Thermistor

Thermistor is a resistance thermometer, similar to a Resistance Temperature

Detector (RTD) and is used fortemperature measurement. It consists of a nonmetallic resistor that is used as the temperature sensing element.

Thermistor Symbol
Thermistor is the short form for Thermal Resistor. The device consists of a bulk
semiconductor device that acts as a resistor with a high and negative temperature coefficient of resistance, sometimes as high as -6% per degree Celsius rise in temperature.
Due to this property of high sensitivity (that is, huge resistance change for a small change in
temperature), the thermistor is mainly applicable in precision temperature measurement,
temperature control, and temperature compensation, especially in a lower temperature
range of -100 degree Celsius to +300 degree Celsius.
Difference between Thermistor and Resistance Temperature Detectors
(RTD)
Both devices work on the same principle that a constant current flowing through the resistor,
and its changing resistance due to change in temperature, is measured as a voltage drop
across it. The main difference is that the electrical resistance of the resistor used in a
thermistor varies in a non-linear manner with respect to temperature. The sensing element
used in the thermistor is made up of either a ceramic or polymer, while RTD uses pure
metals as its sensing element. Another major difference is in its operating range. Due to its
high sensitivity, thermistors are used in narrow span measurements and low temperature
ranges from -20 degree Celsius to +120 degree Celsius. But RTDs are used over wide and
larger temperature ranges.
Construction
The device is manufactured from materials like sintered mixtures of oxides of metals such as
manganese, nickel, cobalt, and iron. Their resistances range from 0.4 ohms to 75 megaohms and they may be fabricated in wide variety of shapes and sizes. Smaller thermistors
are in the form of beads of diameter from 0.15 millimeters to 1.5 millimeters. Such a bead

may be sealed in the tip of solid glass rod to form probe which is easier to mount than bead.
Alternatively thermistor may be in the form of disks and washers made by pressing
thermistor material under high pressure into flat cylindrical shapes with diameter from 3
millimeters to 25 millimeters. Washers may be stacked and placed in series or parallel to
increase power disciplining capability.
Characteristic Curve
The resistance versus temperature curve is one of the main characteristics that is used in
measurement, control and compensation applications using a thermistor. The characteristics
graph is shown below.

Resistance Versus Temperature Characteristics of Thermistor

From the characteristics graph of a typical thermistor, we can see that the resistivity changes
from 107 to 1 ohm-cm as the temperature changes from -100 degree Celsius to +400
degree Celsius. This high negative temperature coefficient of resistance makes thermistor
an ideal temperature transducer.
Thermistor as Temperature Sensor
A thermistor used for the measurement of temperature is shown in the figure below. The
thermistor is designed to have a resistance of 2 kilo-ohms at 25 degree Celsius and

temperature coefficient of -4% per degree Celsius will bring a reduction of 80 ohms per
degree Celsius change in temperature.
The device is connected in series to a battery and a micrometer. A change in temperature
causes a change in the resistance if the thermistor and the corresponding micrometer
current reading is noted. Usually, the meter is calibrated in terms of temperature with 0.1
degree Celsius resolution. As shown in the figure, a bridge circuit is also used so as to
increase the thermistors sensitivity.
Thermistor Types
For studying about the different types of thermistors, it is important to understand the formula
which shows the linear relationship between resistance and temperature.
As a 1st order approximation, the change in resistance is equal to the 1st order temperature
co-efficient of resistance times the change in temperature.
dR = k.dT
where, dR Change in Resistance
k 1st Order Temperature Coefficient of Resistance
dT Change in Temperature
If the value of temperature coefficient of resistance (k) is positive, an increase in temperature
increases the resistance. Such a device can be called a Posistor or Positive Temperature
Coefficient Thermistor (PTC). If the value of k is negative, an increase in temperature will
decrease the resistance value. Such a device is called a Negative Temperature Coefficient
Thermistor (NTC).
Posistor/Positive Temperature Coefficient (PTC) Thermistors
PTC Thermistors that are used in industries are broadly classified into two. The first one is
called by the name Silistors, as to Sensitive Silicon Resistors. Silistors are known to have a
positive temperature coefficient of 08% per degree Celsius. If the temperature goes higher
than 175 degree Celsius, the device jumps to a negative temperature coefficient region. The
other classification of PTC Thermistors is called Switching Type PTC Thermistors. It is made
from ceramic type materials and are known to have a very high resistance from a small
change in temperature. Dopants are also added to the material so that they show a semiconductive behavior as well. The device is known to have a transition or Curie temperature.
Until the device reaches that particular point, it shows a negative temperature co-efficient
pattern in its resistance-temperature characteristics. After this point, it starts to show an
increasing positive temperature coefficient of resistance. At this point, the resistance also
begins to develop. The main difference in the temperature-resistance curve between a
silistor and switching PTC Thermistor is shown below.

Resistance Temperature Characteristic of Silistor and Switching Type PTC

Applications
1.
The device is famous for its application as a circuit protecting device, such
as a fuse. The flow of current through the device causes a heat to build up due to
its resistive property. Thus, if excessive current flows through the device, the
device begins to heat up accordingly and thus increases its resistance. This
increase in resistance again builds up more heat. This creates such an effect that
develops more resistance in the device, and limits the amount of voltage and
current in the device.
2.

Another major application is as a timer in degaussing coil circuit of CRT

monitors. When a CRT monitor is turned on, an initial current reaches the PTC
thermistor and degaussing coil. The PTC thermistor will be of large size and thus,
the resistance of the device increases as the current flows in. This causes the
heat to build up and thus the degaussing coil shuts off very fast. The degaussing
coil is necessary to decrease the continuous magnetic field in a smooth manner.
This help can be provided only by the PTC thermistor.
Negative Temperature Coefficient (NTC) Thermistors
NTC Thermistors that are used in industries are broadly classified into two. Thus
classification is based on the method by which the electrodes are placed on the ceramic
body. This main category could be further divided depending on the different types of
geometries, shapes and processing methods. One of the main categories that is most

commonly used in the industries is the bead type thermistors. According to the shape and
manufacturing methods, bead thermistors can be again classified into Bare Beads, Glass
Coated Beads, Ruggedized Beads, and Bead in glass Enclosures and many more.
Another group of NTC Thermistors is the ones with metalized surface contacts. These
thermistors can be mounted using spring contacts or by surface mounting.
Applications
1.
NTC thermistors are used for temperature measurements (usually in a
narrow span and low temperature ranges).
2.

3.

The device can be used to limit the sudden over current that flows in
supply circuits. The device is known to have a very high value of resistance in
the beginning. The resistance gradually decreases by the heating up of the
device. As the resistance decreases, the usual operation of the circuit is restored
and the high current flows through it without damaging other parts of the circuit.
This device is used to measure the temperature of incubators.

4.

NTC thermistors are used to measure and monitor batteries while they are
kept for charging.

5.

They are used to know the temperature of oil and coolant used inside
automotive engines. This information is sent back to the driver through indirect
ways.

Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)

A resistance temperature detector (RTD) can also be called a resistance thermometer as

the temperature measurement will be a measure of the output resistance.
The main principle of operation of an RTD is that when the temperature of an object
increases or decreases, the resistance also increases or decreases proportionally. The main
difference between a RTD and a Thermistor is that the sensing element used in a RTD is
a metal and a thermistor uses ceramic or polymer material. As platinum is the most
commonly used metal for making RTDs, the device can also be called Platinum Resistance
Thermometers (PRTs).
RTD Types
RTD types are broadly classified according to the different sensing elements used. Platinum,
Nickel and Copper are the most commonly used sensing elements. Platinum is considered
the best as it has the widest temperature range. This is shown in the resistance versus

temperature graph below. Platinum type RTD is also known for its best interchange ability
than copper and nickel. It also has the highest time stability. PRTs can also be used in
unsuitable environments where it can reduce atmospheric metallic vapours and also
catalizable vapours if the element is bare. It can also be used in radioactive environments.
In industrial applications, a PRT is known to measure temperatures as high as 1500 degree
Fahrenheit while copper and Nickel can measure only to a maximum of 400 degree
Fahrenheit.

RTD-Resistance Versus Temperature Graph

RTD Styles
RTDs are available with single, double, or triple windings, each electrically separated. Use
of more than one winding enables two independent measuring circuits to measure the same
temperature, and also permits more than one measurement to be made with only one
sensor installation. However, the additional mass introduced to the sensor by adding
windings and their associated support and encapsulating materials increases both the
response time and the conduction error. Using separate sensors provides mechanical
independence of the sensors for maintenance.
RTDs should generally be of spring-loaded, tip-sensitive construction, with a 1/4-inchdiameter sheath.
RTD Wiring Arrangements
RTDs are available with either two, three, or four output wires for connection to the
secondary instrument as shown in the figure below. The various wiring arrangements are
designed to reduce and/or eliminate any errors introduced due to resistance changes of the
lead wires when they also undergo temperature changes. RTDs used for electrical
equipment generally use either a three-wire system or a four-wire system having paired lead
wires.

Copper lead wires are satisfactory for all the arrangements. For a given RTD, all the leadwires should be of the same gauge and the same length, and should be run in the same
conduit.
The four wire system is little affected by temperature induced resistance changes in leadwires, and, of all the arrangements, it is affected least by stray currents. It, therefore, is used
to measure temperature differences and is used generally for making very accurate
measurements. The three-wire system is generally satisfactory for industrial measurement
using a secondary instrument that is remote, say, more than 3 meters distant from the RTD.
Although the error caused by temperature change in the leads is virtually eliminated in a 3wire arrangement, a slight non-linearity in the resistance change is introduced with this
scheme.

Resistance Temperature Detector-(RTD)-2 Wire,3 Wire,4 Wire Systems

Power Supply for RTD
An electric dc power supply is required to provide current for the resistance measuring
circuit. The power supply is normally applied through the secondary instrument. If the
secondary instrument is a transmitter having a current output of (4-20) mA, then the power is
carried by the two output wires of the transmitter.
RTD Connection Head

Unless a transmitter is mounted on the Thermowell, the sensor should be connected to a

connection head generally like that for thermocouples except as follows:

For a single RTD, the terminal block should be able to handle four lead
wires.

The head shall be explosion proof where and as needed to conform to a

hazardous area rating. However, explosion proofing will not be required if the
system is intrinsically safe. In this case the thermocouple head should be
specified to be weatherproof.
RTD Grounding
The principles for grounding that are stated in Grounding for Thermocouples apply to
RTDs, with the exception that the sensitive portion, the resistance wire, of a RTD is never
grounded because it must not be shorted. A RTD in a power device, such as a transformer,
should be grounded locally; otherwise, RTDs are normally grounded at the power supply. A
power supply and all its associated RTDs should be grounded at only one point. If local
grounding is required for a RTD, then an individual power supply is required for this RTD.
RTD Shielding
The RTD shielding principle is the same as that of Thermocouple Shielding.
Transmission of RTD signals
The transmitter is the most commonly used instrument for transmission of RTD signals. A
transmitter may be mounted either on an enclosed rack or locally. A local transmitter may be
mounted on a Thermowell and supplied with it as a complete assembly. The most commonly
used RTD transmitter is the so-called Smart transmitter. A typical Smart temperature
transmitter is remarkably versatile: It is suitable for Platinum and Nickel RTDs; 2, 3, or 4
lead wire arrangements; 100, 200, or 500 ohm Platinum sensors, etc. This same instrument
can also be used as a thermocouple transmitter, suitable for every thermocouple
combination commercially available.

Advantages
Very high accuracy

Excellent stability and reproducibility

Interchangeability

Ability to be matched to close tolerances for temperature difference

measurements.

Ability to measure narrow spans

Suitability for remote measurement

Disadvantages
Susceptibility to mechanical damage

Need for lead wire resistance compensation

Sometimes expensive

Susceptibility to self-heating error

Susceptibility to signal noise

Unsuitability for bare use in electrically conducting substance

Generally not repairable

Need for power supply

Temperature Sensors

Transducer have been devised which produce either changes in voltage or change in
impedance whenever the temperature changes. Temperature measurement sensors can be
divided into two categories. They are Measurement using change in resistance and
measurement using change in voltage.
The temperature sensor that uses change in resistance to measure temperature is called a
resistance thermometer. Resistance thermometer can be further classified
into Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTD)and Thermistor.
The temperature sensors that use change in voltage to measure temperature
are Thermocouple and Thermopile
Some other types of temperature sensors are
1.
2.
3.
4.

Optical Pyrometer
Radiation Pyrometer
Thermowells
Bimetallic Thermometer

5.

Filled System Temperature Measurement

Temperature Parameters
Before going into detail, it is important to know some of the basic temperature parameters
and instrumentation systems.

1.

2.

3.
4.

5.

Range: The range of a temperature measuring device is the maximum

and minimum temperature it can indicate, record, measure or transmit. The
range should be decided in such a manner that the normal operating
temperature is almost (50-70)% of the full scale with the maximum temperature
range close to, but more than the upper range of scale.
Span: The difference between the maximum and minimum values of
temperature in the calibrated range is called span. It is always good to have very
low values of span. The minimum span is the smallest range that the
manufacturer can accurately calibrate within the devices range.
Turndown: It is the ratio of maximum measurable parameter to minimum
measurable parameter.
Immersion Length: The immersion length of a Thermowell is the
distance between the free end/tip of the Thermowell and the point of immersion
in the medium that is being measured. The standard symbol for the immersion
length of a Thermowell is R.
Insertion Length: The insertion length of a Thermowell is the distance
between the free end/tip of a Thermowell and (but not including) the external
threads of other means of attachment to a vessel. The standard symbol for the
insertion length of a Thermowell is U.
Temperature
The term temperature can be defined in terms of heat. Heat is a measure of the energy
contained in a body, which is due to the irregular motion of its molecules or atoms. The
internal energy of body or gas increases with increasing temperature. Temperature is a
variable which together with other parameters such as mass, specific heat etc. describe the
energy content of a body. When energy in the form of heat is introduced to or extracted from
a body, altered molecular activity will be made apparent as a temperature change.
To measure the value of temperature, some of the following phenomenon is needed.
Change in physical dimensions or characteristics of liquids, metals, or

gases

Changes in electrical resistance

Thermoelectric effect

Radiant energy
Bimetallic Thermometer
In an industry, there is always a need to measure and monitor temperature of a particular
spot, field or locality. The industrial names given to such temperature sensors are
Temperature Indicators (TI) or Temperature Gauges (TG). All these temperature gauges
belong to the class of instruments that are known as bimetallic sensors.
Two basic principles of operation is to be followed in the case of a bimetallic sensor. They
are

1.

A metal tends to undergo a volumetric dimensional

(expansion/contraction), according to the change in temperature.

change

2.

Different metals have different co-efficient of temperatures. The rate of

volumetric change depends on this co-efficient of temperature.
Working
The device consists of a bimetallic strip of two different metals and they are bonded together
to form a spiral or a twisted helix. Both these metals are joined together at one end by either
welding or riveting. It is bonded so strong that there will not be any relative motion between
the two. The image of a bimetallic strip is shown below.

Bimetallic Strip
A change in temperature causes the free end of the strip to expand or contract due to the
different co-efficients of expansion of the two metals. This movement is linear to the change
in temperature and the deflection of the free end can be read out by attaching a pointer to it.
This reading will indicate the value of temperature. Bimetallic strips are available in different
forms like helix type, cantilever, spiral, and also flat type.

The figure below shows the working of a bimetallic sensor. Two metals, blue and red are
riveted together. If it is used in an oven, the red metal would expand faster than the blue
metal. If it is used in a refrigerator, a rise in temperature causes the blue metal to expand
faster than the red one. As a result the strip will bend upward and short circuits with a metal
wore so that current begins to flow. If the size of the gap between the strip and the wire is
adjusted, you can control the temperature.

Bimetallic Thermometer
Bimetallic thermometers are generally available with 2, 3, 4, 5 or 6-inch concentric dials,
preferably of the non-parallax type (i.e. not visually misaligned or displaced), with external
zero adjustment, and 1/2-inch mounting thread. The stem should be of Stainless Steel
SS316), having a 1/4-inch diameter, and of a customized length to suit process
requirements. The dial orientation may be bottom or back, known as straight or angle,
respectively. However, an all angle adjustable swivel connection is preferred in order to
enable the dial to be read from the most convenient location.
Bimetallic thermometers are not recommended for continued use above 420 degree
Celsius. The thermal stability of the bimetallic thermometer is an inherent characteristic of
the metals used and continued operation cannot be assured above 471C.
Selection of Temperature Measurement Devices
Usually a given temperature measurement can be satisfactorily made by several different
types of temperature sensing devices. Ranges and capabilities of the various temperature
measuring devices overlap in many instances. The following shall be used as guidelines for
selection of Temperature Elements.

1. Bimetallic Thermometers
If the temperature to be measured is not required for automatic control, recording, or
indication in the control room, a bimetallic thermometer should be used.
2. Filled System Thermometers
Occasionally a temperature transmitter, recorder and/or controller has to be installed in a
location or under circumstances where electrical power is not available or inconvenient to
use, while instrument air (at 20 psig or above) is present. Under these circumstances, a
filled system thermometer is an ideal choice because it can be combined with a
commercially available pneumatic transmitter, recorder and/or controller. If a local
temperature measurement is in an inaccessible location so that a bimetallic thermometer
cannot be easily read, a filled system thermometer is recommended because its capillary
tubing can be led to an indicator that can be installed/located in a convenient place.
A liquid filled thermometer should be considered for corrosive areas or where vibration is a
problem.
3. Thermocouples
Thermocouples are generally used for high temperature applications. At high temperatures
there is a clear preference for thermocouples over RTDs. Project specific requirement
should be checked before selection of Thermocouple or RTD for specific application.
4. Resistance Thermometers
Listed below is some temperature measurement applications for which the use of a RTD is
normally preferred over a thermocouple:

Temperature of turbine inlet steam whose design temperature is close to

the maximum allowable temperature for piping and equipment

Temperature of permanent turbine test points

Average temperature of nuclear reactor coolant

Average combustion turbine inlet air temperature

Condenser cooling water inlet to outlet temperature gain

Motor stator winding and bearing temperatures

Thermocouples are not suitable for narrow range temperature measurements. This is
because the change in the EMF developed by a thermocouple over a narrow temperature
range is very small and difficult to measure. Therefore, for narrow spans or small
temperature differences a RTD is recommended.