Kingdom of Saudi Arabia

Ministry of Higher Education

Umm Al-Qura University

College of Engineering & Islamic Architecture

Mechanical Engineering Department

Mechanical Vibrations
804 420 3
Lecture No. 2

Dr. Mohammad S. Alsoufi

BSc, MSc PhD
Room No.: 1080
Tel.: 00966 (012) 5270000 Ext.: 1163
E-mail: [email protected]

Kingdom of Saudi Arabia

Ministry of Higher Education

Umm Al-Qura University

College of Engineering & Islamic Architecture

Mechanical Engineering Department

2. Spring Elements

A spring is a type of mechanical link, which in most

applications is assumed to have negligible mass and damping.
The most common type of spring is the helical-coil spring
used in retractable pens and pencils, staplers, and suspensions
of freight trucks and other vehicles (see Figure (a)).
A spring is said to be linear if the elongation or reduction in
length x is related to the applied force F as

helical-coil spring

F = kx

Where k is a constant, known as the spring constant or spring stiffness or spring rate. The
spring constant k is always positive and denotes the force (positive or negative) required
causing a unit deflection (elongation or reduction in length) in the spring.
When the spring is stretched (or compressed) under a tensile (or compressive) force F,
according to Newtons 3rd Law of motion, a restoring force or reaction of magnitude is
developed opposite to the applied force.
This restoring force tries to bring the stretched (or compressed) spring back to its original
unstretched or free length as shown in Figure below (b) or (c).
If we plot a graph between F and x, the result is a straight line according to F = kx.
The work done (U) in deforming a spring is stored as strain or potential energy in the
spring, and it is given by

Hooks Law: is that a principle of physics that state the

force F needed to extend or compress a spring by some
distance x is proportional to that distance.

Deformation of a spring

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2.1 Nonlinear Springs

Most springs used in practical systems exhibit a nonlinear force-deflection relation,
particularly when the deflections are large.
In vibration analysis, nonlinear springs whose force-deflection relations are given by

a denotes the constant associated with the linear part

b indicates the constant associated with the (cubic) nonlinearity.

The spring is said to be

Hard b > 0
Linear b = 0
Soft b < 0

The force-deflection relations for various

values of b are shown in Figure

Nonlinear and linear springs

Some systems, involving two or more

springs, may exhibit a nonlinear forcedisplacement relationship although the
individual springs are linear (see Figure
below).
In Figure (a), the weight (or force) W
travels freely through the clearances c1
and c2 present in the system.
Once the weight comes into contact with
a particular spring, after passing through
the corresponding clearance, the spring
force increases in proportion to the
spring constant of the particular spring as
shown in Figure (b).
It can be seen that the resulting force
displacement
relation,
although
piecewise linear, denotes a nonlinear
relationship.

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Umm Al-Qura University

College of Engineering & Islamic Architecture

Mechanical Engineering Department

Nonlinear spring force-displacement relation

In Figure (a), the two springs, with stiffnesses k1 and k2 have different lengths.
Note that the spring with stiffness k1 is shown, for simplicity, in the form of two parallel
springs, each with a stiffness of k1/2.
Spring arrangement models of this type can be used in the vibration analysis of packages and
suspensions used in aircraft landing gears.
When the spring k1 deflects by an amount x = c, the second spring starts providing an additional
stiffness k2 to the system.
The resulting nonlinear force displacement relationship is shown in Figure (b).

2.2 Linearization of a Nonlinear Spring

Actual springs are nonlinear and follow F = kx only up to a certain deformation.
Beyond a certain value of deformation (after point A in Figure below), the stress exceeds the
yield point of the material and the force-deformation relation becomes nonlinear.

Nonlinearity beyond proportionality limit

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In
many
practical
applications, we assume
that the deflections are
small and make use of
the linear relation in
F = kx
Even, if the forcedeflection relation of a
spring is nonlinear, as
shown in Figure below,
we often approximate it
as a linear one by using a
linearization process.

Linearization process

To illustrate the linearization process:

Let the static equilibrium load F acting on the spring causes a deflection of x*.
If an incremental force F is added to F, the spring deflects by an additional quantity
x.
The new spring force F + F can be expressed using Taylors series expansion about
the static equilibrium position x* as
(
( )

| (

| (

For small values of x, the higher-order derivative terms can be neglected to obtain
( )

| (

Since F = F (x*), we can express F as

Where k is the linearized spring constant at x* given by

|

We may use
for simplicity, but sometimes the error involved in the
approximation may be very large.

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Example No.1: Equivalent Linearized Spring Constant

A precision milling machine, weighing 4500 N, is supported on a rubber mount. The force
deflection relationship of the rubber mount is given by

Where the force F and the deflection x are measured in pounds and inches, respectively.
Determine the equivalent linearized spring constant of the rubber mount at its static
equilibrium position.
Solution:
The static equilibrium position of the rubber mount x* under the weight of the milling
machine, can be determined
( )
( )

The roots of the cubic equation above, can be found (for example, using the function roots
in MatLAB) as

The static equilibrium position of the rubber mount is given by the real root of
( )
,
The equivalent linear spring constant of
the rubber mount at its static equilibrium position can be determined using
|

( )

The equivalent linear spring constant

deflection of the milling machine as

, predicts the static

The result is slightly different from the true value of 1.2547 cm. The error is due to
the truncation of the higher-order derivative terms in
(

( )

| (

| (

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2.3 Spring Constants of Elastic Elements

As stated earlier, any elastic or deformable member (or element) can be considered as a
spring.
The equivalent spring constants of simple elastic members such as rods, beams, and hollow
shafts are given later.
The procedure of finding the equivalent spring constant of elastic members is illustrated
through the following examples.
Example No.2: Spring Constant of a Rod
Find the equivalent spring constant of a uniform rod of length l, cross-sectional area A, and Youngs
modulus E subjected to an axial tensile (or compressive) force F as shown in Figure below.

Spring constant of a rod

Solution:
The elongation (or shortening) of the rod under the axial tensile (or compressive) force F
can be expressed as

is

the

strain

induced in the rod.

is the stress induced in the

rod.

Using the definition of the spring constant k,

we obtain above.

The significance of the equivalent spring constant of the rod is shown in Figure (b).

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Example No.3: Spring Constant of a Cantilever Beam

Find the equivalent spring constant of a cantilever beam subjected to a concentrated load F at its
end as shown in Figure (a) below.

Spring constant of a cantilever beam

Solution:
We assume, for simplicity, that the self-weight (or mass) of the beam is negligible and the
concentrated load F is due to the weight of a point mass (W = mg).
From strength of materials, we know that the end deflection of the beam due to a
concentrated load F = W is given by

Where E is the Youngs modulus and I is the moment of inertia of the cross section of the
beam about the bending or z-axis (i.e., axis perpendicular to the page).
Hence the spring constant of the beam is Figure (b) above:

It is possible for a cantilever beam to be subjected to concentrated loads

in two directions at its end one in the y direction Fy and the other in the z
direction Fz as shown in Figure (a) below.
When the load is applied along the y direction, the beam bends about zaxis Figure (b) and hence the equivalent spring constant will be equal to

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When the load is applied along the z direction, the beam bends about the y-axis
Figure (c) below and hence the equivalent spring constant will be equal to

Spring constants of a beam in two directions

The spring constants of beams with different end conditions can be found in a
similar manner using results from strength of materials.
For example, to find the spring constant of a fixed-fixed beam subjected to a
concentrated force P at (x = a), first we express the deflection of the beam at the
load point (x = a) using b = l a, as

Fixed-fixed Beam
(

)]

) (

Then, find the spring constant k as

(

) (

Where I = Izz

The effect of the self-weight (or mass) of the beam can also be included in
finding the spring constant of the beam (will discuss later).

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2.4 Combination of springs

Case No.1

Case No.2

Springs in Parallel

Springs in Series

Case No.1: Springs in Parallel

To derive an expression for the
equivalent spring constant of springs
connected in parallel, consider the two
springs shown in Figure (a) below.
When a load W is applied, the system
undergoes a static deflection as shown in
Figure (b).
Then, the free-body diagram, shown in
Figure (c), gives the equilibrium
equation
Springs in parallel

If keq denotes the equivalent spring constant of the combination of the two springs, then for
the same static deflection st, we have

Then,

In general, if we have n springs with spring constants k1, k2, k3, , kn, in parallel, then the
equivalent spring constant keq can be obtained

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Case No.2: Springs in Series

To derive an expression for the equivalent
spring constant of springs connected in
series by considering the two springs
shown in Figure (a).
Under the action of a load W, springs 1
and 2 undergo elongations 1 and 2
respectively, as shown in Figure (b).
The total elongation (or static deflection)
of the system, st, is given by

Springs in series

Since both springs are subjected to the same force W, we have the equilibrium shown in
Figure (c)

If keq denotes the equivalent spring constant, then for the same static deflection

Equations above give

Or

Substituting these values of 1 and 2 into

That is

, we obtain

The equation above can be generalized to the case of n springs in series

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In certain applications, springs are connected to rigid components such as pulleys,

levers, and gears.
In such cases, an equivalent spring constant can be found using energy equivalence,
as illustrated later in examples.

Example No.4: Equivalent k of a Suspension System

Figure below shows the suspension system of a freight truck with a parallel spring arrangement.
Find the equivalent spring constant of the suspension if each of the three helical springs is
made of steel with a shear modulus G = 80 109 N/m2 and has five effective turns, mean
coil diameter D = 20 cm, and wire diameter d = 2 cm

Parallel arrangement of springs in a freight truck

(Courtesy of Buckeye Steel Castings Company)
Solution:
The stiffness of each helical spring is given by
(

) (
( ) ( )

(See formula sheet)

Since the three springs are identical and parallel, the equivalent spring constant of the
suspension system is given by

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Example No.5: Torsional Spring Constant of a Propeller Shaft

Determine the torsional spring constant of the steel propeller shaft shown in Figure below

Propeller shaft

Solution:
We need to consider the segments 12 and 23 of the shaft as springs in combination.
The torque induced at any cross section of the shaft (such as AA or BB) can be seen to be
equal to the torque applied at the propeller, T.
The elasticities (springs) corresponding to the two segments 12 and 23 are to be considered
as series springs.
The spring constants of segments 12 and 23 of the shaft ( kt12 and kt23) are given by
(

) (
( )

) (

)
( )

Since the springs are in series

(
(

)(
)

)
(

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Example No.6: Equivalent k of Hoisting Drum

A hoisting drum, carrying a steel wire rope, is mounted at the end of a cantilever beam as shown in
Figure (a) below.
Determine the equivalent spring constant of the system when the suspended length of the
wire rope is l.
Assume that the net cross-sectional diameter of the wire rope is d and the Youngs modulus
of the beam and the wire rope is E.

Solution:
The spring constant of the cantilever beam is given by
(

Where,

The stiffness of the wire rope subjected to axial loading is

Where,

Since both the wire rope and the cantilever beam experience the same load W, as shown in
Figure (b), they can be modeled as springs in series, as shown in Figure (c).
The equivalent spring constant is given by

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Problem No.1: Determine the equivalent spring constant of the system shown in Figure below?

Springs in series-parallel
Solution No.1:

Problem No.2: find the equivalent spring constant of the system in the direction of

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Solution No.2:

Problem No.3: Find the equivalent torsional spring constant of the system shown in Figure below.
Assume that k1, k2, k3, and k4 are torsional and k5 and k6 are linear spring constants

Solution No.3:

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Problem No.4: A machine of mass m = 500 kg is mounted on a simply supported steel beam of
length l = 2 m having a rectangular cross section (depth = 0.1 m, width = 1.2 m) and Youngs
modulus E = 2.06 1011 N/m2. To reduce the vertical deflection of the beam, a spring of stiffness k
is attached at mid-span, as shown in Figure below.
Determine the value of k needed to reduce the deflection of the beam by
A. 25 percent of its original value.
B. 50 percent of its original value.
C. 75 percent of its original value.
Note: Assume that the mass of the beam is negligible.

Solution No.4:

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Problem No.5: Find the length of the equivalent uniform hollow shaft of inner diameter d and
thickness t that has the same axial spring constant as that of the solid conical shaft shown in Figure
below?

Solution No.5:

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Problem No.6: Four identical rigid bars each of length a are connected to a spring of stiffness k to
form a structure for carrying a vertical load P, as shown in Figures (a) and (b).
Find the equivalent spring constant of the system for each case, disregarding the masses of
the bars and the friction in the joints.

Solution No.6:

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Problem No.7: The tripod shown in Figure below is used for mounting an electronic instrument
that finds the distance between two points in space. The legs of the tripod are located symmetrically
about the mid-vertical axis, each leg making an angle with the vertical. If each leg has a length l
and axial stiffness k, find the equivalent spring stiffness of the tripod in the vertical direction.

Solution No.7: