Fundamentals of Sound Engineering PDF

Fundamentals of
Sound Engineering
LMS Test & Simulation Solutions
Fundamentals of Sound Engineering – The Six Ss
• Sound Pressure
• Sound Power
• Sound Source Localization
• Sound Quality
• Sound Control
• Source – Path – Receiver
Restricted © Siemens AG 2017

Page 2 2017.MM.DD Siemens PLM Software
1
Sound – Why is it important?
Cannot sell your product
• Government regulations, noise pollution control, pedestrian protection
• Example: Electric/hybrid vehicles now required to make noise at low speeds
Warranty Costs
• Sounds are irritating or do not meet customer expectations
• Example: Noise, vibration & harshness (NVH) warranty costs $100B+ auto industry
Competitive Advantage
• Distinguish your product from competition: “sound branding”
• Example: “Quietest Dish Washer”, Harley Davidson “potato-potato” sound
Increase Sales
• Example: Ice machine that can be in hospital patient rooms, rather than only nursing station if it is
quiet enough not to disturb patients
Acoustic Fatigue
• Launch Vehicles, Power Generators, …
Military
• Helicopter, Submarines, Military Vehicle – Avoid detection by enemy
Research - University of Sheffield
• Ultrasound waves used to stimulate cells

into normal healing process
• Speeds healing without side effects from

medication
• Can help avoid amputation as only

resolution in certain cases

2
US Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency

(DARPA) shows how to extinguish burning fuel by
trapping it in an acoustic field generated by
surrounding speakers.
By using specific frequencies, a fire is killed in a

two-pronged attack.
• Sound increases the air speed, thinning the

layer where combustion occurs and thus
making it easier to disrupt the flame.
• Acoustics also disturbs the surface of the fuel

which increases vaporization, widening the
flame and cooling its overall temperature.


3
Research – Bristol University/Univ. of Sussex
• High frequency, high amplitude sound

waves (40 kHz)
• Acoustic hologram holds/manipulates

small objects
• May one day manipulate objects inside

the human body, or target medication


4
You’re either meeting the requirements or you’re not
Sound (Power) Requirement Sound Quality

You’ve met your
You have not met requirements and
your requirements now want to improve
and need to solve Source Identification the sound quality
them fast
Source Ranking
Solution

Source-Path-Receiver: acoustics in a nutshell
Source Path Receiver

5
Source-Path-Receiver: acoustics in a nutshell

• Sound Intensity
• Sound Pressure
• Sound Power •Sound Source Localization
• Sound Quality
•Sound Materials

Sound Pressure
6
Sound Pressure Basics
• What is sound?
• The human auditory range
• The decibel scale
• Acoustical weighting
• Octaves
• Acoustical fields

What is sound?
Sound is our perception of pressure fluctuations which

propagate through a specific elastic medium (gases, liquids
or solids).
• Any vibrating surface that disturbs particles of the

medium can act as a sound source
• The disturbed particles transfer momentum from one

particle to another
• Compression and rarefaction create areas of high

pressure and low pressure, making a sine wave a
convenient analytical tool

7
What is sound?
• Areas of compression and rarefaction travel through the medium at the speed of sound
• Sound will travel even if there is no bulk flow

Speed of sound
The speed of sound determines how fast the compressions and rarefactions travel through the
medium. It depends on the physical properties of the elastic medium:
It’s dependent on: Material

Speed of sound
[m/s]
 Medium (solid/liquid/gaseous)
Gases
𝑐𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 > 𝑐𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 > 𝑐𝑔𝑎𝑠 Dry air 343
Helium 965
 Temperature Liquids
Water 1482
c = 20.05 ∙ 𝑇[𝐾] Oil 1490
Solids
the higher the temperature, the higher the speed of sound Wood 3300-3600
Steel 5960

8
Period and frequency of a sine wave
• The period T [s] is the time of one complete sinusoidal, vibrational cycle
Pressure
Time
Period
1
• The frequency f [Hz] is the inverse of the period: 𝑓=
𝑇[𝑠]
• Frequency range of human hearing is between 20 Hz and 20,000 Hz (20 kHz)
• Frequencies lower than 20 Hz are perceived as vibrations, frequencies above 20,000 Hz are
referred to as ultrasonic

Wavelength
• The wavelength  [m] is defined as the distance a pure-tone wave travels during a full period
Pressure
distance
wavelength
•  is related to the frequency f and the speed of sound c through
𝑐
𝜆=𝑐∙𝑇 = [𝑚]
𝑓
•  is significant in a number of phenomena such as absorption and diffraction

9
Sound is measured as pressure fluctuations
• Sound is measured as pressure fluctuations.
• The magnitude of pressure fluctuations is very small,

generally in the range from 0.00002 Pa (20 μPa) to 20 Pa as
compared with the atmospheric pressure of 100 kPa.
• The brain does not respond to the instantaneous pressure, it

behaves like an integrator. Therefore, the RMS (Root Mean
Square) sound pressure level has been introduced.
Linear time-averaging Special case: pure tone
𝑇 𝐴
1 𝑝= = 0.707 ∙ 𝐴
𝑝= ∙ 𝑝 2 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 2
𝑇 0

• What is sound?
• Octaves

10
Human auditory range
L dB
130
120
110
HEARING DOMAIN
100
90
80
70 MUSIC
1000 Hz – 25000 Hz 60
50
40 SPEECH
30
20
10 25 kHz
0
20 Hz 50 100 200 500 1k 2k 5k 10 k 20 kHz

• What is sound?
• Octaves

11
Sample Sound Levels
20 Pa Painful
Jet on take-off
Very Loud 0.63 Pa
Heavy truck
0.063 Pa Noisy
Inside compact car Moderate 0.0063 Pa

Average classroom
0.00063 Pa Quiet
Barely Audible 0.000063 Pa

Bedroom at night
Soft whisper
Sample Sound Levels
120 dB Painful
Jet on take-off
Very Loud 90 dB Heavy truck
70 dB Noisy
Inside compact car Moderate 50 dB

Average classroom
30 dB Quiet
Barely Audible 10 dB
Bedroom at night
Soft whisper
12
Decibel 1.0 vs 0.01
1 0
Amplitude – dB
Amplitude - Pa
-20
0.5 -40
-60
0 -80
Linear Amplitude Scale Logarithmic Amplitude Scale

Decibel
2
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑
𝑑𝐵 = 10𝑙𝑜𝑔
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒
or
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑
𝑑𝐵 = 20𝑙𝑜𝑔
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒
Pressure measured is an RMS quantity
Pressure reference is 20e-6 Pascals

13
Sample Sound Levels: Women’s Tennis Australian Open

Decibel scale
Decibel – the original sound quality metric

• Human sensitivity to sound amplitude is logarithmic in nature
• Using dB scale is far more convenient than linear amplitude scale
0 dB 2e10-5 Pa Hearing threshold 1kHz

94 dB 1 Pa Calibration
100 dB 2 Pa Double
106 dB 4 Pa Double Again
120 dB 20 Pa Pain threshold

14
Decibel “funny” math
6 dB = Double sound pressure level
dB Change Voltage Ratio

+ 40 dB 100
+ 20 dB 10
+6 dB 2
0 dB 1
-6 dB 1/2
- 20 dB 1/10
- 40 dB 1/100

dB drag racing

15
Example 1 – Decibel “funny” math
Sound Source 1
• 2 Pa = 100 dB
Sound Source 2
• 2 Pa = 100 dB
Source 1 + Source 2*? ?

* Assume in-phase, coherent sources

Example 1 – Decibel “funny” math
Sound Source 1
• 2 Pa = 100 dB
Sound Source 2
• 2 Pa = 100 dB
Source 1 + Source 2*:

• 2 Pa + 2 Pa = 4 Pa
• 4 Pa = 106 dB
* Assume in-phase, coherent sources

16
Adding sources together
Coherent
Coherent:
Fixed phase vs
relationship
Incoherent
Makes a Difference!
Summation of coherent sinusoidal sources
100 dB (2 Pa) at 1000 Hz *

+
100 dB (2 Pa) at 1000 Hz *
* In Phase

17
Summation of coherent sinusoidal sources
100 dB (2 Pa) at 1000 Hz *

+
100 dB (2 Pa) at 1000 Hz *
=
106 dB (4 Pa) Overall
* In Phase
6 dB Increase
Summation of incoherent sinusoidal sources
100 dB (2 Pa) at 1000 Hz

+
100 dB (2 Pa) at 2000 Hz

18
100 dB (2 Pa) at 1000 Hz

+
100 dB (2 Pa) at 2000 Hz
=
103 dB (2.82 Pa) Overall
3 dB Increase
Why the difference?

• In-phase, coherent sources will only constructively interfere
• Incoherent sources will also periodically de-constructively interfere!

19
Summation of random sources
100 dB Overall Level

+

Summation of random sources

+
=
3 dB Increase
20
Decibel “funny” math
6 dB increase when adding coherent sources
3 dB increase when adding incoherent sources

Example 1 – decibel “funny” math
Sound Source 1
• 10 Pa = 113 dB Sum is almost
Sound Source 2 identical to largest
• 2 Pa = 100 dB source
Sound Source 3
• 2 Pa = 100 dB
Source 1 + Source 2 + Source 3*
• 10.3 Pa (RMS sum) = 114.3 dB
• 113 dB + 100 dB + 100 dB = 114.3 dB
* Assume incoherent sources

21
Sound Source 1
• 2 Pa = 100 dB
Sound Source 2
• 2 Pa = 100 dB
Sound Source 3
• 2 Pa = 100 dB
• 3.46 Pa (RMS sum) = 104.7 dB
• 100 dB + 100 dB + 100 dB = 104.7 dB

Sound Source 1
• 2 Pa = 100 dB Overall not reduced
Sound Source 2 greatly by
• 2 Pa = 100 dB removing one
Sound Source 3 source
• 2 Pa = 100 dB
• 3.46 Pa (RMS sum) = 104.7 dB
• 100 dB + 100 dB + 100 dB = 103 dB

22
Sound Source 1
• 2 Pa = 100 dB
Sound Source 2
• 2 Pa = 100 dB
Sound Source 3
• 2 Pa = 100 dB
• 3.46 Pa (RMS sum) = 104.7 dB
• 100 dB + 100 dB + 100 dB = 100 dB

Sound Source 1
• 2 Pa = 100 dB Better strategy:
Sound Source 2 address each
• 2 Pa = 100 dB source a little bit
Sound Source 3
• 2 Pa = 100 dB
• 3.46 Pa (RMS sum) = 104.7 dB
• 100 dB + 100 dB + 100 dB = 100 dB

23
Decible scale: some rules of thumb
6 dB = Doubling sound pressure
? dB ≈ Perceived twice as loud

10
3 dB ≈ Average perceivable change
?

• What is sound?
• Octaves

24
A-weighting curve
Hearing Domain
frequency
• Human hearing is not equally sensitive to all frequencies.

• Most sensitive between 3000 and 6000Hz, least sensitive at low frequency
• A-weighting is a simple correction to account for perception: unit label: dB(A)

Decibels & A-weighting: dB(A)
• Filter with similar attributes to ear – another

original sound quality metric
• Simple curve shape – historical circuitry
• Attenuates low frequencies
• 1000 Hz - no gain/attenuation – frequency
often used for microphone calibration

25
Other acoustic weighting curves
• Based on Loudness curves: equal perceived

loudness, expressed on phones
• A-weighting = 40-phone curve is mostly used
• B- and C-weighting = 70- and 100-phone

equal loudness contours
• D-weighting for aircraft noise: 1-10 kHz

region
• Z-weighting: no weighting or “linear”

weighting

DEMO: TEST SIMPLE SOUND
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DEMO: CAE SIMPLE SOUND

27
Acoustic CAE
Microphone
Setup Structural
Points Mesh
Semi-anechoic
Ground
Room
• What is sound?
• Octaves

28
Octave bands
Noise spectrum is shown...

What are these flat lines?
OCTAVES
Octaves
The term “octave” is borrowed from music theory

• 8 whole tones between notes of the same name
A4: 440 Hz A5: 880 Hz

(standard pitch)

29
Octaves
The term “octave” is borrowed from music theory

• 8 whole tones between notes of the same name
A4: 440 Hz A5: 880 Hz A6: 1760 Hz A7: 3520 Hz

(standard pitch)
440 Hz 880 Hz 1760 Hz

Span Span Span
Octaves
40
Octaves represent the summation
35
of sound (energy) over a specific
dB/2e-005 [Pa]
30
frequency range/band …
25
20 … displayed with a logarithmic X-axis

45
15 45
10
2000 4000 6000 8000
dB/2e-005 [Pa]
dB/2e-005 [Pa]
40 Frequency [Hz] 40
35 35
30 30
2000 4000 6000 8000 125 250 500 1000 2000 4000 8000
Restricted © Siemens AG 2017 Frequency [Hz] Frequency [Hz]
30
Octave analysis – constant % bandwidth
Lower Center Upper

cutoff frequency cutoff
frequency frequency
11 16 22
45 22 31.5 44
44 63 88
40
88 125 177
35
177 250 355
dB/2e-005 [Pa]
30
355 500 710
25
710 1000 1420
20 1420 2000 2840
15 2840 4000 5680
10 5680 8000 11360

125 250 500 1000 2000 4000 8000
Frequency [Hz] 11360 16000 22720

31

Octave analysis – graphic equalizer

32
Octaves and human hearing
So why use octave bands?

• Octave bands lump frequency content logarithmically
• Original sound quality metric: human hearing is lumped logarithmically too
• This arises from the construction of our inner ear, specifically the cochlea

Cochlea – Inner Ear

33
Cochlea

Octave analysis – Constant % bandwidth

34
DEMO: TEST OCTAVES
35
• What is sound?
• Octaves

36
Diffuse field vs. free field
- microphone
Mic
Sound
Sound
Source
Source
Sound
Source
Diffuse Field Free Field

Uniform sound field regardless of Sound propagates without reflection,
microphone position sound level decreases with distance

Near field vs. far field
[A] Near Field

 Close to source
 Circulating & propagating
 No predictable relationship
between distance & pressure
[B] Far Field

 Far from source, appears as a point
 Plane wave approximation
 Fixed relationship between distance
& pressure

37
Anechoic Room
• Highly absorbing surfaces
• Source radiates as in a free field
• Free field conditions - almost no reverberation
To test:
• sound power of source
• directivity pattern of radiating source
Anechoic rooms are more effective at high than at low frequencies.

The lowest frequency at which an anechoic room can be used depends on the
room volume and the depth of the wedges
A very large room (several m’s) with 1-2 m wedges is effective down to 100 Hz

Semi-anechoic Room
• Flat, reflecting floor

• Sound-absorptive walls and ceiling
To test sources that are normally

mounted on or operate in the presence
of a reflecting surface (e.g. cars,…)
Roller bench inside:

• sound power
• TPA
semi-anechoic room with roller bench
• ASQ
• pass-by noise

38
Reverberation Room
• High-reflecting, non-parallel walls

• Diffuse field: nearly uniform sound pressure
To test:
• Sound absorptive properties of materials
• Sound power of sources
• Sound transmission through building elements typical reverberation room
At low frequencies, the frequency response to wide-band noise shows several peaks
corresponding to the room modes. At higher frequencies, the individual modes begin to overlap
and are less obvious

Modeling Anechoic, Semi-anechoic or Reverberation

Room in CAE
This setup simulates Anechoic room with

• By default simulation is always panel transmission microphone Points
anechoic
• To model a semi-anechoic
room we add a symmetry plane
that will represent the ground
• To model a reverberation room

we generate a distributed plane
wave source.
Reverberation side Plane to represent wall

with distributed plane with structure inside it
wave sources

39
Sound Power
Sound Power
• Pressure vs. power

• Importance of sound power
• Why, who, how?
• Regulations & standards
• Pressure based sound power
• Industry specific standards

40
Measuring sound
HOW LOUD?

Measuring sound
1m
2m
Does distance matter?

41
Measuring sound
1m 1m
Does location matter?

Measuring sound – sound pressure level
When measuring the

sound level of an object,
sound pressure readings
are dependent on
location and distance.

42
Measuring sound – sound pressure level
Sound power attempts to

quantify the acoustic
source strength of an
object, independent of
the distance and location
of the measurement.

Sound Power Analogy
Electric heater
• Temperature (degrees) = Sound Pressure (Pa)
• Heater Power (Watts) = Sound Power (Watts)

43
Sound Power

• Why, who, how?

Sound Power - importance

44
Sound Power - importance
Sound power is a quantity indicative of the emitted noise
• Any source of noise has a characteristic sound power W (J/s).

• The sound power characterizes the acoustic strength of a source.
Widespread recognition across different industries
• Is an absolute quantity
• Only depends on the noise source
• Independent of the acoustic environment
Sound power level:

W
LW  10. log10 ( )
Wref
reference acoustic power Wref = 10-12

Sound Power

• Why, who, how?

45
Sound Power - WHY
Targets & Regulations Targets

• Comply with target specification Regulations
• Comply with market specifications
• Comply with legislation
Comparison
• Compare equipment (same / different types)
• Compare with competitive product Product
• Purchasing parameter in the selection process Engineering
Engineering
• Verification of the developed product
• Indicator for developing quieter product
• Quality control in production Product
Comparison
NOT only for “loud” machines

Sound Power - WHO

46
Sound Power - HOW
ISO3744 = Pressure based ISO9614 = Intensity based

 Microphones around object  Intensity probe
 ISO3741/42/43/44/45/46 till ISO3747  ISO9614-1 & ISO9614-2
 Fast & easy method  More time consuming
 Only in controlled environment  Can be used in-situ
 One number  More engineering insight
Quantification In-situ use

Certification Troubleshooting

Sound Power

• Why, who, how?

47
EU Directive - protecting the workforce
The EU created directives dealing with noise and vibration in the working environment
• Human Vibration Directive 2002/44/EC
• Noise at Work Directive 2003/10/EC
• Noise Emission Directive 2000/14/EC
Implemented in national legislation in 2010 (2014 for agriculture and forestry)
Pressure on manufacturers and suppliers
• New quality norm can be competitive advantage
• Can become a branding identity
• Often products must be ISO certified
Pressure on end-user or employer
• Limit daily exposure of employees to noise/vibration
• Switch to tools generating less noise/vibration
Industry specific standards & regulations
EU Directive 2000/14/EC:
Sound power - outdoor equipment
• European directive for outdoor

equipment: gardening, construction,
etc. (57 categories)
• Obligation for marking + limit, or

marking only

48
What about non-EU regions ?

Hierarchy of standards
EC/2000/14
CE marking Market definition
Who needs to measure
- products ISO15744 Operating condition
- industries of test object
- regions ISO7779 , ECMA-74
- customer (internal) Limits or label?
ISO9296 , ECMA-109 Reporting templates
... ...
ISO3741, ISO3742, IS03743 Calculation

microphone setup
How to measure ISO3744 precision
environmental correction
ISO3745, ISO3746, ISO3747
IEC60651 & IEC60804

Microphones
Instrumentation ANSI S1.11 & Sound Pressure Levels
Octave bands
IEC1260

49
Test environment specific standards
In reverberant rooms
• ISO3741 : precision method: broadband sources
• ISO3742 : precision method: discrete-frequency & narrow-band sources
• ISO3743 : engineering method: broadband sources
In anechoic, semi-anechoic rooms or outdoors
• ISO3744 : engineering: free-field conditions over a reflecting plane
• ISO3745 : precision: anechoic and semi-anechoic rooms
• ISO3746 : survey: enveloping measurement surface over a reflecting plane
In situ
• ISO3747 : comparison method in-situ

Sound Power

• Why, who, how?
• Intensity based sound power

50
Sound Power - HOW
ISO3744 = Pressure based

 Microphones around object
 ISO3741/42/43/44/45/46 till ISO3747
 Fast & easy method
 Only in controlled environment
 One number
Quantification
Certification

Sound Power – Array Method
 1 N 0.1L'  S 
Lw  10 log  10 pi   K1  K 2  10 log 
 N i 1   S0 
• Average pressure over microphones
• K1 correction for background noise
• Source must be > 6 dB above background
• Recommended is >15 dB above background
• K2 correction for test environment
• Reverberation increases SPL
• S area of measurement surface (S0= 1m2)
• Measurement distance decreases SPL

51
Sound power – how does it work?
Avg sound pressure Surface area
1 N
 S  (ignoring correction factors)
10
0.1L'pi
Lw  10 log    10 log  
N i 1   S0 
1 N
 S 
10
0.1L'pi
Lw  10 log    10 log S  = 100 dB(W)
N i 1   0
1 N
 S 
10
0.1L'pi
Lw  10 log    10 log S  = 100 dB(W)
N i 1   0
Avg pressure drops Surface area increases
Sound power remains the same!!

DEMO: CAE SOUND

POWER
52
Sound Power
Array
Array Setup Structural
Microphone Mesh
Points
Semi-anechoic
Ground
Room
Sound Power
Display in CAE
Sound power
units of W Peak at
845Hz
Octave Band
of concern
53
Sound Power

• Why, who, how?

Sound Power & Intensity
Sound Intensity
• Intensity overview
• Intensity based source localization

54
Sound Power Analogy
Electric heater
• Temperature (degrees) = Sound Pressure (Pa)
• Heater Power (Watts) = Sound Power (Watts)
• Heat Flow (Watts/Area) = Sound Intensity (Watts/Area)

What is Intensity?
• Sound intensity is a vector quantity that has both magnitude and

direction, because the energy will flow in some directions but not
others
• Sound Intensity is the average rate of sound energy transmitted in

a specified direction through a unit area (1 m2) normal to this
direction at the point considered.
Intensity  Pressure x Particle Velocity
Force Distance Energy Power Watts 
  
Area Time Area  Time Area  m 2 
• Intensity is dependent on the source’s properties and the distance

from the source

55
Standard microphone versus Intensity probe
+ -
• Standard ICP microphone • Acoustic Intensity probe

• Measures sound pressure (compare to • Combination of 2 microphones
temperature in the room) • Measures 2x sound pressure
• Has (almost) no directivity • Has directivity by combining the 2 mic channels
• No idea where the sound comes from • Perfectly know where the sound comes from
• e.g. in production environment: picks up the • e.g. in production environment: “isolate” individual
sound from ALL machines (sources) machines in order to calculate the sound power

Measurement considerations: frequency limitations
p p
1 2
Lower Frequency Limit
Phase mismatch between microphones
Typically < 0.3˚ degrees for matched probe 
r
microphones
Upper frequency Limit

Spacer distance :
< 1/6th of the wavelength

56
Intensity probe “sees” where the sound comes from
p p p p
1  2 1  2
r r
I = +1 I=0
p p
1  2
r
I = +1 x cos(α)

In-situ method – cancellation of external sources
+ +

57
In-situ method – cancellation of external sources
+ +

Sound Intensity

58
Sound power: HOW?
ISO3744 = Pressure based ISO9614 = Intensity based

 Microphones around object  Intensity Probe
 ISO3741/42/43/44/45/46 till ISO3747  ISO9614-1 ISO9614-2
 Fast & easy method
 more time consuming
 Only in controlled environment
 Can be used in-situ
 One number
 More engineering inside
Quantification In-situ use

Certification Troubleshooting

Sound power – different steps using intensity
 Use intensity probe (2 mic channels) ISO9614 = Intensity based

 Intensity Probe
 ISO9614-1 ISO9614-2
In-situ use
Troubleshooting

59

 Rectangular “shoe-box” around the object  Intensity Probe
 Sub-divide each surface in sub-segments
 ISO9614-1 ISO9614-2
In-situ use
Troubleshooting


 ISO9614-1 ISO9614-2
 Calibration
 Amplitude of both microphones
 Phase calibration
 Measure Residual Intensity (intensity noise floor)  More engineering inside
In-situ use
Troubleshooting

60

 ISO9614-1 ISO9614-2
 Calibration
 Measure Residual Intensity  More engineering inside
 Measure each sub-segment sequentially
 Point method – ISO9614-1
 Scanning method – ISO9614-2
In-situ use
Troubleshooting


 ISO9614-1 ISO9614-2
 Calibration
 Measure Residual Intensity  More engineering inside
 Measure each sub-segment sequentially
 Point method – ISO9614-1
 Scanning method – ISO9614-2
 ISO Sound power = sum of partial sound powers

(Intensity x surface of sub-segment)
SPOW   Int  Surface

In-situ use
Troubleshooting

61
Intensity: Sound Power
100
95
Sound Intensity 99.93 dB
SCAN 90
85
80
continuously
75
70
65
W/(m2)
dB
for 30
60
55
50
seconds
45
40
35
30
= ISO9614-2 25
20
0 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000 2250 2500 2750 3000 3250 3500 3750 4100
Hz
Intensity spectrum
Spend equal
time at all x surface area =
spots

Sound Intensity

62
Intensity: Source Localization
MOVE and 7x6 = 42

Measure measurements
Point to Point of 30 seconds
= ISO9614-1 each

Measurement Considerations
Strengths and Weaknesses
Strengths Weaknesses
• Allows measurement of energy flow • Frequency range is limited compared to measurements

(intensity = vector quantity) based on sound pressure
• No influence of environment: • Time consuming

what flows in from one side flows out from another side
• Requires experienced personnel
• Can cope with extraneous noise (other sources in the
background) • Expensive equipment compared to free field microphones
• no need for special test room (anechoic, semi-anechoic
or reverberant room) or specific test conditions
• ISO sound power + source localization

63
2D plot gives limited information
Imagine you could do this …

LMS SoundBrush

64
Intensity the old-fashioned way
Experienced personnel, time-consuming
Or expensive, troublesome robotics
“3D” intensity? No thanks!

LMS SoundBrush – next gen sound intensity probe
• Short set-up & test time
• No “shoeboxes” around object
• No probe orientation concerns
• True 3-D intensity vectors in real time
• See the whole sound field, not just a surface

65
Real time 3D intensity
4 microphones in
tetrahedral configuration
4 pressure time series:

p1(t) p2(t) p3(t) p4(t)
Time domain

3D Intensity: Increasing Frequency Range
Frequency dependent spacer distance
Frequency dependent amplitude correction
Comparison 12 mm PP probe with 3D intensity sensor

in 49 orientations

66
DEMO: LMS SoundBrush
Sound Source
Localization
67
Sound source localization

• Intensity
• SoundBrush
• Acoustic arrays
• Sound Camera

Finding the source …

68
Can you tell which component causes the noise ?
…even when looking at the spectrum


69

When do we use Sound Source Localization?
Troubleshooting in the field
A-B comparison: before/after modifications Testing and reporting on variants
dBA (W)
110.
87.
79.
Acoustic transparency
Seal leaks, transmission
40.
Quantification

70
Why not simply measure sound pressures?
Because sound pressure

• does not explain which sources are contributing
• does not show the flow of acoustic energy
Cartographie moteur Renault_2 - carto_proche - distribution - montée - 2150 - 21 O- (A) - H
Intensite
dBA
76
75
74
73
72
71
70
69
68
…interference… …acoustical energy flow… …sound source…
…therefore dedicated techniques are required for source localization

• Sound Intensity
• Beam-forming
• Acoustic Holography

• Intensity
• SoundBrush
• Acoustic arrays
• Sound Camera

71
LMS Acoustic arrays
Measurements here…
Results projected here

Acoustic Array Algorithms
Beamforming
• Array smaller than object

• Double frequency for same # mics
• Far field only
• Poor spatial resolution at low freq
Holography Focalization
• Array bigger than object
• High frequencies require high • Similar to Beamforming
number of mics • Extend to Near field
• Works at low frequencies • Spherical waveform

72
Beamforming
• Sound arrives at array from acoustic source

• Time signal simultaneously recorded at a number of microphones
• Utilize phase delay to locate directionality of source
Source

Array based techniques – back propagation

73
DEMO: Acoustic array
Advanced technique: iNAH Holography
• Low frequency range (160-320 Hz)

• Beamforming (focalization) result is general
• Holography result shows distinct sources
Focalization result iNAH result

74
Advanced technique: coherent localization
Restricted © Siemens AG 2017 149 copyright LMS International - 2009

HDCam: Coherent Localization

75
Array for interior noise
Challenges?
• Interior cavity
• Complex acoustic environment:
• Sources on both sides of the array (3D)
• Reflections
 Microphone positions
 Need 3D instead of 2D microphone
configuration
 Spherical Beamforming formulation
 Solid Array surface outperforms open array:
 Low frequency: better resolution, more
accurate localization
 Mid/High: higher dynamic range and less
ghost images

To what surface should we propagate?
 Easy solution:
 imaginary sphere
 Too close: wrong

location and low
dynamics
 Too far: low dynamic
range, worse spatial
resolution (larger spots)

76
3D spherical array

Source Localization
• 3D color image shows

how the sound
radiates out from the
source at 845Hz

77
Source Localization
• Vibration on the surface

shows he source of
noise at 845Hz

Sound Quality
78
The Real world!
You’re either meeting the requirements or you’re not
Sound (Power) Requirement Sound Quality
You’ve met your
You have not met requirements and
your requirements now want to
and need to solve Source Identification improve the sound
them fast quality
Source Ranking
Solution

Sound quality
Sound quality
• What is it about?
• Human vs. microphone
• From subjective to objective
• Sound recording
• Sound quality metrics
• Jury testing
79
What is sound quality?
Sound quality:
Subjective appreciation we give to a sound
Sound as a source of annoyance (negative quality) Communicates information (positive quality)

• Sportiveness, robustness, confidence,
• “noise” (impeding speech or music, tiring)
smoothness
• “squeak, rattle, rumble… unpleasant • Product characteristics, emotions
Why aim for high sound quality?

+ Maintain brand image
- Annoyance, user comfort

80
Sound quality
Sound quality
• Sound recording
• Jury testing
Sound measurement – Can I use a simple microphone?
Microphone
?
Human ear & brain
Is the sound measured by a microphone same as the sound that reaches your ear?
Optical illusions “audible” illusions
≠
“What you measure is NOT what you hear”
81
Sound measurement
Microphone
?
Human ear & brain
 Microphones measure instantaneous pressure fluctuations.  The brain does not respond to the instantaneous
pressure, it behaves like an integrator. Therefore,
the RMS (Root Mean Square) sound pressure
level has been introduced.
T
1
p 
T 0
p 2 (t )dt

Sound measurement
Microphone
?
Human ear & brain
 Microphones measure a voltage relative to the real sound level  The human hearing is not equally sensitive to all frequencies
(A-weighting)

82
Sound measurement
Microphone
?
Human ear & brain
 Acoustical energy is presented in octave bands  Perceived octaves have slightly different pitch shift
(frequency not exactly double)
 Bark scale instead of Octave band scale

Sound measurement
Microphone
?
Human ear & brain
 Microphone measures all frequencies with the exact  Human brain uses some “history” filter on
amplitudes
the noise which creates masking effects
 No influence from one frequency on other frequencies
 No temporal effects
 Frequency masking
 Temporal masking
 IN = OUT

83
Sound measurement
Microphone
?
Human ear & brain

Sound measurement
Microphone
Human ear & brain
 Integrator – RMS averaging

 A-weighting
 Octaves -> Bark scale
 Masking effects
 …

84
Sound quality
Sound quality
• Sound recording
• Jury testing
From subjective to objective
Sound recording Calculate sound quality metrics
mathematical formulation that

accurately describes the “average”
person’s psychoacoustic perception
of the noise
“average” person ? How to find good metrics ?
Try to find OBJECTIVE functions

(metric) that correlate well with the
different SUBJECTIVE perceptions
“classic” analysis

85
From subjective to objective

of the noise
Jury testing
Listening sessions, including

different “profiles” of people.
Try to correlate metrics with jury
testing results

Sound quality
Sound quality
• Sound recording
• Jury testing
86
Sound recording

of the noise
Jury testing

testing results

How to acquire good signals to calculate sound metrics?
Sound recording Single microphone ?

87

Jury Testing - Sound Quality – Measuring sound samples
Binaural measurements
• Ideal for listening tests
• Stereo recordings
• Requires artificial head or a binaural headset
• Can be used for direct replay
• Recorded data is automatically equalized for
analysis
LMS SCADAS XS with LMS SCADAS 3D Binaural Headset

88
But what about the passenger seat ?

Human head / body influences the sound field
Microphone
Human ear & brain
Influence of
human body on
the sound field

89

Jury Testing - Sound Quality – Measuring sound samples
Binaural measurements
• Ideal for listening tests
• Stereo recordings
• Requires artificial head or a binaural headset
• Can be used for direct replay
• Recorded data is automatically equalized for analysis
LMS SCADAS XS with LMS SCADAS 3D Binaural Headset
Equalization for analysis

• The effect of head and torso is removed from the
recording
• The measured signal “looks” as if measured by a
microphone
G.R.A.S. 45BB KEMAR Head and Torso

90
Binaural head
Equalization:
From a binaural measurement, extract

the sound “as if” measured by a single
microphone placed in the center of the
ears, without head or torso influence.
Equalization filter
depends on field:
• Free field
• Diffuse field
(approximation of
vehicle cabin)
Sound quality
Sound quality
• Sound recording
• Jury testing
91
Sound metrics

of the noise
Jury testing

testing results

Introducing sound quality metrics

Groups of sound quality metrics
• Adapting recorded sounds to perception
Level
• Loudness ISO532 (A and B), Loudness Stevens VII,
metrics
Time Varying loudness, …
Speech • To quantify speech intelligibility according to the environment

metrics • Speech interference level, Articulation Index, …
Modulation • Amplitude variation and harshness due to modulation

metrics • Roughness, fluctuation strength
Annoyance • To quantify if the noise is disturbing or not

metrics • Noise rating, noise criterion, balanced noise criterion, sharpness
Tonal • To quantify the perception of tonal components in real sounds

metrics • Pitch, tonality, tone-to-noise ratio, prominence ratio

92
Level
metrics





Level & perception
Sound Pressure Level (SPL)
• Most basic metric

• Equivalent SPL (Leq): changing
over time
• SPL per frequency line or 1/3rd
octave band
Linear random noise
A-weighted
…. But sound is about perception
• A,B,C,D weighting: correction for
perception
• Masking effects

93
Loudness: Sones
Equal Loudness Curves
4 sone
2 sone
1 sone
Frequency (Hz)
Loudness: Sones
Equal Loudness Curves
1 sone
.5 sone
.25 sone
Frequency (Hz)
94
Loudness
6 dB -> Twice the amplitude (sound pressure)
76 dB vs. 70 dB
60 dB vs. 54 dB
Not intuitive that 6 dB (or 10 dB perceived) is twice as loud

Loudness: Sones
 2 sones twice as loud as 1 sone
 4 sones twice as loud as 2 sone

95
Loudness Example
with Vacuums Sounds
C:\demo\Sound Quality\Loudness.lms

Time-Varying Loudness (TVL) (DIN 45631/A1)

Car door slam example
Example: car door slam 2.40 1.00
BK00:left:S
Compare different loudness metrics
Amplitude
Real
Pa
-4.20 0.00
1.00 s 2.00
52.00 1.00
Loudness Stevens 6 BK00:left:S
Loudness Stevens 7 BK00:left:S
Loudness Zwicker BK00:left:S
Time Varying Loudness BK00:left:S
Amplitude
Amplitude
sone
1. All loudness except Stevens VI reach similar level

2. TVL can handle impulsive sounds most realistically in
time 8.00 0.00
1.00 s 2.00

96
Loudness is not all mighty
1.30 1.00
Amplitude
Real
Pa
31:sound - Left
-1.30 0.00
0.00 s 20.00
29.00 1.00
• All sounds have equal

Amplitude
Amplitude
sone
F Loudness Zw icker sound - Left S[0.00-20.00 s] L

loudness
0.00 0.00
0.00 s 20.00 • How to quantify perceived
24000.00 Time 90.00
83.98 sound quality?
AutoPow er sound - Left (A) WF 38 [0-18.5 s]
sound - Left (CH1)
dB(A)
Hz
Pa
0.00 -10.00
0.00 s 19.00
Time

Level
metrics





97
Speech metrics (250 Hz – 4 kHz)
Articulation index
• Predicts percentage of syllables understood

• Speech privacy in noisy background
Speech Interference Level
Quantifies how noise disturbs speech between two people.

SIL4: ANSI S3.14-1977(R-1986)
SIL3: 3 highest octaves of SIL4 (aircraft) 50.00 Speech Interference Level Left 157.00
PSIL: 3 lowest octaves of SIL4 (interiors) Preferred Speech Interference Level Left
Open Articulation Index Left
Amplitude
%AI
Pa
dB
20.00 94.00
0.00 s 9.70
Restricted © Siemens AG 2017 Time

Level
metrics





98
Roughness and fluctuation strength
• What does the sum of a 400 Hz sine wave and 405 Hertz sine wave look like?
• What do you hear?

Roughness and Fluctuation Strength
• Measure of Modulation
• Fluctuation 0-20 Hz, Max at 4 Hz
• Roughness 20-300 Hz, Max at 70 Hz

99
Modulation metrics
Roughness: Quantified in unit Asper

• Harshness feeling due to modulation frequencies between 20Hz and 300Hz.
Fluctuation Strength: Quantified in unit Vacil

• Amplitude variation due to modulation frequencies below 20Hz.
Metrics related to perception:

• Account for masking effects and loudness F.S. Rough 2 tones
• Meaningful from microphone acquisition


Level
metrics





100
Annoyance Metrics – Sharpness (I)
Sharpness: pleasantness of a sound from “shrill” (sharp) to “dull”, unit is “acum”

• Based on Zwicker loudness
• Unit is “acum” S = 0.4 Acum
4.00
Specific loudness Zwicker vacA 1.2 s
Specific loudness Zwicker vacB 1.2 s
Amplitude
sone
S ≈ 2.25 Acum 0.00

0.00 Bark 24.00
3.00 55.00
Sharpness vacA
Sharpness vacB
Time Varying Loudness vacA
Time Varying Loudness vacB
Amplitude
Amplitude
acum
sone
S ≈ 1.80 Acum
1.50 35.00
0.00 s 3.00

Level
metrics





101
Tone metrics – tonality TTNR and PR
Tone metrics: Quantitative measure of global perceived 4.70 0.24

F Prominence Ratio Vaccum_brandA
tonal components F
B
Tone-to-noise Ratio Vaccum_brandA
Tonality Vaccum_brandA
Applications:
Amplitude
Amplitude
• stationary in general
/
• Electric motors
• Household products
• Industrial machines 1.50
0.00 s 4.00
0.11
• Generators, pumps Time
0.76
AutoPower Vaccum_brandA 1 s
Tone-to-Noise and Prominence ratios: Curve 5457.59 PR Prominent Prominence Ratio Tone-to-noise Ratio TTNR Prominent Hz
Amplitude (Peak)
• Detect which tones are prominent 0.16 Yes 12.23 /^2@ 5460.00 Hz 6.19 /^2@ 5460.00 Hz No Pa
• ISO7779:1999 and ECMA-74:2008

Pa
Prominent discrete tones (Yes or No):

• TTNR prominent ≥ 8dB 5457.59
0.00
• PR prominent ≥ 9dB 0.00 Hz 6000.00

Sound quality
Sound quality
• Sound recording
• Jury testing
102
Jury testing

of the noise
Jury testing

testing results

Subjective analysis – Jury Testing
Understand what the

“average person”
thinks about the
sound of your
product

103
A-B comparison
Randomly paired sounds are replayed together –

the juror chooses his or her preference based on
the criterion imposed by test designer.
Benefits:
• Benchmarking products against competitors
• Comparing and ranking prototype models
• Automatic ordering of sound pairs
Features:
• A-B replication
• Allow A=B or forced answer

Semantic differential
Sound samples are presented one by one to the juror, who

has to rate them based on a pair of two opposing
adjectives (e.g. “weak” and “strong”). The choice of
adjectives, as well as the number of steps in-between
them are chosen by the test designer.
Benefits:
• Break-down the sound into impressions and feelings of
the jurors
Features:
• Adjustable number of opposing adjectives per page
• Buttons and slider supported for jury answer input
• Adjustable number of steps in between each adjective

104
Category judgement
Sound samples are presented one by one to the juror, who

has to rate them on a scale with a number of categories
according to a criterion imposed by the test designer. An
example of a criterion could be “sporty” or “robust”.
Benefits:
• Break-down the sound into impressions and feelings of
the jurors
Features:
• Adjustable number of categories per page
• Buttons and slider supported for jury answer input
• Adjustable number of grades for scoring

Result sheet
Display of concordance vs. Pie-chart showing the

consistency. All Jurors are percentage distribution of
mapped on this X-Y graph answers provided by
to easily check the quality Jurors. Use the drop-down
of their answers. The colors to change the statistical
represent the answer to the question.
question from the pie-chart.
Set of filters to be applied Column chart showing

on the list of Jurors. The which sounds were
available criteria are: preferred most. As the
concordance, consistency, poor-quality results will be
reference questions, filtered out, the overall
statistical questions. result will adapt.

105
Sound Control
Sound control
Sound control
• Sound materials & testing
• Duct acoustics

106
Sound control
Material testing
• Basic principles
• Overview of techniques
• Absorption in room
• Absorption in-situ
• Absorption in room
• STL in tube
• STL in room
• STL intensity

Material Testing principle
Sound Absorption Sound Transmission Loss
Foam Trim material Mufflers - exhaust Doors

Rooms - building Transport Walls - windows
Unrestricted © Siemens AG 2017

Page 219 Siemens PLM Software
107
Sound absorption
Absorption coefficient α: α depends on:

• Thickness
Reflected power (Wr) Rigid,
𝑊𝑟 • Porosity reflecting
𝛼 =1− • Frequency Incident power (Wi) material
𝑊𝑖 • Flow resistance
Absorbed sound
• Roughness wave
• …
High absorption (α > 0.9) Low absorption (α < 0.1)
foam Brick wall

Sound absorption – effect of material thickness
foam
Observations:
1. Increased thickness  increased absorption in low frequencies
2. High frequencies easiest to absorb

108
Sound Transmission Loss (STL)
Transmission Loss (TL):

Reflected power (Wr)
Incident power (Wi) Transmitted power (Wt)
Applications: Example: muffler STL
Mufflers - exhaust Doors

Walls - windows

How to assess muffler acoustic performance?
Sound Transmission Loss

Insertion Loss (IL) Noise Reduction (NR)
(STL)
Insertion loss: Noise reduction: Transmission Loss:

Difference between sound pressure Difference in SPL upstream and Difference between sound power
level (SPL) with and without the downstream of muffler incident on muffler and power
muffler in place transmitted downstream to anechoic
termination.
Dependent on source Dependent on source
Independent of source

109
Material testing
Material testing
Basic principles
Overview techniques
Absorption in tube
Absorption in-situ
Sound transmission loss in tube
Absorption in room
Sound transmission loss in room
Sound transmission loss - intensity

Material Testing
Overview techniques
Absorption Sound Transmission Loss
2-mic transfer-function method 4-mic transfer matrix

ISO 10534-2 ASTM E1050 (mufflers, resonators, materials)
Test on small samples
or components
ISO 354 ASTM C-423 ISO 140-3/4 ASTM E-90 SAEJ1400

Test on larger samples or Alpha cabin
complete objects
In-situ STL + Intensity or holography

Road absorption ISO 13472-2
Other techniques

110
Material testing
Material testing
Basic principles
Overview techniques
Absorption in tube
Absorption in-situ
Absorption in room

Material Testing
Overview techniques

or components

complete objects

Other techniques

111
Sound absorption
Based on Impedance tube
Source
Sample
+ hard termination
Absorption coefficient α:
𝑊𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑
𝛼 = 1−
𝑊𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡
 2 microphone transfer function method

Absorption testing using impedance tube

Preparing your sample
Insert sample into impedance tube 1. “Soft” materials used as sound absorbers
• Open-cell foams and fiber materials
• Underlayments (“shoddies”)
2. “Semi-rigid” materials used as barriers
• Rubber & stiff closed-cell foams
3. “Hard” materials used in construction

• Wood and wood products, gypsum

112
Absorption Testing using impedance tube in LMS Test.Lab
Step 1: phase calibration
Setup and phase calibration
4
3 1. Setup tube dimensions
2. Check setup
5
1 3. Measure H21
4. Switch microphones,
measure H12
5. Calculate Hc

Absorption Testing using impedance tube in LMS Test.Lab

Step 2: measure and average
Measure and analyze section results

1
1. Click “measure”
2
4 2. Results from current section listed
3. Average selected runs
4. In displays, compare averaged result

over runs
3

113
Results from Impedance tube test
Results:
1. Absorption coefficient
2
1 2. Impedance
3. Reflection factor
4. Admittance coefficient
3

Absorption in tube
Demonstration in LMS Test.Lab

114
Material testing
Material testing
Basic principles
Overview techniques
Absorption in tube
Absorption in-situ
Absorption in room

Material Testing
Overview techniques

or components

complete objects

Other techniques

115
ISO 13472-2: Measurement of sound absorption of surfaces in
situ
Use case: identify pass-by noise track absorption
For in situ measurement of:
Source
• Pavement absorption
• Ground impedance
• Carpet absorption
Use when it is not possible to make samples
Applications:
1. Determine absorption properties of test tracks (ISO

10844:1994), as required for Pass-by Noise homologation
Microphones
2. Determine/ compare absorption of different road surfaces

Material testing
Material testing
Basic principles
Overview techniques
Absorption in tube
Absorption in-situ
Absorption in room

116
Material Testing
Overview techniques

or components

complete objects

Other techniques

Measuring STL with LMS Test.Lab

Hardware setup

117
Measuring STL in Test.Lab
Steps 1 and 2: setup and phase calibration
Step 1: setup tube dimensions Step 2: phase calibration
Note: requires
microphone
switching, similar
to “absorption
Testing”


Steps 3: Set cone correction
Set geometry parameters in Correction based on validated Transfer
Test.Lab Matrix method
𝑇𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙 = 𝑇𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 1 𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑒 1 𝑇𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑒 2 𝑇𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 2
−𝑡2 sin(𝑘12 𝑙 − 𝜃2 ) 𝑖𝑍2 sin(𝑘12 𝑙)

𝑥2
𝑀12 = 𝑡1 𝑡2 𝑍2
𝑥1 𝑖 sin(𝑘12 𝑙 − 𝜃2 + 𝜃1 ) 𝑡1 sin(𝑘12 𝑙 + 𝜃1 )
Figure 3: Diverging conical waveguide 𝑍1 𝑍1
C. Jiang and T.W. Wu, “BEM modeling of mufflers with diesel particulate filters and catalytic convers”, Noise
Control Eng. J., 58, 243-250, (2010).
Y. Kulik, “Transfer matrix of conical waveguides with any geometric parameters for increased precision in
computer modeling”, J. Acoust. Soc. AM., 122, 179-184, (2007).
One impedance tube allows measuring mufflers with any pipe diameter
118
Steps 4: measurement in two load conditions
Load 1: rigid
termination
Load 2: anechoic
termination


Steps 5: View results

119
Impedance Tube testing
Measure absorption and Sound Transmission Loss
Use same impedance tube to measure:
1. Absorption (2-microphone method)

• Materials
2. Sound Transmission Loss (4-microphone method)

• Mufflers/ exhausts
• Resonators
• Materials


120
Material testing
Material testing
Basic principles
Overview techniques
Absorption in tube
Absorption in-situ
Absorption in room

Material Testing
Overview techniques

or components

complete objects

Other techniques

121
In-room absorption testing
Different required sound fields
Free field Diffuse field

In-room absorption testing

Two different methods
Large Reverberant Room testing Alpha cabin testing
Acoustic Sound
Source Pressure level
Test Sample
• Sample surface area ~12 m2 • Sample surface area ~1.2 m2

• Diffuse field • Smaller room (1/3rd size of reverberant room)
• Not perfectly diffuse (reliable at f > 400 Hz)
122
Sound absorption in room
Method 1: Large Reverberation room testing
Measure reverberation time of

Acoustic the empty room/cabin
Sound (Reference measurement T1)
Source
Pressure level
Install the sample in the

room/cabin
Test Sample
Measure reverberation time of
the room/cabin with sample
inside Perform
(Measurement T2) multiple
Equivalent sound absorption area of the test specimen: measurement
1 1
𝐴 𝑇 = 𝐴2 − 𝐴1 = 55.3𝑉 − − 4𝑉 ∙ 𝑚2− 𝑚1 Compute absorption
𝑐2 ∙ 𝑇2 𝑐1 ∙ 𝑇1
Sound absorption coefficient of the test sample:

𝐴𝑇 Average result
𝛼𝑠 =
𝑆

Sound absorption in room

Method 2: Alpha cabin
When use Alpha cabin?

Suited when available space too
restricted for reverberation room
1 1
Sound absorption calculation: 𝑆 = 0.163𝑉 −
𝑇1 𝑇0
Absorption coefficient corrected for room size (K):

• Sample size: ~1.2 m2
𝑆 K should be provided by room
𝛼=K manufacturer. • 1/3 size reverberation room
𝐴
• 3 loudspeakers
• Fixed array or roving microphone
• Results accurate for f > ~400 Hz
123
Material testing
Material testing
Basic principles
Overview techniques
Absorption in tube
Absorption in-situ
Absorption in room

Material Testing
Overview techniques

or components

complete objects

Other techniques

124
Sound Transmission Loss: 2-room technique
Step 1: acquisition
Source room L1 L2 Receiving room

Reverberant Reverberant
Step 1:
Measure average sound pressure levels L1 and L2
• Multiple fixed microphones OR
• Single roving microphone
Sound Transmission Loss: 2-room technique

Step 2: calculation
ISO 140-3 & ASTME90 Laboratory measurements of airborne

sound insulation of building elements
𝑆
𝑆𝑇𝐿 = 𝐿1 − 𝐿2 + 10 log ,
𝐴
L1 L2
With S: test object area, A: equivalent sound absorption
𝑉
𝐴 = 0.16 ,
𝑇
With V = room volume, T = reverberation time
Single roving
Speaker
microphone
ISO 140-4 Field measurements of airborne sound insulation
𝑇
𝐷𝑛𝑇 = 𝐿1 − 𝐿2 + 10 log ,
𝑇0
For dwellings T0 is 0.5s

125
Material testing
Material testing
Basic principles
Overview techniques
Absorption in tube
Absorption in-situ
Absorption in room

Material Testing
Overview techniques

or components

complete objects

Other techniques

126
Using Sound Intensity or Holography
REVERBERANT SOURCE ROOM
ANECHOIC
RECEIVER ROOM
Noise source
Intensity probe
In receiving room
Why Sound Intensity/ holography?
Scan with intensity probe
Understand STL contribution of different parts
• Detect weak spots
OR use robot for scanning • Detect spots with too much treatment


Using Sound Intensity or Holography - results
Results - hologram:
Applications:
• Measure STL of vehicle firewall
• Test encapsulation of sources
Results - 1/3rd Octave spectrum:

127
Material Testing
Overview techniques

or components

complete objects

Other techniques

Sound control
Sound control
• Duct acoustics
• Expansion chamber
• Helmholtz resonator
• Quarter-wave tuner

128
Duct Acoustics: Expansion Chambers
• Due to impedance mismatch at the

duct/chamber interface, waves are reflected
back, as such increasing TL.
• TL is high in broad frequency range.
• At resonance frequency of the chamber, the
transmission loss drops significantly.
3D effect in higher frequency

range
Resonance in expansion
chamber

Duct Acoustics: Expansion Chambers
Low Transmission loss:

resonance in chamber
High Transmission loss in

high frequency range
High Transmission loss:

Impedance mismatch at
interfaces

129
Duct Acoustics: correction for duct section area
Without correction factor,

the TL can be negative.
Corrected NOT Corrected

 2
  2

TL  10  log   outlet  TL  10  log  
poutlet S poutlet
 pinletincident Sinlet   pinletincident 
   

Sound control
Sound control
• Duct acoustics

130
Duct Acoustics: Helmholtz Resonator
A
MASS moving
L in the mouth
SPRING
V from the
Volume
Resonator Frequency
c A
fH  
2 V  L'

Duct Acoustics: Helmholtz Resonator
Typical pressure
distribution away from
characteristic frequency
Pressure distribution at
characteristic frequency

131
Helmholtz Resonator – Where to put the resonator?
? Suppose the 350Hz peak needs to be

attenuated: Where to put the
Resonator.
Step 1: calculate pressure distribution at the critical frequency
Step 2: design resonator for that frequency
Step 3: apply resonator at the location of max pressure inside the duct (nodal lines)

Best location to
Worst location to apply resonator
apply resonator

132
When applying resonator at

bad location: not much
happens to the SPL
SPL displays shows that original

peak at 350hz has been removed.
2 smaller peaks appear.
Resonator at best location Resonator at worst location

Sound control
Sound control
• Duct acoustics

133
Duct Acoustics: Quarter wavelength tube
Characteristic Frequencies
c
fH  n 
4 L
• n: odd number (1, 3, 5,..)
• The maximum attenuation is
achieved when the cross-section
of the quarter wave tube
matches that of the main duct.
When the length of the tube is an “odd”
times quarter wavelength, the duct wave
and tube wave are canceling each other

Duct Acoustics: Quarter wavelength tube

134
Source-Path-
Receiver
Transfer Path Analysis

The Source-Transfer-Receiver Concept...
Force Structural-Structural Vibration

Structural-Acoustics
Acoustic-Structural
Volume Velocity Acoustic-Acoustic Noise
135
Terminology: Airborne
Airborne Noise:
Sound at receiver resulting
from sound radiated by
Receiver
source.
Ptotal
Source

Terminology: Structureborne
Structureborne Noise:
Sound at receiver resulting
from vibrations generated
Receiver
by a source.
Ptotal
Source

136
Required Data for Structureborne TPA
Operational interface force is required for each path
• Directly measure with load cell or CAE calculation
• Indirectly measured from mount displacements or matrix inversion
Receiver
Operating Data!
Ptotal
Source
F1 F2

Required Data for Structureborne TPA
Receiver FRF is required for each path

Non Operating
Receiver
Lab FRF Data P/F1
Ptotal
P/F2
Hz

137
TPA Summing Up
Operating Forces
P1 = (P/F)1* F1o
Fo
Hz or rpm
Non-operating FRF data
P2 = (P/F)2* F2o P/F
Hz
Ptotal = P1 + P2 P1 = Sound pressure at receiver due to location 1
P2 = Sound pressure at receiver due to location 2

TPA Summing Up
Operating Forces
01o
P1 = (P/F)1* F
F1
Hz or rpm
P/F
P2 = (P/F)2* F2o
Hz
If the structure is very

sensitive (ie (P/F)1 is high),
Ptotal = P1 + P2 will P1 be a problem path?
Not if force is low!
138
TPA Summing Up
Operating Forces
0 1* F1o
P1 = (P/F)
F1
Hz
Hz or rpm
P/F
P2 = (P/F)2* F2o Hz
If the force is very sensitive

(ie F1o is high), will P1 be a
Ptotal = P1 + P2 problem path?
Not if sensitivity is low!

TPA Summing Up: Airbourne
Operating Q
P1 = (P/Q)1* Q1o
Q1
Hz or rpm
P/Q
P2 = (P/Q)2* Q2o Hz
Where Q is
Ptotal = P1 + P2 m3/s2 (Volume
Acceleration)
139
TPA Summing Up: Airbourne+StructureBourne
Operating Q
P1 = (P/Q)1* Q1o
Q1
Hz or rpm
P/Q
P2 = (P/F)2* F2o Hz
Where Q is
Ptotal = P1 + P2 m3/s2 (Volume
Acceleration)
TPA Summing Up
F1
P1 = (P/F1)* F1 Hz
P/F
P2 = (P/F2)* F2 Hz
PTotal = P1 + P2
140
TPA Summing Up
P1 = (P/F1)* 0
F1
F1 Hz
P/F
P2 = (P/F2)* F2 Hz
If the structure is very

sensitive (ie P/F1 is high),
PTotal = P1 + P2 will P1 be a problem path?
Not if force is low!
TPA Summing Up
F1
0 1)* F1
P1 = (P/F Hz
P/F
P2 = (P/F2)* F2 Hz
If the force is high is very

sensitive (ie F1 is high), will
PTotal = P1 + P2 P1 be a problem path?
Not if sensitivity is low!

141
TPA Summing Up: Airbourne
F1
P1 = (P/Q1)* Q1 Hz
P/Q
P2 = (P/Q2)* Q2 Hz
Where Q is Acoustic Force

PTotal = P1 + P2 (Volume Acceleration)

TPA Summing Up: Airbourne+StructureBourne
F1
P1 = (P/Q1)* Q1 Hz
P/Q
P2 = (P/F2)* F2 Hz
Where Q is Acoustic Force

PTotal = P1 + P2 (Volume Acceleration)

142
Accelerometer
Locations

Contribution
Displays of
Compressor
Conclusion is
Wheel loads in Z
direction cause a
lot of the vibration

143
Making a modification to our Compressor
Add stiffness
between three
points

Updated Sound Power Measurement

144
Summary of CAE process
Sound Power shows Peak to Color image shows radiation Vibration shows source of
focus on path Noise
Contribution display shows Modification Prediction quickly Updated result shows

source of Vibration add stiffness to structure considerable improvement
Fundamentals of Sound Engineering – The Six Ss
• Sound Pressure
• Sound Power
• Sound Source Localization
• Sound Quality
• Sound Control
• Source – Path – Receiver

145
Scott MacDonald
Application Engineer
LMS Test Solutions
[email protected]
Keith Moss
Portfolio Manager
Simulation & Test Solutions
[email protected]
Realize innovation.
146

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Fundamentals of

Fundamentals of Sound Engineering – The Six Ss

Restricted © Siemens AG 2017

Sound – Why is it important?

Research - University of Sheffield

• Ultrasound waves used to stimulate cells

• Speeds healing without side effects from

• Can help avoid amputation as only

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US Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency

By using specific frequencies, a fire is killed in a

• Sound increases the air speed, thinning the

• Acoustics also disturbs the surface of the fuel

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Sound – Why is it important?

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Research – Bristol University/Univ. of Sussex

• High frequency, high amplitude sound

• Acoustic hologram holds/manipulates

• May one day manipulate objects inside

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Sound – Why is it important?

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Sound (Power) Requirement Sound Quality

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Source-Path-Receiver: acoustics in a nutshell

Source Path Receiver

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Source Path Receiver

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Sound is our perception of pressure fluctuations which

• Any vibrating surface that disturbs particles of the

• The disturbed particles transfer momentum from one

• Compression and rarefaction create areas of high

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• Sound will travel even if there is no bulk flow

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It’s dependent on: Material

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• Frequency range of human hearing is between 20 Hz and 20,000 Hz (20 kHz)

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•  is related to the frequency f and the speed of sound c through

•  is significant in a number of phenomena such as absorption and diffraction

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• Sound is measured as pressure fluctuations.

• The magnitude of pressure fluctuations is very small,

• The brain does not respond to the instantaneous pressure, it

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Sound Pressure Basics

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20 Hz 50 100 200 500 1k 2k 5k 10 k 20 kHz

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Sound Pressure Basics

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Inside compact car Moderate 0.0063 Pa

Barely Audible 0.000063 Pa

Sample Sound Levels

Inside compact car Moderate 50 dB