CRSat100

The Congressional Research Service

Informing the Legislative Debate Since 1914

CRSat100

The Congressional Research Service

Informing the Legislative Debate Since 1914

Contents
Preface..................................................................................................................................................... 3
James H. Billington, the Librarian of Congress
Introduction....................................................................................................................................... 5
Mary B. Mazanec, CRS Director
CRS at 100: A History............................................................................................................................ 9
Stephen W. Stathis
CRS Serves Congress........................................................................................................................ 44
Continuity and Change................................................................................................................. 55
Colleen J. Shogan, CRS Deputy Director

2 l CRS at 100

Preface

James H. Billington
The Librarian of Congress

or the past century, the Library of Congress has

housed one of the major research arms of the
United States Congress. The Congressional Research
Service (CRS) provides the research and analysis
that inform Members in their roles as legislators,
overseers and representatives. CRS at 100 surveys
the history and growth of the Service. It contains
snapshots of its work in monitoring for Congress
both world and national events.
Scholars of American history have not traditionally focused on the first branch of government.
Historical commentary on the executive branch is
copious, yet the development of Congress is relatively
neglected. The reforms introduced by Robert M.
La Follette Sr. and his contemporaries more than a
century ago were important for the continued health
of representative democracy in the United States.
They believed in a well-informed legislative branch
and argued that effective representative democracy
in a complicated world must be based on objective,
nonpartisan knowledge. La Follette extended this
Wisconsin Idea as a laboratory for democracy
to American national government. Along with other
like-minded individuals, La Follette saw his efforts
realized in the creation of the Legislative Reference
Service, the precursor to CRS.
Intellectual independence is important for the
CRS mission. Its analysts do not make political judgments or respond to commercial interests, nor do

they mix policy advocacy with analysis the way many

do in both academic institutions and think tanks.
While maintaining a high level of serious scholarship, CRS writings provide a base of facts and present policy and procedural issues while deliberately
excluding advocacy. CRS provides a unique service to
all Members of Congress in their roles of both making laws and overseeing their implementation. CRS
epitomizes the singular American tradition of practical wisdom by sharing disciplined thought without a
partisan agenda, but with qualitative judgment that
can be understood by all who work for the legislative
branch. These distinguishing qualities place CRS at
the heart of the Library of Congresss mission to support Congress and further the progress of knowledge
and creativity for the benefit of the American people.
Over the past century, CRS has risen to the challenges required of it. Throughout difficult periods
of American history, CRS has supplied Congress
with analysis and information to assist in critical
legislative decisions. When complexity dictates that
Congresss policy alternatives are limited, and when
the choice is between better or worse options,
nonpartisan analysis based upon objective information is imperative. CRS has served that role for
100 years. As it embarks upon its second century
of distinguished service, CRS will continue to
provide Congress with the independent scholarship
it requires.

CRS at 100 l 3

4 l CRS at 100

Introduction

Mary B. Mazanec
Director, Congressional
Research Service

am honored to occupy the position of director

of the Congressional Research Service during
its centennial year and to introduce this historical
overview of the Service. Created early in the 20th
century, the mission of CRS is to provide objective
and nonpartisan research and analysis, ensuring that
Congress has the best thinking on critical legislative
issues. The Services sole client is the U.S. Congress,
and all Members and committees can rely on the
authoritativeness and confidentiality of its work.
The focus and nature of that work has undergone a
significant transformation over the 100-year history
of the Service.
When the Legislative Reference Service was established within the Library of Congress in 1914, the
small staff provided what its name conveyedreference information to assist Members in their legislative work. World War II, the growth of government
and the increasing complexity of the problems faced
by the nation led to a transformation of the Service
from a reference bureau to a research and analytical support arm for Members and committees. In
the following decades, Congress increasingly realized an ever-growing need for expertise comparable
to that available to the executive branch. The 1970
Legislative Reorganization Act addressed this need,
establishing a Congressional Research Service that
was designed to equip Congress with the tools, both
human and material, to provide the research and
analysis required to legislate and oversee the activities of government. The act also instructed the Ser-

vice to continue to assist Members in their representational role and provide ongoing documentation of
the status of legislation.
To meet its expanded mission, CRSs staff numbers grew substantially in the initial years following
the 1970 act. Beginning in the 1980s, however, leaner
economic times and budgetary constraints necessitated gradual reductions in staff. Despite challenges
posed by reduced staff, CRS, by leveraging technological advances, continues to provide Congress with
both breadth and depth of expertise. Our website
enables access to thousands of products that analysts and information professionals prepare to assist
congressional clients with their legislative work. CRS
staff members maintain a menu of products and services addressing key legislative issues. In addition, a
vital administrative and technological infrastructure
supports this analytical work.
The rich history recounted here is a testament
to the vision of those in Congress who spearheaded
the creation of a legislative support agency and who
guided its transformation over the years. The success
of CRS in fulfilling its statutory mission remains,
however, a direct result of diligent professional staff,
entrusted with the critical task of researching issues and analyzing information and data for elected
officials. CRS staff members have been afforded a
unique vantage point from which to witness and support key legislative efforts. Interspersed throughout
this narrative are profiles of those who have led CRS
as well as portraits of selected staff members. These

CRS at 100 l 5

individuals provide especially noteworthy examples

of the breadth and depth of the expertise made
available to Congress as it tackled issues of importance to the American people. Their stories are only
a part of the larger CRS story. Thousands of dedicated individuals, most of them unheralded and working
behind the scenes, have contributed to establishing and maintaining the sterling reputation of the
Service. They wereand aredevoted to ensuring
that Congress has the information, analysis and support necessary to perform its constitutional duties. I
consider myself privileged to be counted among
their ranks.
This history of CRS reveals a support agency that

6 l CRS at 100

has undergone several major transformations to serve

Congress as it evolved over the past 100 years. Moving forward, the Service will face additional challenges as it aims to support the 21st century Congress.
Advances in technology will continue to change how
information and analyses are developed and consumed. Members of Congress are confronted daily
with information from a plethora of sources, including interest groups, media, think tanks and academic
research institutions. They must be conversant with
a full range of legislative issues and thus, must rapidly
discern and interpret information from disparate
venues. I believe that CRS remains uniquely positioned to serve as an honest broker of information

for Congress, analyzing competing policy options

to inform the legislative debate. I further believe
authoritative and objective research and analysis will
never lose salience as essential underpinnings of an
informed national legislature.
Since 1980, CRS has been housed in the James
Madison Memorial Building of the Library of
Congress, the nations official memorial to our fourth
president. It is fitting that CRS is associated with
Madison, whose words eloquently express a founding principle of the Congressional Research Service:
Knowledge will forever govern ignorance; and a
people who mean to be their own governors must arm
themselves with the power which knowledge gives.

CRS at 100 l 7

8 l CRS at 100

CRS at 100: A History

By Stephen W. Stathis

There is, in fact, no subject to which a member of Congress may not have occasion to refer.

he Congressional Research Service of the

Library of Congress was developed from
the principle, espoused by Thomas Jefferson, James Madison and other Founding Fathers,
that the informed legislator is the best legislator.
Although the institutionalization of that principle
evolved slowly, Congress recognized that while the
structural independence of the legislative branch was
assured by the system of checks and balances upon
which the Founders established the federal republic,
its intellectual independence required constant vigilance. The informed legislator, Congress knew, is the
keystone of a working democracy.

1800s
Congresss Library
Congress laid the foundation for the Service in
the original mission of the Library, whose sole
purpose was to provide information to the nations
legislators. President John Adams signed legislation
establishing the Library in April 1800 as Congress
prepared to move from Philadelphia to the new
capital city of Washington. In 1802, the first law to
specify the Librarys functions called for a librarian
appointed by the president; authorized the Senate
president and House speaker to establish rules and

Thomas Jefferson, 1814

regulations; and limited book borrowing to Members of Congress, the president and vice president.
It also created a joint congressional committee to
purchase items for the Library. This Joint Committee on the Library became a permanent standing
committee in 1806 and eventually assumed oversight
of all Library operations.
When additional books were requested for the
collection in 1806, a Senate report reemphasized
that the intent was to furnish the Library with such
materials as will enable statesmen to be correct in
their investigations and, by a becoming display of
erudition and research, give a higher dignity and a
brighter luster to truth. The original collection was
lost when British forces burned the Capitol during
the War of 1812. Thomas Jefferson, in retirement
at Monticello in 1814, offered to sell his personal library, the largest and finest in America, to Congress,
noting that there is, in fact, no subject to which a
member of Congress may not have occasion to refer.
The idea that the nations legislators needed to make
decisions based on an informed understanding of
issues prevailed, and Congress agreed to purchase
Jeffersons personal collection as the nucleus for a
new congressional library.
For a long period, Members held tightly to the

notion that the Library was essentially their Library.

Only a select few besides the nations legislators
the president and vice president in 1802; Supreme
Court justices in 1812; the attorney general and the
diplomatic corps in 1816; former presidents, cabinet
officers, the secretary of the Senate, the clerk of the
House and congressional chaplains in 1830were
granted access to it. Until late in the 19th century,
when that privilege was extended to the public, the
Librarys primary object remained unchangedto
provide Members with the knowledge necessary for
the intelligent discharge of their business. The Librarys transformation from a congressional resource
to a national treasure came slowly.
Transition to a National Role
John Y. Cole, the Librarys leading chronicler, credits Ainsworth Rand Spofford, Librarian of Congress
from 1864 to 1897, with permanently linking the
Librarys legislative and national functions. Early
in his tenure, Spofford obtained congressional
approval for a series of laws and regulations that
ensured a national role for the Library. The most
important of these, the Copyright Act of 1870,
centralized the nations copyright activities at the
Library and stipulated that two copies of every book,

CRS at 100 l 9

article, work of fine art, map, chart, photograph or

music composition registered for a U.S. copyright
be deposited in the Library. Also in 1870, Spofford
gained approval to lend books to the public if borrowers made monetary deposits.
By 1897, when the Library moved from overcrowded rooms in the Capitol to the long soughtafter, $6.3 million building across First Street, its
collections ranked at the top among American libraries in both size and scope. As Melvil Dewey, director
of the New York State Library in Albany, told the
Joint Committee on the Library before the building
opened, the country now had a true national library,
one to which the libraries of the whole country
can turn for inspiration, guidance and practical help,
which can be rendered so economically and efficiently in no other possible way. The building also
included separate reading rooms for Members of
the House and Senate and space for their general
reference service.

1900s

Sen. Robert M. La Follette Sr., top, and

Rep. John M. Nelson, both of Wisconsin,
promoted a provision directing the
establishment of a legislative reference unit
within the Library of Congress.

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Legislative Reference Services

By 1905 the number of Library employees handling
the reference needs of Members had grown to six.
Today, the countrys largest legislative reference
service is housed at the Library of Congress, but at
the turn of the last century, the states took the lead
in providing information resources to their legislatures, thus contributing to greater legislative independence, not only from their governors, but from
vested interests.
The idea that legislators should have information and reference services available to support their

Today, the countrys largest legislative

reference service is housed at the Library
of Congress, but at the turn of the last
century, the states took the lead in
providing information resources to
their legislatures.
policymaking efforts was first acted on in the late
19th century, when Dewey established a legislative
reference section at the New York State Library.
While this service chiefly involved the indexing and
comparison of legislation for the state legislature, it
was the forerunner of similar library services today.
The idea gained ground when it was taken up by
some in the Progressive movementfirst in Wisconsin, where it had the support of Gov. Robert M. La
Follette Sr. After the Wisconsin legislature authorized a library in the state capitol for legislators use
in 1901, Charles McCarthy, the newly designated
document cataloger, became an active purveyor of
information to state legislators. In 1903, the Wisconsin state legislature began appropriating funds for a
designated legislative reference service. During the
next decade, more than a dozen state legislatures created legislative reference bureaus.

1910s and 1920s

Proposals for Congress
Oklahoma Sen. Robert Latham Owen Jr. offered the
first proposal to establish such a service for Congress
in January 1911. Similar proposals quickly followed.
Among the strongest supporters were two legisla-

people in every free country are expecting much

more from legislation than they did formerly....
There is more intricacy and more detail in
statutes, and economic and social problems with
which legislation now endeavors to deal become
more difficult. There are raised more questions
of economic and legal principle upon which it is
difficult to form a sound opinion than happened
in a previous age of the world.

James D. Thompson
Head, 1914-1919
Thompson was credited by Librarian of Congress Herbert Putnam with organizing and
directing the new Legislative Reference Service.
His equipment for the task was unique, not
the least important element in it being his own
foundation studies in pure science, a habit of
precision and a punctilious devotion to truth for

Bryce believed a bureau that could collect information from the states and great countries of Europe
would be of great value to all those who desire to
introduce legislative measures in Congress.

its own sake, Putnam wrote in his 1915 annual

report to Congress.
Thompson, who was born in Durham, England, and educated at Trinity College at Cambridge, immigrated to the United States in 1898.

The Legislative Reference Service was created under

Librarian of Congress Herbert Putnam.

tors from WisconsinSen. La Follette, the former

governor, and Rep. John M. Nelson. Interest in the
idea prompted House and Senate hearings.
At a House Library Committee session in February 1912, Nelson read excerpts of supporting letters
from former President Theodore Roosevelt and New
Jersey Gov. Woodrow Wilson, recognized experts
and state reference bureau chiefs. It was Lord James
Bryce, however, whom everyone came to hear. The
age in which we live, the British ambassador and acclaimed author of The American Commonwealth
(1888), declared:
... is an age in which more and more is demanded
of legislation. The people in this country and the

Defining a New Service

The goal of a legislative reference service for Congress remained elusive. In February 1913, La Follette told the Senate Committee on the Library that
he believed, given his experience in Wisconsin, it
would be unwise to establish a legislative reference
library and in that legislative reference library locate
the bill-drafting bureau. While the legislative reference library should be accessible to every Member,
only the president and the congressional committees should be authorized to call upon the Legislative
Drafting Bureau to formulate bills.
Owen countered La Follettes proposal with one
of his own. It called for a legislative reference bureau
in the Library that would employ 10 experts in social
science, 10 assistants and stenographers as needed.
He also proposed a congressional corps of investigators to aid the President and Members of Congress
by briefing them on legislative issues, drafting and

Appointed to the Library of Congress in 1901, he

served as chief of the Documents Division and
Law Librarian of Congress before his appointment to the new division. He was a life-long
student of politics and social conditions, and
a pioneer in modernizing library methods and
developing legislative work, according to the
National Cyclopaedia of American Biography.

In 1916, Thompson reassumed the Law

Librarian of Congress position while continuing

to lead LRS. He resigned in 1919.
Following Thompsons resignation, responsibility for LRS was divided among Gilbert Hirsch,
who succeeded Thompson as Law Librarian,
Charles W. Collins Jr. and Walter H. McClenon.
Hirsch resigned in 1920, and Collins became Law
Librarian as well as supervisor of LRS.

CRS at 100 l 11

Herman H.B. Meyer

Head, 1921-1923
Acting Director, 1923-1927
Director, 1928-1935
Meyer was the first to bear the title of LRS
director. He practically created the Legislative
Reference Service of the Library of Congress,
which, under his guidance,
became an agency of supreme value to Congress
in the framing of legislation, according to the
National Cyclopaedia of
American Biography.

Born in New York City,

Meyer trained as a civil engineer at Columbia

University. He made a mid-life career change to
library work, studying at Pratt Institute Library
School early in the new century. He began
service at the Library of Congress as a cataloger
and bibliographer in 1905.

He rose to positions of increasing responsi-

bility, becoming head of the Newspaper and Periodicals Division and chief of the Order Division
and the Bibliography Division before heading
LRS. Meyer served until his retirement in 1935.
His tenure was extended by executive order for
one year beyond his mandatory retirement age.

revising bills and other legislative measures, and

serve as legislative counselors. Owens bill, unlike
La Follettes, contemplated employment of social
scientists rather than lawyers.
Librarian of Congress Herbert Putnam was
responsible for distinguishing the functions of a
legislative reference bureau from those already being
performed by the Library. Putnam told the committee the bureau would undertake not only to classify
and catalog, but to gather, organize and present pertinent data from books, manuscripts, clippings, files,
periodicals and newspapers in response to questions
posed by Members. He was not convinced that the
drafting or revision of bills themselves should be associated with the bureau. The corps of bill-drafting
experts, he reasoned, should be part of the organization of Senate and House. Ultimately, Congress
followed Putnams suggestion.
The House Committee on the Library favorably
reported a bill calling for the establishment of a separate bureau in the Library of Congress to be known
as the Legislative Reference Bureau. Two days later,
the Senate Committee on the Library approved an
amended version of La Follettes proposal, which also
called for the establishment of a legislative reference
division within the Library of Congress, and separately, the creation of a legislative drafting bureau
under a chief draftsman. No further action was taken
on either bill in the 62nd Congress (1911-1913).

Meyer was a president of the American

Library Association and the author of numerous

technical monographs and bibliographies.

12 l CRS at 100

LRS Is Born
Additional proposals for a legislative reference
bureau were offered at the outset of the 63rd
Congress (1913-1915), but supporters of a congres-

By adopting his amendment, La Follette

believed, Congress [had] taken an
important step to rendering the business
of lawmaking more effective, more exact,
economically sound and scientific.
sional reference service realized their goal through
a Senate floor amendment offered by La Follette
to the Librarys fiscal year 1915 appropriations bill.
The amendment, which was accepted by the House,
authorized the Librarian to employ competent
persons to prepare such indexes, digests and compilations of law as may be required for Congress and
other official use. By adopting his amendment, La
Follette believed, Congress [had] taken an important step to rendering the business of lawmaking
more effective, more exact, economically sound and
scientific. Two days after the bill was signed by the
president, the Librarian of Congress established the
Legislative Reference Service (LRS) by administrative order on July 18, 1914.
The Washington Post praised the creation of
the new bureau as going a long way toward removing the conflicts in the law that now make for
litigation and confusion. Eventually it may lead to a
system whereby proposed legislation will be clearly
thought out and digested before Congress is asked
to consider it. The Post recalled that things had
gotten so bad that House Speaker James Beauchamp
Champ Clark once said, Bills could be introduced
in Congress even for green cheese from the moon.
Although the research service might not stop the
flood of foolish bills, it could go a long way toward

checking duplications and avoiding loose language in

framing the bills, the Post reasoned.
The Christian Science Monitor expressed hope
that the Service would increase lawmakers knowledge of comparative legislation and make statutes
more explicit and accurate in phrasing and terminology and conformable to fundamentals of law and
equity, the result being a lessening of the volume
and cost of litigation and an increased uniformity
in the legislation being enacted.
Congress broadened the role of the Service a year
later when it authorized the Librarian to employ
competent persons to gather, classify, and make available ... data for or bearing upon legislation, and to
render such data serviceable to Congress and committees and Members. With few changes, this language appeared in Library appropriation acts for the
next three decades until LRS was given permanent
statutory existence in the Legislative Reorganization
Act of 1946.
Modest Beginnings
The first LRS work published as a congressional
document was a January 1915 compilation on Russian ownership or control of merchant shipping.
Two years later, the Senate Rules Committee used
Service-prepared committee prints on filibusters
and debates to craft a resolution that ultimately
resulted in the chambers first cloture rule. Initially,
however, the number of questions from Congress
was small269 in fiscal year 1915 and 756 in fiscal
year 1916. During the remainder of the decade, LRS
answered an average of 1,100 congressional inquiries
per year.

That figure showed little change in the 1920s,

when the yearly average of inquiries was 1,260. The
most visible LRS efforts appeared in the form of
compilations on various aspects of taxation in foreign
countries, a digest of Supreme Court decisions
declaring federal legislation unconstitutional, a summary of the origin and causes of World War I, and a
lengthy compilation of documents on the origin and
development of American constitutional history from

1774 through 1787, Documents Illustrative of the

Formation of the Union of American States.
In 1927, Congress broadened the mission of the
Service to include an annual Digest of State Legislation, an action hailed by the New York Times. Most
congressional inquiries, however, dealt with routine
tasks such as indexing laws, identifying quotes, translating foreign language correspondence and answering basic queries.

Staff at work, 1925.

CRS at 100 l 13

George J. Schulz
Acting Director, 1935-1936
Director, 1936-1937
A key contribution of Schulzs tenure was his
1937 monograph Creation of the Senate: From
the Proceedings of the Federal Convention,
Philadelphia, May-September, 1787. The report
chronicled the work of the Constitutional Convention in shaping the U.S. Senate as a coequal
chamber of Congress charged with unique responsibilities in the treaty-making and appointments processes. Published as a Senate document in connection with the sesquicentennial of
the Constitutional Convention, it was reissued
by the Senate Bicentennial Commission in 1987.
Schulz was a graduate of Baltimore Medical College, George Washington University and
Johns Hopkins University and held law degrees
from the University of Virginia and the National
University School of Law. He also served as a
history professor and head of the history and
public science department at the University
of Maryland.

In 1929, Schulz joined the Library, where he

was frequently loaned to legislators to provide

research assistance on bills. He worked on the
Boulder Dam bill, flood control and finance.
Schulz was also the author of many studies on
political and government topics. Prior to Schulzs
directorship, he was Director Herman H.B.
Meyers chief assistant.

14 l CRS at 100

From left, Catherine McGruder, Kitty Killens and

Mr. Anderson at work, 1941.

1930s
A Resource Discovered
Between 1930 and 1940, the annual number of
congressional inquiries grew rapidly, with responses
more frequently inserted in the Congressional
Record, hearings, reports and documents. One of
the primary reasons for the growth was 1935 legislation directing the preparation and publication of a
digest of public bills. Decades of publishing periodic
and final hardbound volumes for congressional use
and dissemination to depository libraries began in
1936 (covering the 74th Congress) and ran through
the 101st Congress, when the printed digest was

succeeded by the online Legislative Information

System (LIS).
Also in 1936, the Service assumed responsibility
for the preparation of The Constitution of the United States of America: Analysis and Interpretation.
The Constitution Annotated, as it is popularly
known, has been regularly updated by attorneys
in the Service ever since and remains a standard
reference on the nations founding charter.
By 1937, as one Member noted, the Service,
despite limited funds, had begun to function as
its original sponsors in Congress hoped it should.
Members were beginning to appreciate and take
advantage of this service available to them.
Probably no other department of the Government
is subject to so much pressure from Members of
Congress who often [made] demands for information an hour before they are scheduled to deliver the
speech for which they desire the materials sought or
even during floor debate.
When President Franklin D. Roosevelt offered
his controversial proposal to add up to six new justices to the Supreme Court, Members looked to LRS
for answers. While most responses to inquiries concerning the Feb. 5, 1937, plan attracted little attention, an LRS report on the Creation of the Federal
Judiciary became a Senate document, and a comparison of the number of Supreme Court opinions
written by justices over 70 years of age with those
prepared by younger justices captured the attention
of several prominent newspapers. Both houses of
Congress praised another 1937 study, Creation of
the Senate. The document served as a resource for
historical research on the Senate for years to come.

 Congressional use of the Service had become

commonplace by 1939, as statistics collected for the
year showed that every Senator and a majority of the
House (399 out 435 Representatives) turned to LRS
for assistance. More significantly, LRS operated
more proactively, anticipating questions of economic and social importance, and assembling and
disseminating relevant statistics as well as objective
factual information.

1940s
War Changes Nature of Requests
With the outbreak of World War II, the nature of requests changed dramatically. LRS Director Luther H.
Evans told the Washington Post in 1940 that his staff
could read the paper and tell what calls there [would]
be from Congressmen by noon. Hot topics were
military, naval and aviation histories of World War I,
munitions, an unprecedented third presidential term,
immigration and subversive activities. That year, the
Washington Post ran a sweeping photo essay depicting LRS staff answering phones, typing requests in
triplicate and scrutinizing reams of documents.
In 1941, several months before Pearl Harbor, the
Service established a special defense section to assist
the federal Advisory Commission to the Council of
National Defense. During the war, it also worked
on a contractual basis for the Office of Emergency
Management and the State Department. These
services, reimbursed from defense funds and those
of several federal agencies, confirmed in the eyes of
Congress, as well as executive agencies, that LRS was
capable of supplying services not available elsewhere.
Also during this era, the Service produced some 100

Public Affairs Bulletins that addressed timely policy

issues. Congressional appropriators discontinued the
bulletins in 1951 to redirect funds to other activities.

Luther H. Evans
Director, 1939-1940
Evans, appointed by Librarian of Congress

The Evolution of LRS

In the 1940s, Congress saw LRS become an institution that differed significantly from what it envisioned in 1914. A new perspective began to take root
in October 1942, when Rep. Everett M. Dirksen
of Illinois sought to expand the Service because he

Archibald MacLeish, served just one year in LRS

before being named MacLeishs chief assistant librarian. Following
MacLeishs resignation in
1945, President Harry S.
Truman appointed Evans to
succeed MacLeish.
As Librarian, Evans served with various
U.S. delegations during
the forming of UNESCO, the United Nations
Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. In 1953, he resigned to become UNESCOs
director-general, a position he held until 1958. In
later years, Evans served as president of United
World Federalists and as director of International Collections at the Columbia University Library
until his retirement.
A Texas native, Evans received his bachelors and masters degrees from the University
of Texas at Austin and a doctorate in political
science from Stanford University. Between 1927
and 1935, he taught political science at New York
University, Dartmouth College and Princeton

President Harry S. Truman, left, presents the Colliers

Congressional Award to Sen. Arthur H. Vandenberg,
Michigan, and Rep. A.S. Mike Monroney, Oklahoma,
at a Rose Garden ceremony on April 11, 1946. Monroney
received the award for work that resulted in the Legislative
Reorganization Act of 1946, which, among other
recommendations, called for an increase in the size and
scope of LRS.

University. In the latter year, Evans headed the

Historical Records Survey, a major reorganization
of the National Archives undertaken by the New
Deals Works Project Administration. Evans died
in 1981 at age 79.

CRS at 100 l 15

An all-staff meeting in the Senate Reading Room (now the Jefferson Congressional Reading Room), 1948.

16 l CRS at 100

deplored the lack of independent, firsthand information on the work and expenditures of the executive
branch. Behind every executive branch request for
budget authority is extensive research, many figures
and much testimony to prove to Congress that the
funds are required, Dirksen told House colleagues.
We have been taking the word of officials directly
interested in expanding their working forces and increasing their costs. Congress is no longer in on the
ground floor determining either policies, expenditures or functions. We merely approve or disapprove
plans and estimates prepared by others.
Following World War II, Congress became
increasingly concerned with its limited ability to
respond to problems generated by the war and the
staggering obligations confronting the United States,

Following World War II, the internal

structure of the legislative branch seemed
antiquated, its sources of information
limited and its staffing inadequate.
which had emerged from the global upheaval as the
worlds most powerful nation. Members also worried that Congress was losing its status as a coequal
branch of government, that during the Depression
and war years it had drifted into a secondary position
through the delegation of many powers to the executive branch. The internal structure of the legislative
branch seemed antiquated, its sources of information
limited and its staffing inadequate.

Permanent Standing for LRS

By December 1944, those concerns prompted the
creation of a Joint Committee on the Organization
of Congress to study and make proposals to improve
the effectiveness of Congress. Under the chairmanship of Rep. A.S. Mike Monroney of Oklahoma
and Sen. Robert M. La Follette Jr. of Wisconsin, the
committee 15 months later reported the Legislative
Reorganization Act of 1946.
The act called for an immediate increase in the
size and scope of LRS. Congress, it reasoned, would
have a reliable resource for accurate, authoritative and current information, and an independent
resource of its own, comparable in quality to those
of the executive branch. George B. Galloway, a
prominent political scientist and LRS specialist,

Ernest S. Griffith

times larger than when he

Princeton and Harvard universities and as a dean of

Director, 1940-1958

took charge and handled

the graduate school at Syracuse University.

Griffith, the longest-serving director, has been called

three times the number of

Griffith left LRS to become the founding dean

the father of CRS and the architect of todays

congressional requests.

of the American University School of International

CRS. Under his leadership, LRS became a robust

Service. He was the author of several books on gov-

resource on which Congress depended for indepen-

describe his achievements

ernment, including The Modern Government in Ac-

dent research and analysis, enhancing Congresss

as director, Griffith replied:

tion, Congress: Its Contemporary Role and The

status as a coequal branch of government.

I think I am proudest of

American System of Government, the latter based

When asked to

Griffith directed LRS as it prepared for and imple-

the fact that we have operated independently of the

on a series of Fulbright lectures he gave at Oxford.

mented the provisions of the Legislative Reorganiza-

executive branch in a technical age.

He served as editor and co-author of Research in

tion Act of 1946, which established LRS as a separate

Political Science and co-editor of Congressional

department within the Library, increased its appro-

degree from Hamilton College. Following two years

Anthology: Favorite Poems of Senators and

priations and allowed it to hire experts to inform Con-

in the Naval Air Service during World War I, he at-

Representatives. Griffith died in 1997 at age 100.

gress on a broad range of legislative issues. By the

tended Oxford University as a Rhodes Scholar, earn-

time he stepped down in 1958, the LRS staff was five

ing a doctorate in 1925. He served on the faculty at

Born in Utica, N.Y., Griffith earned a bachelors

CRS at 100 l 17

Right: Director Ernest S. Griffith; Sen. John L. McClellan,

Arkansas; and Sen. Everett M. Dirksen, Illinois, 1951.
Below: Griffith with senior specialists in the Whittall Pavilion,
1951. From left: Raymond E. Manning, taxation and fiscal
policy; Asher Achinstein, housing; James P. Radigan Jr.,
American public law; Meyer Jacobstein, money and banking;
Burton N. Behling, transportation and communications;
Halford L. Hoskins, international affairs and Middle East;
Gertrude M. Campbell, secretary; Griffith; Wilfred C. Gilbert,
assistant director; Gustav Peck, labor; George B. Galloway,
American government and public administration;
Walter W. Wilcox, agriculture; Francis R. Valeo, foreign affairs.

18 l CRS at 100

Clockwise from left: The House Reading Room (now the

Members Room), 1945. Francis R. Valeo, chief of the Foreign
Affairs Section, consults with Mary Shepard, analyst in
international organization, 1951. LRS documents available
for use by Members of Congress, 1951.

CRS at 100 l 19

Above: Staff locate research materials, 1956.

Right: Halford L. Hoskins, standing, works with staff, 1953.

20 l CRS at 100

The 1946 Reorganization Act increased

the Services responsibilities, gave it a
larger sense of mission and directed it to
hire senior policy specialists to provide
expertise to Congress.
served as staff director and was instrumental in the
committees work.
The 1946 Reorganization Act increased the Services responsibilities, gave it a larger sense of mission
and directed it to hire senior policy specialists to provide expertise to Congress within each of the broad
subject fields covered by a newly streamlined committee system. LRS was to: (1) advise and assist committees in the analysis, appraisal and evaluation of
legislative proposals pending before them; (2) gather,
classify, analyze and make available data bearing
upon anticipated legislation for use by Members and
committees; and (3) prepare summaries and digests

of public hearings, bills and resolutions. The act gave

jurisdiction over the Library, and by extension LRS,
to the Committee on House Administration and the
Senate Committee on Rules and Administration,
and specified the number of Members each would
contribute to the Joint Committee on the Library.
Today, those House and Senate committees
continue to exercise legislative and oversight jurisdiction over the Library and the Service, while the joint
committee also serves to coordinate supervision of
and consultation with the Library.
Within a few months of the laws passage,
Richard L. Strout of the Christian Science Monitor
wrote that Congress was beginning to discover for
the first time in American history, the advantages
and delights of having its own expert research staff.
The Congressmans Brain Trust, which it was
quickly nicknamed, also prompted major stories in
the St. Louis Post Dispatch, Wall Street Journal and
U.S. News and World Report. A lead article in This

Week Magazine suggested that the newly expanded

Legislative Reference Service may shift the balance
of power in Washington.
Librarian of Congress Luther H. Evans, the
former LRS director, made the following observation
regarding the initial impact of the 1946 Reorganization Act on LRS: No major legislation considered
by the Congress during the past session was acted
upon without a contribution of some kind from the
Service, either in connection with the hearings, the
study and analysis of testimony and other evidence,
for formulations of conclusions and the preparation
of reports, or the debating of issues.

1950s
Exploring New Frontiers
During the 1950s, the Service gained publicity for
its work on the Social Security Act Amendments
and the McCarran Internal Security Act. Congress
relied upon LRS expertise on the military aspects

Hugh L. Elsbree

American government and

Harvard University, Dartmouth College and Wayne

Director, 1958-1966

public administration. He

State University. During World War II, he worked in

Elsbree was a political scientist of wide repute and

served as deputy director

the Office of Price Administration and the Bureau of

a dedicated public official who earned the respect

under Ernest S. Griffith and

the Budget.

and confidence of the Congress through his skillful

was appointed director by

A longtime member of the American Political

and competent leadership of the Legislative Refer-

Librarian of Congress L.

Science Association, Elsbree served as managing

ence Service in a period when Congress has experi-

Quincy Mumford.

editor of the American Political Science Review. After

enced its greatest need for research assistance,

Elsbree earned bach-

retiring from LRS, Elsbree and his predecessor Griffith

Sen. Robert Byrd said upon Elsbrees retirement.

elors, masters and doctoral degrees at Harvard

edited the Praeger Library of U.S. Government

Elsbree joined LRS as a research counsel in

University. As a Sheldon Traveling Fellow, he studied

Departments and Agencies, a series of 35 volumes.

1945 and was later promoted to senior specialist in

in Paris and Geneva. He was a faculty member at

Elsbree died in 2004 at age 100.

CRS at 100 l 21

The Inquiry Section handles some 700 congressional inquiries a day, 1964. Seven recorders analyze calls and letters for
assignment to the appropriate specialist. Peter B. Sheridan is in the foreground.

of national defense, and it published insightful LRS

handbooks such as Congressional Power of Investigation and Internal Security Manual as congressional documents. LRS reports were also regularly
placed in the Congressional Record.
Prominent among congressional concerns during
this period of the Cold War were the intentions, power and threat of the Soviet Union. Among the most

22 l CRS at 100

prominent works produced by LRS was a comparative

study of the economic strength of the Soviet Bloc and
Western powers. The New York Times credited the
analysis with making a valuable contribution to the
discussion of economic competition between the free
world and the Communist world. The Service also
completed significant studies for congressional committees on Soviet politics and the Soviet economy.

The Supreme Courts unanimous 1954 ruling

in Brown v. Board of Education, that segregated
education facilities were unconstitutional, incited
one of the most hotly debated issues of the 1950s.
LRS answered questions on all sides of the issue with
objective reports on the constitutional, legal, financial and social aspects of segregation and integration.
Subsequently, at the request of the Commission on
Civil Rights, LRS completed a large research project
on state-federal legislation that actually or potentially
infringed on civil rights with regard to race, religion,
color or national origin. The commission used the
projects results for its own study and reports to the
president and Congress.
Sen. John F. Kennedy turned to LRS for assistance while preparing his 1957 Pulitzer Prize-winning Profiles in Courage. In his preface, Kennedy
named senior specialists William R. Tansill and
George B. Galloway, who made important contributions to the selection of examples for inclusion in the
book. In 1959, Tansill saw his nearly two decades of
work for Members desiring statehood for Alaska and
Hawaii culminate with the admission of the two territories as states.
In 1958, LRS established a Natural Resources
Division to respond to an increasing demand for
research dealing with agriculture, conservation,
engineering, public works and mineral economics. A
year later, a Roll Call article, Legislative Reference
Service, Congressmans Best Friend, characterized
LRSs activities as Research Under Pressure. The
Service, the article went on to say, fulfills Congresss
needs and provides the research that is often the basis
of world-shaking events. LRS specialists cannot

afford to follow the slow, methodical procedures of

the scholar who hopes to complete a voluminous
historical work before he dies.
Also in 1958, Director Ernest S. Griffiths 18-year
tenure came to a close. Griffith saw the importance
of mutual confidence between the inquiring legislator and LRS, emphasizing the need to hire highcaliber personnel to meet its obligation to Congress.
Before leaving LRS, he prepared a valedictory on the
Services Achievements, Problems, and Potential.
In those remarks, Griffith remained, as he had for
almost two decades, a visionary. More than a decade
before the Legislative Reorganization Act of 1970
would change the name of LRS, Griffith stated that
the name Legislative Reference Service has come
down from an earlier and simpler age:

At the time it was originally adopted, the name

was reasonably descriptive. Today it is neither
pertinent, explanatory nor correct. Research,
analyses and consultation were always part of the
Services ability. Today, they have come to be, not
only its most important part but also its greatest
time consumer. Under these circumstances, the
appropriate Committees might wish to consider
a change in the name of the Service to the
Congressional Research Service.

The largest demonstration in Washington, D.C., up

to that point, and one of the first to have extensive
television coverage, drew an estimated quarter of a
million people to the capital on Aug. 28. Over the
next 10 months, civil rights dwarfed all other LRS
work until the Civil Rights Act of 1964 was signed.
During the 1960s, LRS provided extensive support to consideration of prominent measures such as
the Social Security Amendments of 1965 and 1967,
Medicare Amendments of 1965 and the Tax Reform
Act of 1969. From hearings through markup, floor
debate, conference committee and implementation of
the law, LRS performed a significant role.
The Service received widespread attention when,
in August 1964, it established a Science Policy Research Division in response to growing demand for
more and better scientific analysis. At the time, fewer

1960s
Prelude to Reorganization
The social change and significant legislative achievements of the 1960s were reflected in the work of
LRS. Civil rights again commanded the nations
attention during the 1963 March on Washington.

Eilene M. Galloway

lighted the opportunity in

Galloway worked on space issues through the rest

Matriarch of Space Policy

space for peaceful explo-

of her life, even after she retired from CRS in 1975 as a

In 1958, Galloway helped Congress create the agency

ration and international

senior specialist. She served on NASA advisory com-

that landed Americans on the moon.

cooperation.

mittees, participated in international colloquia and

Amid fear and anxiety following the Soviet

With those ideas

published articles. She was the first recipient of a Life-

Unions launch of Sputnik in 1957, Senate Majority

in mind, Galloway as-

time Achievement Award from Women in Aerospace,

Leader Lyndon B. Johnson called upon Galloway,

sisted Johnson and House

and she received the NASA Public Service Award and

defense analyst at LRS, to assist Congress in deter-

Speaker John McCormack

Gold Medal in 1984. The annual international Gal-

mining how to respond.

in crafting the National Aeronautics and Space Act,

loway Symposium on Critical Issues in Space Law is

Galloway helped set up hearings on satellite and

which created NASA. Her seminal contributions to

named for her.

missile programs for Johnson, chairman of the Sen-

the Act included that NASA be formed as an adminis-

ate Preparedness Investigation Subcommittee. The

tration, so that it could more easily coordinate across

graduated from Swarthmore College with a degree

hearings turned the fear of war into hope for peace,

government agencies, and that NASA be encour-

in political science. She died in Washington, D.C., in

Galloway said, as scientists gave testimony that high-

aged to act internationally.

2009 at the age of 102.

Born in Kansas City, Mo., in 1906, Galloway

CRS at 100 l 23

Lester S. Jayson
Director, 1966-1975
Jayson served as director during the period
surrounding the 1970 Legislative Reorganization Act, which transformed LRS into CRS, the
analytical support arm of
Congress. His tenure saw
a doubling of staff and
the infusion of high-level
analytical expertise.

Jayson came to LRS in

1960 as a senior specialist in American public

law. He became chief of the law division and
then deputy director. In 1964, Jayson published Federal Tort Claims: Administrative and
Judicial Remedies, considered a preeminent
primary source. He was also the supervising editor of The Constitution of the United States of
America: Analysis and Interpretation.

Jayson graduated from the College of the

City of New York and Harvard Law School. His

public service began in 1942, when he served
as special assistant to the U.S. attorney general,
and continued through 18 years at the Department of Justice in various positions.
After retirement, Jayson was a professor of
constitutional and American law at the Potomac
Law School. He was active in the Federal Bar Association and the American Bar Association. He
died in 1999 at age 84.

24 l CRS at 100

than 20 Members of Congress had advanced degrees

in the sciences, and committee personnel included
few trained science professionals. The expectation was that the division would assist Congress in
developing U.S. scientific and technology policy, an
area in which decisions involving billions of federal
dollars were made annually.
During this era, the Service regularly attracted
the attention of admiring observers. LRS was referred to as the U.S. answer men, Capitols Quiz
Kids, Hill brain trust, Congresss right arm,
Congresss store of facts, Congresss G Men,
Congresss intelligence unit, and the federal
governments living encyclopedia department.
Despite these plaudits, by the mid-1960s, some
Members expressed concern that the overall work of
the Service was lacking in scope and depth. Countering these concerns were Members who blamed the
situation not on LRS, but on congressional offices for
saddling it with non-legislative work such as answering constituent requests and writing speeches and
Congressional Record statements. Thus began an
effort designed to give LRS more resources to devote
to substantive research.

1970s
Changing Times, a Changing Service
During the two decades preceding passage of the
Legislative Reorganization Act of 1970, constituent
service grew significantly. At the same time, issues
of public policy became more complex as interactions between society and government increased and
political controversy over policies and goals deepened. Government action was viewed as a means for

Congress required a pool of experts who,

on their own initiative, could formulate
and analyze constructive options and
alternatives to proposed programs
and policies.
satisfying the basic needs of the American people as
well as addressing issues that transcended state and
local government.
Radio and television coverage of the Senates
Kefauver Crime Committee hearings and ArmyMcCarthy hearings in the 1950s and FulbrightVietnam hearings and Watergate in the 1960s and
1970s brought the work of Congress into every
American living room. In the late 1950s, the introduction of commercial jet service made it feasible
for Members to more frequently visit their constituents and for constituents to fly to the nations capital
to voice their opinions. Congressional use of the
Service reflected these developments. Constituent
inquiries increased as political activity in communities heightened and citizens became more aware of
federal policy.
The 1970 Legislative Reorganization Act
With the 1970 Reorganization Act, Congress recognized that it needed additional assistance both to
analyze legislation and to accommodate the expanding needs of the nation. It was no longer sufficient
for the Service to be primarily a reference-oriented
entity. Congress placed particular emphasis on the
Service assuming new substantive responsibilities as
an analytical resource providing close support for

Members and committees. Congress required a pool

of experts who, on their own initiative, could formulate and analyze constructive options and alternatives
to proposed programs and policies.
In theory, the legislative and executive branches
are co-equal partners in American government,
where congressional expertise matches executive expertise, wrote Sen. Alan Cranston in 1970.
Unfortunately, the theory is not fact. The theory
of co-equality between the legislative and executive
branches, in the terms of information-gathering
facilities available to them, will probably never be
true. But the expertise gap can be considerably
narrowed with an expanded Legislative Reference
Service. This observation came almost six years
after the 1965-1966 Joint Committee recommended
a new charter for the Service, and a new namethe
Congressional Research Service.
The intent of the 1970 Reorganization Act was
to transform the Service into Congresss own think
tank for objective, nonpartisan policy analysis. Although most new responsibilities were already being
undertaken on an exploratory or special assignment
basis, the mandate called for several new services,
especially with regard to work for committees. The
act also provided that after consultation with the
Joint Committee on the Library, the Librarian would
appoint the CRS director.
Responding to a Different Mandate
Before passage of the 1970 Act, the Service conducted wide-ranging, two-year self-examinations of
its procedures, products and services and its ability
to provide expert analyses on policy problems. As-

sembling the new model contemplated by Congress

would not occur overnight. As a consequence, even
before the act was signed, the Service began to prepare for a heavier load of analytical assignments.
CRS established new priorities for personnel
recruitment. It formulated plans, guidelines, standards and methods for policy studies. While placing
a strong emphasis on policy analysis and committee
support, the Service reaffirmed its responsibility to
assist Members both in their capacity as legislators as

well as in serving the representational needs of constituents. The Service also reaffirmed strict confidentiality in all aspects of its work for Congress.
CRS launched a liaison relationship with the
General Accounting Office (GAO, now the Government Accountability Office) and adopted a system to
track some 150 active legislative policy issues identified for priority attention. It instituted procedures
for contracting, space acquisition and equipment
purchases. CRS opened a reference center in the

The gallery overlooking the Main Reading Room is converted to LRS office space as the Thomas Jefferson Building becomes
crowded, 1969.

CRS at 100 l 25

Walter Kravitz
Mr. CRS
Kravitz was a highly respected analyst on Congress who was instrumental in the Legislative
Reorganization Act of 1970. For years, he was
Mr. CRS to many in CRS
and in Congress.

In the 1970 Act, Con-

gress assigned CRS broader responsibilities and

directed it to work more
closely with committees.

Rayburn House Office Building to provide in-person

service on reference inquiries, and created a hotline
so that questions of who, what, when and where
could be answered quickly.
On March 8, 1976, the Congressional Research
Employees Association (CREA) became the exclusive
bargaining representative for CRS employees. Organization took place after the Library of Congress
created a labor-management program in 1975. CRS
employees in professional positions voted to include
employees in nonprofessional positions in the same
bargaining unit, resulting in one union representing
all non-management employees.

Kravitz was at the heart

of these developments, as the top professional
aide to the Joint Committee on the Organization
of Congress. Kravitz informed the legislation with
his detailed knowledge of the organization and
procedures of the House and Senate.

Kravitz assisted committees and lawmakers

on congressional reform, budgetary processes,

legislative-executive relationships, party leadership and floor procedures. He produced scores
of CRS reports, as well as the first edition of
American Congressional Dictionary.
Upon his retirement in 1979, Kravitz was
presented with the Distinguished Service Award,
the highest honor of the Library.
A native of Brooklyn, N.Y., Kravitz served in
the U.S. Army during World War II, and received
his undergraduate and graduate degrees from
New York University. He died in 1994 at the age
of 69.

26 l CRS at 100

Serving Committees
With the passage of the 1970 act, the Service began
immediately assisting congressional committees on
a broad range of issues, including campaign finance
legislation, energy and fuels policy, science policy,
foreign policy, housing and welfare reform. Of
particular note was a House committee request for a
multi-year examination of the relationship of science and technology to the formation and conduct of
foreign relations. The resulting 15 committee prints,
published under the overall title Science, Technology and American Diplomacy, formed the basis for
several congressional hearings.
In early 1973, the Senate responded to growing
concern about a break-in at the Democratic National
Committee headquarters at the Watergate office
complex and the Nixon Administrations alleged attempted cover-up of its involvement. A Senate Select
Committee on Presidential Campaign Activities,
established in February 1973, placed a heavy demand

on the time and talents of CRS as a concerned nation

became increasingly aware of the unprecedented
events unfolding in Washington.
The intensity of effort increased with Vice President Spiro Agnews resignation in 1973, the nomination of Rep. Gerald R. Ford to be vice president,
the House Judiciary Committees impeachment
investigation of President Nixon and his subsequent
resignation, and Fords assumption of the presidency
in August 1974. Related work dealt with the Federal
Election Campaign Act Amendments of 1974, the
Presidential Recordings and Materials Preservation Act of 1974, Nixons rights to various transition
benefits, the nomination of New York Gov. Nelson
Rockefeller to be vice president and consideration of
35 legislative proposals put forward by the Watergate
Committee, including provision for independent
counsels. At the same time, analysts were involved
daily in the development of the Congressional Budget and Impoundment Control Act of 1974, which
provided for the establishment of House and Senate
Budget Committees and also created the Congressional Budget Office (CBO).

1980s
From Cramped Quarters to a New Home
Between fiscal years 1970 and 1980, CRS staff more
than doubled. This made it possible to handle a
larger, more challenging workload and to respond
quickly; however, the growing staff placed a considerable strain on office space. Employees were
squeezed into makeshift offices built in every available space in the Thomas Jefferson and John Adams
Buildings. The director and his staff had offices in

the House Reading Room. Other units occupied the

upper floors of the Librarys Great Hall, the rotunda
balcony in the upper galleries of the Jefferson Main
Reading Room, a large Adams reading room and tiny
attic spaces above book storage decks.
Staff bade farewell to the frescoes, statues, marble
floors and tourists in 1980 when the Service moved
to modern offices in the newly built James Madison
Memorial Building. For the first time since 1974, all
Service employees were located in the same building. Relocation allowed management to implement a
number of long-planned productivity improvements
for efficient work flow, storage of materials in appropriate areas and more effective use of equipment.
Also in 1980, the Senate adopted a resolution
expressly affirming the confidentiality of CRSs relationships with congressional clients and extending

the protection of the Speech or Debate Clause of the

Constitution to CRSs work for Congress.
Seminars, Workshops and Institutes
The 1970 mandate encouraged the development of
new services and more effective ways of providing
traditional services without sacrificing research
standards. Beginning in the 1970s and continuing
through the 1980s, CRS offered, tested and steadily
refined a variety of workshops, seminars, institutes
and policy discussions. Some remained ad hoc
undertakings; others became institutionalized
and continue to this day. Seminars and workshops
quickly proved to be an invaluable way to provide
busy Members and their staff with information and
analytical insights on complex issues.
In 1976, CRS and the Institute of Politics at

Vastine Platte records requests from congressional clients

in the Inquiry Section, 1970s.

Gilbert Gude

grams designed to help

Cornell University and a masters degree in public

Director, 1977-1985

Member and committee

administration from George Washington University.

Gude, a five-term Member of Congress, was appoint-

staff effectively use CRS

Gude held numerous elected and political positions

ed director in 1977 by Librarian Daniel J. Boorstin,

services. He oversaw the

before coming to CRS. He served in the Maryland

who called him a man of nonpartisan vision, of ster-

relocation of Service staff in

House of Delegates and the Maryland Senate as well

ling integrity and of civic imagination.

1980 to the James Madison

as the U.S. House of Representatives.

As director, Gude initiated a series of changes

Memorial Building. Gude

A champion of the environment, Gude was the

designed to improve the timeliness and quality of

also brought CRS into the

author of two books about the Potomac River

materials provided to Congress. These included an

automated age. During his tenure, CRS installed com-

Where the Potomac Begins: A History of the North

enhanced Member and committee liaison effort, a

puter workstations, selected software programs and

Branch Valley and Small Town Destiny: The Story of

program to upgrade CRS publications and a renewed

trained staff to use them.

Five Small Towns Along the Potomac Valley. He died

emphasis on objectivity in research and analysis.

Gude was born in Washington, D.C. During World

in 2007 at age 84.

Under Gudes leadership, CRS established the

War II, he served in the Army Medical Department.

Legislative Institute series, legislative process pro-

He earned a bachelors degree in horticulture from

CRS at 100 l 27

Excavation for the James Madison Memorial Building began in the summer of 1971. The building officially opened in 1980.

Wayne Riddle

later stages when Congress

his creativity, ability to generate ideas that facilitate

Authority on Education Policy

focused on expanding and

compromise and for the speed with which he could

Riddle, a leading authority on elementary and

refining educational ac-

handle complex tasks. Riddle produced more than

secondary education issues, served as a resource to

countability provisions.

500 written products during his tenure.

Congress for nearly 40 years.

Riddle led efforts to

He has served our country well, and made a

Riddle joined CRS not long after the passage of

support Congress in all

very real difference in the lives of countless children

the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA)

reauthorizations of ESEA

who have benefited in their education because of his

of 1965, which authorizes the federal governments

from the 1970s through his

expertise and dedication, said Sen. Edward Ted

major programs aiming to improve educational op-

retirement in 2008. He was one of the principal archi-

Kennedy in a tribute in 2008.

portunities for low-income students. Riddle was a key

tects of the funding formulas used to distribute com-

Riddle was born in 1947 in Asheville, N.C. He

contributor to Congresss work on ESEA, from the

pensatory funds across states and school districts,

earned a bachelors degree in history from the

early stages when Congress was grappling with the

and he assisted in the development and refinement

University of Virginia and a masters degree in

implementation of provisions designed to provide

of many other facets of ESEA programs.

economics from George Washington University.

compensatory assistance to schools serving large

Demand for his input and analysis was excep-

He resides in Crozet, Va.

shares of economically disadvantaged students, to

tionally high during his career. He was renowned for

28 l CRS at 100

Seminars and workshops quickly proved

to be an invaluable way to provide busy
Members and their staff with information
and analytical insights on complex issues.
Harvard Universitys Kennedy School of Government jointly sponsored the first seminar for newly
elected Members of Congress. The programs goal
was to inform freshmen Members on the intricacies
of the legislative and budget processes, domestic and
defense budgets and the role of Congress in dealing
with a wide range of issues, including taxes, the econ-

Kathleen Shea (now Kathleen S. Swendiman), legislative

attorney, 1977.

omy, energy, urban problems, health care, defense

and international relations. Since 1983, before the
convening of each new Congress, freshmen Members
have gathered at a multi-day retreat in Colonial Williamsburg, where a wide range of well-known leaders
and distinguished scholars join with Service specialists in making presentations on prominent topics.
One of the Services most influential contributions has been the Legislative Institute series inaugurated in fiscal year 1977. The first two, the Basic and
Advanced Institutes, offer congressional staff courses
on the procedural activities of Congress in a sequential, organized manner. CRS added the third, the
Graduate Institute, in fiscal year 1980. The Graduate
Institute gave legislative staff an opportunity to roleplay a Member of a model Congress working on a
major piece of legislation, from introduction to final
passage, by applying the knowledge gained from the
first two institutes.
In 1981, at the request of the Senate Judiciary
Committee, CRS held its first Federal Law Update
briefings on current legal topics of interest to Members of Congress and staff. Three years later, the
series was expanded to a semiannual series of lectures.
Today, the bars of numerous states approve continuing legal education credit for attendees of this series.
Beginning in 1986, CRS added workshops for
Members and staff on current policy problems. In
addition to resident specialists, these sessions featured academics and specialists from research and
analytical organizations, the executive branch and
the private sector. A significant outgrowth of CRS
workshops is the Congressional Oversight Manual,
which resulted from a 1987 Workshop on Congres-

sional Oversight and Investigations sponsored by the

bipartisan House leadership.
Together, seminars, institutes and workshops, as
they have evolved over the years, have been attended
by thousands of congressional staff annually and
have become a valuable complement to the in-depth
research, personal briefings, consultations, memoranda and analytical studies that constitute the core
of CRS work for Congress.
Domestic Concerns, Foreign Tensions
Early in the 1980s, tax legislation dominated the
congressional agenda. During consideration of the
Economic Recovery Tax Act of 1981, Members and
committees relied heavily on the Services products
and expertise as they sought to better understand the
business and individual tax cuts proposed in the bill.
Included as part of this effort was a 10-week series of
congressional staff seminars analyzing the bill from
different vantage points. A similarly intensive effort
was devoted to examining the effects of the act after
it became law, and to consideration of the Tax Equity
and Fiscal Responsibility Act of 1982. Deliberations
on the Tax Reform Act of 1986, the first comprehensive reform of the Internal Revenue Code in more
than three decades, again triggered widespread use of
the Service before and after the laws enactment.
In 1983, congressional concern arose about a series of unrelated but contemporaneous developments
abroad, including conflicts in Lebanon, Nicaragua
and El Salvador, and the Soviet downing of a Korean
airliner in September. Tensions further increased on
Capitol Hill in October 1983, when a suicide bomber
drove an explosives-filled truck into a U.S. Marine

CRS at 100 l 29

Sen. Hubert Humphrey thanks a group of CRS staff for their work on the Joint Economic Committee print Toward a National
Growth Policy, 1975-1976. From left: Sandra Osbourn, John Mitrisin, Norman Beckman, Humphrey, Barry Berlin, Susan
Abbasi (now Fletcher), Kathleen Shea (now Swendiman), Sharon Greene, unknown man, unknown man, Susan Finsen and Clay
Wellborn.

Corps barracks in Beirut, Lebanon, killing 241. Two

days later, the United States invaded Grenada for
the stated purpose of rescuing American students
endangered by internal violence. Both the Beirut
bombing and Grenada intervention required a sizeable analytical commitment by CRS. Against this
background, a House committee asked the Service
to prepare a series of studies, Congress and Foreign
Policy, the last eight of which were published as
committee prints.
Although CRS work rarely captures widespread
public attention, in April 1984 the New York Times
hailed the Service as having authorities on everything from Soviet economics to science policy
research to foreign affairs and the military. It

30 l CRS at 100

In 1985 the Service was hailed as having

authorities on everything from Soviet
economics to science policy to foreign
affairs and the military.
annually publishes more than 50,000 studies and
briefs. Impartiality is the key to its success, as
it nurtures objectivity. Later in 1984, the Times
spotlighted Johnny H. Killian, senior specialist, as
Congresss Keeper of the Constitution. While
the constitutional law expert was not a judge, the
Times emphasized, More than any one judge or law
professor, he can influence Congress by advising on
the constitutionality of laws proposed by legislators.

In 1985, the $2 trillion national debt drew more

attention in Congress than any other issue. CRS
analysts were closely involved in all stages of the
10-month legislative process that led to the passage of the Balanced Budget and Emergency Deficit
Control Act, commonly referred to as the GrammRudman-Hollings Act. House testimony addressed
constitutional questions of separation of powers and
delegation of legislative power, which were a significant component of the debate. Support efforts continued at the conference stage. Following passage of
the act and over the next several years, CRS devoted
considerable time and attention to analyzing the effects of the legislation on different federal entities.
CRS also worked on the development of a design
for a new civil service retirement system, culminating in the signing of the Federal Employees Retirement System Act of 1986. During three years of
negotiations, CRS produced the original study that
contributed concepts, ideas and data for designing a new pension system. CRS also helped Senate
and House committees analyze options for benefits
distribution and estimate long-term costs. Both sides
of the aisle used CRS data and methodology to make
tradeoffs and reach a compromise.
A historic highlight of the decade occurred on
March 4, 1985, when the Congressional Reading
Room in the James Madison Memorial Building of
the Library of Congress was named the La Follette
Reading Room. This designation, approved by the
Joint Committee on the Library, honored Robert
M. La Follette Sr. and his son, Robert M. La Follette Jr., for their contributions to the development of
the reference and research services in support of the

legislative function in American government. The

ceremony coincided with the 100th anniversary of
the senior La Follettes taking of the oath as a Representative. Before the ceremony, a symposium was
held on how lawmakers use information resources in
making decisions.
Bicentennial of Congress/CRS at 75
The advent of the historic 100th Congress (19871988) provided an opportune moment for CRS to
evaluate how well it had met the needs of Congress
since 1970. This prompted significant modifications
in the Services organizational structure, written
products and methods for anticipating future con-

An employee makes a newspaper clipping, 1987. Before

online databases and electronic resources were available,
CRS maintained a reference file system that contained
clippings from major U.S. newspapers, journal articles,
monograph publications, CRS reports and more.

gressional needs. Also during the term of the 100th

Congress, CRS inaugurated an extensive recruitment
program designated to attract talent, particularly
minority students, from the nations law schools and
graduate schools.
By 1987, Congress was enjoying the benefits of
a professional cadre of career policy analysts within
CRS. The importance of the Services institutional
memory was reflected in increased participation at
all levels of the legislative process. This enhanced
expertise was perhaps most evident when working
on amendments to legislation similar to that considered or passed by previous Congresses. Lessons
learned from assisting in congressional investigations of the Watergate and Iran-Contra controversies had strengthened Congresss investigatory capability. The latter inquiry, undertaken by the 100th
Congress, focused on the Reagan Administrations
secret arms sales to Iran in 1985 and 1986 and the
diversion of proceeds from those sales to illegally
fund contras opposing the Nicaraguan government. CRS was present at the creation of House
and Senate Select Iran-Contra Committees and
frequently consulted with both entities throughout
their investigations.
In 1989, the first year of a two-year celebration of
the bicentennial of Congress, CRS and the Library
of Congress joined with the Senate and House in a
number of commemorative events. Members participated in a seminar, Knowledge, Power and the Congress, while a two-day symposium, Understanding
Congress: A Bicentennial Research Conference,
attracted attention among congressional scholars.
A Library of Congress exhibit, To Make All Laws:

Johnny H. Killian
Keeper of the Constitution
Killian was Congresss resident expert on the
U.S. Constitution for more than 44 years.
As editor and major contributor, Killian for
four decades kept current
The Constitution of the
United States of America:
Analysis and Interpretation, the preeminent legal
resource. His analytical
lectures on Supreme
Court decisions constituted the keynote address in CRSs Federal Law
Update series for more than a quarter century.
From 1963 to 2008, Killians memoranda and
reports appeared in the Congressional Record,
committee hearings and other congressional
publications on subjects as diverse as presidential powers, congressional authority over federal
court jurisdiction, civil rights and labor law.

Killian was a mentor for a generation of staff

who joined CRS after the 1970 Reorganization

Act. Sen. Robert Byrd said in a tribute to Killian:
His legacy as an academic and a researcher,
blessed with an extraordinary legal mind, will be
with us for a long time.

Born in Waynesville, N.C., Killian received

bachelors and law degrees from the University

of North Carolina. He died at the age of 70 in
Arlington, Va., in 2008.

CRS at 100 l 31

The Congress of the United States, 1789-1989, depicted the growth of the first branch of government.
The Service celebrated its 75th anniversary with a
conference exploring the role of the legislature in a
democracy. Participants included current and former
Members, academics and CRS specialists.

1990s
A Window on the Early 1990s
During the 1990s, CRS continued to support Congress as it developed, considered and enacted major
legislative initiatives. To provide the maximum assistance possible, staff formed multidisciplinary teams
to help legislators address the progressively more
complex issues facing them.
The decade saw the collapse of the Soviet Union,
war in Iraq and reorganization efforts in Congress.
In CRS, technology enabled the Service to expand

its legislative documentation activities and develop a

website through which Members and staff could access the range of CRS products and services.
Following the end of the Cold War in the early
1990s, the House established the Frost-Solomon
Special Task Force on the Development of Parliamentary Institutions in Central and Eastern Europe
to serve as a catalyst for democratic reform in those
regions. Named for former Rep. Martin Frost and
the late Rep. Gerald B.H. Soloman, the task force
provided assistance to parliaments in 12 emerging
democraciesAlbania, Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland,
Romania, Russia, Slovakia and Ukraine. Task force
programs were based on the principle that successful democratic transitions in the former communist
countries depended on the establishment of effective
democratic legislatures. CRS conducted training

programs for more than 2,200 staff and members of

parliaments; hosted several official East European
delegations; and together with other groups provided
seminars, workshops and briefings. The programs
administered by CRS also provided more than 1,200
computers, printers and other office equipment, and
more than 9,300 books and other materials to parliamentary libraries.
The invasion of Kuwait by Iraq on Aug. 2, 1990,
triggered a resurgence of inquiries for statistics and
information on Americas energy policy. The Gulf
War and its aftermath refocused attention on policy
issues such as domestic and Middle East energy
and oil supplies, the environmental impacts of war,
including oil-field fires, and the effect of a trade
embargo on Iraq. In responding to these concerns
and other far-reaching questions arising from the
conflict, a multidisciplinary team created more

Joseph G. Whelan

Scholar of Soviet-American Diplomacy

columnist Stephen S.

ing a multi-volume series of studies on the Soviet

Whelan made major contributions to the understand-

Rosenfeld called the first

space program, in addition to preparing substantial

ing of U.S.-Soviet relations and international relations

volume of the study, at the

and seminal works on the brain drain from devel-

in general for Congress and the policymaking com-

time of its publication in

oping countries and on Radio Liberty, a study that

munity at large.

1979, the foreign affairs

contributed to the forces of democratization in the

As a senior specialist in international relations

book of the seasonof all

Soviet Union.

from 1952 to 1992, Whelan prepared more than 100

seasons and wrote that no

major LRS/CRS reports. Among the most significant

other book for a long time will improve American

served in the U.S. Navy during World War II. He re-

was a multi-volume work issued by the House Foreign

diplomacy more.

ceived a bachelors degree from Trinity College and

Affairs Committee, Soviet Diplomacy and Negotiat-

a doctorate from the University of Rochester. He died

ing Behavior, covering the pre-revolutionary era of

works for Congress on Soviet involvement in the third

Russia to the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991.

world and various studies on Eastern Europe and

32 l CRS at 100

Washington Post

Whelan brought dedicated scholarship to major

international communism. He collaborated in prepar-

Whelan was born in 1921 in Buffalo, N.Y. He

in 2006 in Fairfax, Va.

than 100 new Persian Gulf-related products and conducted numerous consultations, seminars, briefings
and workshops.
Later, on Aug. 6, 1992, a bicameral Joint Committee on the Organization of Congress, modeled
after the congressional reform committees of the
same name established in 1945 and 1965, was
created to address growing concern with the effectiveness and public perception of Congress. The joint
committee held six months of hearings, organized
symposiums on specific organizational topics (the
committee system, staffing, the budget process and
legislative-executive relations) and conducted the
most extensive set of opinion surveys ever undertaken by a bicameral reorganization committee. Walter
J. Oleszek, senior specialist, was critical to the success of the joint committee, according to co-chair
Rep. Lee H. Hamilton. Oleszek and several other
CRS detailees were involved in all facets of the
panels work, Hamilton wrote. Many of the reforms
proposed by the joint committee were subsequently
adopted, including those contained in the Congressional Accountability Act, which extended protection
under 11 federal labor and antidiscrimination laws to
congressional employees.
While the joint committee was focusing on organizational issues in 1993, considerable debate ensued
over ratification of the North American Free Trade
Agreement (NAFTA). NAFTA was an especially
significant, complex and politically sensitive measure,
and demands for analytical support were considerable. CRS developed 27 reports to address the issues
and implications of the agreement. The Service also
used briefings and seminars to provide balanced as-

Bibliographers Sherry B. Shapiro and Valentin Leskovsek collaborate on a request, 1987.

sessments during the intensely political and public

debate on the NAFTA Implementation Act.
The Service also worked for the House and
Senate Budget Committees on the Omnibus Budget
Reconciliation Act of 1993 (OBRA). CRS prepared
reports on the budget process changes approved by
the House and Senate in their respective versions.
CRS also held consultations with Members and
provided assistance to a committee preparing for a
hearing on expanded rescission proposals.

Legislative Information Systems

The Library launched the THOMAS website in
1995 as part of a House leadership initiative to make
federal legislative information freely available to the
public. As the public Internet portal to bill analysis
with enhancements generated by CRS, the system
represented a dramatic expansion of access to legislative resources. THOMASs offerings were later
expanded to include features and content requested
by Congress on behalf of constituents.

CRS at 100 l 33

An employee files CRS reports, 1993.

In 1996, at the direction of Congress (through

appropriations language) and in partnership with the
Secretary of the Senate, the House Clerk, the Chief
Administrative Officer of the House, the Senate
Sergeant at Arms, and GPO, CRS coordinated the
development of a new automated Legislative Information System (LIS) to serve the legislative branch.
LIS was developed under the policy direction of
the Committee on House Oversight and the Senate Committee on Rules and Administration. CRS
worked with the Librarys Office of Information
Technology Services in designing and developing
the system, which became available when the 105th
Congress convened. Through continual improve-

ments, the online system offered legislation, hearings, reports, markups, floor action, amendments,
the full text of the Congressional Record and links to
legislative agency Internet sites. LIS became a critical
source of authoritative information for Members,
committees and congressional staff.
CRS Website for Congress
With the 1995 launch of CRS.gov, CRSs website
for Congress, the Service was able to provide Members and congressional staff with easy access to its
products in digital form as well as many other online
information resources. Examples of these resources
included fact sheets providing information on legisla-

Joseph E. Ross

the exploration of new

City until 1951, when he was recalled to the Navy JAG

Director, 1986-1994

technologies of the time,

(Judge Advocate General) Corps, helping to rewrite

Ross, who was named acting director in 1986 and

such as optical disk, fax and

the Uniform Code of Military Justice. He retired from

director later the same year, led CRS as Congress

online databases.

the Navy as a captain in 1969, and served as deputy

dealt with issues such as the Iran-Contra investiga-

A major accomplish-

assistant JAG in the Department of Justice before

tion, deficit reduction, financial regulatory reform,

ment was Rosss leadership

joining CRS in 1972 as assistant chief and senior

the Strategic Defense Initiative, multinational trade

of CRSs work for the Frost-

specialist in American public law. Before his appoint-

agreements, welfare, health care reform initiatives

Solomon Task Force, which

ment to director, Ross headed CRSs American Law

and the Persian Gulf War.

provided assistance from Congress to 12 emerging

Division, where he oversaw creation of the Federal

democracies in Central and Eastern Europe and the

Law Update seminar series.

effective leader in making CRS vital to the operations

former Soviet Union.

Ross was a past president of the Federal Bar

of the legislative branch of the U.S. government, said

Association, served on the governing body of the

Librarian of Congress James H. Billington.

during World War II aboard the USS Idaho in the

American Bar Association, and was actively involved

Under Rosss directorship, CRSs workforce

Pacific Theater of Operations and fought in battles in-

in providing legal assistance to Habitat for Humanity.

became more diverse, as he implemented programs

cluding Iwo Jima, Okinawa and the Philippine Sea. He

He died in 2012 at age 87.

designed to recruit minority applicants. CRS also

earned a bachelors degree and juris doctorate from

expanded its technical capacity, as Ross supported

St. Johns University. He practiced law in New York

He was a dedicated public servant and a highly

34 l CRS at 100

Born in Brooklyn, N.Y., Ross served in the Navy

Today, the CRS website serves as

Congresss gateway to objective and
authoritative expertise.
tive and budget processes and digital briefing books
presenting multidisciplinary analyses of issues. Today, the CRS website serves as Congresss gateway to
objective and authoritative expertise.

2000s
A Rapidly Changing Environment
At the dawn of the 21st century, CRS faced a rapidly
changing congressional environment, an extraordinary information revolution created by the Internet,
and more frequent turnover of congressional staff. In
adapting to these changes, CRS undertook technology initiatives that improved access to CRS experts;
refined and expanded the content of its website;
created new types of products and services; improved
LIS; and upgraded the CRS technical infrastructure.
Over the next decade, the number of CRS titles
available to Congress grew from 3,800 in fiscal year
2000 to 6,700 in fiscal year 2010. Briefings, consultations and congressional testimony by Service staff
more than doubledincreasing from 2,000 to 4,900.
As the new century began, the nations attention
was dominated by the closest presidential election
in 40 years. While political parties disputed voting
results in Florida, CRS provided a coordinated assessment and response. Legislative attorneys wrote
analyses of federal and state law concerning presidential election returns; procedural analysts explored
floor procedures in electoral vote count sessions

and the nuances of the electoral college system; and

analysts assisted Members and staff in developing improved standards for voting systems.
9/11 Terrorist Attacks
Less than a year after the protracted election controversy, the terrorist attacks of Sept. 11, 2001, and
subsequent anthrax incidents on Capitol Hill created
daunting new challenges for Congress. After the
9/11 attacks, CRS provided Congress with immediate access to its experts and to products relevant to
terrorism. During ensuing weeks, Congress consulted with CRS on presidential war powers, programs to combat terrorism, funding for the military
campaign against terrorist leader Osama bin Laden
and his al Qaeda network and the radical Taliban
regime in Afghanistan, emergency supplemental appropriations for recovery, and legislation leading to
the USA PATRIOT Act.
Institutionally, CRS escalated its emergency
preparedness and service continuity planning efforts
to ensure that, in the event of any future emergency,
Congress would have ready access to CRS staff and
information systems. In connection with its technology initiative, CRS created tools to maintain a secure
21st century technology-based research environment.
Upon release of The 9/11 Commission Report:
Final Report of the National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States on July 22,
2004, a CRS interdisciplinary team began analyzing
the report. More than 70 written products addressed
subjects highlighted in the report and legislative
responses to the commissions recommendations.

Wars in Afghanistan and Iraq

In October 2001, the United States launched a military campaign to overturn the Taliban government
of Afghanistan, which had provided a base for the
al Qaeda terrorists who carried out the 9/11 attacks.
CRS experts provided analyses for several congressional delegations visiting the region, supported
related hearings, helped coordinate visits by Afghan
leaders and tracked events in Afghanistan. Continuing into the 2010s, the Service works with the
Congressional Budget Office (CBO) to estimate the

Bernice Reyes-Akinbileje, health policy analyst, 1992.

CRS at 100 l 35

Clockwise from top left: Martin A. Weiss, specialist in international trade and finance, 2004. Angela D. Harris, Karen J. Lewis
and Marie Morris talk at a seminar put on by the American Law Division, 2007. Carol Davis, information research specialist, 2003.

36 l CRS at 100

cost of Afghanistan military operations and furnishes

analytical expertise on a broad range of Afghan related issues at hearings and in consultations, briefings
and reports. The administrations order establishing
military tribunals in conjunction with U.S. activities in Afghanistan generated requests for analysis
of the constitutional rights of persons subject to
military tribunals and treatment of people detained
as unlawful combatants at the U.S. Naval Station
Guantanamo Bay.
During fiscal year 2002, more than a quarter
of CRS analysts and attorneys worked on policy
and legal issues raised by the nations antiterrorism
effort and preparations for possible military operations in Iraq. The war dominated the congressional
foreign relations and diplomatic agendas for much

of the next decade. CRS attorneys analyzed the legality of government actions taken under authority
of the congressional authorization to use military
force. Analysts worked on spending issues associated with Department of Defense (DOD) funding
requests for military operations in Iraq, and collaborated with CBO and GAO to estimate the cost
of those operations and track DOD spending on its
Iraqi support contracts.
The completion of Operation Iraqi Freedom
and the transfer of sovereignty from the Coalition
Provisional Authority to the Iraqi interim government gave rise to questions about the law of occupation, the sovereign debt, status of coalition forces in
Iraq, conditions at the Abu Ghraib military prison,
military justice and contractor liability. Analysts

Mildred Amer, specialist in American national government,

receives feedback on a report from Douglas M. MacMillan,
review specialist, 2007.

Jeffrey C. Griffith

Congress. In addition, he

integrated system and overcoming the institutional

Leader in Legislative Information Systems

was a recognized leader in

differences in the ways the organizations managed

Griffith, information technology expert, helped CRS

efforts to implement XML

their internal information.

transition through pivotal IT developments over a 30-

technology for legislative

Griffith was born in Baltimore in 1944. He earned

year tenure. He was a leader in efforts to move CRS

data and championed

bachelors and masters degrees from Harvard Univer-

into the digital age and instrumental in implementing

improvements in security

sity and a masters in library science from the Univer-

an integrated Legislative Information System (LIS)

initiatives to protect criti-

sity of California, Los Angeles. He served in the U.S.

for Congress.

cal databases and ensure

Navy from 1968 to 1971. He retired as CRSs associate

Griffith played a key role in developing SCORPIO,

continuity of operations in the event of disaster.

director for legislative information in 2005. Following

a system for retrieving legislative and public policy

Known for his collaborative philosophy, he

his retirement, he was retained by the United Nations

information that was one of the first systematic uses

headed the CRS team when Congress requested a

to advise foreign parliaments about best practices in

of digital information in the government. Before the

legislative information system. He worked closely

the use of IT by legislative bodies. He resides in

Internet, he made significant contributions as part of

in the 1990s with the Senate, House, GPO and the

Kensington, Md.

a team that pioneered the use of optical disk technol-

Library to develop and implement LIS, successfully

ogy for preserving and disseminating information to

bringing the House and Senate together to ensure an

CRS at 100 l 37

regularly provided in-person expertise, assisted

during floor debates on Iraq-related legislation and
prepared specialized memoranda for hearings and
delegations traveling to Iraq or meeting with visiting
Iraqi leaders. As U.S. involvement wound down, CRS
answered a high volume of requests dealing with
withdrawal timetables, handover of major security
missions and postwar needs of Iraq.
Growing Domestic Challenges
Although Afghanistan, Iraq and the war on terrorism continued to demand close attention throughout the 21st centurys first decade, Congress also
addressed growing domestic challenges during these
years. Congress turned to CRS for expert assistance

Within hours after each of the storms

in a new department. After DHS became a reality,

CRS supported congressional oversight activities
and assisted the committees of jurisdiction on the
security and protection of assets critical to the
U.S. infrastructure.
In 2005, Hurricanes Katrina and Rita caused
great damage and loss of life along the Gulf Coast.
Within hours after each of the storms struck, CRS
mobilized a comprehensive, interdisciplinary effort to support Congress as it addressed the needs
of the individuals and jurisdictions affected by the
storms. Analysts visited the offices of Members from
affected states, worked with committees of jurisdiction on assistance plans and analyzed the economic
effects of the disasters. The Service continued its

struck, CRS mobilized comprehensive

efforts to support Congress.
on the Aviation and Transportation Security Act
of 2001, the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001, the
Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act of 2002 (McCainFeingold Act), the Corporate Fraud Accountability
Act of 2002, the Help America Vote Act of 2002,
and the Trade Act of 2002. Congress again called
upon CRS for analytical support as it assessed the
purpose and functions of a proposed Department of
Homeland Security (DHS) and considered the implications of consolidating several federal agencies

Daniel P. Mulhollan

sion and acting Deputy

Director, 1994-2011

Librarian of Congress. In

Illinois. He received a General Electric College Bowl

Mulhollan, appointed by Librarian of Congress James

1991, he was awarded the

Scholarship and studied at the College of St. Thomas

H. Billington, served as director of CRS for 17 years,

Librarys highest honor,

in St. Paul, Minn., where he earned his bachelors

capping a 42-year career dedicated to serving Con-

the Distinguished Service

degree with honors. As a recipient of a National

gress. Under Mulhollans leadership, CRS positioned

Award, for career achieve-

Defense Education Act Title IV Fellowship, he studied

itself for service in a new century in many ways.

ment, unusual levels of

political philosophy at Georgetown University.

CRS developed a website exclusively for Congress,

service, and achievement

implemented an agency-wide workforce succession

of extraordinary results.

Science Association, the American Library Association

plan, emphasized agency-wide and research-related

and the Special Library Association. He served on the

collaboration and established new partnerships with

David Price said: To say that Dan is an institution

Visitors Board of the School of Information Sciences at

major universities to enhance its research capacity.

around here is really an understatement. In many

the University of Pittsburgh and the advisory council

In a spring 2011 tribute on the House floor, Rep.

Mulhollan was born in Louisville, Ky., and raised in

Mulhollan was a member of the American Political

Mulhollan came to the Library in September

ways, he has personified the growth of CRS from a

for the San Jose State School of Library and Informa-

1969 as an analyst in American national government

relatively small division of the Library of Congress

tion Science. Mulhollan resides in Alexandria, Va.

within the then-Legislative Reference Service. He

into the world-class source of objective and authori-

subsequently served as chief of the Government Divi-

tative research and analysis that it is today.

38 l CRS at 100

Stephanie Williams

gress. Williams was a leader

of online research resources, and, overall, improved

Leader in Legislative Librarianship

in that effort, and in the

information resources management through cost-

Williams was the first chief of a new unit that changed

subsequent organization of

effective measures.

the way CRS librarians operated in service to Con-

the new unit.

gress. The Knowledge Services Group (KSG) suc-

Intelligence Services Directorate, which included

cessfully clustered information professionals together

KSG was built on her previ-

library services, before joining CRS in 1995. Upon re-

by policy research area, embedding them in the

ous successes as chief of

tirement in 2008, Williams was awarded the Librarys

research divisions and thereby aligning their work

the Library Services Division

Superior Service Award in recognition of her high-

directly to the CRS analytical divisions and strength-

and associate director of Information Resources

quality leadership and innovative achievements.

ening collaboration.

Management. Aided by Williamss collaborative skills,

The KSG was born out of a study in the early

CRS enhanced its digital portfolio throughout the

earned a bachelors degree from Fisk University in

2000s that examined congressional information

1990s. She led efforts to replace an in-house data-

Nashville and a masters in library science from At-

needs, CRS workload and the competencies and

base with expanded access to electronic resources

lanta University. She resides in Fort Washington, Md.

expertise necessary to fulfill CRSs mission to Con-

at the desktop, oversaw the development and launch

assistance as attention turned to long-term recovery

and rebuilding efforts.
As the first decade of the new century drew to a
close, the nations economy showed signs of weakness. Widespread speculation and other irregularities in the housing, finance and insurance sectors
contributed to a panic and near-collapse of the
nations financial structure in September 2008. CRS
experts focused on the economic stimulus options
under consideration by Congress, specifically offering assistance in understanding the effectiveness
of federal spending increases, income tax cuts and
monetary policy as alternative methods of stimulating the economy.
Early in 2009, a new presidential administration, with the support of both houses of Congress,
moved to enact legislation providing public relief and

Her leadership of the

stimulus spending designed to generate economic

recovery. As Congress crafted this complex legislation, CRS analysts helped assess how the provisions
of the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of
2009 could provide stimulus.
Amid the worst recession since the Great Depression, Congress completed a sweeping overhaul of a
regulatory system that had failed to keep up with the
expanding scope and complexity of modern finance.
The Dodd-Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer
Protection Act established a new framework for
monitoring and regulating systemic risk. Before the
law was passed, CRS contributed hearing testimony,
numerous reports and memoranda, and authoritative comparisons of the bills initially approved by the
House and Senate.

Williams served as deputy of the Office of Naval

Williams was born in 1950 in Sylvania, Ga. She

Health Care and Debt Limit

In March 2010, President Barack Obama signed
legislation designed to bring universal health care to
the United States, the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (ACA), and a package of amendments
to it, the Health Care and Education Reconciliation
Act. Before ACAs enactment, CRS provided detailed
analyses and briefings on a broad range of health care
reform proposals and addressed the implications of
changes proposed in the alternatives being considered. After the bills were signed, analysts supported
congressional oversight of the new laws implementation. CRS attorneys advised on the litigation that
ensued in the wake of the Acts passage, including the
Supreme Courts historic decision to uphold the law.
When attention turned in 2011 to the question of
raising the federal debt limit and averting a default

CRS at 100 l 39

addressing the budget deficit, and ability to stimulate

economic expansion through reductions in the size
and scope of government. Memoranda and reports
addressed the effects of a lapse in federal funding and
the potential legal consequences of a failure to raise
the debt limit. This effort culminated with passage
of the Budget Control Act of 2011.

David Mao of the Knowledge Services Group (now Law Librarian of Congress) assists a congressional staffer, 2007.

on government debt, CRS responded with information on the composition of federal debt, history
of the debt limit and effects of reaching the debt

40 l CRS at 100

limit on government operations and the economy.

Briefings and seminars dealt with the long-term
sustainability of the debt and deficit, approaches to

A New Legislative Information Platform

In 2011, the Library, in collaboration with the Senate, House and the Government Printing Office, began development of a modern legislative information
platform. Taking advantage of advances in technology, the new Congress.gov will provide more robust
functionality, data and contextual legislative process
information than the first generation systems. A beta
version of Congress.gov was released to Congress
and the nation in late 2012, and the new system will
eventually replace both LIS and public legislative
database THOMAS.gov.
Analyzing and presenting legislative information remains a core service of CRS support for
Congress. In 2014, legislative analysts draw upon
powerful text analysis tools to prepare detailed summaries of lengthy and complex measures quickly
and efficiently. Likewise, reflecting the evolution of
congressional operations, bill summaries and status
information are updated continuously and distributed through multiple channels, including apps for
mobile devices. Congressional offices and the public,
via a succession of technologies, benefit from access
to an ever richer body of legislative analysis and
information resources.

Mary B. Mazanec

serve Congress in a cost-

Pensions, Subcommittee on Public Health. After her

Acting Director, 2011

effective way.

fellowship concluded, she joined the Medicare Pay-

Director, 2011-Present

ment Advisory Commission as a senior policy analyst.

Mazanec, the first woman to lead CRS, assumed the

ground in public health

Earlier in her career, Mazanec was an assistant/

position of director during a time of budget pres-

policy, medicine and law.

associate professor of medicine and pathology at

sures. Mazanec is committed to maintaining the high-

Before joining CRS as

Case Western Reserve University Medical School,

quality service CRS provides to Congress.

deputy director in 2010,

where she cared for patients with pulmonary

Mazanec worked for the

diseases, trained medical students and conducted

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services

biomedical research on the mucosal immune

tion, Mazanec said. CRS will stay true to its values

(HHS) as a deputy assistant secretary and director

response to respiratory viruses.

and align with Congresss needs. We want Congress

of the Office of Medicine, Science and Public Health

to turn to CRS first when it is in need of research

in the Office of the Assistant Secretary for Prepared-

medicine and law, having received a bachelor of

and analysis to support its deliberations and legisla-

ness and Response (ASPR). Prior to ASPR, she served

science from the University of Notre Dame, a doctor

tive decisions.

as director of the Division of Public Health Services

of medicine from Case Western Reserve University

in the Office of the Assistant Secretary for Planning

Medical School and a juris doctorate from Case West-

We work in an environment in which many

entities are competing for Members time and atten-

I am involving the entire staff in developing

Mazanec has a back-

Mazanec holds advanced degrees in both

presentation formats and delivery methods for our

and Evaluation.

ern Reserve University Law School. She is a licensed

products and services that are the most helpful to the

Mazanec was a Robert Wood Johnson Health

physician in Ohio and Washington, D.C., as well as a

21st century Congress. We will move forward, despite

Policy Fellow, serving as a senior adviser to the Sen-

member of the Ohio State Bar Association and the

resource constraints, and leverage technology to

ate Committee on Health, Education, Labor and

District of Columbia Bar. She resides in Alexandria, Va.

Today
Reflecting on a Century of Service
As it approached its centenary, CRS enhanced its
website for Congress and began to diversify its
portfolio of research and products. Rapidly changing
technology challenged the Service to satisfy client
demands for new ways to access research and analysis
and provided opportunities for CRS to expand its
offerings, enhance its timeliness and improve the accessibility of its services and expertise.
After a century, CRS holds a unique position

in the Washington establishment. Its staff and its

work are almost universally regarded, not only as
the standard for accurate and informed legislative
policy analysis, but as scrupulously balanced and
nonpartisan. The words CRS says ... have weighed
decisively in many policy debates over the years, both
in Washington and the nation. In this sense, the
organization has fulfilled the vision of the generations of Senators and Representatives who worked
first, in 1914, to establish a modest reference capacity,
and later, in 1946 and 1970, to build the worlds most

respected legislative research and analysis service.

Moreover, democratic governments throughout the
world have followed the example set by Congress,
establishing professional, nonpartisan legislative
research agencies that emulate the CRS model.
CRS continues to hold confidential service to
Congress as a primary core value, but while the
Service has shunned publicity and the limelight,
both by design and natural preference, its work has
gained a worldwide audience through the ubiquity
of technology.

CRS at 100 l 41

After a century, CRS holds a unique

position in the Washington establishment.
Its staff and its work are almost universally
regarded, not only as the standard for
accurate and informed legislative policy
analysis, but as scrupulously balanced
and nonpartisan.

The Research Policy Council (RPC), 2013. The RPC is made up of the assistant and associate directors who lead CRS divisions
and offices. The council informs the Director and Deputy Director on matters relating to service to Congress and policies and
guidelines. Back row: John R. Haskell, Michael L. Moodie, Cliff Cohen, Director Mary B. Mazanec, Edward R. Jablonski,
John L. Moore, Richard C. Ehlke. Front row: Lisa M. Hoppis, Monica M. Woods, Lillian W. Gassie, Deputy Director Colleen J.
Shogan, Karen J. Lewis, Lizanne D. Kelley. Not pictured: Laura B. Shrestha.

What is described in this synopsis of a century

of service to Congress cannot reflect the entirety
of the Services contribution nor the myriad questions it has analyzed and answered since 1914. Nor
can a few words truly pay tribute to the devoted staff
of CRS who have helped our national legislators
explore countless new frontiers in responding to the
ever-evolving needs of the nation. CRS staff have
frequently been afforded an opportunity to stand on
the front lines of history and provide an important,

42 l CRS at 100

impartial perspective on many of the most vital issues

and complex problems confronting the United States.
Their reports, as the New York Times editorially
acknowledged in 2009, are often highly influential
behind the scenes in shaping legislation. While CRS
rarely captures the headlines, it has made, and will
continue to make, a significant impact on the deliberations leading to legislative outcomes. That was the
vision from the beginning.

CRS at 100 l 43

CRS Serves Congress

The Congressional Research Service provides comprehensive research and analysis on all legislative and oversight issues of interest to
the U.S. Congress. A service unit of the Library of Congress, CRS is part of the legislative branch. CRS serves as a shared research resource to
all Members, committees and staff. As a complement to the staffs of each Member office and committee, CRS assists Congress throughout
the legislative process.

Tailored, Personalized Service

CRS assists Congress by responding to specific
questions in a variety of ways: in person, by
telephone and in confidential memoranda.
CRS also assists in preparing for hearings and
provides expert testimony.

I was invited to testify

before the House Armed
Services Committee about transition in
Afghanistanthe formal
handover of security responsibility from coalition
to Afghan forces. My role
was to frame key oversight issues before other
witnesses presented their proposed prescriptions.
Afterward, Members and staff from both sides of the
aisle sought me out for briefings and help with draft
legislation. Catherine Dale, Specialist in International Security

A colleague and I briefed

a new Member of Congress on the federal-aid
highway program and
options for funding the
construction of a new
highway bridge in his
district. We spent about
an hour and a half with the
Member. He appreciated
the fact that we were there to help him and answer his
questions with no overt, or even hidden, agenda.
William J. Mallett, Specialist in Transportation
Policy

The Presidents Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief

is the largest effort by any
country to combat HIV/
AIDS worldwide. I worked
intensely with congressional staff who developed
legislation to extend key
provisions of expiring
authorities. Through my
deep knowledge of the program, I was able to offer insights into key areas of contention, distinguish expiring
authorities from enduring ones and provide feedback
on draft language. Tiaji Salaam-Blyther, Specialist
in Global Health

44 l CRS at 100

Reports on Major Policy Issues

CRS analysts, legislative attorneys and librarians
work together to prepare reports on legislative
issues in anticipation of questions and emerging
issues and in response to current events.
CRSs analyses are available to Congress on its
exclusive website, where nearly 10,000 reports
are organized by issue area.

I issued a report within 24

hours of a tragic wildfire
incident. The short report
succinctly described one
facet of wildfire management, directed the reader
to other related reports
and, most importantly,
immediately let Congress
know that there was a
CRS policy specialist available to discuss this matter in
depth. Kelsi Bracmort, Specialist in Agricultural
Conservation and Natural Resources Policy

I coordinated and served

as the primary author of
a report that comprehensively analyzed the various
legal issues that would
need to be resolved
should policymakers
seek to close the Guantanamo Bay detention
facility. Shortly after it was
published, the newly inaugurated President Obama
announced a plan to close the facility, and congressional clients relied on our report to understand the
legal issues raised by this plan. We continue to update
the report to meet Congresss needs. Michael John
Garcia, Legislative Attorney

My reports provide a

foundation to help clients
make informed decisions.
Staffers routinely tell me
how a report has helped
them prepare for a meeting, hearing or vote. For
example, a client once
called me while a bill was
on the floor to discuss a
list of several pending amendments and their implications. During our conversation, he skipped over several
of the amendments entirely, saying that he already felt
comfortable that he understood the issues involved
from having read one of my reports. Katie Jones,

Assistance Throughout the

Legislative Process
Throughout all stages of the legislative process,
CRS experts work with committees, Members
and staff to identify and clarify policy problems,
assess the implications of proposed policy
alternatives and provide timely responses to
meet immediate and long-term needs.

Congress relies on CRSs

legal expertise in many
stages of the legislative
process. Before a bill is
introduced, were often
asked to research legal
definitions for terms or
conduct a survey of state
laws to see how an issue
has been handled across
the country. As the bill moves through Congress, we
research issues relating to the potential impact of the
new law. Staffers may ask about the nature of recent
litigation. They may also ask for research related to
floor statements the Member would like to make when
the bill comes up for debate. Julia Taylor, Head,
American Law Consulting Section

Oversight is a significant
part of the legislative process. It is central to committee efforts to investigate, communicate and
educate. Staff regularly
turn to me when developing ideas for how to perform effective oversight.
Often they come back
for assistance in identifying witnesses. As hearings
approach, CRS often prepares background memos
and questions for witnesses. I have even served as a
witness testifying on behalf of CRS. Nicole T. Carter,
Specialist in Natural Resources Policy

We can be helpful

throughout the legislative process, but the
earlier the better. As an
economist, many of the
issues I work on involve
how Congress should allocate scarce resources to
achieve a particular policy
goal. There are typically a
number of options for doing this, and at the beginning
of the process we can help evaluate all of them
including the option of doing nothing. Mark P.
Keightley, Specialist in Economics

Analyst in Housing Policy

CRS at 100 l 45

Process and Procedures

Congress faces a legislative labyrinth filled
with both procedural and political twists and
turns. CRS assists lawmakers and their staffs in
understanding the formal and informal rules,
practices and precedents of the House and
Senate, and how they might be employed to
advance or block the enactment of
policy proposals.

In the budget process,

issues range from the
specific rules for considering legislation, to
the broad implications
of the process itself for
the power of the purse.
Because budgetary
decision-making is affected by policy factors,
CRSs work involves extensive collaboration across
the Service. During the annual appropriations cycle,
budget process and program analysts help offices
craft amendments that comply with chamber rules and
assist in identifying options for oversight of agency
spending decisions once the bills have been enacted.
Jessica Tollestrup, Analyst on Congress and the
Legislative Process

We study Congress

closely: its processes and
procedures, its history
and evolution, and the
central role of the House
and Senate in shaping
the affairs of the nation.
As a result, CRSs expertise in processes and
procedures is equivalent
to or exceeds that found at the nations many universities and think tanks. Importantly, our parliamentary
know-how serves all lawmakers and both parties, with
objectivity at the core of all of CRSs work. Walter
J. Oleszek, Senior Specialist in American National
Government

Im part of a group that

supports Congress on
legislative rules and procedures. We consult on
legislative strategy, analyze current and historical
procedural practices and
explain implications of
potential procedural options. Examples include
helping Senators assess proposed changes in the
practice of filibusters, serving as a procedural resource
in committee markups, and identifying the range of
opportunities Members may have to offer amendments to pending legislation. Valerie Heitshusen,
Analyst on Congress and the Legislative Process

46 l CRS at 100

Institutional Memory
CRS has been helping Congress with its
legislative deliberations and decisions for 100
years. CRS represents a store of knowledge and
experience that Congress can rely on.

CRS staff tend to have

long tenures, and we have
a huge trove of research
materials that go back
to the earliest days of
the republic. This helps
CRS serve as a source of
institutional memory. I
frequently field questions
about a major statute
that was passed during my third year at CRS. I was
here and involved in the legislative process, so I can
provide newer congressional staff and Members with a
historical perspective, which they appreciate. Kevin R.
Kosar, Analyst in American National Government

Members and staff

may come and go, and
switches in party majorities significantly affect
Congresss legislative
agenda. When these
changes occur, we stay
in our jobs, and this is
extremely important for
Congress. The continuity of our objective expertise, unaffected by the winds
and whims of politics, provides a stable and essential
resource for Congress. Kathleen S. Swendiman,
Legislative Attorney

It is worth noting that CRS

analysts hired in the past
decade were mentored
by analysts hired in the
1970s, who themselves
were mentored by
analysts hired in the 1930s
and 1940s. This farsighted
succession planning has
given CRS a remarkably
deep bench and provides a level of perspective and
experience for Congress that has continued now for
several generations. Thomas H. Neale, Specialist in
American National Government

CRS Is Unique
Congress depends on CRS because of its
intimate knowledge of the legislative process,
its focus on the legislative context, its ability to
work on national issues in an interdisciplinary
way, its nonpartisan approach to issues and its
long-term perspective and stability.

While other groups may

discuss issues in multiple
contexts, CRS is exclusively interested in the
congressional context.
Whatever topic CRS
analysts explore, the
bottom-line question is:
What does this mean for
Congress? Shayerah
Ilias Akhtar, Specialist in International Trade and
Finance

What makes CRS special

is its commitment to
nonpartisanship. Almost
every other resource
reflects a particular
agendaeither political, donor or some other
agenda. CRS experts are
able to examine the facts
and prepare assessments
based only on those facts, and not on any other considerations. This gives CRS analysis a level of credibility and integrity that is lacking elsewhere. Kenneth
Katzman, Specialist in Middle Eastern Affairs

While many organizations

provide information and
analysis on policy issues
and other organizations
provide information on
program-execution issues, CRS may be unique
in its ability to engage
Congress on a continuing and in-depth basis on
process issueson how procedures work, and how the
way in which an issue is treated could have implications for the preservation of congressional powers and
prerogatives. Ronald ORourke, Specialist in Naval
Affairs

CRS at 100 l 47

Longest Tenured Staff Member Provides Long View on International Organizations

Marjorie Ann Browne,

deputy director retired, Browne was promoted. In

senior-level course of study in national security strat-

specialist in international

1962, Browne moved to LRSs Foreign Affairs Division

egy for leaders in the military, State Department and

relations, personifies the

as a reference assistant. As the Service grew, she

civilian agencies. As part of the course, she visited

institutional knowledge

became head of the reference section.

Australia, New Zealand, Indonesia and Singapore.

possessed by CRSs staff.

She worked closely with analysts in international

With 54 years of service,

organizations and international law and, through

gressional Research Employees Association (CREA)

she is the longest tenured

this work, acquired specialized knowledge. In 1971,

for more than 15 years, serving as a member of the

staff member. Browne has

Browne was converted to analyst. During this time,

board of governors.

served as an invaluable resource to Congress on

she worked with committees to examine how the

Today, Browne continues to respond to Con-

international organizations and treaty issues.

United States was making commitments through

gresss inquiries on foreign policy issues related to

Browne arrived at the Library by accident. After

Browne was also an active member of the Con-

international agreements rather than treaties. For a

the United Nations, the United Nations Convention

graduating with from the University of Rochester,

Senate hearing on the issue of treaties vs. internation-

on the Law of the Sea, treaties and international

Browne set to job-hunting in her hometown of Wash-

al agreements, Browne and colleagues identified wit-

agreements. The niche that she began developing

ington, D.C. She went to a downtown bookstore to

nesses, developed questions and prepared products

in the 1960s and 1970s has grown into a vast store of

answer an ad for a clerk. There, she said, she learned

to support the inquiry. She assisted in hearing prepa-

knowledge that Browne uses to inform Congress.

that her race disqualified her from working at the

rations on the 25th anniversary of the United Nations

cash register. Browne is African American.

and on the possibility of Senate consideration of the

delegation, including three Members of Congress,

U.N. Genocide Convention.

to high-level meetings at the United Nations in New

streetcar to arrive was marked for East Capitol Street,

From 1973 to 1982, the United Nations held its

York. In his remarks to the group, U.N. Secretary-

so she decided to go to the Library of Congress to in-

Conference on the Law of the Sea to define the rights

General Ban Ki-moon recognized Browne, noting

quire about jobs. Browne was told to return the next

and responsibilities of nations in their use of the

that her 50-plus years of service covered most of the

day for a typing test. Browne, who had worked as a

worlds oceans. Browne attended the meetings in

U.N.s history.

typist at the State Department during her college

New York and tracked the work of the conference and

summers, passed the test and was put to work within

of the U.S. delegation to the conference. The confer-

years? I love the variety of questions and the seek-

a week as an editorial clerk-typist in LRSs deputy

ence produced the United Nations Convention on

ing of information. There is always a challenge to it,

directors office. Her first day was Oct. 10, 1960.

the Law of the Sea that came into force in 1994 when

Browne said. I am happy to be responsive to

Browne headed home to Capitol Hill. The first

Brownes new job involved a variety of activities

In June 2013, Browne was part of a congressional

What has kept Browne at work for all of these

the 60th nation ratified the agreement.

Congress and to help educate new congressional

answering the phones, typing reports and tabulating

A highlight of Brownes career was the opportuni-

staff, as well as other CRS analysts. Its all part of the

and tracking requests. When the secretary to the

ty in the 1980s to attend the National War College, a

CRS mission.

48 l CRS at 100

More Ways that CRS Supports Congress

About 70 percent of CRSs staff are analysts, attorneys and information professionals. Others provide critical management and support.
CRS professionals support Congress directly and behind the scenes.

I answer the CRS service line, which puts me

directly in touch with
congressional staff on a
daily basis. Clients describe research problems
they are trying to solve
or information they need,
whether it is a response
to a constituents request
about Medicare coverage or assistance preparing for
a hearing. I take detailed notes and assign requests
to the research division best suited to respond. This
part of my job helps ensure that clients get the best
response in a timely way.
I also provide clients with helpful information about
CRS. I explain how to make the best use of CRS.gov,
such as how to sign up for a personalized MyCRS
account. If Im speaking with a client who is new to
Capitol Hill, I encourage him or her to attend a services
briefing and learn about the full range of services and
programs CRS provides.
I am proud to act as an ambassador for CRS and
recognize the responsibility that comes with a role that
requires representation of the expertise of hundreds
of colleagues, as well as the Services legacy and reputation. Adrienne Keys, Congressional Relations

I support the CRS mission

of service to the Congress
by helping to ensure CRS
recruits and retains the
best and the brightest.
In marketing the
organization, I aspire
to convey CRSs professionalism and its reputation for excellence in the
work it does for Congress. I know that as long as I do
that, I play an important role in attracting high-caliber
people to work for CRS. In addition to performing my
routine human capital management duties, I also serve
the Congress by, for example, developing special
reports for our committees of jurisdiction.
To me, high internal standards are the mark of a
professional and a solid predictor of quality. I pride
myself on careful work and close attention to detail
while implementing workforce and other strategic initiatives that ensure a quality staff is on board to handle
whatever business comes our way from Congress.
Andrew Druliner, Human Capital Management
Specialist

I manage an excellent
team of professionals
responsible for the quality
control and data integrity
of the legislative information we receive from the
House and Senate and
the Government Printing Office, which is made
available on the website
Congress.gov. The official source for federal legislative information, Congress.gov provides access to
products including full texts of legislative documents,
bill summaries, legislative status and CRS reports.
Integrity is highly important in what we do for
Congress. We specialize in making sure information is
available and accurate. We track legislation from the
time the measure is introduced and follow it until it
becomes public law. Our goal is to get the data in the
system before Congress starts their day.
I have over 40 years of experience working with
legislation and the legislative process in CRS. I enjoy
serving Congress and CRS with exceptionally highquality information. Juanita M. Campbell, Supervisor
for Quality Control and Data Management

Specialist

CRS at 100 l 49

Reading rooms and senate center

Audrey Crane-Hirsch, information research specialist, staffs the La Follette Congressional Reading
Room. CRS research and meeting areas include: the
La Follette Reading Room, James Madison Building;
the Jefferson Congressional Reading Room (Members of Congress only), Thomas Jefferson Building;
and the Senate Center, B-07, Russell Building.

CRS.gov, the website for Congress

Jennifer E. Manning, information research specialist, views CRS.gov, CRSs exclusive website for Congress,
from the La Follette Congressional Reading Room. CRS.gov is available on congressionally issued computers
and mobile devices. On the website, clients can find reports, contact analysts, place requests for customized
support, personalize their website experience and sign up to receive email notifications on products of interest.
They can also register for upcoming seminars and programs and view CRS-produced videos.

50 l CRS at 100

Programs and events

Christopher M. Davis, analyst on Congress, speaks
at a seminar on the legislative process and the resources available to monitor it. CRS offers programs
and events that cover topics such as appropriations
and budget, federal legal research and the legislative
process. Policy and legal seminars are also offered,
along with programs for district and state offices and
orientations for new staff.

CRS at 100 l 51

CRS Core Values: Authoritative, Confidential and Objective

CRS is committed to providing authoritative, confidential and objective research and analysis to Congress.

Authoritative
CRS staff employ rigorous research
methodologies, free of built-in bias. They
p
 resent, explain and justify any critical
assumptions;
investigate data anomalies;
use primary resources whenever available;

Our main value is in

providing authoritative
answers to Congresss
questions. We work to
ensure that our analyses
can withstand rigorous
scrutiny from all angles.
Edward C. Liu, Legislative
Attorney

double-check all statements of fact; and

document and vet all sources.
Such exacting standards assure Members, as
they engage in debate, that the analysis they rely
on is as accurate as it is current.

Because Congresss statements are scrutinized by

the press and the public,
and because its decisions can impact millions
of lives and billions of
dollars, it is crucial that
Congress works with the
most accurate information
available. Even with our
heavy workloads and short deadlines, CRS cant afford
to be wrong. I use primary sources whenever I can, and
I double-check my calculations. Angela Napili,
Information Research Specialist

52 l CRS at 100

On any policy matter,

there is often voluminous and contradictory
information available from
a range of sources. In my
own work, congressional
staff have asked me to
provide authoritative information on the issue of
compensation for federal
employees compared to that of similar private-sector
workers. This is a disputed and political research area.
Only after careful review of multiple and divergent
studies have I been able to offer authoritative analysis
about the strengths and weaknesses of studies related
to compensation. Congressional clients can trust that
CRS has offered the most authoritative view of a contentious and difficult topic. David H. Bradley,
Specialist in Labor Economics

Confidential
All queries and exchanges are held in the
strictest confidence. Legislators and
congressional staff are free to consult CRS
experts, explore issues, dispute them and
float unusual ideasall without question or
disclosure. CRS employees do not discuss work
undertaken for any Member or committee with
any other congressional office nor with anyone
outside the organization.

Confidentiality enables
frank and honest discussions with congressional
clients. Clients feel secure
in seeking our analyses of
sensitive or politically controversial issues because
they know that CRS will
not share the information
they reveal with others on
Capitol Hill or the media. Carrie N. Lyons, Section
Research Manager, Administrative Law

Sometimes I receive the

same question from
different sides of the aisle.
Other times I receive
requests to help draft
conflicting policy proposals for the same party,
committee or even office.
It is critical to never let on
about the other work Im
doing, or to let the work Im doing for one client
influence the work Im doing for another. Maggie
McCarty, Specialist in Housing Policy

Confidentiality is important for building confidence,

particularly among
new congressional
staff. New staffers fear
asking the wrong questions, yet they still have
much to learn about their
assigned policy issues.
CRSs policy of confidentiality puts them at
ease and allows them to
learn and amass the self-confidence necessary to hold
productive discussions with policymakers. Darryl E.
Getter, Specialist in Financial Economics

Objective
CRS maintains an outstanding reputation for
objective and nonpartisan analysis. CRS experts
are vigilant in evaluating issues without bias. A
multi-layered review process also helps ensure
that CRS products present issues and analysis in
a manner that is fair, considered and reliable.

I worked closely with a

leadership office and
committee staff to
reauthorize a program
for vulnerable children.
I assisted both sets of
clients with developing
their policy goals, even
though their goals were
divergent. Drawing on
my experiences from the last program reauthorization, I provided authoritative analyses of two different
proposals. Both clients remarked that they were glad
to have me involved, because I was not vested in the
outcome, but rather in helping meet their legislative
objectives. Adrienne Fernandes-Alcantara,

I think the best way to

remain objective is to
never confuse your role
with that of the elected
Members. We serve all
Members and staff, and
we keep in mind that it is
Congresss role to pass
legislation, and our role
to give Congress the
objective, nonpartisan support they cant find anywhere else. Peter Folger, Specialist in Energy and
Natural Resources Policy

I believe that CRS staff

have the best of both
worldswe are part of
the political process, but
at the same time nonpartisan. CRS attorneys
see themselves as not
advocating for one position or another, but rather
advocating for the law.
Karen J. Lewis, Assistant Director, American Law

Specialist in Social Policy

CRS at 100 l 53

54 l CRS at 100

Continuity and Change

Colleen J. Shogan
Deputy Director, Congressional
Research Service

ver time, political institutions experience

incremental change punctuated with periods of
continuity. The Congressional Research Service has
not been immune to this phenomenon. As Congress
has changed over the past century, CRS has adjusted
its research priorities, staff size and composition, and
its delivery of information and analysis. Despite these
shifts, the fundamental rationale for CRSs existence
and the service it provides within the legislative
branch has remained consistent. The contemporary justification for CRS is the same as it was when
Congress created CRSs predecessor, the Legislative
Reference Service, in 1914.
Advancing an argument about the consistency of
the CRS mission is not without complication. After
all, the daily work environment on Capitol Hill has
radically changed over time. Members of Congress
and staff receive information from a constant barrage of electronic sources in a mobile format, thus
enabling the declaration of policy positions and
decisions in real time. Why do CRS and other nonpartisan legislative branch agencies remain valuable
to Congress in the digital age, when information is
instantaneously accessible and readily available? The
answer to that question requires a broader look at the
structural design of American national government.
In our constitutional system, both shared and
distinct powers are sources of tension among the
three branches of government. In the past century,
the executive branch steadily expanded its influence
through both formal (the Budget and Accounting Act

of 1921) and informal (the creation of the public or

rhetorical presidency) mechanisms. Congress, an
institution primarily derived from representative and
democratic principles, found itself challenged by the
executives accretion of power, which intensified after
World War II. As a coequal branch of government in
a separated power system, how can Congress compete with the vast collective resources the executive
branch can amass?
To level the playing field, Congress had to take
deliberate steps to create institutional support.
Such actions are not necessarily in concert with the
structure of the legislative branch. In contrast to the
executive, Congress confronts inherent organizational impediments. Foremost, the executive benefits
from its unitary and hierarchical framework whereas
Congress is decentralized, individualistic and often
heterogeneous in purpose. In recent decades, the
executive branch has created a system in which its
access to information and policy analysis is plentiful,
efficient and responsive.
Congress pursued a number of remedies to
bolster its position vis--vis the executive, such as
the creation of an independent congressional budget
process and televised broadcast of legislative debate.
In 1970, Congress created the modern-day CRS
to provide research and analysis to support its legislative and oversight functions. CRS cannot match the
research and analytical resources of the executive
branch in size or budget. Nonetheless, CRS serves
as Congresss exclusive source for confidential,

CRS at 100 l 55

objective and authoritative analysis and information.

This larger purpose of CRS has not changed in the
past 100 years, nor is Congress likely to change it
in the next century. As long as the legislative branch
continues to compete with the executive for power
and authority, Congress will rely on CRS to provide
it with the information needed to fulfill its constitutional duties.
What is likely to change in the next century is
how CRS executes its mission to provide Congress
with the information and analysis it requires to perform its policymaking and representative functions.
While the quality and reliability of CRS information
must remain unassailable, the delivery of that information must reflect the transformation of technology
that we will undoubtedly continue to experience.
Advances in technology may change how Congress
deliberates; such advances have already altered how
Congress obtains, shares and processes information. CRS must determine how to balance the rapid
demand for information with its most important core
value, authoritativeness.
In a digital age, most information is consumed
within an open marketplace of ideas. With the
democratization of information, has Congress finally
solved its resource problem? Not quite. In fact, the
problem has become more nuanced.
Authoritativeness is often sacrificed within the
cacophonous public marketplace of ideas, where get
it first is valued more than get it right. CRS, as a

56 l CRS at 100

confidential source of authoritative information and

analysis for Congress, must continually reaffirm its
worth as it exists alongside the open marketplace of
ideas. After sifting through the abundance of available information, CRS will serve future Congresses
by producing and providing the reliable knowledge
necessary to guide legislative decision-making.
As in the past, Congress will decide how CRS can
best serve its future needs. At this moment in time,
political beliefs are sharply divided in both Congress
and in the nation. During periods of polarization,
CRS can play a crucial role, serving as an arbiter of
authoritative information and research. Providing
objective information to both parties as legislation is
crafted and debated makes CRS a valuable resource.
However, history tells us that periods of intense
polarization do not last forever. Political realignments occur, cleavages are resolved and national
institutions reach a new equilibrium. The waxing
and waning of ideological division is ephemeral in
nature, and therefore compels us to recall the original and enduring rationale for CRSthe rationale
that will persist as long as we maintain our current
constitutional structure.
The fundamental motivation justifying the continued existence of CRS looms in the background as
strongly as it did a century ago: CRS will continue
to provide Congress with an authoritative counterweight to the pervasive and powerful drumbeat of
the executive.

CRS at 100 l 57

58 l CRS at 100

About the Author

Fact Checkers

Photography

Stephen W. Stathis for nearly

Jennifer E. Manning, Thomas H. Neale

Shealah Craighead: Pages 5, 41, 44-53, 57 (Jefferson

four decades was a specialist in

Congressional Reading Room)

American national government

Review, Research and Resource Assistance

for CRS. Specializing in the his-

Cliff Cohen, William H. Cooper, Janine DAddario,

Carol M. Highsmith: Cover (domes of the Jefferson

tory of Congress, he held both

Christopher M. Davis, Lisa B. Dove, Charles Doyle,

Building and the Capitol), inside covers (wood carving,

research and managerial posi-

Gary B. Ellis, Kimberly S. Ferguson, Matthew Field,

Main Reading Room); Pages 2 (Capitol dome), 4 (Librarys

tions. He is the author of the first

Susan Finsen, Todd Garvey, Jennifer A. Gavin,

Great Hall), 7 (Capitol viewed through Jefferson Building

and second editions of Land-

Matthew E. Glassman, Robin D. Grove, Lizanne D. Kelley,

window), 8 (Good Administration mural, Main Reading

mark Legislation (2003) (2014) and Landmark Debates in

Karen J. Lewis, Jack Maskell, Andrew Mendelson,

Room), 43, 54, 58 (ceiling detail, Jefferson Building)

Congress: From the Declaration of Independence to the

Thomas H. Neale, Walter J. Oleszek,

War in Iraq (2009). His articles have been published in a

Kathryn Gayle Osterberg, John Sayers, Jeffrey W. Seifert,

broad range of professional journals and leading news-

Marcia S. Smith, Adam Stoll, Kathleen S. Swendiman,

papers. In 2006, Stathis was the Kluge Staff Fellow at the

Clay H. Wellborn, Tamera L. Wells-Lee

Jim Saah: Pages 36, 40

Development

Karl Weaver: Page 42

Amanda Reynolds: Pages 50 (Manning), 55

Library of Congress John W. Kluge Center.

CRedits

Charles Doyle, Eliamelisa Gonzalez, Jennifer E. Lake,

Project Manager/Editor in Chief

Andrew Mendelson, Roger F. Noble Jr.,

Central Photo Company: Back cover (panoramic photo

Cory V. Langley

Bryan Scott Sinquefield, Karen J. Wirt

of CRS staff)

Sponsor

Design Advisory Team

Library of Congress Photos, Congressional Research

Colleen J. Shogan

Jamie L. Hutchinson, John Nicholas Pull,

Service: Pages 17, 24, 26, 29, 30, 31, 33, 34, 35, 37, 38, 39;

Amber Hope Wilhelm

Gazette: Pages 22, 25, 28 (Madison construction); Manuscript Division: Pages 21, 23, 27, 28; Prints and Photo-

Advisor
Richard C. Ehlke
Design

Photography Research Project

graphs Division: Pages 10, 11, 13, 14, 15 (Evans), 16, 18, 19,

Cory V. Langley, coordinator; Barbara Salazar Torreon,

20, 28 (Madison completion)

coordinator; Erin Antognoli; Erica Gresham; Andrew Lee

Pro Payne Graphics

National Cyclopaedia of American Biography: Page 12

Copy Editors

Courtesy Photos: Mrs. A.S. Mike Monroney: Page 15

Shelley Harlan, Ronda L. Mason

(Truman and Monroney); Wayne Riddle: Page 28; Whelan

family: Page 32; Jeffrey C. Griffith: Page 37

Proofreaders
Martha L. Courtney, Andrew M. Schaefer

CRS at 100 l 59

Contact CRS
CRS prepares its research and analysis
exclusively for committees and Members of
Congress. Members and staff may reach CRS
at 202-707-5700 or submit a request via Place a
Request on www.crs.gov.

The Library of Congress 101 Independence Avenue, SE Washington, DC 20540-7000