu Settlement and Ecology: An Approach to the Environmental
Relations of an Eastern Indonesian Community. Verhandelingen KITLV, No. 83.
Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, The Hague.
Ellen, R. (1982) Environment, Subsistence and System: The Ecology of Small-scale So-
cial Formations. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Ellen, R. and H. Harris (2000) Introduction. In: R. Ellen, P. Parkes, and A. Bicker
(2000) Indigenous Environmental Knowledge and its Transformations. Critical
Anthropological Perspectives. Harwood Academic Publishers, pp 1-35.
REFERENCES 269
Ellen, R. (2003) A Synoptic View of the Co-management of Natural Resources. In:

Persoon, G.A., D.M.E. van Est, and P.E. Sajise, Eds. Co-management of Natural
Resources in Asia. Nordic Institute of Asian Studies (NIAS) Press, Denmark, pp
281-298.
Engel, P.G.H., M.L. Salomon, and M.E. Fernandez (1994) RAAKS, a Participatory
Methodology for Improving Performance in Extension, version 5.1. WAU/CTA/
IAC, Wageningen.
Evans, S.M., M.E. Gill, A.S.W. Retraubun, J. Abrahamz and J. Dangeubun (1997) Tra-
ditional Management Practices and Conservation of the Gastropod (Trochus nilo-
ticus) and Fish Stocks in the Maluku Province (Eastern Indonesia). Fisheries Re-
search 31: 83-91.
FAO (1988) Participatory Monitoring and Evaluation. Handbook for Training Field-
workers. Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, Bangkok.
FAO (2001) The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2000 Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations (FAO), Rome, Italy.
FAO (2003) Helping Fisherfolk Help Themselves. FAO Partnership in Asia-Pacific Pro-
motes Community-based Resource Management. FAO Newsroom 19 December
2003. www.fao.org/english/newsroom/field/2003/1203_stream.htm.
Feeny, D., F. Berkes, B.J. McCay, and J.M. Acheson (1990) The Tragedy of the Com-
mons: Twenty-two Years Later. Human Ecology Vol.18: 1-19.
Fegan, B. (2004) Managing Marine Fisheries. Indonesia Update Proceedings.
Fellizar, F.P., R.G. Bernardo and A.P.H. Stuart. 1997. Analysis of Policies and Policy
Instruments Relevant to the Management of Fisheries/aquatic Resources with Em-
phasis on Local Level Issues and Concerns. Southeast Asian Regional Center for
Graduate Study and Research in Agriculture (SEARCA). Working Paper No. 25.
ICLARM, Manila.
Ferrer, E.M and C. Nozawa (1997) Comunity-based Coastal Resource Management in
the Philippines: Key Koncepts, Methods and Lessons Learned. Paper presented at
the International Development Research Centre Planning Workshop on Commu-
nity-based Natural Resource Management, 12-16 May 1997, Hué, Vietnam.
Finlayson, A.C. (1994) Fishing for truth: A Sociological Analysis of Northern Cod tock
Assessments from 1977-1990. Memorial University of Newfoundland, Institute of
Social and Economic Research. St. John’s, Newfoundland, Canada.
Finlayson, A.C. and B.J. McCay (1998) Crossing the threshold of ecosystem resilience:
The commercial extinction of northern cod. In: F. Berkes, F. and C. Folke, Eds.
(1998) Linking Social and Ecological Systems: Management Practices and Social
Mechanisms for Building Resilience. Cambridge University Press, United King-
dom, pp 311-337.
Folke C.S. and F. Berkes (1995) Resilience and the Co-evolution of Ecosystems and
Institutions. IASCP Reinventing the Commons Conference, Session 23, Resilience
in Institutions and Ecosystems, Bodö, Norway.
Folke, C., S. Carpenter, T. Elmqvist, L. Gunderson, C.S. Holling, et al. (2002) Resilience
and Sustainable Development: Building Adaptive Capacity in a World of Transfor-
mations. Scientific Background Paper on Resilience for the process of the World
Summit on Sustainable Development, on behalf of the Environmental Advisory
Council to the Swedish Government, April 2002. www.sou.gov.se/mvb/pdf/resil-

iens.pdf
Foltz, C., R.S. Pomeroy and C. Barber, Eds. (1996) Proceedings of the Visayas-wide
Conference on Community-based Coastal Resources Management and Co-manage-
ment, 1-115. Working Paper No. 4. ICLARM, Manila
Fowler, C.S. (1977) Ethnoecology. In: D.L. Hardesty. Ecological Anthropology. John Wi-
ley and Sons, New York.
Fox, J.J. (1996) Fishing Resources and Marine Tenure: The Problems of Eastern Indo-
nesia’s fishermen. In: C. Barlow and J. Hardjono, Eds. Indonesia Assessment 1995:
Development in Eastern Indonesia. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, Singa-
pore.
Galanggajir, J.O. (1996) Perspektif Masyarakat (Bagian Patih Wokam) Terhadap In-
dustri Perikanan di Aru Tengah. In: Proceedings of the National Conference on
the Role of Communities in Coastal Resource Management in Indonesia. Yayasan
Hualopu, Ambon, Indonesia.
Garces, L. and I. Done (1998) An Assessment of the Status of Coral Reefs and Reef Fish
Abundance in San Salvador Island Marine Reserve, Philippines. Working Paper No.
41. ICLARM, Manila.
Geser, Gorom, and Watubela (1997) Preliminary Report on Socio-economic Conditions
in Coastal Communities in Seram. COREMAP report, unpublished.
Giddens, A. (1984) The Constitution of Society. Outline of the Theory of Structuration.
University of California Press, Berkely.
Giddens, A. (1990) The Consequences of Modernity. Stanford University Press, Cali-
fornia.
Goddijn, H.P.M., P. Thoenes, M.M. de Valk, and S.P Verhoogt (1980) Geschiedenis
van de Sociologie: Achtergrond, Hoofdpersonen en Richtingen. Boom uitgeverij,
Meppel.
Goss, J. (2004) Understanding the ‘Maluku Wars’: An Overview of the Sources of Com-
munal Conflicts and Prospects for Peace. Cakalele Vol. 11-12. Department of Geog-
raphy, University of Hawai’i.
Groot de, W.T. (1992) Environmental Science Theory: Concepts and Methods in a One-
world, Problem-Oriented Paradigm. Elsevier Science Publishers, Amsterdam.
Groot de, W.T. (1998) Problem-in-Context. In: B. Nath, L. Hens, P. Compton, D. De-
vuyst, Eds. Environmental Management in Practice. Volume I Instruments for En-
vironmental Management. Routledge, London and New York.
GTZ (2001) Decentralisation News. Issue No. 6, 2 March 2001.
GTZ (2003) Decentralisation News. Issue No. 50, 3 October 2003.
GTZ (2004) Decentralisation News. Issue No. 62, 30 September 2004.
Gunderson, L., C.S. Holling, and S.S. Light (1995) Barriers and Bridges to the Renewal
of Ecosystems and Institutions. Columbia University Press, New York.
Gunderson, L.H. and C.S. Holling, Eds. (2002) Panarchy: Understanding Transforma-
tions in Human and Natural Systems. Island Press, Washington DC.
Hadiz, V.R. (2004) Decentralisation and Democracy in Indonesia: A Critique of Neo-
institutionalist Perspectives. Development and Change, Vol. 35(4): 697-718.
REFERENCES 271
Haedrich, R.L. and L.C. Hamilton (2000) The Fall and Future of Newfoundland’s Cod
Fishery. Society and Natural Resources, Vol.13: 359-372.
Hanna, S. (1995) User Participation and Fisheries Management Performance within
the Pacific Fishery Management Council. Ocean and Coastal Management Vol.
28(2): 23-44.
Hanna, S. (2003) The Future of Fisheries Co-management. In: Wilson, D.C., J. Raakjær
Nielsen, and P. Degnbol, Eds. The Fisheries Co-management Experience: Accom-
plishments, Challenges, and Prospects. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht,
pp 309-319.
Hannesson, R. (1996). Fisheries (mis)Management: The Case of the North Atlantic
Cod. Fishing News Books, Oxford, England.
Hara, M. and J. Raakjær Nielsen (2003) Experiences with Co-management in Africa. In:
Wilson, D.C., J. Raakjær Nielsen, and P. Degnbol, Eds. The Fisheries Co-manage-
ment Experience: Accomplishments, Challenges, and Prospects. Kluwer Academic
Publishers, Dordrecht, pp 81-95.
Hardin, G. (1968) The Tragedy of the Commons. Science, Vol.162 : 1243-1248.
Harkes, I.H.T. (1994) Abana: Fishery and Frictions. Student Report No. 34. Centre of
Environmental Science, Leiden.
Harkes, I.H.T. (1995) WWF Workshop on Community-based Resource Management in
Cameroon. WWF Cameroon & University of Leiden.
Harris, M. (1991) Cultural Anthropology (3rd Edition). Harper Collins Publishers Inc.,
New York.
Hidayat, S. and Firdausy, C.M. (2003) Beyond Regional Autonomy. Local State-Elite’s
Perspectives on the concept and Practice of Decentralisation in Contemporary In-
donesia. The Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) in association with PT
Pustaka Quantum Prima, Jakarta.
Hobart, M., Ed. (1993) An anthropological Critique of Development. The growth of Igno-
rance. Routledge, London / New York. Introduction, pp 1-30.
Hoefnagel, E. and W. Smit (1996) Co-management Experiences in the Netherlands.
Agricultural Economics Research Institute, Fisheries Department, The Hague.
Holleman, F.D. (1923) Het Adat-grondenrecht van Ambon en de Oeliasers. Uitgave van
het Molukken Instituut. Drukkerij Meinema, Delft, the Netherlands.
Hualopu (1991) Laporan Penelitian Hak Adat Kelautan di Maluku. Yayasan Hualopu
kerjasama dengan Fakultas Hukum dan Pusat Studi Maluku, Pattimura Universi-
tas, Ambon, Indonesia.
Hualopu (1996) Case Study: Coastal Resource Management in the Lease Islands,
Maluku, Indonesia. Report presented to the National Conference on the Role of
Communities in Coastal Resource Management in Indonesia. Yayasan Hualopu,
Ambon, Indonesia.
Hviding, E. (1991) Traditional Institutions and their Role in the Contemporary Coastal
Resource Management in the Pacific Islands. NAGA, Vol. 14, pp 3-6.
Hviding, E. (1996) Guardians of Marovo Lagoon: Practice, Place and Politics in Mari-
time Melanesia. University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu.
ICLARM/IFM [NSC], (1996) Analysis of Fisheries Co-management Arrangements: a
Research Framework. WP No. 1, ICLARM, Manila.
ICLARM, SEARCA, SEAFDEC, and Tambuyog Development Center (1997) Honda

Bay, Puerto Princessa City, Palawan, Philippines: A Fisheries Co-management Pilot
Site. Working Paper No. 22. ICLARM, Manila.
ICLARM (1999) Strategic Plan 2000-2020, Draft. International Center for Living
Aquatic Resources Management, Manila. See also CGIAR website: www.cgiar.org/
impact/research/fisheries.html
IFM (1995) Fisheries Co-management Workshop on Research Strategy, Methodologies,
Field Experiences of Partners and Exchanged Information: Proceedings. Fisheries
Co-management Project Working Paper No. 3. Hirtshals, Denmark.
IIRR (1998) Participatory Methods in Community-based Coastal Resource Manage-
ment. International Institute for Rural Reconstruction, Cavite, Philippines.
Imron Masyhuri (1995) Hak Ulayat Laut Masyarakat Maritim. Seri Penelitian PMB-
LIPI No. 86.
Indab, J.D. and P.B. Suarez-Aspilla (2004) Community-based Marine Protected Areas
in the Bohol (Mindanao) Sea, Philippines. NAGA, WorldFish Centre Quarterly, Vol.
27(1-2): 4-8.
Integrated Coastal Management Sustainability Research Project News (2001) Vol. 1(3)
Siliman University, Dumaguete, the Philippines.
Iongh, H. de, P. Langeveld, M. van der Wal and D. Norimarna (1994) Application of
Conventional and Satellite Telemetry Techniques for Studying Dugongs Around
the Lease Islands, East Indonesia. Environmental Studies Centre, Pattimura Uni-
versity, Ambon.
IUCN/UNEP/WWF (1991) Caring for the Earth, a Strategy for Sustainable Living. UN,
Gland.
Jentoft, S. (1989) Fisheries Co-management. Marine Policy, Vol. 13: 137-154.
Jentoft, S. and T. Kristoffersen (1989) Fishermen’s Co-management: the Case of the
Lofoten Fishery. Human Organization, Vol. 48(4): 355-365.
Jentoft, S., B.J. McCay, D.C. Wilson (1998) Social Theory and Fisheries Co-manage-
ment. Marine Policy Vol. 22(4-5): 423-436.
Jentoft, S. (2003) Co-management – the Way Forward. In: Wilson, D.C., J. Raakjær
pp 1-14.
Jentoft, S. and B.J. McCay (2003) The Place of Civil Society in Fisheries Management:
a Research Agenda for Fisheries Co-management. In: Wilson, D.C., J. Raakjær
The Netherlands, pp 293-305.
Jentoft, S. (2004) Institutions in Fishery: What They Are, What They Do, and How
They Change. Marine Policy, Vol. 28(2): 137-149.
Jiggins, J. and H. de Zeeuw (1992) Participatory Technology Development in Practice:
Process and Methods. In: C. Reijntjes, B. Haverkort, and A. Waters-Bayer, Eds.
Farming for the Future: an Introduction to Low-External-Input and Sustainable Ag-
riculture. ILEIA, Leusden, Pp. 135-162.
REFERENCES 273
Johannes, R, (1978) Traditional Marine Conservation Methods in Oceania and their

Demise. Annual Reviews of Ecology and Systematics, Vol. 9: 349-246.
Johannes, R. (1998) Government-supported Village-based Management of Marine Re-
sources in Vanuatu. Ocean & Coastal Management, Vol. 40: 243-246.
Jones, S. (2004) What’s Indonesia Going to Look Like in Five Years? Keynote speech
at Symposium: Indonesia in Transition: Reform, Crisis, Conflicts, Continuities.
Amsterdam, 25 Aug 2004 – 27 Aug 2004.
Jonge, N. de, and T. van Dijk (1995) Vergeten Eilanden. Kunst en Cultuur van de Zuid-
oost Molukken. Periplus Editions, Zwartenkot, Amsterdam.
Kaimudin, I. (2000) Decentralisation of Coastal and Marine Resource Management.
Paper presented at the 2nd Conference on the Management of Indonesian Coastal
and Marine Resources, 15-17 May 2000, Makassar.
Kalland, A. (1981) Shing�: A Case Study of a Japanese Fishing Community. Curzon
Press, London.
Katon, B., R. Pomeroy, and A. Salamanca (1997) The Marine Conservation Project for
San Salvador: a Case Study of Fisheries Co-management in the Philippines. Work-
ing Paper No. 23. ICLARM, Manila
Katon, B., R. Pomeroy, M. Ring and L. Garces (1998) Mangrove Rehabilitation and
Coastal Resource Management of Mabini-Candijay: a Case Study of Fisheries Co-
management Arrangements in Cogtong Bay, Philippines. Working Paper No. 33.
ICLARM, Manila.
Katon, B.M., R.S. Pomeroy and L. Garces (1999) Fisheries Management of San Salva-
dor Island, Philippines: a Shared Responsibility. Society and Natural Resources Vol.
12: 777-795.
Kearney, J.F. (1984) The Transformation of the Bay of Fundy Herring Fisheries, 1976-
1978: An Experiment in Fishermen-Government Co-Management. In: C. Lamson
and A.J. Hanson, Eds. Atlantic Fisheries and Coastal Communities: Fisheries Decision-
Making Case Studies. Dalhousie Ocean Studies Programme, Halifax, pp 165-203.
Kearney, J. (2004) Overcoming the Governance Barrier in CBCRM. In: Learning CB-
CRM. A Regional Newsletter. First Issue 2004. Community-based Coastal Resourc-
es Management (CBCRM) Resource Centre, Quezon City, Philippines.
Khan, M.S. and N.A. Apu (1998) Fisheries Co-management in the Oxbow lakes of
Bangladesh. Chittagong University. Working Paper No. 35. ICLARM, Manila.
Kidd, R. (1979) Liberation or Domestication: Popular Theatre and Non-formal Educa-
tion in Africa. Educational Broadcasting International, March 1979.
Kissya, E. (1994) Managing the Sasi Way. Samudra Report, Nr. 10/11:11-13.
Kissya, E. and N. Dwisasanti (2004) Sasi as a Model of Governance in CBCRM in
Haruku, the Moluccas, Indonesia. In: Learning CBCRM. A Regional Newsletter.
First Issue 2004. Community-based Coastal Resources Management (CBCRM) Re-
source Centre, Quezon City, Philippines.
Klinken, G.A. van (1999) What Caused the Ambon Violence? Inside Indonesia, No. 60,
Oct-Dec. 1999.
Klinken, G.A. van (2002) Indonesia’s new ethnic elites (Central and East Kalimantan).
In: H. Schulte Nordholt and I. Abdullah, Eds. Indonesia: In search of transition.
Pustaka Pelajar, Yogyakarta, pp 67-105.
Knaap G.J. (1981) De Komst van de Kruidnagel. Economische Geschiedenis van Am-
bon tot Omstreeks 1650. Intermediair 17(5).
Knight, M. and K. Lowry (2003) Institutional Arrangements for Decentralized Coastal
Management in Indonesia. Pesisir dan Lautan, Special Edition No. 1: 95-107.
Korten, D.C., Ed. (1996) Community Management. Asian Experience and Perspective.
Kumarian Press, West Hartford.
Kottak, C.P. (1999) The New Ecological Anthropology. American Anthropologist, Vol.
101(1): 23-35.
Kriekhoff, V.J.L. (1991) Kedudukan Tanah Dati Sebagai Tanah Adat di Maluku Tengah:
Satu Kaijan Dengan Memanfaatkan Pendekatan Antropologi Hukum. Disertatie
Doktor, Universitas Indonesia, Jakarta.
Kuperan, K. Viswanathan, N. Mustapha Abdullah, and R. Pomeroy (1996) Transaction
Costs and Fisheries Co-management. Working Paper No. 15. ICLARM, Manila.
Kuperan, K. Viswanathan, N. Mustapha Abdullah, I. Susilowati, I.M. Siason and C.
Ticao (1997) Enforcement and Compliance with Fisheries Regulations in Malaysia,
Indonesia and the Philippines. Research Report No. 5. ICLARM, Manila.
Kuperan, K. Viswanathan, N. Mustapha Abdullah, R. Pomeroy, and E. Genio (1998)
Measuring Transaction Costs of Fisheries Co-management: a Case Study in San
Salvador Island, Philippines. Working Paper No. 38. ICLARM, Manila.
Kuperan, K. Viswanathan, J. Raakjær Nielsen, P. Degnbol, M. Ahmed, M. Hara, N.
Mustapha Raja Abdullah (2003) Fisheries Co-management Policy Brief: Findings
from a Worldwide Study. Policy Brief 2. WorldFish Centre, Malaysia.
Kusama-Atmadja, M. and T. Purwaka (1996) Legal and Institutional Aspects of Coastal
Zone Management in Indonesia. Marine Policy 20: 63-86.
La Vina, A. (1999) Management of Fisheries, Coastal Resources, and the Coastal En-
vironment in the Philippines: Policy, Legal and Institutional framework. Working
Paper Series 5. ICLARM, Penang, Malaysia.
Leach, M. (1999) Plural Perspective and Institutional Dynamics: Challenges for Com-
munity Forestry. In: Proceedings of the Seminar on Decision-making in Natural
Resources Management with a Focus on Adaptive Management, 22-24 September.
IAC, Wageningen.
Leach, M., R. Mearns and I. Scoones (1999) Environmental Entitlements: Dynamics
and Institutions in Community-based Natural Resource Management. World De-
velopment, Vol. 27(2): 225-247.
LeaRN Newsletter (2004) Learning about CBCRM. First Issue 2004. Community-
based Coastal Resources Management (CBCRM) Resource Centre, Quezon City,
Philippines.
Leurs, R. (1996) Current Challenges Facing Participatory Rural Appraisal. Public Ad-
ministration and Development, Vol. 16(1): 57-73.
LIPI (1994a) Laporan Kemajuan Triwalan II Tahun Anggaran 1993/94 Pelita V. Edited
by: Daniel Sapulete. Proyek Penelitian Dan Pembanganan Sumberdaya Laut Ka-
wasan Timur Indonesia.
LIPI (1994b) Laporan Kemajuan Triwalan III Tahun Anggaran 1993/94 Pelita V. Edited
by: Daniel Sapulete. Proyek Penelitian Dan Pembanganan Sumberdaya Laut Ka-
wasan Timur Indonesia.
REFERENCES 275
LIPI (1996) Kondisi Wilayah Pesisir Pulau Haruku. Laporan Akhir Proyek MREP.
Lovelace, G.W. (1984) Cultural Beliefs and the Management of Agro-ecosystems. In:
A.T. Rambo and P.E. Sajise, Eds. An Introduction to Human Ecology Research on
Agricultural Systems in Southeast Asia. University of the Philippines, Los Baños.
pp. 194-205.
Lowry, K. (2002) Decentralised Coastal Management. InterCoast Network, Internation-
al Newsletter of Coastal Management Nr. 42. Coastal Resources Center, University
of Rhode Island.
Lubis R. (1992) Factors Influencing the Success of Fishermen’s Cooperatives in South
Sulawesi. In: Pollnac RB, Bailey C, Poernomo A, Eds. Contribution to Fishery De-
velopment Policy in Indonesia. Jakarta: Central Institute for Fisheries, Ministry of
Agriculture, pp 114-125.
Lukes, S., Ed. (1986) Power. Readings in Social and Political Theory. New York Univer-
sity Press, New York.
Maas, M. (2004a) Zorgen om Persvrijheid Indonesië. Volkskrant, vrijdag 17 Septem-
ber.
Maas, M. (2004b) Een Soeharto Generaal is Indonesiës Laatste Hoop. Volkskrant, za-
terdag 18 September.
Maas, M. (2004c) Yudhoyono Eist Zege Op in Indonesië. Volkskrant, dinsdag 21 Sep-
tember.
Malthus, T.R. (1798) Essay on the Principle of Population.
Mantjoro, E. (1996) Traditional Management of Communal-property Resources: the
Practice of the Sasi System. Ocean and Coastal Management. Vol. 32(1): 17-37.
Marshall, G. (1994) The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Sociology. Oxford University
Press, New York.
Masae, A. (1998) An Analysis of Fisheries Co-management Arrangements: the Case
of Ban Laem Makham, Sikao District, Trang Province, South Thailand. Prince of
Songkla University. Working Paper No. 37. ICLARM, Manila.
Mayo-Anda, G.M. (2004) Enforcement of Coastal Laws in the Philippines: ELAC’s
Experiences in Bohol and Palawan. In: Learning CBCRM. A Regional Newsletter.
First Issue 2004. Community-based Coastal Resources Management (CBCRM) Re-
source Centre, Quezon City, Philippines.
McCarthy, J.F. (2004) Changing to Gray: Decentralisation and the Emergence of Vola-
tile Socio-Legal Configurations in Central Kalimantan, Indonesia. World Develop-
ment, Vol. 31(7): 1199-1223.
McCay, D.J. and J.M. Acheson, Eds. (1987) The Question of the Commons: The Culture
and Ecology of Natural Resources. University of Arizona Press, Tucson.
McCay, B.J. (1993) Management Regimes. Beijer Discussion Papers, Series No. 38. Bei-
jer Institute of Ecological Economics, Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences.
McCay, B.J. and S. Jentoft (1996) From the Bottom Up: Participatory Issues in Fisheries
Management. Society and Natural Resources, Vol. 9: 237-250.
McGoodwin, J.R. (1984) Some Examples of Self-regulatory Mechanisms in Unman-
aged Fisheries. In: FAO Expert Consultation on the Regulation of Fishing Effort
(Mortality). FAO Fisheries Report No. 289(Supplement 2): 41-61.
McGoodwin, J.R. (1990) Crisis in the World’s Fisheries: People, Problems and Policies.
Stanford University Press, California.
McGrath, S. (2003) Ecological Anthropology. In: M.D. Murphy. Anthropological Theo-
ries: A Guide Prepared by Students for Students. Department of Anthropology. Col-
lege of Arts and Sciences, University of Alabama
Middendorp, H.A.J., P.M.Thompson and R.S. Pomeroy, Eds. (1999) Sustainable Inland
Fisheries Management in Bangladesh. ICLARM Conf. Proc. 58. ICLARM, Penang,
Malaysia.
Milton, K. (1996) Environmentalism and Cultural Theory: Exploring the Role of An-
thropology in Environmental Discourse. Routledge, London/New York.
Ministry of Fisheries, Vietnam (1995) Co-management of Living Coastal Resources in
ASEAN: Theory, Practice and Implications for Vietnam. Working Paper No. 24.
ICLARM, Manila.
Moore, H.L (1988) Feminism and Anthropology. Polity Press, Cambridge.
Mosse, D. (1994) Authority, Gender and Knowledge: Theoretical Reflections on the Prac-
tice of Participatory Rural Appraisal. Development and Change, Vol. 25(3): 497-526.
Mulekom, L, van (1999) An Institutional Development Process in Community-based
Coastal Resource Management: Building the Capacity and Opportunity for Com-
munity-based Co-management in a Small-scale Fisheries Community. Ocean &
Coastal Management, Vol. 42: 439-456.
Mulekom, L. van, and E. Tria (1999) Community-based Coastal Resource Management
in Orion, Bataan, Philippines: a Case Study on the Development of a Municipal-
wide Community-based Fisheries Co-management System. Working Paper No. 36.
ICLARM, Manila.
Murshed-e-Jahan, K. (1999) Welfare Impacts and Transaction Costs of Fisheries Co-
management at Oxbow Lakes in Bangladesh. Working Paper No. 40. ICLARM,
Manila.
NRC (2002) The Drama of the Commons. National Research Council. National Acad-
emy Press, Washington DC.
Netting, R. McC. (1977) Cultural Ecology. Cummings Publishing Company, Reading,
Massachusetts.
Nikijuluw, V.P.H. (1995) Community-based Fishery Management (Sasi) in Central
Maluku. Indonesian Agricultural Research and Development Journal. Vol. 17(2):
33-39.
Nikijiluw, V.P.H. (1996a) A Review of Community-based Fisheries Management in
Eastern Indonesia. Working Paper No. 17. ICLARM, Manila.
Nikijiluw, V.P.H. (1996b) Co-management of Coastal Resources in Bali Island, Indone-
sia. Working Paper No. 7. ICLARM, Manila.
Nikijuluw, V.P.H (1996c) Ko-management Sebagai Paradigma Baru Pemanfaatan
Sumber Daya Perikanan Secara Berkelanjutan. In: Erwidodo, Ed. Inovasi Teknologi
Pertanian. Badan Penelitian dan Pengembangan Pertanian, Jakarta, Indonesia, pp.
931-939.
Nikijuluw V.P.H. and I. Susilowati (2000) Process and Impact Evaluation of the Policy
Shifting towards Decentralisation. A case of Indonesian Coastal Waters Manage-
REFERENCES 277
ment. Research Proposal submitted to the ICLARM/IFM Fisheries Co-manage-

ment Project.
Normann, A.K., J. Raakjær Nielsen and S. Sverdrup-Jensen, Eds. (1998) Fisheries Co-
management in Africa. IFM, Hirtshals, Denmark.
Notzke, C. (1995) A New Perspective in Aboriginal Natural Resource Management: Co-
management. Geoforum Vol. 26(2): 187-209.
Novaczek, I. I.H.T. Harkes, J. Sopacua, and M.D.D. Tatuhey (2001), [1998]. An Institu-
tional Analysis of Sasi Laut in Maluku, Indonesia. Technical Report 59. ICLARM,
Manila.
Oakerson J.R. (1986) A Model for the Analysis of Common Property Regimes. In: NRC
(1986) Proceedings of the Conference of Common Property Resource Manage-
ment. National Academy Press, Washington DC, pp 13-30.
Odum, E.P. (1975). Ecology. Holt, Rinehart and Wilson, New York.
Oostenbrugge, van J.A.E. (2003) Uncertainty in Daily Catch Rate in the Light Fisheries
around Ambon and the Lease Islands: Characterisation, Causes and Consequences.
PhD Dissertation, Wageningen University.
Orlove, B.S. (1980) Ecological Anthropology. Annual Review of Anthropology, Vol. 9:
235-273.
Osseweijer, M. (2001) Taken at the Flood. Marine Resource Use and Management in
the Aru Islands (Maluku, Eastern Indonesia). PhD Dissertation Centre of Environ-
mental Sciences, Leiden University.
Ostrom, E. (1990) Governing the Commons: the Evolution of Institutions for Collective
Action. Cambridge University Press.
Ostrom, E., J. Burger, C.B. Field, R. Norgaard and D. Policansky (1999) Revisiting the
Commons: Local Lessons, Global Challenges. Science, Vol. 284: 278-282.
Pannell, S. (1997) Managing the Discourse of Resource Management: the Case of Sasi
from ’Southeast’ Maluku, Indonesia. Oceania 67: 289-307.
Panorel, A. (2004) Forging a Unified Fishery Ordinance in Murcielagos Bay: Lessons
in Stakeholders’Cooperation. In: Learning CBCRM. A Regional Newsletter. First Is-
sue 2004. Community-based Coastal Resources Management (CBCRM) Resource
Centre, Quezon City, Philippines.
Parras, D.A. (2001) Coastal Resource Management in the Philippines: A Case Study in
the Central Visayas Region. Journal of Environment and Development, Vol. 10(1):
80-103.
Pasicolan, P.N. (2003) Exploring the Right Blend between Government’s Facilitative
Role and Famers’Initiative in Forest Regeneration. In: Persoon, G.A., D.M.E. van
Est, and P.E. Sajise, Eds. Co-management of Natural Resources in Asia. Nordic In-
stitute of Asian Studies (NIAS) Press, Denmark, pp 87-112.
Patlis, J.M., R. Dahuri, M. Knight, J. Tulungen (2001) Integrated Coastal Zone Man-
agement in a Decentralised Indonesia: How It Can Work. Pesisir & Lautan, Vol.
4(1):24-39.
Patlis, J.M., N. Tangkilisan, D. Karwur, M.E. Ering, J.J. Tulungen, R. Titahelu and M.
Knight (2003) Case Study: Developing a District Law in Minahasa on Community-
based Integrated Coastal Management. Seri Reformasi Hukum. USAID – Indo-
nesia Coastal Resources Management Project. Koleksi Dokumen Proyek Pesisir

1997-2003.
Peluso, N. (2002) Some Questions about Violence and Decentralisation: a preliminary
Exploration of the Case of Indonesia. Paper presented at the Conference on Decen-
tralisation and the Environment of the Case of Indonesia. WRI, Washington DC.
Persoon G.A. and P. Sajise (1997) Co-management of Natural resources in Asia: a Com-
parative Perspective. Paper presented at IIAS/NIAS Seminar, Philippines, 1997.
Persoon, G.A. and D.M.E. van Est (2003). Co-management of Natural Resources: The
Concepts and Aspects of Implementation. In: Persoon, G.A., D.M.E. van Est, and
P.E. Sajise, Eds. Co-management of Natural Resources in Asia. Nordic Institute of
Asian Studies (NIAS) Press, Denmark, pp 1-24.
Persoon, G.A. and M. Hobbes (2003) Ecologische Antropologie en Interdisciplinair Mi-
lieukundig Onderzoek in Nederland. In: J.J. Boersema, T. Pulles, J. van der Straaten,
and J. Bertels, Eds. (2003) De Oogst van Milieu. Uitgeverij Boom, Amsterdam.
Pet-Soede, L. (2000) Options for Co-management of an Indonesian Coastal Fishery.
PhD Dissertation, University of Wageningen.
Pham, V. and H.G. Phung (1999) Case Study of Community-based Coastal Resource
Management in Vietnam: Can Gio District near Ho Chi Minh City. Institute of Fish-
eries Economics and Planning, Vietnam. Working Paper. ICLARM, Manila.
Pido, M.D. (1996) The Management System of Marine Fisheries and Other Coastal
Resources in Palawan, Philippines: Concepts, Experiences and Lessons. Fisheries
Co-management Project Research Report No. 4. ICLARM, Manila.
Pido, M.D., R.S. Pomeroy, M.B. Carlos, and L.R. Garces (1996) A Handbook for Rapid
Appraisal of Fisheries Management Systems (version 1). ICLARM, Manila.
Pike, K. (1954) Language in Relation to a Unified Theory of the Structure of Human
Behavior (Vol. 1). Summer Institute of Linguistics, Glendale.
Pinkerton, E. Ed. (1989) Co-operative Management of Local Fisheries: New Directions
for Improved Management and Community Development. University of British
Columbia Press, Vancouver.
Pinkerton, E. (1993) Local Fisheries Co-management: A Review of International Experi-
ences and their Implications for Salmon Management in British Columbia. School
of Community and Regional Planning, University of British Columbia, Vancouver.
Pinkerton, E. (1994). Summary and Conclusions. In: C.L. Dyer and J.R. McGoodwin,
Eds. Folk Management in the World’s Fisheries, Chp 12. University of Colorado
Press, Boulder.
Pinkerton, E. and M. Weinstein (1995) Fisheries That Work: Sustainability Through
Community-Based Management. A Report to the David Suzuki Foundation. Van-
couver, British Columbia.
Pinkerton, E. (2003) Towards Specificity in Complexity: Understanding Co-manage-
ment from a Social Science Perspective. In: Wilson, D.C., J. Raakjær Nielsen, and P.
Degnbol, Eds. The Fisheries Co-management Experience: Accomplishments, Chal-
lenges, and Prospects. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, pp 61-76.
PIPULI (2002) Murcielagos Bay. www.ozamiz.com/earthcalls/murcindex.html
Poffenberger, M. (1990) Keepers of the Forest: Land Management Alternatives in
Southeast Asia. Kumarian Press, West Hartford.
REFERENCES 279
Pollnac. R.B. (1989) Monitoring and Evaluating the Impacts of Small-scale Fishery
Projects. ICMRD, Rhode Island.
Pollnac R.B. (1994) Research Directed at Developing Local Organizations for People’s
Participation in Fisheries Management. In: Pomeroy RS, ed. Community Manage-
ment and Common Property of Coastal Fisheries in Asia and the Pacific: Concepts,
Methods and Experiences.ICLARM, Manila, pp 94-107.
Pollnac, R.B. R.S. Pomeroy and I.H.T. Harkes (2001) Fishery Policy and Job Satisfaction
in Three Southeast Asian Fisheries. Ocean & Coastal Management, Vol. 44(7-8):
531-544.
Pollnac, R.B., R.S. Pomeroy and L. Bunce (2003) Factors influencing the sustainability
of integrated coastal management projects in Central Java and North Sulawesi, In-
donesia. Indonesian Journal of Coastal and Marine Resources (Jurnal Pesisir dan
Lautan), Special Edition No. 1:24-33.
Pollnac, R.B. and R.S. Pomeroy (2005) Factors Influencing the Sustainability of Inte-
grated Coastal Management Projects in the Philippines and Indonesia. Ocean &
Coastal Management, Vol. 48: 233-251.
Pomeroy, R.S., Ed. (1994) Community Management and Common Property of Coastal
Fisheries of Asia and the Pacific: Concepts, Methods and Experiences. Conference
Proceedings 45. ICLARM, Manila.
Pomeroy, R.S. and M. Williams (1994). Fisheries Co-management and Small-scale
Fisheries: a Policy Brief. ICLARM, Manila.
Pomeroy, R.S. (1995) Community-based and Co-management Institutions for Sustain-
able Coastal Fisheries Management in Southeast Asia. Ocean and Coastal Manage-
ment, Vol. 27(3): 143-162.
Pomeroy, R.S. and M. Pido (1995) Initiatives Towards Fisheries Co-management in the
Philippines: the Case of San Miguel Bay. Marine Policy, Vol. 19(3): 199-211.
Pomeroy, R.S., R.B. Pollnac, C.D. Predo, and B.M. Katon (1996) Impact Evaluation
of Community-based Coastal Resource Management Projects in the Philippines.
Research Report No. 3. ICLARM, Manila.
Pomeroy, R.S. and F. Berkes (1997) Two to Tango: the Role of Government in Fisheries
Co-management. Marine Policy, Vol. 21(5): 465-480.
Pomeroy, R.S. and M.B. Carlos (1997) Community-based Coastal Resource Manage-
ment in the Philippines: a Review and Evaluation of Programs and Projects, 1984-
1994. Marine Policy, Vol. 21: 2.
Pomeroy, R.S. and S. Simanjuntak (1997) An Institutional Analysis of the Sasi Laut
system in Maluku Province, Indonesia. Research Proposal. ICLARM, Manila, Phil-
ippines.
Pomeroy, R.S. (1998) A Process for Community-based Fisheries Co-management.
ICLARM Contribution No. 1448. NAGA, the ICLARM Quarterly, January-March
1998.
Pomeroy, R.S. (2001) Devolution and Fisheries Co-management. In: R. Meinzen-Dick,
A. Knox and M. Di Gregorio, Eds. Collective Action, Property Rights and Devolution
of Natural Resource Management: Exchange of Knowledge and Implications for
Policy. Proceedings of the International Workshop held from 21-25 June 1999 in
Puerto Azul, Philippines. Zentralstelle fur Ernahrung und Landwirtschaft (ZEL),

Germany, pp 111-146.
Pomeroy, R.S. (2003) The Government as a Partner in Co-management. In: Wilson,
D.C., J. Raakjær Nielsen, and P. Degnbol, Eds. The Fisheries Co-management Ex-
perience: Accomplishments, Challenges, and Prospects. Kluwer Academic Publish-
ers, Dordrecht, The Netherlands, pp 247-259.
Pomeroy, R.S. and K. Kuperan Viswanathan (2003) Experiences with Fisheries Co-man-
agement in Southeast Asia and Bangladesh. In: Wilson, D.C., J. Raakjær Nielsen,
and P. Degnbol, Eds. The Fisheries Co-management Experience: Accomplishments,
Challenges, and Prospects. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, pp 99-115.
Posey, D.A. (1999) Cultural and Spiritual Values of Biodiversity. United Nations Envi-
ronment Programme. Intermediate Technology Publications, London.
Pretty, J. (1994) Alternative Systems of Inquiry for a Sustainable Agriculture. Paper for
the Department of Communication and Innovation Studies. University of Wage-
ningen.
PSL-UNPATTI (1994) Survei Potensi Laut di Pulau Pombo. Unpublished research re-
port, PSL, Pattimura University, Ambon.
Pulitbangkan (Pusat Penelitian dan Pengembangan Perikanan) (1995). Survei peri-
kanan dan sosial ekonomi di MCMA Maluku. Kejasama Puslitbangkan dan MREP,
Jakarta.
Purnomo, A.H. (1996) Attempting Conservation Within Poverty – A Perspective on
Coastal Resource Management for the Maluku Province, Indonesia. Fourth Inter-
national Maluku Research Conference July 9-13, Pattimura University, Ambon.
Purwaka, T.H. and Sunoto (1999) Coastal and Marine Resources Management in In-
donesia: Legal and Institutional Aspects. Working Paper 2. ICLARM, Penang, Ma-
laysia.
Pye-Smith, C. (2001) Good Idea, Poor Execution Threaten Indonesia Forests. The Na-
tion, Bangkok (9 April 2001), A5.
Raakjær Nielsen, J. (2003) An Analytical Framework for Studying Compliance and Le-
gitimacy in Fisheries Management. Marine Policy, Vol. 27: 425-432.
Raakjær, Nielsen, J., P. Degnbol, K. Kuperan Viswanathan, M. Ahmed, M. Hara, and
N. Mustapha Raja Abdullah (2004). Fisheries Co-management – An Institutional
Innovation? Lessons from South East Asia and Southern Africa. Marine Policy, Vol.
28(2): 151-160.
Rappaport, R.A. (1968) Pigs for the Ancestors: Ritual in the Ecology of a New Guinea
People. Yale University Press, New haven.
Rappaport, R.A. (1969) Some Suggestions Concerning Concept and Method in Eco-
logical Anthropology. In: D. Damas, Ed. Contributions to Anthropology: Ecological
Essays. National Museum of Canada, Bulletin 230. Queens Printers for Canada,
Ottawa.
Rappaport, R.A. (1971) Nature, Culture and Ecological Anthropology. In: H.L. Shapiro,
Ed. Man, Culture and Society. Oxford University Press, Oxford.
Resilience Alliance (2004) About the RA – What we do and why we do it.
www.resalliance.org
REFERENCES 281
Resosudarmo, I.A.P. and A. Dermawan. Forests and Regional Autonomy: the Chal-
lenges of Sharing Profit and Pains. Paper presented at the 3rd International Confer-
ence of the Indonesian Regional Science Association (IRSA), Jakarta, 20-21 March
2001.
Ribot, J. (2002) Democratic Decentralisation of Natural Resources. Institutionalising
Popular Participation. World Resources Institute, Washington DC.
Ribot, J. (2004) Waiting for Democracy: The Politics of Choice in Natural Resource
Decentralisation. WRI Publication. World Resources Institute, Washington DC.
Riedel, J.G. F. (1886) De Sluik- en Kroesharige rassen tusschen Selebes en Papua.
s’Gravenhage.
Rose, M. (2004) Democratization Information and Communication by Implementing
E-Government in Indonesian Regional Government. The International Informa-
tion and Library Review, Vol. 36: 219-226.
Ruddle, K. and R.E. Johannes (1985) The Traditional Knowledge and Management of
Coastal Systems in Asia and the Pacific. UNESCO, Jakarta.
Ruddle, K. (1987) Administration and Conflict Management in Japanese Coastal Fish-
eries. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper 273: 93.
Ruddle, K., E. Hviding, R.E. Johannes (1992) Marine Resources Management in the
Context of Customary Tenure. Marine Resource Economics, Vol. 7: 249-273.
Ruddle, K. (1993) External forces and Change in Traditional Community-Based Fishery
Management Systems in the Asia-Pacific Region. MAST (Maritime Anthropological
Studies) 6(1/2):1-37.
Ruhunlela, V; C. Hitipeuw & A. Creemers (1994a) Socio-economic Surveys Concerning
Natural Resource Exploitation on the Island of Haruku. Environmental Studies Cen-
tre, Pattimura University, Ambon.
Ruhunlela, V; C. Hitipeuw & A. Creemers (1994b) The Lease Islands. Chp. 5. In: Envi-
ronmental Programme, Moluccas, Indonesia. Environmental Studies Centre, Pat-
timura University, Ambon.
Rumaruson, R. (2003) Four Years Disappeared. Sasi Lompa Tradition Restarted in
Haruku. Maluku Media Centre. Newsarticle, 24 December 2003. www.malukume-
diacentre.net
Sajise, P.E. (1995) Community-based Resource Management in the Philippines: Per-
spectives and Experiences. Paper presented at the Fisheries Co-management Work-
shop at the North Sea Centre, Hirtshals, Denmark, 29-31 May 1995.
Sajise, P.E., F.P. Fellizar, J.R. and G.C. Saguiguit (2003). The Road to Community-
based Resource Management in the Philippines: Entries, Bends, Tolls and Dead
Ends. In: Persoon, G.A., D.M.E. van Est, and P.E. Sajise, Eds. Co-management of
Natural Resources in Asia. Nordic Institute of Asian Studies (NIAS) Press, Den-
mark, pp 239-257.
Sakai, M. (2002) Regional Responses to Resurgence of Adat Movements in Indonesia.
In: M. Sakai (2002) Beyond Jakarta. Regional Autonomy and Local Societies in In-
donesia. Crawford House Publishing, Adelaide, pp 217-245.
Salim, E. (1995) Sasi, Learning from Traditional Wisdom. In: E. Kissya. Sasi Aman
Harukui. Sejati, Jakarta, pp II-IV.
Salzman, Ph.C. and D.W. Attwood (1996) Ecological Anthropology. In: A. Barnard and
J. Spencer, Eds. Encyclopedia of Social and Cultural Anthropology. Routledge, Lon-
don/New York.
Sandalo, R.M. (1994) Community-based Coastal Resources Management: the Palawan
Experience. In R.S. Pomeroy, Ed. Community Management and Common Property
of Coastal Fisheries in Asia and the Pacific: Concepts, Methods and Experiences.
ICLARM, Manila, pp 165-181.
Satria, A. and Y. Matsuda. (2004) Decentralisation of Fisheries Management in Indone-
sia. Marine Policy Vol. 28(5): 437-450.
Schefold, R. (1994) Cultural Anthropology, Future Tasks for Bijdragen, and the Indone-
sian Field of Anthropoligical Study. Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde
150(4): 805-825.
Schefold, R. (1998) The Domestication of Culture; Nation building and Ethnic Diver-
sity in Indonesia. Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde 154(4): 259-280.
Schlager, E., W. Blomquist, and S.Y. Tang (1984). Mobile Flows, Storage, and Self-or-
ganized Institutions for Governing Common-Pool Resources. Land Economics
70(3): 294-317.
Schulte Nordholt, H. (2003). Renegotiating Boundaries. Access, Agency and Identity in
Post-Soeharto Indonesia. In: Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde. Journal
of the Humanities and Social Sciences of Southeast Asia and Oceania, Vol. 159(4):
550-589.
Segura-Ybanez, M. (1996) Sustainability of Community-based Resource Management
in the Central Visayas Regional Project – Phase I. In: C. Foltz, R.S. Pomeroy, and
C. Barber, Eds. Proceedings of the Visayas-wide conference on community-based
coastal resources management and fisheries co-management. Fisheries Co-man-
agement Research Project Working Paper No. 4. ICLARM Manila, pp 84-92.
Seixas, C.S. and F. Berkes (2004). Stakeholder Conflicts and Solutions Across Politi-
cal Scales: The Ibiraquera Lagoon, Brazil. In: L.E. Visser, Ed. Challenging Coasts.
MARE Publication Series No. 1, Amsterdam University Press.
Sen, S. and J. Raakjær Nielsen (1996) Fisheries Co-management: a Comparative
Analysis. Marine policy 20(5): 405-418.
Sengupta, N. (1991) Managing Common Property: Irrigation in India and the Philip-
pines, Sage Publications, New Delhi.
Shakleton, S., B. Campbell, E. Wollenberg and D. Edmunds (2002) Devolution and
Community-based Natural Resource Management: Creating Space for Local Peo-
ple to Participate and Benefit? ODI Natural Resource Perspectives, Nr. 76, March
2002.
Sinaga, J. (2002) Statement to the United Nations on Agenda Item 25: Ocean and the
Law of the Sea. New York, 12 December 2002.
Smith, A. (1977) [1759] A Theory of Moral Sentiments. Oxford University Press, New
York. www.adamsmith.org/smith/tms/tms-index.htm
Smith, A.H. and R. Walters (1991) Co-management of the White Sea Urchin Resource
in St. Lucia. Paper presented at the IDRC Workshop on Common Property Resourc-
es, Winnipeg, Canada, Caribbean Natural Resources Institute, St. Lucia.
REFERENCES 283
Snyder, J. (2000) From Voting to Violence: Democratization and Nationalist Conflict.

WW Norton Publishers, New York/ London.
Soselisa, H. Former Lecturer Anthropology, Pattimura University Ambon. E-mail cor-
respondence November 9, 2004.
Spyer, P. Professor in Anthropology and Sociology at Leiden University, with a speciali-
sation in Indonesian Studies. Meeting January 11, 2005.
Stern, P.C., T. Dietz, N. Dolšak, E. Ostrom, and S. Stonich (2002) Knowledge and Ques-
tions After 15 Years of Research. In: National Research Council. The Drama of the
Commons. National Academy Press, Washington DC, pp 445-486.
Steward, J. (1955) Theory of Culture Change: the Methodology of Multilinear Evolution.
University of Illinois Press, Urbana.
Sudana, M. (2004) Winners Take All. Understanding Forest Conflict in the Era of De-
centralisation in Indonesia. Paper presented at the 10th Biennial Conference of the
International Association for the Study of Common Property (IASCP). The Com-
mons in an Age of Global Transition: Challenges, Risks and Opportunities, Oaxaca,
México, 9 � 13 August 2004.
Susilowati, I. (1996) A Review of Natural Resource Laws and Lolicies in Indonesia
and its Prospects for Fisheries Co-management. Working Paper No. 18. ICLARM,
Manila.
Susilowati, I. (1998) Economics of Regulatory Compliance in the Fisheries of Indone-
sia, Malaysia and the Philippines. Working Paper No. 39. ICLARM, Manila.
Symes, D. (1997) Fisheries Management in the North Atlantic: National and Regional
Perspectives. Ocean and Coastal Management, Vol. 35(2-3): 51-67.
Tang, S.Y. (1992). Institutions and Collective Action: Self-governance in Irrigation. ICS
Press, San Francisco.
Thompson, P.M., S.M.N. Alam, M. Hossain and A.B. Shelly (1998) Community-based
Management of Hamil Beel: a Case study of Fisheries Co-management in Bangla-
desh. Working Paper No. 36. ICLARM, Manila.
Thong, H.X., P.T. H. Van, P.G. Hai and R.S. Pomeroy (1996) A Review of Coastal
Fisheries Management Strategies and a Baseline Socio-economic Survey of Small-
scale Fishing Households and Communities in Vietnam. Working paper No. 21.
ICLARM, Manila.
Thong, H.X. and Thieu (1998) Traditional Organizations in Fishing Communities of
Small-scale Fisheries in Vietnam. Institute of Fisheries Economics and Planning,
Hanoi, Vietnam. Research Paper No. 8. ICLARM, Manila.
Thorburn, C.G. (2000) Changing Customary Marine Resource Management Practice
and Institutions: The Case of Sasi Lola in the Kei Islands, Indonesia. World Devel-
opment, Vol. 28(8): 1461–1479.
Thorburn, C.G. (2002) Regime Change: Prospects for Community-based Resource
Management in Post-New Order Indonesia. Presented at ‘The Commons in an Age
of Globalisation’ 9th Conference of the International Association of the Interna-
tional Association for the Study of Common Property, Victoria Falls, Zimbabwe,
June 17-21, 2002.
Tokrisna, R., P. Boonchuwong and P. Janekarnkij (1998) A Review of Fisheries and

Coastal Community-based Management Regime in Thailand. Unfinished working
paper. Fisheries Co-management Project. ICLARM, Manila.
Top, van den G. (1998) The Social Dynamics of Deforestation in the Philippines: Ac-
tions, Options and Motivations. PhD dissertation, Centre of Environmental Sci-
ences, Leiden University [of (2004) Man and Nature in Asia, Vol. 6, NIAS Press,
Copenhagen.
Torell, E., G. Luhikula, and L. Nzali (2002) Reflecting Upon the Experience of Dis-
trict ICM Action Planning in Tanzania. Intercoast Network. InterCoast Network,
International Newsletter of Coastal Management Nr. 42. Coastal Resources Center,
University of Rhode Island.
Torell, M. (1998) Institutional, Legal and Policy Perspectives on the Management of
Aquatic Resources and the Aquatic Environment in Wetlands, Floodplains, Lakes
and Rivers in the Mekong River Basin. Paper presented at the 7th Conference of the
International Association for the Study of Common Property, Vancouver, British
Columbia, Canada, 10-14 June.
Tulungen, J. (2002) Landmark District-level Legislation for Community-based Coastal
Management: Minahasa, Indonesia. Intercoast Network. International Newsletter
of Coastal Management Nr. 42. Coastal Resources Center, University of Rhode Is-
land.
Tyler, T.R. (1990) Why people obey the law. Yale University Press, New Haven, CT.
UNDP (1993) Tools for Community Participation. A Manual for Training Trainers in
Participatory Techniques. PROWWESS/UNDP-World Bank Water and Sanitation
Program, Washington.
University of the Philippines (1996) Study on the Management of Fisheries/aquatic
Resources at the Local Level. Research Report No. 7. ICLARM, Manila.
Uphoff, N. (1984) Participation in Development Initiatives: Fitting Projects to People.
In: M. Cernea, Ed. Putting People First: Sociological Variables in Rural Develop-
ment. John Hopkins University Press, Baltimore.
Uphoff, N. (1986) Local Institutional Development: an Analytical Sourcebook with
Cases. Kumarian Press, West Hartford.
Vayda, A.P., Ed. (1969) Environment and Cultural Behaviour. The Natural History
Press, New York.
Vayda, A.P. (1983) Progressive Contextualisation: methods for Research in Human
Ecology. Human Ecology, Vol. 11(3): 265-281.
Vayda, A. P. (1996) Methods and Explanations in the Study of Human Actions and
their Environmental Effects. CIFOR/WWF Special Publication, pp 44.
Villavicencio, A. and S. Baling (1995) Final Report on the Development of a Manage-
ment Plan for El Nido Marine Reserve, Palawan, Philippines. Working Paper No.
11. ICLARM, Manila.
Visser, L.E. (1989) My Rice Field is My Child. Social and Territorial Aspects of Swidden
Cultivation in Sahu, Eastern Indonesia. Foris, Dordrecht/Providence.
Visser, L.E., Ed. (2004) Challenging Coasts. MARE Publication Series No. 1, Amster-
dam University Press.
REFERENCES 285
Volker, T. (1925) Adatrechtbundels. Published by KITLV, printed by Martinus Nijhoff,

Den Haag, the Netherlands.
Walmsley, S.F. and A.T. White (2003) Influence of Social, Management and Enforce-
ment Factors on the Long-term Ecological Effects of Marine Sanctuaries. Environ-
mental Conservation Vol. 30(4): 388-407.
Walters, C.J. (1986) Adaptive Management of Renewable Resources. MacMillan, New
York.
Welsh, B. and M.H.C. Sung (2003) Community at War: Rethinking Conflict in Ambon/
Maluku. Contentious Politics in Southeast Asia. www.sais-jhu.edu/bwelsh/Melev-
levPolicyPaper.pdf
White, A.T. (1988) Marine Parks and Reserves: Management for Coastal Environments
in Southeast Asia. ICLARM Education Series No.2. ICLARM Manila, Philippines.
White, A., L. Hale, Y. Renard and L. Cortesi, Eds. (1994) Collaborative and Community-
Based Management of Coral Reefs. Kumarian Press Inc., Connecticut, 120p.
White, A.T., A. Salamanca, and C.A. Courtney (2002) Experience with Coastal and Ma-
rine Protected Area Planning and Management in the Philippines. Coastal Manage-
ment Vol. 30:1, pp 1-26.
Williamson, O.E. (1979) Transaction Costs Economics: the Governance of Contractual
Relations. Journal of Law and Economics, Vol. 22: 233-261.
Wilson, D.C. (2003a) The Community Development Tradition and Fisheries Co-man-
agement. In: Wilson, D.C., J. Raakjær Nielsen, and P. Degnbol, Eds. The Fisheries
Co-management Experience: Accomplishments, Challenges, and Prospects. Klu-
wer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, pp 17-29.
Wilson, D.C. (2003b) Conflict and Scale: A Defence of Community Approaches in Fish-
eries Management. In: Wilson, D.C., J. Raakjær Nielsen, and P. Degnbol, Eds. The
Fisheries Co-management Experience: Accomplishments, Challenges, and Pros-
pects. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, pp 193-209.
Wilson, D.C., J. Raakjær Nielsen, and P. Degnbol, Eds. (2003) The Fisheries Co-
management Experience: Accomplishments, Challenges, and Prospects. Kluwer
Academic Publishers, Dordrecht.
Wilson J. (2002) Scientific Uncertainty, Complex Systems, and the Design of
Common-Pool Institutions. In: National Research Council. The Drama of the
Commons. National Academy Press, Washington, pp 327- 359.
Wilterdink N. and B. van Heerikhuizen (1985) Samenlevingen: een Verkenning van
het Terrein van de Sociologie. Wolters-Noordhoff, Groningen.
WCED (World Commission on Environment and Development) (1987) Our Common
Future. Oxford University Press, Oxford.
Worldbank (2004). Indonesia: New Program Gives Communities Rights to Manage
Critical Coral Reefs, May 2004. World Bank Group.
WRI (2003) Decentralisation Today: Partial Progress. World Resources Institute,
Washington DC.
Wrong, D.H. (1997) Power. Its Forms, Bases, and Uses. Transaction Publishers. New
Brunswick, London.
Wyckoff-Baird, B., A. Kaus, C. Christen, and M. Keck (2000) Shifting the Power:
Decentralisation and Biodiversity Conservation, Publication Number: 100.
Biodiversity Support Program, WWF, WRI, TNC. www.worldwildlife.org/bsp/

publications/
Yambao, A.C., E.T. Deguit, and A.T. White (2001) Philippine Coastal Resource
Management: Bohol, Masbate and Davao del Sur Forge Ahead. Overseas, the
Online Magazine for Sustainable Seas, Vol. 4(10): 19.
Yap, N. (1996) Community Organizing in Leyte: the Labrador Experience. In:
C. Foltz, R.S. Pomeroy and C. Barber, Eds. Proceedings of the Visayas-wide
Conference on Community-based Coastal Resources Management and Fisheries
Co-management. Working Paper No. 4 of the Fisheries Co-management Research
Project. ICLARM, Manila, pp 70-74.
Young, O.R. (1999) Institutional Dimensions of Global Environmental Change.
Science Plan. International Human Dimensions Programme (IHDP) Report No.
9. Bonn, Germany.
Zerner, C. (1994a) Through a Green Lens: The Construction of Customary
Environmental Law and Community in Indonesia’s Maluku Islands. Law and
Society Review. Vol. 28(5).
Zerner, C. (1994b) Transforming Customary Law and Coastal Management Practices
in the Maluku Islands, Indonesia (1870-1992). In: D. Western & R.M. Wright, Eds.
(1994) Natural Connections. Perspectives in Community-Based Conservation.
Island Press, Washington, USA.
Zerner C. and C. Thorburn (forthcoming) Sea Change: The Role of Culture,
Community and Property Rights in Managing Indonesia’s Marine Fisheries.
Center for Southeast Asian Studies, Cornell University.
Zwaal (2003) Narratives for Nature: Storytelling as a Vehicle for Improving the
Intercultural Dialogue on Environmental Conservation in Cameroon. PhD
Dissertation, Centre of Environmental Sciences, Leiden University.
287
Summary
Central questions
The marine resources of Central Maluku are very rich but are under severe
pressure, particularly from destructive fishing techniques. Economic incen-
tives have caused a rapid increase in fishing pressure and catches and now
there is a need for more cautious management. In 1997-98, Indonesian
fisheries management was complex, multi-agency, and top-down. Ultimate
power was retained at the national level and provincial and lower levels were
unable either manage resource exploitation or conserve resources.
In response to a call for better management, the national government in

Indonesia has made a move towards decentralisation of management au-
thority to regional and local communities through the enactment of laws No.
22/1999 and 25/1999. However, although decentralisation is the way for-
ward there are possible pitfalls and setbacks related to corruption, resurgence
of local elites, massive exploitation (in forestry), overlap in laws and unclear
division of tasks and authority structures of management institutions. In In-
donesia, however, the process has just begun and it makes sense to look at
the achievements sofar, while drawing the lessons from the experiences in
the Philippines which are a leader if it comes to co-management and decen-
tralisation.
In Central Maluku, resource use is governed through a set of rules and regu-
lations called sasi, which is based on adat or traditional law. Traditional man-
agement systems such as sasi, however, were not recognised. Within the con-
text of decentralisation in Indonesia, a relevant question is what role existing
institutions, and sasi in particular, can play within the new legal framework
and whether they form an appropriate basis for modern resource manage-
ment? A study of the institution provides important insights in the revitalisa-
tion or establishment of local management not only in Maluku, but through-
out Indonesia and perhaps even further.
This thesis tries to answer the following questions:
1 To what extent is sasi present and functional?

2 What are the outcomes of sasi institutional arrangements in terms of ef-
ficiency, equity, and biological and social sustainability?
3 Which aspects contribute to its continued existence over time?
4 How is fisheries management organised in Central Maluku and what is

the legal framework?
5 What are the prospects for decentralisation and can local institutions play
a role?
6 What conditions contribute to the success of co-management?
7 How can project success be measured in an appropriate way, i.e. reflect-
ing both the perspective of the project partners and the recipients?
Inventory of sasi
Of the 63 villages in this study, only 41 still retained some form of sasi institu-
tion and only 17 villages had rules pertaining to marine management. Marine
sasi is most prevalent in mid-sized villages (2000-3000 people) distant from
the urban centre of Ambon. In 14 other villages, informants expressed a de-
sire to revitalise sasi.
Sasi practices vary from village to village. Written rules were found in 42% of
the sasi villages and usually went together with the application of sanctions
and the performance of ceremonies, i.e. the opening and closing of harvest
times and fishing grounds. The most elaborate forms of these ceremonies
are found in Nolloth village (Saparua Island) and Haruku village (Haruku
Island).
Villages in the study area range from relatively isolated, highly traditional
rural communities where adat leadership is paramount, to more modern
urban satellite villages where adat leaders lack significant influence. In no
case is management under sasi comprehensive; where it concerns marine
resources, only small areas of shallow water and few species are regulated
(e.g. Trochus niloticus, sea cucumbers and small pelagics). Rules include the
use of gear types and destructive fishing methods, as well as limitations on
the harvest. The existence of sasi means that certain important management
concepts are widely known and valued as part of local culture. Using sasi as
the basis for modern management institutions therefore is considered to be
efficient as it reduces potential costs of public education and enforcement.
Performance of sasi
Control over access in terms of who is allowed to enter the water, is perceived
to be tighter in sasi villages and compliance in these villages is greater. Sasi
has no impact on the economic situation of individual artisanal fishers, prob-
ably because the resources managed under sasi constitute a relatively small
proportion of family income. Sasi also has no effect on distribution of fishing
gears or on economic disparities within the village. In cases where harvest
SUMMARY 289
rights are sold or auctioned and benefits are not distributed fairly or accrue
to outsiders, fishers are inclined to trespass the sasi rules. On the other hand,
where marine resources under sasi are harvested as a communal crop and
distributed among the population, which is the case in Haruku, fishers per-
ceive the system as fair. Also, where decision-makers are respected and use
the proceeds of auctions of fishing rights for community development like in
Nolloth, the arrangement can be very efficient and is perceived as reasonably
equitable.
Sasi is not equitable in the sense that fishers’ voices are not always heard and
women are excluded from decision-making. Common fishers in sasi villages
feel no more involved in decision-making than fishers in non-sasi villages.
However, the ability to make decisions communally is stronger and more sta-
ble in sasi villages. Decisions ‘made by the community’ in reality means ‘by
a person acceptable to the community’ which confirms the significance of
representation and legitimacy. The hierarchical structures in the villages are
thus not equitable, but very efficient and culturally acceptable as long as lead-
ership is strong and legitimate.
The major difference between sasi and non-sasi villages is in terms of social
sustainability. The level of conflict and instable leadership was much higher
in non-sasi villages. Sasi fishers also felt that there was a strong tradition of
collective action and greater discussion of village issues. Social sustainabil-
ity, especially family well-being and income, is also positively influenced by
whether fishers are members of village organisations and satisfied with their
jobs.1 In sasi villages the trends of deterioration on these aspects compared
to the past were also less with a more positive future outlook than in non-sasi
villages.
In terms of biological sustainability there was no evidence that sasi had an

impact on the health of the fishery in general, doubtless because sasi pertains
only to small, inshore areas while most fish are caught in the deep sea. On a
regional level, the condition of the coral reef is more closely related to popu-
lation density and fishing pressure than to presence or absence of the sasi
institution. At a local level, however, guarded sasi areas suffer less damage
from blast fishing than adjacent unguarded areas. Sasi also has demonstra-
ble benefits in protecting the valuable top shells (Trochus niloticus) and sea
cucumbers.
Fishers in general find it important that all stakeholders are represented in

decision-making. When fishers feel that village decision-making is based
on consensus or majority agreement they have more positive scores on all
1 Job satisfaction was also measured during this study. Results and more detail can be found in
Novaczek et al. 2001 and in Pollnac et al. 2001.
performance indicators. For a management system it is thus important that

the decision-making process is perceived to be inclusive. Insulation of the
management institution from political turmoil is also important. Where for-
mal and traditional leaders collaborate closely and where leadership is highly
legitimate, sasi thrives.
Institutional resilience
Sasi has known periods of decline, revitalisation and stability. In the 1970s
sasi declined as a result of social and political change and rapid economic
growth. The introduction of a new village structure in 1979 has caused in
many villages conflicts between traditional and new formal village authori-
ties leading to political instability. The 1980s was a period of relative stability,
where sasi was alive it remained functional while in other villages sasi was
revitalised. The 1990s was a period of further decline. Generational change
together with, again, rapid changes often captured under the term ‘moderni-
sation’ are most likely the reasons why sasi was lost.
The decline of sasi often coincides with conflict. In the 1990s, the imposition
of the formal village structure still had an impact on the political situation in
the villages and the election system opened up possibilities for opportunists
with vested interests to become the village leader. On the other hand, where
traditional authorities had been able to merge into the new government, adat
and sasi remained important aspects of village life leading to more stability.
The continued presence of sasi was further affected by village size and prox-
imity to a large urban centre, hence the loss of sasi on Ambon Island.
The relative robustness of marine sasi can be ascribed to people’s attachment

to sasi as part of their culture, but also to the commercial value of marine
products under sasi, such as Trochus niloticus and sea cucumbers. Revitalisa-
tion was stimulated by these commercial interests, but also by the facilitation
and support of NGOs, the government and academic supporters who saw
the potential value of sasi as a resource management system. However, in
the villages where people did not get direct benefits or where distribution of
benefits was not transparent, support for sasi was lacking.
In Christian villages, the church played an important role in land sasi (on
coconuts) and sometimes had a supporting role in marine sasi in cases like
Nolloth and Haruku. In Muslim villages where traditional positions have
been abandoned and religious leaders no longer play a role, sasi has turned
into a more commercial transaction where resource harvesting rights are
auctioned. Close bonds and collaboration between formal and traditional in-
stitutions and religious authorities, however, makes sasi highly resilient. A
redefinition of responsibilities and involvement of non-adat institutions such
SUMMARY 291
as the church, police and higher government levels thus is important (but
needs careful consideration).
Factors that contribute positively to resilience of sasi should be considered
during the process of modernizing local management. For instance, the le-
gitimacy of a village head who descends from the traditional raja line con-
tributes positively to the execution of his authority with regard to sasi. A large
overlap between the traditional and formal authorities in the village govern-
ment is also beneficial. Acknowledgment of the traditional village authorities
within formal government is vital to revitalization of sasi (and feasible under
the new laws) and makes enforcement of sasi regulations more effective. On
the other hand, political instability and weak leadership may seriously ham-
per sasi as well as any revitalization process.
Adat forms the basis of sasi on the constitutional choice level and since
“adat cannot be changed” and is intrinsic to Maluku culture, revitalisation
or adaptation of sasi primarily concerns the operational rules (e.g. harvest
regulations and access) and collective-choice arrangements (e.g. re-establish-
ment of the kewang). The operational rules may be indigenous or may mimic
national legislation and are subject to revision. This adaptivity is important
to the resilience of the institution, but has also led to the development of a
patchwork of marine management efforts lacking a unified purpose and a set
of minimum standards.
As an institution sasi has never been static. It has changed with the times and
been used by different proponents for different economic and social reasons
– thus not simply for resource management. Berkes and Folke (1998) men-
tion various social-ecological practices that enhance institutional and ecologi-
cal resilience, such as harvest restrictions, taboos, ceremonies and intergen-
erational knowledge. This study shows that it are not the practices that make
the sasi institutions strong, but the social mechanisms that link the various
players and components, i.e. legitimacy, trust, collaboration, and transpar-
ency. A shared notion of the relevance of the institution is also needed to
stimulate a common objective to maintain sasi in spite of external influences
and in a situation where the temptation to abuse the system for personal
benefits is strong.
Organisation of fisheries management and legal

framework
Prior to 1999, Indonesia did not have a separate Department of Fisheries

and management structures were unorganised and ineffective. Fisheries and
coastal management at the national level was characterised by overlapping
laws under more than twenty uncoordinated ministries. Although stimu-
lated to develop more detailed and locally appropriate legislation at the pro-
vincial level, here comprehensive operational rules were lacking too. Only at
the local level had some regulations been developed. However, even though
the importance of sasi and local level management was acknowledged and
village heads held de facto management responsibility over local resources
for the benefit of the community, traditional management systems were not
formalised.
Two laws affected Maluku’s fishery (Law No. 9/1985 and Decree No. 607/1976)
that respectively prohibited the use of destructive gear types such as explo-
sives and poisons, and that designated inshore fishing zones. Every year, the
total allowable catch (TAC) was set based on the maximum sustainable yield
(MSY). However, unreliable data obscured the decline in commercial stocks
and a lack of enforcement power contributed to illegal fishing. Besides, un-
clear boundaries of fishing grounds led to conflicts between small-scale arti-
sanal fishers and the motorised commercial fishing fleet.
Economic interests and the development of the fishery had priority over sus-
tainability and management. The regional and provincial planning board
BAPPEDA therefore largely concerned itself with expansion of the fisheries,
rather than with management or conservation. Under BAPPEDA one group
of institutions was directly involved in the fishery activities and dealing with
equipment, vessels and human resources, such as the Marine and Navy. A
second group dealt with marine and fishery problems as a subset of their du-
ties, such as the Environmental Bureau. In addition, there was the national
research institute LIPI which was to provide information to policy makers.
Among these agencies limits of power and responsibility were unclear.
The development of fisheries policy and regulations were largely controlled

from the centre (Jakarta) and passed down to provincial, district and sub-dis-
trict levels. Suggestions for management developed at the local level, could
hardly get through to the national level. Furthermore, traditional authorities
long involved in enforcement and management had no legal position and
were effectively isolated from regional and provincial management struc-
tures and planning. However, since the Reformasi in 1999 at the national
level advances have been made in devolving powers over management of
inshore waters down to lower government levels.
Decentralisation
Government failure in resource management has set in motion the proc-

ess of decentralisation which transfers authority and responsibility to lower
government or local level institutions in order to create the incentives for
sustainable resource use. Involvement of lower government levels and lo-
cal people makes planning and decision-making more efficient, while the
SUMMARY 293
deployment of power and resources to the local level is expected to enhance

economic and community development. Decentralisation is expected to in-
crease political participation, greater transparency, empowerment and equity
and in this way gives force to democratic ideals.
With the enactment of Law No. 22/1999 and Law No. 25/1999 on admin-
istrative and fiscal decentralisation, regional autonomy is becoming a fast
reality. The new laws create the legal and financial framework for governance
primarily by the district government, with assistance from the provincial and
national governments. Fisheries and coastal management has been boosted
by the created of the National Maritime Council (NMC) and the Ministry of
Marine Affairs and Fisheries (DKP).
The new laws, however, also create opportunities for abuse. Rampant re-
source exploitation, power struggles, and the formation of new elites form
a potential threat to the process of decentralisation, leading to scepticism
amongst researchers and opponents. A comparison between case studies
in the Philippines and Indonesia show how and under what circumstances
functional local resource management can be achieved. Important is the for-
mation of institutions at the local level that have discrete powers, transparent
processes, and that are downwardly accountable. For this adequate funding
and other forms of support from external agents are required. Empower-
ment, increased knowledge, good leadership and the development of skills
help to create institutions that are strong enough to deal with powerful oppo-
nents and ‘new elites’, and that are capable of generating resource revenues
and carrying out management authority (Pomeroy and Berkes 1997; Pomer-
oy 2001). Also the establishment of local assemblies, discussion forums and
umbrella organisations is important.
To get ‘the institutions right’ requires a thorough analysis of the existing

political structures, the role and position of traditional authorities, and the
appropriateness of these institutions to deal with new management require-
ments. The role, mandate and authority of the district and provincial govern-
ments need to be clearly demarcated. The development of an umbrella law,
procedural mechanisms and an interdepartmental coordinating body are
suggested to support a nationwide approach that allows for local manage-
ment and to enhance coordination and effectiveness of various agencies.
With a history of dictatorship, the shift towards a decentralised state with

more democratic structures in Indonesia will take a long time. Experiences
from the Philippines provide an inspiring example.
Conditions for success
To ensure success for co-management, enabling policies and legislation need

to be in place to spell out jurisdiction and control, and to provide legitimacy
to property rights and decision-making arrangements. Responsibility and au-
thority of the various partners needs to be defined as well as the rights and
rules that legitimise local participation. The development of co-management
often involves external agents who play a catalytic role. They can further as-
sist the communities in problem definition, give advice and support, and
provide training and technical assistance.
Important on the community level are an appropriate scale and clear bound-
aries. Clearly defined membership is important in defending community
rights. Smaller groups facilitate effective communication and decision-mak-
ing. A high degree of homogeneity also positively influences the co-manage-
ment arrangements, especially where individuals affected by these arrange-
ments are part of the decision-making process. Success is further highly
dependent on respected, legitimate leaders who serve as an example, who set
out the course of action, and who provide energy and direction to the proc-
ess. However, strong dependency on the leaders makes co-management also
vulnerable.
The social preparation process preceding co-management is important to

build capacity and empowerment. The process increases social awareness
and autonomy and stimulates a more balanced power structure in the com-
munity. It should be based on the socio-cultural and political context of the
community and include marginalised groups, such as women and the poor.
Other mechanisms that are important are downward accountability struc-
tures and conflict management.
Legitimate community organisations that represent resource users and

stakeholders can influence the direction of policy and decision-making. Early
involvement and active participation of partners in planning and implemen-
tation stimulates a sense of ownership over the process and commitment.
The process further needs long-term support of local governments and politi-
cal willingness. Financial resources are also necessary to support the process
and to fund the costs for planning, coordination, implementation, monitor-
ing and control. Legal ownership of the resource use rights are an incentive
for optimal use and conservation. Ideally, community members themselves
invest their own financial resources in the process as too much dependence
on eternal source impact the sustainability of the co-management arrange-
ments.
It is important that the objectives of co-management are clear and come from
a well-defined set of issues. The rules need to be simple. A common un-
SUMMARY 295
derstanding of the root issues and solutions helps to choose a strategy and
priorities. The willingness to comply with the rules is determined by the in-
dividual perspective on the fairness and the appropriateness of the laws and
the legitimacy of the authorities charged with implementing the regulations.
Enforcement by formal agents, such as the coast guard and police, is there-
fore if possible coordinated with local traditional enforcers.
The conditions are meant to serve as a guide in planning and implementa-

tion of co-management and should be viewed in the context of Southeast
Asia. The number and variety of key conditions for co-management illus-
trates that planning and implementation must be conducted at several levels.
Each condition is linked to the others and supports it to make the complex
process and arrangements for co-management work.
How to measure success
In order to get an accurate picture of project success, it is important to meas-

ure the impacts of projects from both the insider and outsider perspective.
To develop a methodology, the dependent project variables of two co-manage-
ment cases in the Philippines were analysed and compared. The perception
of being involved, a feeling of empowerment, increased knowledge and a
high level of participation in project planning were mentioned by respond-
ents as making the projects successful – also in the cases that were assessed
as failures by project staff who used quantitative, easily observable project
results. The reason for the discrepancy in the assessment is that the project
approach has changed from ‘development’ to ‘participation’ with thus a larg-
er focus on people, while the indicators have remained the same. It is thus
important to change the indicators to measure success.
The social preparation process often takes longer than the total project span
which is often only 3 to 4 years. So often during the first phase, project in-
terventions are carried out while people are still involved in personal devel-
opment. This is the reason why timing of project success measurement is
important. It is also important that these personal changes are assessed. The
conceptions and perceptions of the local people (emic perspective) can be
translated into indicators and assessed. In a later, more appropriate phase,
physical project output can be measured. The early measurement of people’s
perceptions has advantages. It may stimulate internalisation of project goals,
while increased self-awareness may positively impact the process of project
design and implementation. Where the project objectives and outcomes are
the result of a communal process it may be assumed that: (1) the envisaged
project goals of the implementers and the beneficiaries coincide and thus
that (2) a measurement of these (physical) outcomes at a later stage repre-
sents an objective perception of project success.
Participatory methods are useful to measure project results. Suggested in-

dicators to measure project participants’ personal changes are: the degree
of involvement, the increase in capabilities, the measure of control, access,
skills and personal change. On the community level measurements concern
the degree of communication, representation, collaboration, trust and sup-
port. Important is an early evaluation of these indicators as it may help the
project to adapt and prevent possible failures. Only in the post-implementa-
tion phase will the overall project output be measured including material
output (catches, income, hectares of protected areas), but also human in-
volvement, project benefits, management structures and the level of partici-
pation. Ideally, these indicators are designed during the planning phase in
a communal process and this final evaluation will then thus truly represent
project success.
Conclusion
Declining fish catches, deterioration of the eco-system, and loss of biodiversity

has led governments to shift to a more decentralised management approach
including the transfer of management authority to lower government levels
and local communities. Co-management, a form of collaboration between
the government and local communities, is one possible alternative strategy.
It facilitates and stimulates locally based management with a supporting and
facilitating role of the government. Sasi, the strong local traditional manage-
ment structure in Central Maluku, potentially offers an important basis for
local management. The existence of sasi means that certain important man-
agement concepts are widely known and valued as part of local culture, e.g.
open and closed seasons, the concept of limiting access to resources, and the
concept of community tenure rights over a marine area. The promulgation
of regular fisheries rules at the village level has clearly been influenced by the
sasi institution, and marine sasi in particular. Sasi provides a structure that is
culturally embedded, that includes a functional enforcement system, and has
a set of rules and regulations that are acceptable to most. The presence of sasi
thus positively influences the potential for development of modern marine
management institutions.
Sasi had (and may still have where present) significant outcomes in terms
of social sustainability and stimulates mechanisms that keep the institution
functional and resilient over time, thereby undermining Hardin’s theory
(1968) that local institutions are incapable of resource management. Social
mechanisms like collaboration, trust, but also downward accountability not
only stimulate local resource management, but also form the basis for decen-
tralised structures. Sasi, however, is vulnerable to political conflict, opportun-
ism of leaders interested in extracting resource rents, and a lack of support
and interest of younger generations. At the same time it are the younger
SUMMARY 297
fishers who see the community as having responsibility for management.

Legitimate leadership, access to knowledge and formal recognition of tra-
ditional leaders and enforcers can strengthen the institution. It is further
important that the traditional structures merge into a modern institution that
meets current demands for participation and democracy. An adapted form of
sasi will also attract the attention of younger generations and gather general
support.
In places where sasi has disappeared or where the conditions important to

the survival of sasi are lacking, new management arrangements need to be
formed that ideally include the management concepts of sasi. The constitu-
tional rules based on adat might build the foundations, while the collective-
choice rules and operational rules are adapted to the requirements of a village
that is larger, more heterogeneous, closer to the urban capital of Ambon,
or otherwise not able to retain sasi in its original form. A logical alternative
would be a modern village institution that provides a transparent, inclusive
decision-making process, mechanisms to change and enforce rules, and that
offers direct benefits to the fishers in their role as managers.
Many government staff agreed that local institutions are useful and hold a
strategic position close to the resource and to fishers. However, the current
political structures in the villages are still a reflection of centralized and hier-
archical national structures. Because village government leaders are used to
taking orders from above rather than initiating action, future local manage-
ment institutions must initially be supported at higher government levels.
Village leaders will need assistance and incentives to be proactive and crea-
tive in developing new, local level management arrangements. In contrast to
countries like the Philippines, in Indonesia NGOs or environmental organi-
sations outside the government or church are rare. The involvement of these
organisations and outside catalysts, however, is important in empowerment
and capacity building that are part of the social preparation process.
Whatever form the institution takes, needed are a funding base and a stable
management structure that includes, but is not dependent upon, the village
government. Whether or not the institution is modelled on sasi, the needs
and aspirations of the various proponents – fishers, local governments, fish-
eries managers, adat leaders and environmentalists – must be successfully
accommodated. Under the new legal framework, sasi, the kewang and other
management institutions can gain formal recognition and so bring to an end
the isolation from regional, provincial and national management structures.
Local institutions need to be involved, not only in local monitoring and en-
forcement, but also as partners in development planning and implementa-
tion, stock assessment and allocation, and licensing. In addition, to have a
place in negotiating access and withdrawal rights for artisanal fishers in off-
shore waters, local institutions will need to engage or be nested in a larger

institution operating on regional, provincial and higher levels.
As multiple parties are involved in the new management structures, there is

an important role for a ‘facilitator’ who can translate the different views and
perceptions to one another. The anthropologist who studies environmental
behaviour and local dynamics around resource management can help to
bridge the cognitive and cultural gap between parties in order to support
constructive dialogues and negotiations in the search for solutions for envi-
ronmental problems.
299
Visserij co-management, de rol van lokale in-

stituties en decentralisatie in Zuidoost Azië
Met pecifieke verwijzing naar sasi in de Centrale Molukken,
Indonesië
Onderzoeksvragen
De mariene hulpbronnen in de Centrale Molukken worden gekenmerkt door

een grote rijkdom en variëteit, maar staan onder zware druk, voornamelijk
door het gebruik van destructieve vismethoden. Economische drijfveren heb-
ben geleid tot een snelle toename in de visserijdruk en vangsten, waardoor
de noodzaak voor een bewuste manier van beheer is ontstaan. In 1997-98
was visserijbeheer in Indonesië een complex geheel waarbij veel verschil-
lende organisaties betrokken waren en dat top-down georiënteerd was. De
ultieme macht lag bij de nationale overheid, terwijl de provinciale en lagere
overheidsniveau’s niet in staat waren exploitatie te reguleren of hulpbronnen
te beschermen.
Als respons op een roep voor beter beheer, heeft de nationale overheid van
Indonesië een stap gemaakt richting decentralisatie van autoriteit over be-
heer van natuurlijke hulpbronnen naar regionale en lokale overheden en ge-
meenschappen door de invoering van Wet Nr. 22/1999 en Wet Nr. 25/1999.
Echter, hoewel decentralisatie de toekomst is, zijn er ook valkuilen en hinder-
nissen voortvloeiend corruptie, de opkomst van lokale elites, grootschalige
exploitatie (vooral in bosbouw), overlappende wetten, en een onduidelijke
verdeling van de taken en mandaten binnen de instituties die moeten zorgen
voor beheer. In Indonesië is het proces echter pas begonnen en is het zinvol
vooral te kijken naar de reeds geboekte successen, terwijl er lessen geleerd
kunnen worden van de ervaringen in de Filippijnen die een voortrekkersrol
spelen die waar het co-management en decentralisatie betreft.
In de Centrale Molukken is het gebruik van hulpbronnen gereguleerd door

sasi, een geheel van regels en gebruiken gestoeld op adat, het lokale ge-
woonterecht. Traditionele beheerssystemen zoals sasi werden echter niet
erkend. In de context van decentralisatie in Indonesië is een relevante vraag
welke rol bestaande instituties – en sasi in het bijzonder – kunnen spelen
binnen dit nieuwe beleidskader en of zij een goede basis kunnen bieden
voor moderne vormen van hulpbronnenbeheer? Een studie naar de institutie
geeft inzichten die van belang zijn in zowel herinvoering als oprichting van
lokale managementsystemen, niet alleen in de Molukken maar voor heel In-
donesië en zelfs daarbuiten.
300 VISSERIJ CO - MANAGEMENT IN ZUIDOOST AZIË
Dit proefschrift probeert een antwoord te vinden op de volgende vragen:
1 Tot op welke hoogte is sasi nog aanwezig en functioneel?

2 Wat zijn de uitkomsten van institutionele regelingen van sasi in termen
van ‘efficiency’, ‘equity’, sociale en biologische duurzaamheid?
3 Welke kenmerken dragen bij aan het voortbestaan van de institutie op
langere termijn?
4 Hoe is visserijbeheer in de Centrale Molukken georganiseerd en wat is
het beleid?
5 Wat zijn de vooruitzichten voor decentralisatie en kunnen lokale institu-
ties een rol spelen?
6 Welke randvoorwaarden dragen bij aan het succes van co-management?
7 Hoe kan het succes van projecten gemeten worden op een juiste wijze,
dat wil zeggen een manier die zowel het perspectief van de projectmede-
werkers weergeeft als die van de ontvangers?
Inventarisatie
Van de 63 dorpen in dit onderzoek, hebben er 44 nog een vorm van de sasi in-
stitutie over terwijl 17 dorpen nog regels hebben voor marien beheer. Mariene
sasi komt het meeste voor in middelgrote grote dorpen (2000-3000 mensen)
die ver liggen van het stedelijke gebied rond Ambon. In 14 andere dorpen
werd de wens uitgesproken sasi opnieuw in te voeren.
Sasi praktijken variëren van dorp tot dorp. Van de sasi dorpen heeft 42%
geschreven regels die vaak samengingen met de toepassing van sancties en
het uitvoeren van ceremoniën, dat wil zeggen het openen en sluiten van het
visseizoen en visgronden. De meest uitgebreide vorm van deze ceremoniën
werd gevonden in de dorpen Nolloth (op Saparua eiland) en in Haruku (op
Haruku eiland).
De dorpen in het gebied variëren van relatief geïsoleerde, traditionele, ru-

rale gemeenschappen waar adat leiderschap nog belangrijk is, tot moderne
urbane dorpen waar adat leiders geen werkelijke macht meer hebben. In
geen van de gevallen is sasi alomvattend; beheer van mariene hulpbron-
nen is beperkt tot kleine, ondiepe kustzone gebieden en bepaalde soorten
zoals schelpen (Trochus niloticus), zeekomkommers, en kleine pelagische vis-
soorten. Regels bepalen zowel het gebruik van bepaald vistuig en destruc-
tieve vistechnieken als beperkingen van de vangsten. De aanwezigheid van
sasi betekent dat bepaalde belangrijke concepten gerelateerd aan (natuur-)be-
heer wijd verbreid zijn en een belangrijk onderdeel vormen van de lokale
cultuur. Het gebruik van sasi als basis voor moderne management instituties
wordt daarom gezien als efficiënt omdat het potentiële kosten van educatie
en handhaving van de regels drukt.
SAMENVATTING 301
De resultaten van sasi
De controle over toegang in de zin van wie de visgronden mag betreden en

wie niet, wordt gezien als groter in sasi dorpen waar ook de regels beter nage-
leefd worden. Sasi heeft geen significant effect op de economische situatie van
de individuele kleinschalige vissers, waarschijnlijk omdat de hulpbronnen
onder sasi maar een relatief klein deel vormen van het gezinsinkomen. Sasi
heeft ook geen effect op de verdeling van vistuig of op economische ongelijk-
heid binnen het dorp. In gevallen waar de rechten om te vissen verkocht of
geveild worden en waar de opbrengsten niet eerlijke verdeeld worden of naar
buitenstaanders gaan, zijn vissers meer geneigd de sasi regels te overtreden.
Aan de andere kant, daar waar mariene hulpbronnen onder sasi gemeenschap-
pelijk worden geoogst en de opbrengsten verdeeld worden onder de bevolk-
ing, zoals het geval is in Haruku, wordt het systeem als eerlijk gezien. Ook
in de dorpen waar degenen die de besluiten nemen gerespecteerd worden en
waar de opbrengsten van de veiling van de visrechten gebruikt worden voor
dorpsontwikkeling, zoals in Nolloth, zijn de reguleringen effectief en worden
ze gezien als eerlijk.
Sasi is niet ‘equitable’ (eerlijk, gelijkheid bevorderend) in de zin dat de stem

van vissers niet altijd wordt gehoord en dat vrouwen uitgesloten zijn van be-
sluitvorming. Gewone vissers in sasi dorpen voelen zich niet méér of minder
betrokken bij besluitvorming dan vissers in dorpen zonder sasi. Echter, het
vermogen om beslissingen gemeenschappelijk te nemen wordt wel ervaren als
groter en stabiel over langere tijd in sasi dorpen. Besluiten genomen ‘door de
gemeenschap’ betekent in de realiteit ‘genomen door een persoon aanvaard
door de gemeenschap’ wat het belang van representatie en legitimiteit beves-
tigd. De hiërarchische structuren in de dorpen zijn dus misschien niet ‘eer-
lijk’ of ‘gelijk’; ze zijn wel zeer efficiënt en cultureel gezien acceptabel zolang
leiderschap krachtig en legitiem is.
Het grootste verschil tussen dorpen met en zonder sasi is de mate van sociale
duurzaamheid. Het aantal conflicten en instabiel leiderschap was in dorpen
zonder sasi veel hoger dan in sasi-dorpen. Sasi-vissers hadden ook het gevoel
dat er een sterke traditie van collectieve acties was en ook meer discussie
over dorpsgerelateerde zaken. Sociale duurzaamheid, vooral in termen van
familiewelzijn en inkomen, werd verder positief beïnvloed door het feit of
vissers lid waren van een dorpsorganisatie en of ze tevreden waren met hun
beroep.1 In sasi-dorpen was de trend van afnemende scores op deze factoren
vergeleken met vroeger ook minder dan in non-sasi dorpen, terwijl het toe-
komstperspectief positiever was.
1 Het meten van de tevredenheid met hun beroep (job satisfaction) was ook onderdeel van deze
studie. Resultaten en een meer gedetailleerde beschrijving is te vinden in Novaczek et al. 2001 en
in Pollnac et al. 2001.
Op het gebied van biologische duurzaamheid was er geen bewijs dat sasi
een significant effect heeft op de visstand. Dit komt zonder twijfel omdat
sasi alleen betrekking heeft op kleine kustzonegebieden terwijl de meeste vis
op open zee gevangen wordt. Op regionaal niveau is de staat van de koraal-
riffen ook meer afhankelijk van de bevolkingsdichtheid en visserijdruk dan
van de aan- of afwezigheid van sasi. Op lokaal niveau werd echter duidelijk
dat sasi gebieden minder te lijden hebben van dynamiet-vissen dan omrin-
gende gebieden. Het voordeel van sasi is ook aantoonbaar als het gaat om
de bescherming van commercieel waardevolle schelpen (Trochus niloticus) en
zeekomkommers.
Over het algemeen vinden vissers het belangrijk dat alle belanghebbenden
vertegenwoordigd zijn in besluitvorming. Vissers die het gevoel hebben dat
beslissingen worden genomen op basis van consensus of met instemming
van de meerderheid, hebben een hogere positieve score op alle indicatoren
met betrekking tot de resultaten. Het is dus belangrijk voor een visserij man-
agementsysteem dat het ervaren wordt als alomvattend in de zin dat iedereen
betrokken is. Verder is het belangrijk dat het systeem losgekoppeld is van
politieke schermutselingen. Waar formele en informele leiders nauw samen-
werken en waar leiderschap legitiem is, bloeit sasi.
Institutionele veerkracht
Sasi heeft periodes van ondergang, wederopkomst en stabiliteit gekend. In de

jaren ’70 is sasi afgenomen ten gevolge van sociale en politieke veranderingen
en snelle economische groei. De introductie van een nieuwe dorpsstructuur
in 1979 heeft in veel dorpen conflicten veroorzaakt tussen de traditionele
en nieuwe formele dorpsautoriteiten wat leidde tot politieke instabiliteit. De
jaren ’80 waren een periode van relatieve bestendigheid; waar sasi actief was
bleef het functioneel terwijl in andere dorpen sasi nieuw leven in werd ge-
blazen. De jaren ’90 waren weer een periode van teloorgang van sasi. De
opkomst van een nieuwe generatie in combinatie met snelle veranderingen
gevat onder de term ‘modernisering’ zijn de meest waarschijnlijke oorzaken
voor het verdwijnen van sasi.
Het verdwijnen van sasi gaat vaak gepaard met conflicten. In de jaren ’90
had de invoering van de nieuwe dorpsstructuur nog steeds een effect op de
politieke situatie in de dorpen terwijl het systeem van verkiezingen mogelijk-
heden bood aan opportunisten die erop uit waren een leiderspositie in te
nemen. Aan de andere kant, in dorpen waar traditionele autoriteiten min of
meer waren opgenomen binnen het nieuwe overheidssysteem vervulden sasi
en adat nog steeds een belangrijke rol wat leidde tot politieke stabiliteit. De
continuïteit van sasi werd verder beïnvloed door de grootte van het dorp en de
SAMENVATTING 303
nabijheid van een groot stedelijk centrum. Vandaar het verdwijnen van sasi
op Ambon eiland.
De relatieve robuustheid van mariene sasi kan toegeschreven worden aan

het belang dat mensen eraan hechten als deel van hun cultuur, maar ook
aan de commerciële waarde van mariene produkten onder sasi zoals Trochus
niloticus en zeekomkommers. Het opnieuw instellen van sasi werd niet alleen
gestimuleerd door deze commerciële belangen, maar ook door de steun van
NGOs, de overheid, en academici die de potentiële waarde zagen van sasi als
een systeem voor het beheer van natuurlijke hulpbronnen. Echter, in dorpen
waar de verdeling van de opbrengsten niet transparant was, ontbrak de steun
voor sasi.
In christelijke dorpen speelde de kerk een belangrijke rol in land sasi (vooral
met betrekking tot kokosnoten) en verrichtte soms een ondersteunende rol
in mariene sasi zoals in Nolloth en Haruku. In islamitische dorpen waar de
traditionele functies afgeschaft waren en religieuze leiders geen rol meer
speelden, veranderde sasi in een soort commerciële transactie waarbij de
rechten om te vissen geveild werden. Hechte banden en samenwerking tus-
sen formele en traditionele organisaties en religieuze autoriteiten zorgen er
echter voor dat sasi zeer veerkrachtig wordt. Een herdefiniëring van verant-
woordelijkheden en betrokkenheid van niet-adat instituties zoals de kerk,
politie, en hoger overheidsniveau’s is dus belangrijk (maar vereist ook zorg-
vuldige afwegingen).
Factoren die positief bijdragen aan de veerkracht van sasi moeten meegeno-
men worden in het proces van modernisering van lokaal beheer. De legitimi-
teit van het dorpshoofd die van de traditionele raja lijn afstamt, bijvoorbee-
ld, is positief voor de uitvoering van zijn autoriteit met betrekking tot sasi.
Een grote overlap tussen de traditionele en formele autoriteiten binnen de
dorpsoverheid is ook gunstig. De erkenning van traditionele functies binnen
de formele structuren is essentieel voor het opnieuw instellen van sasi (wat
mogelijk is onder de nieuwe wetgeving) en maakt de handhaving van sasi
regels effectiever. Aan de andere kant, politieke instabiliteit en zwak leidersc-
hap ondermijnen sasi en elke poging om het nieuw leven in te blazen.
De basis van sasi, op constitutioneel niveau, is adat en omdat ‘adat niet veran-
derd kan worden’ en een intrinsiek deel uitmaakt van de Molukse cultuur,
bestaat het opnieuw invoeren van sasi in feite vooral uit het instellen van
regels op operationeel niveau, zoals vangstreguleringen en het regelen van
toegang, en op ‘collective-choice level’ ofwel collectief niveau, zoals het op-
nieuw oprichten van de kewang. De operationele regels kunnen zowel tra-
ditioneel zijn als een kopie van de nationale wetgeving en ze kunnen ge-
makkelijk aangepast worden. Deze flexibiliteit is belangrijk met betrekking
tot institutionele veerkracht, maar heeft ook geleid tot een mozaïek van initia-
tieven voor marien beheer waarbij een gemeenschappelijk doel en minimum

standaarden ontbreken.
Een institutie zoals sasi is nooit statisch. Door de eeuwen heen hebben er
veranderingen plaatsgevonden en werd het door verschillende voorstanders
gebruikt voor allerlei economische en sociale doelen, dus niet alleen voor
het beheer van hulpbronnen. Berkes en Folke (1998) noemen verschillende
socio-economische praktijken die de institutionele en ecologische veerkracht
stimuleren, zoals beperkingen op de vangsten, taboes, ceremoniën, en lokale
kennis die wordt doorgeven van generatie op generatie. Dit onderzoek heeft
aangetoond dat het echter niet de praktijken zijn die de sasi-institutie sterk
maken, maar de sociale mechanismen die de verschillende ‘spelers’ en com-
ponenten bij elkaar houden zoals legitimiteit, vertrouwen, samenwerking,
en transparantie. Een gedeelde overtuiging dat de institutie relevant is, is
ook nodig om tot een gemeenschappelijk besluit te komen sasi te handhaven
ondanks de externe invloeden en in een situatie waar de verleiding om het
systeem te misbruiken voor eigen belang groot is.
Organisatie van visserijbeheer en beleidsstructuur
Vóór 1999 had Indonesië geen apart departement voor visserij en beheer was
ongeorganiseerd en ineffectief. Visserij- en kustbeheer op nationaal niveau
werd gekarakteriseerd door een grote overlap in wetgeving en vond plaats
onder meer dan 20 ongecoördineerde ministeries. Ook al werd op provinciaal
niveau de ontwikkeling van meer gedetailleerd en lokaal toepasbaar beleid
gestimuleerd, er ontbrak een samenhangend geheel van operationele regels.
Alleen op lokaal niveau waren een aantal regels opgesteld. Maar hoewel het
belang van sasi en lokaal beheer algemeen erkend werd en de dorpshoofden
de facto verantwoordelijkheid hadden over de lokale hulpbronnen ten dien-
ste van de gemeenschap, werden de traditionele management systemen niet
geformaliseerd.
Er waren twee wetten van toepassing op de visserij in de Molukken (Wet Nr.

9/1985 en Besluit Nr. 607/1976) die respectievelijk een verbod inhielden
op destructieve vismethoden zoals explosieven en gifstoffen en een bepaling
van de visgronden binnen de kustzone. Elk jaar werd een totale vangst (Total
Allowable Catch of TAC) vastgesteld op basis van MSY (Maximum Sustain-
able Yield). Onbetrouwbare data echter verhulde de achteruitgang in de com-
merciële vispopulaties en het niet bij machte zijn de visserij te controleren
droeg bij aan illegale vangsten. Onduidelijke grenzen van visgronden leidden
verder tot conflicten tussen kleinschalige handmatige vissers en de gemotori-
seerde commerciële vloot.
SAMENVATTING 305
Economische belangen en de ontwikkeling van de visserij hadden de priori-

teit over duurzaamheid en beheer. Het provinciale en regionale planbureau
BAPPEDA hield zich dan ook voornamelijk bezig met de uitbreiding van de
visserij in plaats van met het beheer of bescherming ervan. Een groep van
instanties onder BAPPEDA was direct betrokken bij visserijactiviteiten en
hield zich bezig met vistuig, schepen, en mankracht, zoals de marine. Een
tweede groep hield zich alleen bezig met visserij als nevenactiviteit, zoals het
Milieu Bureau. Verder was er het onderzoeksinstituut LIPI dat informatie
verstrekte aan de overheid. De verdeling van taken en autoriteit tussen deze
instanties was onduidelijk.
De ontwikkeling van visserijbeleid en reguleringen werden grotendeels

bepaald door de nationale overheid in Jakarta en van daaruit doorgegeven
naar overheden op provinciaal, district en subdistrict niveau. Het was ech-
ter bijna niet mogelijk ideeën en suggesties omtrent beheer ontwikkeld op
lokaal niveau naar boven door te sluizen. Ook traditionele autoriteiten, van
oudsher betrokken bij beheer en handhaving van regels, hadden geen legale
positie en waren in de praktijk buitengesloten van provinciale en regionale
beleidsstructuren en planning. Echter, sinds de reformasi van 1999 zijn er op
nationaal niveau stappen gezet om zeggenschap over het beheer van kustge-
bieden over te hevelen naar lagere overheidsniveau’s en lokaal niveau.
Decentralisatie
Het falen van de overheid om hulpbronnen te beheren en beschermen heeft

een proces in gang gezet van decentralisatie waarin de autoriteit en verant-
woordelijkheid overgedragen worden naar lagere en lokale instituties om op
deze manier een stimulans te creëren richting duurzaam hulpbronnenge-
bruik. Betrokkenheid van lagere overheidsniveau’s en lokale gemeenschap-
pen maakt planning en besluitvorming efficiënter, terwijl het in handen heb-
ben van macht en hulpbronnen op lokaal niveau naar verwachting leidt tot
meer economische en sociale ontwikkeling. Van decentralisatie wordt ook
verwacht dat het de politieke participatie zal bevorderen en zal leiden tot gro-
tere transparantie, ‘empowerment’ en grotere gelijkheid, wat op zijn beurt
voeding geeft aan democratische idealen.
Met de invoering van Wet Nr. 22/199 en Wet Nr. 25/1999 met betrekking tot
administratieve en fiscale decentralisatie werd regionale autonomie een rea-
liteit. De nieuwe wetten creëren het wettelijke en financiële raamwerk voor
beheer grotendeels door de districtsoverheid, met een meer ondersteunende
rol van de provinciale en nationale overheid. Visserij- en kustbeheer krijgen
verder een grote impuls door de creatie van een Nationaal Maritieme Raad
(National Maritime Council or NMC) en een Ministerie van Visserij en Mari-
tieme Zaken (DKP).
De nieuwe wetten laten echter ook ruimte voor misbruik. Grootschalige ex-
ploitatie van hulpbronnen, machtsstrijd, en de formatie van nieuwe elites
vormen een potentiële bedreiging voor het proces van decentralisatie wat
leidt tot scepsis onder wetenschappers en tegenstanders. Een vergelijking
tussen case-studies in de Filippijnen en Indonesië laat zien hoe en onder
welke omstandigheden functioneel lokaal beheer bereikt kan worden. Belan-
grijk hierbij is het opzetten van instituties op lokaal niveau die afzonderlijke
bevoegdheden hebben, die transparant zijn, en die verantwoordelijkheid
moeten afleggen naar beneden toe, dus richting de bevolking. ‘Empower-
ment’, een hoog kennisniveau, adequaat leiderschap, en de ontwikkeling
van vaardigheden helpt om instituties te creëren die sterk genoeg zijn om
met machtige tegenstanders en ‘nieuwe elites’ om te gaan, die in staat zijn
inkomsten te onttrekken uit de hulpbronnen, en die in staat zijn het beheer
uit te voeren (Pomeroy en Berkes 1997; Pomeroy 2001). Daarbuiten is de
oprichting van lokale groeperingen, discussiefora, en overkoepelende organi-
saties belangrijk.
Om de ‘instituties goed te krijgen’ is een diepgaande analyse nodig van de

bestaande politieke structuren, de rol en positie van traditionele autoriteiten,
plus de toereikendheid van deze instituties om met de nieuwe management
verantwoordelijkheden om te gaan. De rol, autoriteit, en het mandaat van
de provinciale overheid dienen zorgvuldig begrensd te worden. Voorgesteld
wordt om een overkoepelende wet, procedures, en een inter-departementaal
orgaan te ontwikkelen ter ondersteuning van een landelijke aanpak waarbin-
nen lokaal beheer kan plaatsvinden en waardoor de coördinatie en effectiviteit
van de verschillende instanties verbeterd wordt. Met het oog op het voorma-
lige dictatoriale regime zal de verschuiving naar een meer gedecentraliseerde
staatsvorm op basis van democratische structuren in Indonesië een lange tijd
vergen. De ervaringen in de Filippijnen fungeren als inspirerend voorbeeld.
Voorwaarden voor succes
Om het succes van co-management te verzekeren is het nodig dat de nieuwe

wetgeving de bevoegdheden en controle duidelijk definieert en legitimiteit
toekent aan eigendomsrechten en besluitvormingsprocessen. De verantwoor-
delijkheid en autoriteit van de verschillende partijen moeten worden gedefin-
ieerd, evenals de rechten en regels die lokale participatie legitimeren. Bij
de ontwikkeling van co-management zijn vaak externe tussenpersonen be-
trokken die een rol spelen als katalysator. Ze helpen de dorpsgemeenschap-
pen bij het vaststellen van de probleemdefinitie, geven advies en steun, en
voorzien in training en technische assistentie.
Belangrijk op dorpsniveau zijn een juiste schaal waarop de activiteiten plaats-

vinden en duidelijke grenzen. Als de rechten van de gemeenschap verdedigd
SAMENVATTING 307
moeten worden, moet duidelijk zijn wie er lid is en wie niet. Een hoge mate
van homogeniteit heeft ook een positieve invloed op de co-management
regelingen, vooral waar de mensen die de gevolgen ondervinden van de af-
spraken, betrokken zijn bij de besluitvorming. Succes is verder in hoge mate
afhankelijk van gerespecteerde, legitieme leiders die een voorbeeldfunctie
vervullen, die bepalen welke actie ondernomen wordt, en die energie en rich-
ting geven aan het proces. Aan de andere kant maakt een grote afhankelijk-
heid van leiders het co-management proces ook kwetsbaar.
Het sociale voorbereidingsproces dat aan co-management vooraf gaat is be-

langrijk om capaciteit op te bouwen en de persoonlijke macht en daadkracht
van mensen te vergroten (empowerment). Het proces versterkt verder het so-
ciale bewustzijn en autonomie en stimuleert betere machtverhoudingen bin-
nen de gemeenschap. Het moet gebaseerd zijn op de socio-culturele context
van de gemeenschap en de marginale groepen erbij betrekken, zoals vrou-
wen en armen. Andere belangrijke mechanismen zijn structuren die zorgen
voor verantwoording naar beneden toe en conflict-management.
Legitieme dorpsorganisaties waarin gebruikers van hulpbronnen en andere

belanghebbenden vertegenwoordigd zijn, kunnen de richting van beleid en
besluitvorming mede bepalen. Betrokkenheid in een vroeg stadium en ac-
tieve betrokkenheid van partners in de planning en uitvoering zorgt ervoor
dat mensen zich eigenaar voelen over het proces en zich ervoor willen inzet-
ten. Het proces heeft verder langdurige steun nodig van lokale overheden
en politieke wil. Financiële hulpmiddelen zijn ook nodig om het proces te
steunen en planning, coördinatie, uitvoering, toezicht en controle te betalen.
Wettelijke eigendomsrechten over het gebruik van hulpbronnen zijn een
motivatie voor optimaal gebruik en beheer. Idealiter investeren de leden
van de gemeenschap hun eigen financiën in het proces, omdat een te grote
afhankelijkheid van externe bronnen het voortbestaan van co-management-
arrangementen in gevaar brengt.
Het is belangrijk dat de doelen van co-management duidelijk zijn en de uit-

komst zijn van duidelijk geformuleerde problemen. De regels moeten simpel
zijn. Een gedeeld inzicht in de kernoorzaken van de problemen en mogelijke
oplossingen helpt om de strategie te kiezen en prioriteiten vast te stellen. De
wil om zich aan de regels te houden wordt bepaald door het persoonlijke per-
spectief op de eerlijkheid en zinnigheid van de wetten en de legitimiteit van
de autoriteiten die deze moeten uitvoeren. Het werkt het beste als handha-
ving door formele instanties zoals kustwacht en politie gecoördineerd wordt
met lokale traditionele wetshandhavers.
De geschetste voorwaarden dienen als een richtlijn in planning en uitvoering

van co-management en moet gezien worden in de context van Zuidoost Azië.
Het aantal en de verschillende soorten randvoorwaarden voor co-manage-
ment laat zien dat planning en uitvoering dienen plaats te vinden op verschil-
lende niveau’s. Elke voorwaarde is gerelateerd aan de andere en ze versterken
elkaar om zo het complexe geheel van co-managementregelingen te laten
werken.
Hoe meet je succes?
Om een goed beeld te vormen van het slagen van een project, is het belang-
rijk de impact van het project te meten vanuit zowel het perspectief van de
insider als dat van de buitenstaander. Om een methodologie te ontwikkelen
zijn de afhankelijke variabelen van twee co-managementcasussen in de Filip-
pijnen geanalyseerd en vergeleken. Bepalend voor het succes van het project
voor de respondenten waren: het idee erbij te horen, toegenomen onafhan-
kelijkheid, toegenomen kennis, en een hoge mate van betrokkenheid in de
project planning, ook in de projecten die door de projectmedewerkers (die
alleen keken naar kwantitatieve tastbare resultaten) als mislukt werden be-
schouwd. De reden voor het verschil in de beoordeling is dat de benadering
van projecten veranderd is van ontwikkeling naar ‘participatie’ en dus meer
gericht op mensen, terwijl de indicatoren om succes te meten hetzelfde zijn
gebleven. Het is dus belangrijk om deze indicatoren aan te passen aan deze
nieuwe benadering.
Het sociale voorbereidingsproces neemt veelal meer tijd in beslag dan de

totale duur van het project dat meestal maar 3 tot 4 jaar is. Daardoor vinden
projectactiviteiten plaats terwijl mensen zich nog steeds in het proces van
persoonlijke ontwikkeling bevinden. Dit is waarom de timing van het meten
van succes belangrijk is. En het is belangrijk dat de persoonlijke verande-
ring van mensen ook gemeten wordt. De ideeën en percepties van de lokale
mensen (het emic perspectief) kan vertaald worden naar indicatoren die ver-
volgens gemeten kunnen worden. In een latere fase, wanneer het aan de orde
is, kan dan gekeken worden naar de fysieke projectresultaten. De meting van
de ervaringen van mensen op een vroeg tijdstip heeft voordelen. Het meten
op zich kan leiden tot een internalisering van projectdoelen, terwijl een toe-
genomen zelfbewustzijn een positieve invloed heeft op het projectontwerp
en de uitvoering ervan. Waar zowel de projectdoelen als de resultaten de
uitkomst zijn van een gemeenschappelijk proces, mag aangenomen worden
dat: (1) de voorgestelde projectdoelen van de uitvoerders en de participanten
overeenkomen, en dat (2) een meting van de tastbare resultaten op een later
tijdstip een objectieve weergave is van projectsucces.
Zeer bruikbaar voor het meten van projectresultaten zijn participatieve on-
derzoeksmethoden. Mogelijke indicatoren om de individuele veranderingen
van participanten te meten zijn: de mate van betrokkenheid bij het project,
de toename in capaciteiten en vaardigheden, de mate van controle over en
SAMENVATTING 309
toegang tot het proces, en persoonlijke veranderingen. Op het niveau van

de gemeenschap gaan metingen over een toe- of afname in communicatie,
representatie, samenwerking, vertrouwen en steun. Het is belangrijk deze
metingen tijdig uit te voeren omdat dit het mogelijk maakt het project aan
te passen om zo mogelijke fouten te vermijden. Pas nadat de projectactivi-
teiten zijn uitgevoed (post-implementation phase) moet het hele project geë-
valueerd worden, inclusief materiële output (vangsten, inkomsten, grootte
natuurreservaat) en ook de betrokkenheid van mensen, opbrengsten van het
project, managementstructuren, en het niveau van participatie. Het mooiste
is als deze indicatoren gemeenschappelijk ontworpen zouden zijn tijdens de
planningsfase, omdat dan deze uiteindelijke evaluatie een echte weergave is
van het succes van het project.
Conclusie
Teruglopende visvangsten, achteruitgang van het ecosysteem en verlies van

biodiversiteit hebben overheden ertoe aangezet beheer over natuurlijke hulp-
bronnen te decentraliseren inclusief de overheveling van autoriteit naar la-
gere overheden en lokale gemeenschappen. Co-management, een vorm van
samenwerking tussen de overheid en lokale gemeenschappen, is één van
de mogelijke strategieën. Het stimuleert lokaal beheer met een steunende
en faciliterende rol van de overheid. Sasi, het traditionele lokale beheerssys-
teem in de Centrale Molukken, vormt een potentiële basis voor lokaal beheer.
De aanwezigheid van sasi betekent dat een aantal belangrijke management
concepten wijd verspreid zijn en deel uitmaken van de locale cultuur, zoals
bijvoorbeeld open en gesloten seizoenen, de notie van beperkte toegang tot
hulpbronnen, en van gemeenschappelijke gebruiksrechten over een kustge-
bied. De invoering van reguliere visserijregelgeving op dorpsniveau wordt
duidelijk beïnvloed door de sasi-institutie en mariene sasi in het bijzonder.
Sasi biedt een structuur die cultureel ingebed is, inclusief een functioneel
systeem voor regelhandhaving, en die voorziet in een geheel van regels en
reguleringen dat door iedereen geaccepteerd wordt. Het aanwezig zijn van
sasi is dus positief voor de ontwikkeling van nieuwe moderne mariene man-
agementstructuren.
Sasi had (en heeft waar nog aanwezig) significante resultaten op het gebied
van sociale duurzaamheid en het stimuleert de mechanismen die ten grond-
slag liggen aan de functionaliteit en veerkracht van de institutie op langere
termijn waarmee Hardin’s theorie (1968), dat lokale gemeenschappen niet
in staat zijn hun hulpbronnen te beheren, weerlegd wordt. Sociale mechanis-
men zoals samenwerking, vertrouwen, maar ook verantwoording naar het
volk stimuleren niet alleen lokaal beheer, maar vormen ook de basis voor
gedecentraliseerde structuren. Sasi is echter ook kwetsbaar voor politieke
conflicten, opportunistische leiders die vooral geïnteresseerd zijn in de ont-
trekking van opbrengsten, en een gebrek aan support en interesse van de

jongere generaties. De jonge vissers zijn echter wel degenen die vinden dat de
gemeenschap verantwoordelijk is voor visserijbeheer. Legitiem leiderschap,
toegang tot kennis, en een formele erkenning van traditionele leiders en wets-
uitvoerders kunnen de institutie versterken. Verder is het belangrijk dat de
traditionele structuren opgenomen worden in een modern beheerssysteem
dat voldoet aan de huidige eisen van participatie en democratie. Een aange-
paste vorm van sasi zal ook de jongere generaties aantrekken en zo brede
steun krijgen.
Op plekken waar sasi verdwenen is, of waar de voorwaarden belangrijk voor

het overleven van sasi ontbreken, moeten nieuwe structuren voor beheer
gecreëerd worden waarin, idealiter, de concepten van sasi verweven zijn. De
constitutionele regels die afstammen van adat vormen een mogelijke ba-
sis, terwijl de ‘collective-choice’ regels en de operationele regels aangepast
moeten worden aan wat nodig is voor een dorp dat te groot of te heterogeen
is, dicht bij het stedelijke centrum van Ambon ligt, of op een andere manier
niet in staat is geweest de oorspronkelijke vorm van sasi te handhaven. Een
logisch alternatief zou een moderne dorpsinstitutie zijn met een transparant
besluitvormingsproces waarbij iedereen betrokken is, met een mechanisme
om regels aan te passen en te handhaven, en dat directe voordelen biedt aan
de vissers in hun rol als ‘manager’.
Veel overheidsambtenaren erkenden dat lokale instituties nuttig zijn en een

strategisch voordeel bieden door hun ligging dicht bij de hulpbronnen en
de vissers. De huidige politieke structuren in de dorpen zijn echter nog een
afspiegeling van de gecentraliseerde en hiërarchische nationale structuren.
Omdat dorpsleiders gewend zijn te wachten op orders van boven in plaats
van zelf actie te ondernemen, moeten toekomstige lokale management struc-
turen in eerste instantie gesteund worden door de overheid. Dorpshoofden
moeten geholpen en gemotiveerd worden om op een proactieve en creatieve
manier nieuwe lokale beheersregels te ontwikkelen. In tegenstelling tot in
de Filippijnen, zijn er in Indonesië bijna geen NGOs of (milieu-)organisa-
ties buiten de kerk of overheid. De betrokkenheid van zulke organisaties en
‘katalysatoren’ van buitenaf is echter van groot belang in het opbouwen van
capaciteit en om macht en autonomie van de mensen te vergroten (empower-
ment), twee belangrijke aspecten van het sociale voorbereidingsproces.
In welke vorm dan ook, de institutie heeft een basisfinanciering nodig en een
stabiele managementstructuur met daarin een rol van de overheid zonder
daar afhankelijk van te zijn. En of de institutie nu gebaseerd is op sasi of niet,
alle belangen en aspiraties van de verschillende groepen (vissers, adat lei-
ders, lokale overheden, visserijbeheerders op hoger niveau, en milieuorgani-
saties) moeten erin samengebracht worden. Binnen de huidige wetgeving
kunnen sasi en de kewang formele erkenning krijgen waarmee de afscheiding
SAMENVATTING 311
van regionale, provinciale en nationale managementstructuren wordt opge-

heven. Lokale instituties moeten niet alleen betrokken worden bij toezicht en
handhaving, maar moeten ook partners zijn in planning en uitvoering van
ontwikkelingsprojecten, het vaststellen van vispopulaties, en het uitgeven
van vergunningen. Bovendien, om een plek te hebben aan de onderhande-
lingstafel met betrekking tot toegangsrechten voor kleinschalige vissers in
open water, moeten de lokale instituties ingebed worden in grotere organisa-
ties die werken op regionaal, provinciaal en hoger niveau.
Omdat deze managementstructuren bestaan uit meerdere partijen, is er een

belangrijke rol weggelegd voor een ‘facilitator’ die de verschillende gezich-
tspunten en percepties kan vertalen van de één naar de ander. De antropoloog,
gewend om milieugedrag en lokale dynamieken te bestuderen, kan helpen
de cognitieve en culturele kloof tussen de verschillende partijen te overbrug-
gen om zo tot constructieve dialogen en onderhandelingen te komen bij het
zoeken naar oplossingen voor milieuproblemen.
313
Curriculum Vitae
Ingvild Harkes was born on the 23rd of October 1967 in Boskoop, the Nether-
lands. In 1988 she finished her highschool (VWO) at the Gouwe College in
Gouda and went to Leiden University a year later to study cultural anthropol-
ogy and, after a 6-month period at the University of Edinburgh, environmen-
tal science. This brought her to Cameroon to study fisheries management.
After her graduation in 1995, Ingvild Harkes worked for the Dutch Ministry
of Foreign Affairs as an associate expert and was seconded to respectively the
International Center for Living Aquatic Resources Management (ICLARM)
in the Philippines and the Institute for Fisheries Management and Coastal
Resources Management (IFM) in Denmark to work in and study fisheries
co-management systems in Southeast Asia and Africa. In 2000 she returned
to the Netherlands and worked as a consultant at AIDEnvironment in Am-
sterdam. In 2003, the Centre of Environmental Studies in Leiden offered a
part-time position to write her PhD thesis and work in several projects geared
towards park and wildlife management and the establishment of regional
NGO networks in West Africa. At the moment she runs, together with a col-
league, the secretariat of the Pelagic Regional Advisory Committee (RAC)
that was established in 2005 under the European Union in order to enhance
communication and collaboration between the fisheries sector, NGOs and
other stakeholders, and the fisheries managers with the objective to work
towards integrated and sustainable management of fisheries resources.

Thesis

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Thesis

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Thesis

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

FISHERIES CO-MANAGEMENT, THE ROLE OF LOCAL INSTITUTIONS

AND DECENTRALISATION IN SOUTHEAST ASIA

ter verkrijging van

Ingvild Heléne Therese Harkes

Promotor: Prof. dr. R. Schefold

Co-promotor: Dr. G.A. Persoon

Referent: Prof. dr. R.B. Pollnac (University of Rhode Island)

Overige leden: Prof. dr. L.J. Slikkerveer

Sir Isaac Newton

Layout: Sjoukje Rienks, Amsterdam

Institute of Environmental Sciences (CML)

Thank you all so much!!

Map Central Maluku 15

4Description of the research area 65

5 Case Study: Desa Nolloth, Saparua Island 81

6 Presence, performance and institutional resilience of sasi 119

8 Fisheries management in Central Maluku 155

9 Current legislation and policy framework for resource

11 Conditions affecting the success of ﬁsheries co-management:

12 Project success: different perspectives, different measurements 229

13 Discussion and conclusions 245

Adat Customary law and ritual practices

KEP Economic development group (village level)

Pelwata Church women’s group

The Fisheries Co-management Project is a collaborative research project of the

As part of the Fisheries Co-management Project, with funding assistance

Rationale of the study

Ongoing over-exploitation and degradation of natural resources causes gov-

transfer authority to lower government and local levels in order to improve

Research objectives of sasi were:

In response to a call for better management and a decrease in global ﬁsh

In order to make proper assessments, it is important to carefully document

Research objectives of decentralisation were:

Conditions affecting success of co-management

While co-management may not be a viable alternative ﬁsheries management

Research objectives of conditions for success were:

Measuring project success

Project activities involved, amongst others, alternative livelihood program-

Research objectives of measuring success were:

After the introduction, theoretical framework, and methodology, this thesis

1.1 The road towards environmental anthropology

1.1.1 Environmental determinism versus cultural determinism

population developed its own cultural adaptations, especially technologal,

The assumption was that understanding the environment of a region would

Steward searched for the adaptive responses of various cultures to similar

formed a satisfactory basis to describe human-environment relationships.3

1.1.2 The ecosystem approach, human ecology and processual

In the mid 1970s, in contrast to cultural ecology, neo-evolutionism and neo-

thropology examined shifts and changes in individual and group activities

1.1.3 Ecological anthropology and environmental sciences

The emergence of new generations of anthropologists together with a re-

themes as ‘dynamics of natural resources’ and ‘management of coastal zones

1.1.4 Environmental anthropology today

1.2 Other environmental approaches

The general growth in environmental scholarship and the recent theoretical

1.2.1 The systems view

development while it is not possible for human ingenuity to create human-

1.2.2 Adaptive management

There are attempts to combine adaptive management and co-management