Chapter 1

Organizing a Program

The goal for a delegation attending a Model United Nations conference

remains the same: to gain an understanding of international relations
and to learn means for negotiated, rather than forceful, solutions to
conflict.
In this modern and globalizing world, developing this set of skills is
essential to becoming a modern citizen and active problem solver in the
world.
The extracurricular Model United Nations Club is often the most common
model schools use to start a Model UN program. This is because this is
the easiest format to get up and running, requiring only an
Advisor/Teacher and several interested students.
Students should be prepared to be real leaders and form the active
leadership of the club and its ongoing organization, to be able to attract
a teacher who has little prior experience with Model UN but is interested
in world issues and excited by the students initiative.
One of the greatest educational aspects of Model United Nations is that it
is naturally set up as a learn-through-doing model. This means that
anyone can begin learning Model UN at any step and gain expertise as
one goes along and participates. Students should not be too worried
about having never attended or participated in a Model UN conference.
The consensus-reaching approach of the UN assures that there is never
an ability threshold to begin Model UN, and there are many ways for
even a beginner to become involved.
ADVANTAGES

DISADVANTAGES

Motivated Participation
The major advantages of an extracurricular club are the opportunities it
gives an enthusiastic and dedicated
group for self-leadership and suppor-tive
teamwork. The club format ensures that
only those interested in Model United
Nations will participate and attend the
conferences on the clubs agenda.
With effective student leadership, senior
members of the club are generally able
to train new members in the social and
substantive skills needed for a
successful conference performance.
Reduced Faculty Burden
Ideally, student leadership efforts
remove much of the administrative
burden that a class-based Model United
Nations program places on a faculty

Cliques
Cliques often form within clubs which
are detrimental to the team spirit.
Delegates will naturally want to work
and socialize with their closest friends,
but the leadership must stress the
teamwork of the whole membership
above all else. If at all possible, people
who are not members of the same social
group should be encouraged or assigned
to work together.

advisor. This allows the advisor to

concentrate more on substantive
preparation for the con-ference; a task
that should be his or her first priority.
Maintaining Interest
One of the greatest challenges of a club
is to keep interests high during the year.
Commitment tends to wane particularly
when position papers are due, right
after a conference, and at the end of the
year. The student leadership and the
faculty advisor should anticipate this
and take steps to prevent it; interest
must be kept up at these times so next
years program comes off successfully.
Additional activities, such as having a
party or social event, sponsoring a
speaker, holding a fundraiser, and/or
attending a local conference should be
held to keep the membership involved
and to sustain the unity and purpose
developed during a conference. Other
excellent international education
opportunities such as international documentary film festivals, UN visiting
speakers and dignitaries, interviewing
international students from the high
school or nearby university are often
available. These are great educational
ex-periences, as well as team building
opportunities.

Chapter 2
Conference Preparation
There are two main areas of preparation:
Substantive preparation: Country/committee topic research, position
papers
Skills building: Building student skills needed to participate effectively in
committee.
These skills are dealt with in detail in Chapters 4, 5 and 6.
This chapter shows how these preparation activities can be integrated
into a two month time-line, leading up to a conference. In addition, this
chapter offers some suggestions about running delegation meetings to
help plan for the conference.
It does not cover the details of substantive preparation and skillsbuilding, but rather references the chapters of the manual which contain
this information in a logical timeline.

Conference Preparation Timeline

The preparation process includes substantive and skills preparation
concurrently. The following is a typical timeline for conference
preparation. (Preparation time may vary depending on registration
deadlines and country/committee assignments). It shows the integration
of the two types of preparation.
8 weeks prior to conference:
Assign delegates to committees; Begin preliminary research on topics.
7 weeks prior to conference:
Conduct Country background research.
6 weeks prior to conference:
Organize delegation meeting to discuss guidelines for Position Papers.
5 weeks prior to conference:
Run mock sessions at delegation meeting; Develop preliminary country policies
4 weeks prior to conference:
Turn in first draft of Position Papers to Faculty Advisor and/or Head Delegate.
3 weeks prior to conference:
Final edits on Position Papers completed; Review parliamentary procedures; Practice
delivering prepared speeches.
2 weeks prior to conference:
Run mock committee session; Develop impromptu speaking skills.

1 week prior to conference:

Run mock committee session; Generate ideas for working papers/resolutions.

Suggested Activities for Preparation

There are many ways to ensure that preparation remains on track,
research is done and the participation skills outlined in Chapter 5 are
polished.
IMPLEMENTING A CALENDAR
Establishing a time-line similar to that presented above is critical to keep
preparation on schedule. Examine your schedule and accordingly assign
deadlines and activities to keep delegates on task.
ARRANGING LIBRARY VISITS
Arranging an appointment with the school or local public library is also a
very important early task to expose delegates to a variety of research
materials. A list of local UN depository libraries around the US can be
found in Appendix D.
ASSIGNING NEWS SUMMARIES
Assigning weekly news summaries from different media sources
(newspapers, magazines, and television) is one way to keep the
delegation up-to-date.
Another possible activity is the creation of a UN scrapbook. The focus of
this scrapbook should be developments in the assigned country and in
the UN.
PANEL DISCUSSIONS & MOCK DEBATES
Later in the research schedule, participatory preparation activities are
helpful. There are numerous ways to test and broaden the delegation's
knowledge. One way is to hold a panel discussion on topics which have
particular importance to your country.
Hold a mock committee session, using one of the topics to be addressed
by the conference. This provides an excellent way to familiarize
delegates with the rules of procedure and other countries' positions.
Use conference topics for the mock session to enable the delegates to
see exactly what discussions at the conference will be like. It will also
focus attention on preparation and teamwork. Refer to the mock
committee session and simulation sections included in Chapters 6 and 7.
The advisor and leadership should encourage students to come prepared
to these sessions. Mock sessions provide the primary means of
evaluating both new and experienced members of the program, between
the conferences. These simulations allow advisors and students the
chance to see where improvements can be made, as well as help to keep
interest high between the conferences.
POSITION PAPERS AS PREPARATION

Most conferences require delegates to prepare brief policy statement

papers written from the perspective of the assigned country on the
topics slated for committee discussion. The preparation of these papers
is probably the best way to make sure that research is completed and
the knowledge assimilated.

Delegation Meetings
Meetings are the working environment of a Model United Nations
program and, as such, set the tone for its success or failure. The
organized gatherings should be professional, serious, intelligent and
purposeful.
Meetings must accomplish a variety of tasks, including communicating
the organization's goals to the student; resolving the administrative and
logistical concerns of the club, ensuring that the research and
preparation of the delegation is thorough; and educating students in
rules of procedure.

Suggestions for Conducting Meetings

The method for running any meeting varies according to each
organization's structure. Even though there is no clear way to conduct
the ideal meeting, there are several suggestions that will ensure that the
meeting will run smoothly. Some of these ideas are discussed below.
Attendance and Publicity: Attendance is a first priority. Especially in a
club-based program, publicity measures must be aggressively pursued.
Flyers should be posted, announcements made during the school's
morning/afternoon announcements and any other permissible measures
taken to make the dates and times of meetings known.
Advance Planning: The meeting must be well-planned as well as wellpublicized. Organizing the meeting will entail making the necessary
attendance and sign-up sheets, figuring out what announcements need
to be made to the club, determining any decisions that the group must
make and preparing a presentation on an aspect of an upcoming
conference. It is recommended that club leadership prepare an agenda
before each meeting that encompasses these points. The meeting itself
should start with announcements. Any attendance or sign-up that you
may keep should be passed around at this time.
Lesson Plans: Try to develop presentations that can effectively impart
pivotal concepts to the students. These presentations can include
lectures on rules of procedure, discussions with international relations
experts, or panels that are assembled to discuss designated topics.
Presentations will provide the students with a tangible learning
experience at each meeting and bring in new members whose interest
have been kindled by a subject in which they are interested. Meetings
also serve as a place to hone delegates' skills through countless practice
sessions.

Chapter 3
Conducting Research
Conducting Research
Good research and preparation are essential to effective participation
in any Model United Nations conference. Poorly prepared delegates
gain little from the conference and bring down the quality of the
simulation.
Most conferences require written indication that delegates have done
their preparatory research in the form of Position Papers. Writing the
Position Paper is a valuable opportunity to gather all of the delegates
research in one document and set forth the countrys policy in a clear
and well-supported manner. Carefully preparing the Position Paper will
allow the delegate to participate fully in the simulation and formulate
country policy on the basis of his or her knowledge base. Adequate
research and preparation will not only make the entire conference
more enjoyable, but will also leave the delegate with a base of
knowledge on a topic that will last long after the conference.
Appendix D of this guide provides a list of resources and links to some
of todays best research tools for Model UN as well as international
issues in general, while Appendix F and Appendix G give some
additional information about the UN and UN documents.

Writing Position Papers

The purpose of Position Papers is to ensure that debate in committee

is highly substantive and to give delegates an opportunity to
assemble their research into an organized policy statement. These
papers should present the position of your country and should be
written from the viewpoint of the government of that country.
Some conferences require that specific questions be addressed in the
Position Papers. These papers should be concise, accurate, wellwritten and directly address the questions posed by the committee
Director. Even if no specific questions are asked by the Director, a
good position paper should:
clearly outline the countrys policies and what factors contribute to
them
integrate indigenous national factors into the responses
refer to domestic and international documents and correctly cite
them
deal with the in-depth issues of the topic areas
provide resolution suggestions that address the problem areas

A well-written policy paper also requires the use of the following skills:
original and critical thinking
thorough understanding of the dynamics of your nation
functional and applied knowledge of the topics
Each paper should be edited carefully. A good idea is to give the
paper to a group of peers to have it reviewed for content, grammar
and spelling.

Types of Research Needed

Position papers are the core preparation for delegates before

attending a Model United Nations conference. In order to write a
comprehensive and well-researched Position Paper, delegates must
endeavor to familiarize themselves with several distinct areas:

The United Nations itself

The country being represented
The countrys position on the topics to be discussed in committee
General World opinion on the committee topics

THE UNITED NATIONS

General Knowledge and Committee History: In general terms,
delegates should know what the United Nations is and how it works.
More specifically, delegates must be familiar with the history and
organization of the UN and the history of their assigned committees.
The history of a particular committee can help set the tone of the
debate.
Past Actions of the UN on the Issue: Most importantly, the delegate
should be familiar with the past actions of the United Nations on the
topics to be run in his or her committee as well as the present status
of those topics in the United Nations system. If a delegate is well
versed on previous efforts of their committee, they are more likely to
develop original and new solutions rather than propose repetitive
efforts.
UN Research Sources: Numerous sources exist for these research
areas. Actual UN
documents are often the most informative resources because they
show delegates the work the UN produces in reality. A good starting
point is the Annotated Agenda of the General Assembly which can be
found online or at the UN Information Office (Appendix D). This
Annotated Agenda provides a brief history of each agenda item and
lists what resolutions, reports, and documents were adopted and
when. While the Annotated Agenda does not analyze why something
happened, it serves as a helpful guide to the documents on the
issues.

Most conferences distribute their own background papers or guides

containing summaries of past United Nations actions on the topic
areas as well as their current status. The papers also contain useful
bibliographies on the specific topic areas to aid in the delegates
research process. Note that these papers are merely a starting point
for a delegates research but should always be utilized.
COUNTRY RESEARCH
Background: Concurrent with United Nations research, delegates
should investigate the country they are representing. Country
knowledge is important so that a delegate understands national
interests and concerns. This allows a delegate to represent his or her
country intelligently, and to remain on policy, even when specific
information about a topic may not be available. A good starting point
is often a country profile, provided by an international body (Appendix
D).
Delegates should pay particular attention to the decision-making
structure within the country in an effort to understand the actual,
rather than theoretical, process of political decision-making. The key
is to understand the way the domestic situation influences the
formulation of international policy. The entire delegation should
participate in this research and analysis process.
Some conferences require a country background statement, in
addition to committee specific Position Papers, to demonstrate that a
delegation has a firm grasp of the situation in their own country.
Country research should generally include:
Geography: size and description, location, natural resources, and
neighboring states and regions;
Vital statistics: population, population density and growth rate, life
expectancy, infant mortality, literacy rate;
Culture: majority and minority components, religions and their
influences, languages, customs and traditions;
Economy: type of economy, gross national product (GNP), historical
and projected
economic growth, debt owed, average per capita income, major
imports and
exports, and trading partners;
Government: type of government, leaders, political parties, allies
and enemies,
membership of political and economic organizations, role in
international politics;

History: general history, reasons and philosophy behind present-day

foreign
policies;
Foreign Policy and International Relations: allies, bloc
alignment, critical foreign
policy concerns (e.g., trade, territorial disputes), membership and
activity in
international organizations, including the UN.
These examples are not the only items necessary to formulate
accurate national positions.
Each country has specific problems that only it deals with and these
are very important in influencing its decisions, both domestically and
internationally. As delegates research each of these components of
their country, they should also critically examine how that component
will influence their countrys stance on a particular topic.
COMMITTEE TOPIC RESEARCH
With basic country background and UN research accomplished, the
delegate can begin formulating a policy for his or her country on the
issues to be discussed in the Model United Nations committee.
The most important aspect of research is understanding the topics
the committee
addresses. The committee background paper sent out by the
conference summarizes the issue from a broad perspective.
Understanding the issues includes knowing what international policies
exist (in the UN and other international institutions) to address the
issue. Bibliographies are usually included in conference background
papers for further delegate research, but these sources should be
supplemented by further research conducted by the delegates.
It is also important to begin finding out what current country policy is
on the issue. See the following section on research sources. Often,
this information may be unavailable, incomplete, or inconclusive. In
those cases, delegates should still continue to compile all the
information they can find on a given topic, which will help them
inform whatever policy they choose to adopt. Delegates may also find
it helpful to expand their research regionally in an effort to deduce
their national policy on specific issues.
Research culminates in the formulating a countrys policy. Even if a
delegate is unable to find information specifically addressing his or
her countrys policy on a particular topic, the delegate should be able
to make an educated guess informed by their research. While it
might feel like a guess, this is actually the process of making an
informed decision based on the information the delegate has
gathered.

Formulating policy, or making an educated guess, starts with asking

why or how a topic is important to the country being represented. The
delegate should look at the various groups in the country with distinct
views on the issue. The delegate must realistically consider how much
access to power these groups have and how much they are able to
influence their government. By weighing the power and access of the
different groups, a delegate can extrapolate probable policy decision
in the country on the issue.
In some cases, if there is limited information about the countrys
decision-making process or interest groups, the delegate may only be
able to determine some of the variables involved. If this occurs, he or
she will have to rely on the ideology of government, power of the
individual and their rights upheld by the country in order to make an
educated and defensible guess about the countrys policy on that
particular issue.
Another possible approach to take when information is lacking is to
look at the policies of countries with similar ideologies and regional
interests. This technique should be used carefully however. For
example, it would be a grave error to assume that Thailand and
Vietnam always agree simply because they are both in the same
region of the world.
Finally, delegates should examine their national policies and
determine if a conflict exists.
These areas of conflict will most certainly affect committee debate
during the conference.
WORLD OPINION
Once delegates have completed the research on the United Nations,
their own country, and the topics to be discussed, they must turn to
the allies of their country and various geopolitical blocks (i.e., groups
of nations with similar interests). The delegates should know which
countries can be expected to support their position, as well as the
position of other blocks in the committee. Every delegate should know
which of these countries will be represented in the committee.
It is important to know the variations of policies that will be
represented by different blocks in a committee. Knowing these
variations allows a delegate to work toward a solution that meets the
needs of all of the blocks. On questions of development and
economics, two broader blocks generally form: the Developed block
and Lesser-Developed block.

Research Resources

Locating information can be a source of frustration. Some topics are

obscure and some countries receive very little press coverage. On
other topics and countries, the amount of information available can

be overwhelming. This section outlines some of the best sources

available and indicates where they may be found.
INFORMATION ABOUT THE UN
Devising practical recommendations and country policies for a
committee require that delegates begin with a broad research base.
The following preparatory materials serve well as a quick introduction
to the UN system and to a historical overview of the topic areas. The
United Nations Cyber School Bus website provides excellent Model
United Nations resources, especially for new clubs:
http://cyberschoolbus.un.org/modelun/index.asp

The ideal situation for any Model United Nations club is to have a
library of UN materials at its disposal. The UN fortunately makes many
of its resources available online. There are a number of UN
publications that a club should try to obtain or review for their library,
many of which are not accessible on the web (Appendix D):
Charter of the United Nations
The founding document of the United Nations, akin to the Constitution of the U.S., which sets the purpose
and goals
of the organization.

Universal Declaration of Human Rights, International Covenant on

Civil & Political Rights & International Covenant of Economic, Social,
and Cultural Rights
These three documents (two treaties & one General Assembly resolution) are informally called the
International Bill
of Rights. Even topics outside the human rights spectrum refer to the rights embodied in these
documents.

Annotated Agenda of the General Assembly

UN document published every June for each session of the General Assembly. This document describes
each agenda
item with a brief historical background and citation of relevant documents.

Basic Facts About the United Nations

A paperback outlining the basic work of the United Nations and its family of organizations.

Information regarding the priorities of the current Secretary-General

Each Secretary-General will have certain goals and priorities that help shape the focus and direct the
work of the
organization. Transcripts of speeches and official statements from the office of the Secretary-General are
readily available online.

TOPICAL GUIDES
Political
Annual Editions: Global Issues
This annual publication identifies the key issues and declines arising from the changes in world politics
each year.

The Oxford Companion to Politics of the World

A comprehensive guide to recent contemporary politics from an international perspective.

Human Rights
The United Nations and Human Rights

Development/Environment

Human Development Report, UNDP World Development Report

World Development Reports of recent years are equally insightful and can be found on the World Bank
website.

Bulletin of the World Health Organization

The Bulletin examines the developmental strategies in a number of sectors and their impact on health
and the environment. It also discusses policies and approaches towards confronting these issues.

Refugees
The State of the Worlds Refugees (UNHCR)
This book describes current problems and their causes with informed analyses, charts and discussions of
policy alternatives.

Disarmament
The United Nations and Disarmament 1945- 85: A Fortieth Anniversary Review
An excellent general source on the background & history of the topic.

Disarmament Yearbook
Additionally, the Department of Disarmament publishes a series of fact sheets that may be obtained free
of charge.

Economic
World Economic Survey, UN
World Bank Annual Reports, IMF

The United Nations: The United Nations has a great deal of

publications available on the website. Titles there are organized in the
following topics: Peace & Security; Environment & Urban Issues;
Development & Millennium Development Goals; Human Rights;
Humanitarian Affairs and International Trade. Most resolutions should
also be available on the online resource, Official Document System of
the United Nations (ODS). This system allows a searcher to locate
documents and preliminary versions of UN resolutions.

Chapter 5
Building Skills
Building Skills
Delegates must acquire the skills necessary to participate successfully
in a Model United Nations committee. These skills allow the delegates to
translate national policy and desired goals into concrete measures and
actions. Participation skills include:
Ability to role play
Using the Rules of Procedure correctly
Effective Communication & Public speaking;
Negotiating and consensus building
Diplomacy between delegates from blocs and throughout the
committee.
Formulating written documents

Defining Effectiveness in Committee

The objective of every delegate is to be effective in committee. Being
effective means forwarding the goals and interests of ones country to
arrive at a realistic response or solution to the committees topic of
debate. To do this, a delegate must be knowledgeable about his or her
own country, the topic areas, and the proceedings of the UN.
In addition, a delegate must also be able to work well with others.
Delegates cannot be effective in committee if they alienate other
participants by mistaking assertiveness for condescending behavior
and/or rude treatment of fellow delegates. The experienced delegate
chooses to further his or her aims through perceptive and tactful
diplomacy. This ability to communicate effectively and diplomatically
with others to resolve difficulties is a key skill and one that can be
taught, practiced and developed to make your committee experience
even more rewarding.
Working well with others often means cutting through the national
policies to finding creative solutions to problems that meet the interests
of all nations. Herein is the root of true negotiation finding consensus
policy solutions that do not alienate the national interests of any
members of the committee. Delegates should always keep in mind their
countrys best alternative to a negotiated agreement. In the context of a
Model UN committee session, a delegate should consider whether the
proposed resolutions address the situation in a way that is better than
the UN not addressing the issue at all.

Role Playing
Delegates are expected to effectively act as representatives of their
assigned countries throughout the duration of the conference. This must
be demonstrated both in the delegates conduct as UN officials and by
the delegates aptitude in representing the interests of their countries.
Delegates will frequently be challenged to think on their feet and should
therefore be well-versed in their national positions and in the reasons
behind those positions.
Delegates must also be able to distinguish between their national
policies and their fundamental national interests. A national policy is the
stance a country takes on an issue and the positions a delegate presents
when negotiating with other delegates. A national interest is what a
country deems vital to its existence. To illustrate this difference one need
only consider the United States relationship with the Philippines. The US
supported both the Marcos regime and its usurper, the Aquino
government.
This course of action by the US was largely due to the fact that the US
benefits strategically by having a military base on Philippine soil. Thus,
the policy of the United States changed from supporting Marcos to
Aquino but its strategic interests remained the same.
A national position can be compromised for the sake of a greater good,
especially if it achieves long-range interests or if it can be translated into
direct benefits for the nation. A national interest cannot be compromised.
Delegates should not blindly or uncritically follow the stated positions of
their country. Rather, they should identify the reasons behind those
positions and extrapolate on the national interest of their country. To
learn more about negotiating generally, and the difference between
policies and interests, delegates may review a classic text in the field of
negotiation called Getting to Yes: Negotiating Agreement Without Giving
In by Roger Fisher and William Ury.
By recognizing the difference between a national position and a national
interest, delegates will be freer to actively participate in the negotiating
process while accurately representing their country. Delegates can be
creative in their approaches to problem-solving and can thus get more
out of their Model UN experience.

Rules of Procedure
The committees at each Model UN conference work within the rules of
procedure formulated by the conference staff. Effective use of the rules
is essential to a smooth-running, effective and functional committee.
IMUNA conference Rules and Procedures are covered in Chapter 6, and
these tend to be similar in most conferences or at least have a great deal
of overlap with standard Parliamentary Rules of Procedure. (Also see
Appendix A for a full list of these Rules and Appendix B for a shorter
quick reference).

Effective Communication & Public Speaking

Verbal communication is fundamental for the delegate. The delegate

must be able to verbalize ideas and support arguments clearly and
concisely to a single person as well as to large groups. Delegates should
learn to speak from prepared notes as well as extemporaneously.
The two keys to a successful speech are brevity and relevance. All
speeches, whether stating national polices or extemporaneously reacting
to new ideas proposed to the committee, should be clear and concise.
They should address the issue at hand, whether it is substantive or
procedural, and remain germane to the point throughout the entire
speech. Written speeches will help to ensure that delegates do not leave
important points out and it is particularly helpful, and effective, to refer
specifically to main points raised by other delegates that are germane.
This demonstrates that you are able to utilize another very important
skill in conflict resolution listening well to others issues and
incorporating them into to your discussion.
WRITING SPEECHES
Although most of the speeches that a delegate gives will be delivered
extemporaneously, there are occasions when formal speeches can be
given. These usually occur during general debate on a specific issue or
during opening policy statements. Formal speeches should be wellwritten and well-practiced so that their delivery will be as effective as
possible. Even these prepared statements, however, may need to be
altered in the course of the general debate in order to respond to points
made by other delegates.
KINDS OF SPEECHES
Policy Speeches: General debate speeches outline the countrys policy
on a wide range of issues. The first speech on a given topic should state
national policy on that issue. Such a speech should include:

Broad introduction to the countrys goals on the specific issue;

Specific positions on various aspects of the issue at hand;
Supporting arguments;
A conclusion summarizing your case.

Extemporaneous Speeches: These spur-of-the-moment speeches are the

primary vehicle for a delegate to communicate his or her ideas about a
specific topic. A few minutes of planning will make the speech much
more effective, as a rambling delegate will quickly lose the attention of
the committee. The following tips on different extemporaneous speeches
are helpful:
Substantive Speeches
These speeches deal with issues related to the topics, and should incorporate the
following suggestions:
- Make notes on opposing viewpoints while they are being given and then
answer each point directly;
- Keep notes on allies speeches, bringing out points which have been omitted
and re-emphasizing concepts which may still be unclear;
- Highlight important sections of the resolutions and state why they are
important; Keep notes so that you do not omit important points.

Procedural Speeches
These are speeches regarding the pros and cons of a motion before the committee,
and should include the following suggestions:
- Speak only to the procedural matter at hand;
- Explain your viewpoint as to what should or should not happen;
- Be concise and complete.

DELIVERING SPEECHES
Good speaking skills are necessary in Model UN because both formal and
informal meetings require that the delegates message reach a large
audience. Because many delegates have had practice speaking to small
groups, this section focuses on large group speaking skills. The points
made, however, can easily be applied to a small group situation. The
following tips are helpful:
Know what to say before saying it; even extemporaneous speakers
should have an idea of the point they want to get across.
Speak loudly and clearly; take advantage of the microphones that are
available in most committee rooms.
Speak slowly; allow the words to sink in. Do not, however, fill the
spaces between words with monosyllables like um and like.
Practice delivering your policy points in an active and engaging
manner. Other delegates will not pay attention to a speech delivered in a
monotone manner;
A delegate should also add some illuminating facts about his or her
country in the speech. This will make it more interesting and delegates
will likely pay closer attention.

Negotiation and Consensus-Building

Delegates must develop negotiating skills so that they may attain their
countrys aims, whatever they may be. This includes adopting a strategy
and using the proper tactics to accomplish the desired goal. To be an
effective negotiator, delegates must be tactically as well as substantively
prepared before the conference begins. In researching their country,
committee and issues, they should -- for each agenda item -- formulate
an objective, strategy, and tactics. Students objectives should address
such questions as: does my country have a specific position on this
issue; does it wish to see concrete action taken?
Once a delegate has thought through the objectives of his or her country
in the debate, he or she should prepare a strategy and tactics for
reaching that objective. Examples range from delaying debate through
procedural means to utilizing speeches in order to persuade fellow
delegates. Obviously, a delegate should develop a strategy that achieves

as many of his or her countrys objectives as possible without losing

sight of the overall goal in negotiating any one point.
A last note: To negotiate is to practice diplomacy. It is a careful balancing
of the ideological against the practical, of the necessity of compromise
against the policy and priorities of the nation one represents. This is not
always easy, but in many ways it is one of the most rewarding aspects of
the conference.
TACTICS
The following is a list of negotiating tactics and the merits and possible
drawbacks of each:
Anger: Anger, real or feigned, draws attention to a point and signals the seriousness
of a negotiators position, while raising doubts about the validity of an opponents
position. This tactic could, however, stimulate an equally angry response, creating
unneeded problems.
Aggression: Delegates may aggressively emphasize errors and flaws in an
opponents argument to weaken confidence in his or her position. Unfortunately, an
aggressive stance might cause a fellow delegate to react in such a way that he or
she becomes more stubborn on the issue and can eventually lead to a breakdown in
diplomacy within the committee.
Assuming a Reasonable Stance: This strategy is the most common and effective
tactic. In other words, induce and adhere to a spirit of compromise and consensus.
Compromise is usually the key to a successful negotiating session. Thus learning to
negotiate in good faith is often the most successful, as others usually respond to it
with a reciprocal sense of trying to forge resolution and compromise. This style
depends on your countrys actual policies and national interests, as it may not be
the best tactic for that countrys actual goals.
Demanding More in a First Offer: Demanding more than one is ultimately hoping to
get is an excellent strategy for beginning negotiations. On the other hand, the
demand could be viewed as so outrageous that its proponent might be seen as not
really interested in negotiating. Use this tactic cautiously in committee, but do not
ignore its effectiveness.
False Demand: This is another good negotiating tactic. By posing a demand and
then yielding on it, a delegate convinces others that his or her country is reasonable
and sincere in its negotiations. This action also sets an example for others to follow
and reciprocate. It may however mislead an opponent into thinking that the
negotiators position is weak. A related tactic is to convince an opponent that a
pending offer is ones bottom line.
Playing One Against Another: This action is sometimes useful. By comparing
different interests between two opponents, the delegate will sometimes gain the
upper hand against a stronger opponent by letting him or her direct his or her
energies in the wrong direction. In some cases, an opponent will not take the bait
and the delegate may find him or herself in a weaker rather than a stronger
position.
Surrendering: This can sometimes limit potential damage and enable a delegate to
appeal to their opponents sense of ethics and fairness. However, an opponent may
not take pity if this tactic is used too late in the negotiating process, opting instead
to go for the kill.

Negotiating With Authority: Using this tactic, a delegate attempts to convince others
that he or she is most knowledgeable on a particular subject. The opinion of a
delegate who negotiates from a position of strength will be given a greater weight in
the formulation of resolutions. The delegate who appears to be the leader will
attract followers and gain support for his or her actions. Of course, having
established such a position, being proven wrong can be disastrous.

Diplomacy
During the course of the conference, delegates may find themselves
working in different blocs groups of nations which vote and/or caucus
together due to a set of similar interests and common views. The reasons
for this unity can be historical, political, ideological, military, geographic,
or economic in nature.
Strength Through Unity
These blocs unite on issues of importance, polling their combined
strength to press for opposition or support of resolutions, amendments or
concessions primary to their national interests. Nations acting together
in blocs can accomplish things that they might be unable to achieve as
individual nations. During caucus periods, blocs interact with one
another and negotiate to further their goals agreeing, for instance, to
eliminate an unfavorable clause to gain support for their resolution, or
promising to vote in favor of another blocs position if t that bloc agrees
to defeat the proposal of another, opposing bloc.
Examples of Blocs
Examples of regional blocs are the African or Latin American blocs;
ideological blocs include the non-aligned and the Eastern blocs; a bloc
formed for military (and political and strategic) reasons is the North
Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). There are also broader
classifications of blocs such as East, West, and underdeveloped nations;
even more simplified is the North/South (Developed/Developing) division.
The breakdown of blocs will vary from committee to committee and from
issue to issue depending on the nature of the topic under discussion and
the blocs the delegates find most useful. The more politically oriented
committees tend to split along regional lines (i.e., Western, African,
Middle Eastern, Eastern, Asian, Latin American); however, this is not
universal the non-aligned bloc tends to draw many underdeveloped
and developing nations away from their geographical bloc. One must
note that regional or ideological interests are not always paramount.
Israel, for example, while a Middle Eastern state, traditionally votes with
the Western bloc. States that were formerly part of the British
Commonwealth often form blocs with one another.

Written Documents
The products of UN committees, like other deliberative bodies, are
written documents: treaties, resolutions, declarations, etc. Delegates
must understand the process by which such documents develop and
acquire the skills to participate in this process.
DRAFTING

Creating a written statement of aims, goals and a means of effective

action is the ultimate goal of debate on any topic. The process that
generates such a document is termed drafting. Drafting as a process is
the written result of compromise and consensus built in debate and
caucus. Drafting is a continual process of revision, and delegates should
never view any draft as the finished product that the entire committee
should accept.
Drafting involves building agreement through accommodating other
delegates concerns. This accommodation takes place by changing the
document. These changes are sometimes as extensive as altering the
content, or sometimes as minute as substituting an alternate word
choice. As said above, a draft goes through many revisions as it gains
support. While certain countries may play the key roles in writing a
resolution, many nations will want to have input. A bloc, for example,
may designate certain countries to be part of the drafting group, but all
countries expect to review the document before it comes up for a vote.
Many will try to make changes at that time. In the end, all the actions of
the United Nations appear in written form. If a delegate cannot write
well, he or she is forced to rely on the ability of others to promote his or
her ideas. But writing skills, like all skills, improve with practice and
especially by learning what seems to work well in other delegates
writing, so it is in the delegates best interests to develop this skill.
WORDING
Negotiations over revisions usually take the form of disputes over
wording. At times, an argument over semantics will be one that is
essential to the meaning of the document. Consider, for example, the
difference between calling a group a terrorist organization and a
collection of freedom fighters in your resolution. The tone of the
document would be very different. Thus, delegates need to be aware of
the implication of using certain crucial words and what wording would
generate the most desired support.
Precision of Meaning: Most seasoned diplomats argue for more precision
and clarity. They reason that a hard-fought agreement deserves to be
written so that it means just what the parties have verbally accepted. In
this way, misunderstandings and false interpretations can be avoided.
Once an issue is settled verbally, it should not be reopened in a dispute
over language.
Intentional Ambiguity: The ideal of clarity cannot always be achieved. On
occasion, particularly controversial or petty points are written in ways
that leave room for several interpretations. Usually this occurs to allow
progress on the more important aspects of the issue. A classic case of
this constructive ambiguity is found in Security Council Resolution 242
that established a framework for peace after the 1967 Arab-Israeli War. It
called for withdrawal of Israeli armed forces from territories occupied in
the recent conflict. The text leaves unclear whether Israel should
withdraw from some or all territories (and if not all, then which?). The
principal sponsors maintained that the ambiguity was unavoidable and

necessary in order to pass a resolution acceptable to everyone that

would help to reduce tensions in the Middle East.
Unavoidable Ambiguity: Another reason resolutions are often vague is
that details of implementation cannot always be spelled out. Later
specific detail work almost always remains to be done, subject to further
negotiations. It is important when leaving language vague to make the
intent of a resolution clear; questions over the implementation of a
resolution are better than ones over the main purpose or goal.
STYLE
To be understood, the draft document must be free of grammatical errors
and utilize proper punctuation. To prepare for the drafting process,
delegates should carefully read the resolutions, reports and other texts
relevant to their topics. This preparation method will help develop a feel
for the style to be used. Reading summary records and speeches,
comparing draft resolutions with final ones and examining the portions of
resolutions voted on separately are all good ways to focus on language.
Best of all, a delegate can use this opportunity to learn from other
delegates either more skilled or more familiar with resolution writing to
develop their own resolution writing skills.
TYPES OF WRITTEN DOCUMENTS
Working Papers
Before composing a formal resolution to deal with the topic problems,
delegates may wish to transfer their general ideas into a working paper,
or rough draft. Working papers are usually formed by a group of nations
from the same geographic bloc or of similar ideological persuasion.
Working papers need not be written in formal resolution format and may
be simply a few major points jotted down on paper. The purpose of a
working paper is to have something in writing to serve as a starting
reference point during caucus and formal debate. Though not formally
introduced to the committee, working papers may be copied and
distributed in committee depending on the rules of the particular Model
UN conference and generally only with the committee Chairs approval.
Working papers serve to help delegates identify the different views of the
countries in the committee and facilitate the negotiation process.
Resolutions are usually formed by combining several working papers. A
printable guide to writing these papers is found in Appendix C.
Resolutions
Resolutions are the desired end-product of debate on a topic area. They
represent a course of action or policy endorsed by the international
community in response to the issue at hand. The formatting of
resolutions is thoroughly discussed in the following section of this
chapter.
RESOLUTION FORMATTING
A resolution is one (very long) sentence. It begins with the committee or
subject (The World Health Organization for example), which is indented
by five spaces, underlined, and followed by a comma.

The Preambulatory Clauses

After the subject, come the preambulatory clauses. The preambulatory
clauses comprise the preamble of the resolution. While they set the tone
of the resolution and often give some of the history regarding the issue,
for operational purposes the perambulatory clauses hold little weight.
Formally, these are participle or adjectival phrases modifying the subject.
Informally, they describe the committees intent, motivation, and frameof-mind in writing the resolution. Preambulatory clauses are followed by
a comma and begin with an underlined participle or adjective which is
capitalized. Examples of these first words include:
Affirming
Alarmed by
Approving
Aware of
Believing
Bearing in mind
Confident
Considering also
Contemplating
Convinced
Declaring
Deeply concerned
Deeply conscious
Deeply convinced
Deeply disturbed
Deeply regretting
Desiring
Emphasizing
Expecting

Expressing its satisfaction

Expressing its wish
Fulfilling
Fully aware
Fully alarmed
Fully believing
Further deploring
Further recalling
Guided by
Gravely concerned
Having adopted
Having considered
Having considered further
Having devoted attention
Having examined
Having studied
Having heard
Having received
Keeping in mind

Noting further
Noting with approval
Noting with deep concern
Noting with regret
Noting with satisfaction
Noting with zest
Observing
Reaffirming
Recalling
Recognizing
Referring
Reiterating
Seeking
Taking into account
Taking into consideration
Taking note
Viewing with appreciation
Welcoming
Whereas

The Operative Paragraphs

The operative paragraphs, which follow the perambulatory clauses,
formally make the predicate of the sentence. More informatively, they
contain the action of the resolution, or the operations that the committee
hopes occur once the resolution is adopted and implemented. Each
operative clause begins with a capitalized present tense verb in the third
person singular. Each paragraph formed by a new operative verb is
indented five spaces, numbered, indented to the tenth space, and finally
ended with a semicolon. The last paragraph ends with a period. The
following are representatives of operative verbs:
Accepts
Affirms
Appeals
Approves
Authorizes
Calls
Calls upon

Deplores
Designates
Draws the attention
Emphasizes
Encourages
Endorses
Expresses its appreciation

Has resolved
Notes
Offers
Proclaims
Reaffirms
Recommends
Reminds

Commends
Condemns
Congratulates
Confirms
Considers
Decides
Declares accordingly
Demands*

Expresses its hope

Further endorses
Further invites
Further proclaims
Further reminds
Further recommends
Further resolves
Further requests

Renews
Requests
Solemnly affirms
Strongly condemns
Supports
Trusts
Takes note of
Transmits
Urges

Resolution
Committee: World Health Organization
Topic: Global Health and Poverty
Sponsors: Bolivia, Libya, Germany, Netherlands, Nigeria
Signatories: Brazil, Czech Republic, Democratic Peoples Republic of Korea, Egypt,
France, Mexico, Phillippines, Poland, Syria, United Kingdom, United States,
The World Health Organization
Realizing the growing urgency to address problems related to poverty, development and
health,
Noting the success of the pre-established WHO regional offices, and their importance in
dealing with poverty-related ill health,
Desiring to come to accordance with the global community concerning what services these
centers should provide,
Acknowledging that each nation has its own diverse problems,
Encouraging existing centers to re-evaluate their efficiency in education and prevention,
Seeking that all proposed plans must only be implemented upon consent of each respective
nation,
Guided by the goals set out in the Health for All by the Year 2000,
1. Recommends that the regional centers continue to address problems at hand such as:
a. necessity for vaccinations,
b. sanitation in water as well as hospitals and other public areas,
c. facilitating public hygiene,
d. providing immunizations;
2. Further recommends that these centers provide an open exchange of research amongst all
of the regional centers;
3. Encourages that WHO allocates funds to provide basic health care to regional centers to
use at their discretion;
4. Advises the WHO to support joint programs with other UN agencies concerned with
development,
a. developed nations generally have longer life expectancies and better health care than the
underdeveloped nations on the basis of economic standards,
b. economic growth allows for better decisions in health care and also better options for
food, clothing, and shelter which improve health;

5. Instructs that WHO will provide basic health care to regional centers to use at their
discretion;
6. Urges the expansion of already existing educational programs so that they specifically
include:
a. citizens of all rural areas,
b. children and poverty stricken families
c. adults
d. medical experts and interms that will be trained by WHO;
55
7. Suggests the importance of national education through 56 a. media 57
b. Portable Education Transport Systems (PETS); 58 59
8. Designates that these educational methods address: 60 a. symptoms and prevention of
communicable disease, 61
b. sanitary and hygienic practices, 62
c. where and how to seek medical assistance, 63
d. the importance of regular vaccinations, 64
e. STDs; 65 66
9. Hopes that nations make the establishment or improvement of health care systems a 67
priority; 68 69
10. Invites nations, under contracts requiring return, of their localized health technicians 70
through voluntary intern exchange programs; 71 72
11. Urges nations to cooperate with each other as well as WHO regarding the clean-water to
73 all segments of their populous; 74 75
12. Understands that all of the afore-mentioned clauses be implemented at the discretion of
76 each respective nation; 77 78
13. Calls upon the specific WHO, Egos, and local organizations to give aid; 79 80
14. Recommends that regional centers incorporate the principles of the Medicinal Office 81
Bank of Asian Health (MOBAH) as follows: 82 a. to improve health benefits for all, 83
b. to supply funds for these matters, 84
c. to create an environment conducive to sharing information, 85
d. to provide funding for education and training; 86 87
15. States that nations may participate in both the MOBAH offshoots and regional offices;
88 89
16. Encourages nations to set a level of medical care which is consistent with indigenous 90
cultures as established under the Declaration of Ixtapa.