Dynapac Compaction Paving and Milling Handbook - tcm44-3564628
Dynapac Compaction Paving and Milling Handbook - tcm44-3564628
Dynapac Compaction Paving and Milling Handbook - tcm44-3564628
PAVING AND
MILLING
Theory and practice
COMPACTION,
PAVING AND
MILLING
Theory and practice
COMPACTION,
PAVING AND
MILLING
THEORY AND PRACTICE
This handbook presents a general overview of soil and asphalt materials, and
suitable methods and equipment for their compaction. It also deals with asphalt paving
as well as cold milling techniques and equipment. The principle purpose of the book is
to assist that important group of authority employees, contractors and consultants who
are concerned with compaction, paving and milling. It should also be useful to students
and others looking for an introduction to these subjects.
CONTENT
Applications for compaction and paving techniques
Soil compaction
Type of soil
12
Compaction methods
18
Compaction equipment
20
22
Special applications
25
27
28
32
34
Type of surfacing
35
37
40
41
42
Asphalt pavers
44
Paving operations
47
Asphalt compaction
50
Rolling procedures
52
56
57
58
63
70
74
78
82
APPLICATONS
APPLICATIONS FOR
COMPACTION AND
PAVING TECHNIQUES
Compaction is defined as the p ocess of increasing the density and load-bearing
properties of a material through the application of either static or dynamic external
forces. It is required in many areas of the construction industry. The following pages
describe in brief the most common applications roads, streets, motorways, airfield ,
earth dams, railway embankments and foundations for buildings. Other applications
include parking areas, storage yards, sports areas, industrial and residential areas,
harbour constructions, reservoirs and canal linings.
APPLICATONS
Roads
Cut
APPLICATONS
Railways
In many parts of the world, rail
ways are still the major form of
transport for goods and passengers.
The transport of heavy materials
such as ore, coal and other minerals
places great stress on the railway
embankments.
Railways are built according to
the same principles as a road except
for the bound upper layers. The
ballast bed on top serves to keep
the sleepers in place. Bitumen
bound top layer ar also used to
keep the sleepers in place. For
the construction of high speed
railways, considerably stricter
requirements are being imposed
on embankments and ballast beds.
Airfield
Runways, taxiing areas and aprons
are all exposed to heavy loads in
airport complexes. They are built
up in the same way as roads but the
specifications are more stringent.
In addition to this, under no circum
stances may the surface break up so
that loose stones can end up in the
airplane engines.
Cut
Railways
Foundations for
buildings and or/bridges
Foundations are essentially built in
the same way as roads up to the base
course. Layer thickness can differ
depending on the nature of the load
the structure is expected to carry.
Airfield
Foundations for
buildings, bridges etc.
10
APPLICATONS
Earth dams
Canals
Canals
Canals have to be designed and
built to withstand enormous water
pressure. In addition, they have to
be water tight so that they dont
leak and they have to be able offer
protection from the risk of erosion
caused by the flowing water.
The bottom of the canal is levelled off and compacted. A filter layer
comprising sand and gravel is then
put in place and, on top of that,
a sealing layer of fine soil, cement
or asphalt. There is always a certain
amount of leakage through the seal
ant and the filter ensures that the
sealant does not get washed away.
If fine soil is used as the sealing
layer, it must be covered by an
erosion resistant layer. It is highly
important that the various layers
are correctly compacted to avoid
cracks in the sealing layer.
Earth dams
There are certain similarities
between the functional properties
of canals and earth dams but they
are built in different ways.
An earth dam has a core of
impermeable material, for example,
fine soil or asphalt. On either side of
the core there is a filter and, outside
11
SOIL COMPACTION
TYPE OF SOIL
Soils may be divided into a number of different
categories depending on their composition,
geological history and physical properties.
Grain-size distribution
Grain-size distribution is of great
importance for the mechanical
properties for a soil and for the
selection of compaction equipment.
The grain-size distribution is
determined by a sieve test and
a sedimentation test if necessary.
Ocular analysis can also be used
to categorize coarse-grained soil.
Sieve test
The dried soil sample is passed
through a number of standard
sieves which differ in mesh size.
The amount of material remaining
on each sieve is calculated as a
percentage of the total weight of
the sample. The figures are plotted
on a graph in a cumulative curve
showing the grain-size distribution
of the material.
12
Sedimentation test
A sedimentation test should
be performed if the amount of
fines exceeds a certain level, for
example, 15%. In a sedimentation
test the soil sample (approximately
4060 grams) is mixed with water
and chemicals. After careful mixing, the density of the solution is
measured using a hydrometer after
1, 2, 4, etc. minutes. Afterwards
the grain-size distribution can be
calculated and plotted.
Soil is categorized into different
fractions according to grain size
as follows (from the smallest to
the largest): clay, silt, sand, gravel,
cobbles and boulders. The different
fractions rarely occur individually in nature. They usually occur
in combinations of two or more
different fractions, for example
sandy gravel, silty sand, silty clay,
sandy-silty clay, etc.
Sieve test
SOIL COMPACTION
Cu =
d60
d10
Well-graded material
13
SOIL COMPACTION
Consistency
Consistency is important in a fine-grained soil.
The consistency of any fine-grained (plastic)
soil may be soft, firm, or hard depending on the
amount of water. As the soil changes consistency,
so do its mechanical properties.
There are certain limits of soil consistency
which are the basis for differentiation among
highly plastic, slightly plastic and non-plastic
material. These limits are designated Liquid Limit
(LL), Plastic Limit (PL) and Shrinkage Limit (SL).
Plasticity Index (PI) is defined as the difference
between liquid and plastic limit.
The liquid limit is defined as the water content
at which the soil just begins to flow when lightly
jarred 25 times in a standard cup.
The plastic limit is defined as the water content
at which soil can be rolled into a strand without
breaking until it is only 3 mm in diameter.
The shrinkage limit is defined as the water content at which the soil does not shrink any longer
when being dried. The soil also changes colour and
becomes lighter as the water content decreases.
A soil with a low plasticity index is very sensi
tive to changes in the water content. If the water
content increases, the load bearing properties of
the soil decreases.
Boulders
Sand
Cobbles
Silt
Gravel
Clay
Origin of soils
The composition of a soil and the way that it was formed
affect its suitability for use as a construction material. Soils
can be split into two main categories: mineral and organic.
Soil structures use only mineral soils. Organic soils such as
earth and peat are not suitable or even allowed as they are
constantly decomposing and their load bearing properties
is low and unpredictable.
Mineral soils are formed through weathering and natural
mechanical effect. They can also be formed artificially by
blasting and crushing. Their durability depends on the mineral composition and the way in which the rock was formed.
There are three types of formation: igneous, sedimentary
and metamorphic.
Igneous rock
Igneous rock types are formed from the cooling process
of magma, a natural solution of high-temperature, rockforming constituents under high pressure. Magma contains
a large amount of water vapor and other gases and is always
underground. Liquid rock that reaches the surface and loses
its water and gases becomes lava. In general magma that
is formed about 10 km below the earths surface contains
large amounts of silica and is rich in sodium, potassium
and aluminium and tends to form granitic rocks. Magma
originating between 10 and 40 km below the surface tends
to form gabbroid rocks while, deeper down, it tends to form
peridotitic rocks.
14
SOIL COMPACTION
Sedimentary rock
In time, rock, when exposed to the
atmosphere, will be broken up or
dissolved by weathering and erosion. The material is re-deposited
by wind, water and glaciers and
builds into sedimentary rocks.
The fragmented material, moving
as loose particles, settles out by
weight, smaller particles travel
longer distances. The most distinctive characteristic of sedimentary
rock is its layering or stratification. The most abundant types
of sedimentary rock are shale,
sandstone and limestone. The
material ranges from very soft
to being as hard as some of the
igneous rock types.
Metamorphic rock
Metamorphic rock is formed by
the changes in texture of igneous
Grain shape
The shape of the grain has a certain influence on the compactability and load bearing capacity of the
soil in question. The grain shape
is related to the way in which the
rock was formed and how it has
been affected over the years. Grain
shape can be divided into six categories ranging from well rounded
to very angular.
15
SOIL COMPACTION
Resistance to compaction
There are four types of resistance
to compaction in soil and rockfill:
friction, cohesion, apparent cohesion and particle mass.
Friction is caused by the interaction
between the particles and is the main
resistance in a coarse-grained soil.
Internal friction in a soil is a result of the forces acting
at the contact points between the individual particles.
16
SOIL COMPACTION
17
SOIL COMPACTION
COMPACTION
METHODS
Compaction equipment for soil materials is based on three main principles:
static load, vibration and impact. Different factors influence the sel ction
of compaction method and the compaction result:
type of soil
water content
layer thickness
stiffness of underlying layer
Static compaction
Static compactors were the first
real mechanical compaction
machines. Static compaction
equipment uses the dead weight
of the machine to apply pressure
to a particular surface and compress the underlying particles.
The only way to vary the pressure
exerted on the surface is to alter
the weight or the contact area of
the equipment. Static equipment
will normally achieve adequate
compaction on thin layers. Time,
a function of the speed of the static compactor and the number of
passes, also affects the final result.
Conventional types of static compactors include static three-wheel
rollers, static tandem rollers and
pneumatic tyred rollers (PTR).
Vibratory compaction
Vibratory compactors deliver
a rapid succession of impacts
against the underlying surface from
18
SOIL COMPACTION
Static compaction
Vibratory compaction
Impact compaction
19
SOIL COMPACTION
COMPACTION
EQUIPMENT
Choice of compaction equipment must take into consideration the type of soil,
the layer thickness, compaction specifications and the size of the jo .
The most important consideration is the ability of the machine to fulfil
the compaction specifications in a cost-eff ctive manner. You do not
select the largest roller for a small job such as a driveway. Conversely
you wouldnt choose a small single drum roller for a dam job,
other than as a complement to other equipment.
There are a number of machine types in current use
for soil compaction. The most common ones, and their
generally accepted designations, are presented below.
20
SOIL COMPACTION
21
SOIL COMPACTION
COMPACTION
PROPERTIES OF
DIFFERENT SOILS
The choice of compaction equipment must
take into account a number of factors.
These factors include:
type of work and size of work-site
type of soil and water content
layer thickness
stiffness of underlying layer
compaction specification
capacity requirements
climatic conditions
The following section looks at different
types of soils and their compaction
properties.
22
SOIL COMPACTION
Boulders
Gravel
Silt
Cobbles
Sand
Clay
Silt
Silt varies in grain size from
0,063 mm down to 0,002 mm,
although these limits may vary
slightly according to soil classifi
cation system. It can include fractions of other soil types which will
affect its compaction properties.
In pure silt or silt that is mixed
with coarse-grained fractions, there
is little cohesion. With higher clay
content, cohesion will increase.
As with all fine-grained soils,
the compaction of silt is heavily
dependent on water content. For
good compaction effect the water
content should not diverge too
much from the optimum.
At optimum water content,
silt is relatively easy to compact.
At high water content and under
the influence of vibration or traffic,
silt is transformed into a more or
less fluid state.
Vibratory equipment is the
most effective for silt. Layer
thickness can be almost the same
as for gravel and sand if the clay
content is not too high. If the clay
content is higher than 5% (but
less than 15%) large machines
and thinner layers are required
to overcome the cohesion in the
material. In such cases, a pad-foot
drum may give better results than
a smooth drum. In addition, vibratory plates and smooth drum rollers may have traction problems
especially when the water content
is a little higher.
23
SOIL COMPACTION
Soil volumes
Soils have different densities depending on whether they are
in situ, loose or compacted. The compacted layer thickness is always
stated in the design of new structures.
Soil volume can be defined under diffe ent conditions
in natural state (in situ)
loose state (un-compacted)
compacted
Gravel
Sand
Fine-grained materials
Water content, and thus weather
conditions, are important to compaction results. To be compacted in
relatively thin layers.
Silt
The table below gives the relative volumes of different soil types.
24
Boulders
and
Cobbles
(blasted)
(not blasted)
Gravel
and
Sand
Silt
Clay
1,0 m3
1,0 m3
1,0 m3
1,0 m3
1,0 m3
1,75 m3
1,2 m3
1,2 m3
1,3 m3
1,5 m3
1,4 m3
0,9 m3
0,9 m3
0,85 m3
0,85 m3
Clay
Clay
Rock fill
Lime stabilization
Cohesive soils are not possible to
compact when the water content is
high. Stabilization of the material
using lime is one way of improving
the compactablity and the stability of
the material. Lime is spread on the
surface and mixed into the material
using a rotary soil stabilizer. The lime
binds part of the water and in time it
also creates a chemical binding that
substantially increases the strength
of the clay. Vibratory pad-foot rollers
are often the best choice for compaction of stabilized materials.
Sub-base and
base course
Sub-base and base course are selected materials and should be within
specified limits of a gradation curve.
The main fraction consists of gravel. In certain countries relatively
high amounts of fines are allowed
in the sub-base, but it then loses its
free-draining properties.
Stabilization
Sub-base and base courses can
sometime consist of granular materials mixed with cement, fly-ash or
even bitumen. This is done in order
to increase the load bearing properties of the material. Stabilized
base course material is often placed
using a paver in order to achieve
the best possible evenness.
SOIL COMPACTION
SPECIAL
APPLICATIONS
There are a number of applications (see below) that require a special approach and methods and where general
guidelines for compaction do not apply.
Slope
compaction
Slope compaction can be
required for the construction
of dams and canals. Dams with
an impervious upstream surface of
asphalt or cement concrete are one
example where good slope compaction is especially desirable.
A self-propelled single-drum
vibratory roller is the most suitable
type of machine for slope compaction. Whether the roller needs to
be winch-aided or not depends on
the incline. When compacting, the
vibration should be switched on
for the upward journey and off for
the downward
one. If the roller
is winched a strong
mesh should be used to
protect the operator and a
safety wire should be attached to
the machine. Always use a roll over
protection system (ROPS). Prior
to using machines on slopes check
with the manufacturer that the
machines can operate continuously
on the incline in question.
Dry compaction
Normally all types of soil are compacted most efficiently at optimum
water content. However, in some
areas such as arid or semi-arid
areas, it may be impractical or too
costly to water the soil. In such
cases gravel and sand can be compacted in a dry state (water content
<1,5%).
It is important to take into
account the saline content of the
soil since a high content may be
detrimental to the load bearing
properties of the material. Dry
compaction has been applied
25
SOIL COMPACTION
26
SOIL COMPACTION
SPECIFICATIONS
AND FIELD CONTROL
METHODS
There are three types of main specificatio , which sometimes can
be combined method, end result and function.
Method specification
Method specifications stipulate
detailed rules for type of equipment
to be used, number of roller passes,
roller speed, layer thickness, type
of soil and water content of the soil.
The contractor is required to follow
these rules in the compaction work.
Functional specification
A third type of specification is
known as the function specification where specified functions, for
example the settlement, evenness
and friction, have to be fulfilled
for a certain contractual period.
The contractor is free to use the
materials, layer thicknesses and
equipment of his choice as long as
a specified quality can be achieved.
This type of contract is often linked
to a Build-Own/Operate-Transfer,
BOT, contract where the contractor
assumes operation of the highway
or other structure for a certain time
including maintenance and other
work before transferring it back
to the local road authority.
End-result specification
End-results are specified for the
majority of the compaction work
involved in the construction of roads, railways, dams and foundations
world-wide. The specification may
include minimum densities or minimum load bearing properties. The
trend towards end-result specifications is universal. They offer more
METHOD SPECIFICATION
27
SOIL COMPACTION
28
SOIL COMPACTION
Replacement method
The sand replacement and water
balloon methods are used as
replacement methods. A small hole
is dug in the soil. The contents are
weighed and the volume of the
hole is determined by filling it with
calibrated dry sand or with the
water balloon.
Tube sampling
For fine-grained soils, especially
clay, a tube is pressed down into
the material to remove a core
sample for density tests.
Penetration test
There are several types of pene
tration tests which represent an
attempt to quantify the behavior
of a soil. One of the most common
is the California Bearing Ratio
(CBR) test.
The CBR test is an arbitrary
test. It does not attempt to measure
directly any of the fundamental
properties of the soil sample. In
essence, it consists of driving a
standard cylindrical plunger into
the soil sample at a standard rate
of penetration and measuring the
resistance to penetration offered
by the soil. This resistance is then
compared with certain standard
results. The ratio of the result for
the soil to the standard result is
reported as the CBR.
The California Bearing Ratio
test is mostly used on fine-grained
soils.
Falling-weight test
Falling-weight test units are an effective and rapid way of measuring
the load bearing properties of the
surface of the construction layers
on site. The test can normally be
handled by one operator. The unit
measures the surface deflection
caused by a falling weight and from
that calculates a dynamic modulus
of elasticity. There are both light
and heavy falling weights.
Levelling of
surface settlement
This method is mostly used on rock
fill, cobbles and boulders. The level
of a number of reference points is
checked with a levelling instrument
before and after compaction. It does
not provide a direct measurement
of the density.
Proof rolling
This is a test where a very heavy
pneumatic-tyred roller is run over
the compacted surface and the indentation may not exceed a certain
depth.
29
SOIL COMPACTION
30
SOIL COMPACTION
Pass count
Using the CCC system to count
and document the number of passes
made helps the operator achieve
even compaction results and provides documentation that the job was
done according to the specification.
Progress
The CCC values increase with
every compaction pass, a higher
increase for the first passes and a
lower increase for the later passes.
Once then increase from one pass
to the next is below a certain level
there is very little more compaction
31
ASPHALT PAVING,
COMPACTION
AND MILLING
A road traffic system is multifacete . It comprises roads,
the people who use those roads and vehicles.
How well the system functions as a whole depends on
the individual components characteristics, how
they interact, and the impact of outside factors
such as climate, light conditions, etc.
1
Road surfacing has a decisive impact on traffic.
The type of wearing course and the condition it is
in affect the behaviour of the vehicles using the road
and, thereby, road safety. They also affect the cost of
travelling as well as the environment.
The majority of all paved roads are surfaced with
asphalt. Concrete is also used but is, in general, less
common, although there are some countries where
concrete is the preferred material. Asphalt is used in
the wearing, binder and base courses.
1
Asphalt refers to a mixture of bitumen binder with mineral aggregate and fille .
32
2
3
3
The image has been manipulated to highlight the three separate layers.
33
THERE ARE A
NUMBER OF
FUNCTIONAL
REQUIREMENTS
THAT A ROAD
SURFACE HAS TO
COMPLY WITH TO
MAKE IT USABLE.
34
1.
2.
3.
4.
1. Evenness
If a road is to function satisfactorily over a given
period of time, the surface has to be even.
Unevenness reduces traffic speed and p olongs
journeys. It reduces riding quality and increases
vehicle and tyre wear. It also increases the
impact effect of vehicles on the road, which in
turn accelerates road wear and thus shortens
the service life. Transversal unevenness refers
to rutting as a result of wear on the wearing
course or deformation in one or more of the
underlying layers. A measure of this is often
the depths of the ruts. Longitudinal unevenness
refers to lengthways unevenness of the road
or road section. Different methods are used to
measure its occurrence, such as the International Roughness Index (IRI).
TYPE OF SURFACING
If the surfacing is to function as
intended, the various ingredients
binder, aggregate and filler need
to be selected carefully with a view
to optimising the final mix. Good
quality material and good design
are not enough to guarantee a long
service life. Just as vital are the
way the material is manufactured
and the way it is laid down and
compacted. The benefits of firstclass material can quickly disappear if the quality in one of the
stages in the production chain fails
to come up to standard.
2a. Texture
improves road safety through better skid resistance and enhances the feeling of safety.
2b. Friction
Friction is measured as the quotient of
a vertical and horizontal force of a wheel
using a standardised formula. Good friction
Mixed asphalt
Although there is a wide variation
of mixed asphalt there is no generally acknowledged classification
system. The most common way to
categorise them is by mix temperature: Hot Mix Asphalt (HMA),
>
3. Retrorefl ction
Retrorefl ction is a measure of the brightness of the surface. High retrorefl ction
enhances visibility in darkness which permits
higher speeds and shorter journey times.
Better visibility should lead to better safety
at night, but the ability to travel at higher
speeds may counteract this.
4. Porosity
Porosity is the ability of the surface to
drain out water. A porous surface also
reduces tyre noise. Less water on the road
significantly educes the dirt and water spray
Abrasion resistance
The roads abrasion resistance is not simply
interesting for its service life. If the wear off
from the surface is large, the dust that is
worn off may cause pollution in the vicinity
of the road.
35
Surface treatment
Surface treatment is the process
of laying binder and aggregate
separately. Examples of coating
include surface sealing, penetration
macadam and slurry seal.
Surface sealing
Surface sealing prevents water
from penetrating the road. The
amount of binder is important for
a long service life of the surface
treatment. The aggregate needs
to be uniform in size and washed
to remove the fines to ensure good
adhesion.
Penetration macadam
Penetration macadam is sometimes
used as a base and wearing course.
It comprises a layer of aggregate
over which a layer of bituminous
binder is spread. If the binder is
a bitumen emulsion, the viscosity
and dispersion properties should
be such that the binder does not
penetrate more than 50% of the
aggregates layer thickness.
Slurry seal
Slurry seal involves spreading a
binder and then laying sand on top.
Pre-manufactured emulsion slurry
can also be used. Slurry seal is used
to fill cracks and other cavities to
prevent water penetrating the road
surface.
Porous asphalt
36
Surface sealing.
MIXED ASPHALT
COMPONENTS
Asphalt normally consists of three material components, the binder, the
aggregate and the fille . Some surfacing material includes additives such as
adhesives, polymers, fib es and recycled material.
Binders
Bitumen
The binder in an asphalt mix is
referred to as bituminous, i.e. it
contains bitumen in some form.
Bitumen is a thermo-plastic material which means that it becomes
softer and more fluid when heated
and hardens when cooled. The
process is repeatable.
It can also be described as a
visco-elastic material which means
that its stiffness is a function of
temperature as well as loading
time. From the figure below you
can see that the stiffness at a given
loading time decreases when the
temperature increases. The figure
also shows that at a given temperature stiffness decreases as the
loading time increases.
When the bitumen is mixed with
mm x 10
Loading
time (S)
25C
Specifications and t st methods for bitumen Determination of penetration.
37
38
Aggregate
Aggregate is a general term for all the mineral consti
tuents of an asphalt mix. It includes crushed stone,
gravel, sand, slag and fines. In asphalt, the weight
of the aggregate accounts for about 85% of the total
weight of the mix. The quality of the aggregate is
dependent on both the origin of the aggregates as well
as the production method (natural or crushed material).
The properties of an aggregate that directly or indirectly influence the functional properties of the surface are
grain-size distribution, porosity, grain shape, durability,
abrasion resistance, polish resistance and resistance to
weathering. A number of these are interrelated.
Particle properties
The most important physical properties of a mineral are
strength and shape. The quality of a rock material can
be partially improved in the production stage. In principle, each crushing stage can improve the materials
mechanical properties. Shaping, for example, increases
the abrasion resistance of the aggregate as well as the
stability of the mix in a wearing course and therefore
prolongs the service life of the road.
Grain-size distribution
Grain-size distribution is the basic property of an aggre
gate. The grain-size distribution of a given sample is
determined by a sieve test where the dried sample is
passed through a number of standard sieves which
TENDER MIX
HARSH MIX
Natural aggregate
Crushed aggregate
Harsh mixes are a result of the use of crushed aggregate containing a high percentage
of coarse material and a sufficient amount
of fille . Resistance to compaction is strong,
and they require a large compaction effort to
reach specified densit . They tend to produce
stable surfacings.
39
MIX DESIGN
PROPORTIONING
Correct mix design is essential to a durable road.
40
PROPERTIES OF
ASPHALT MIXES
Internal friction
Adhesion
Asphalt and soil have a lot in common; however, a major distinction between them lies in
the adhesive properties of the bitumen used to bind the particles in an asphalt mix.
Asphalt mixes show wide variations
in composition and properties. Their
properties and compactability are
primarily a function of:
Internal friction
Adhesion
Viscous resistance/temperature
Internal friction
The first of these, internal friction,
is determined mainly by the aggregate properties, and is more apparent in a well-graded mix than in an
Adhesion
Adhesion is what makes the binder
attach itself to the aggregate.
Viscous resistance
Viscous resistance is a function of
the viscosity of the bitumen and the
actual temperature of the mix. The
viscous resistance works against
the rearrangement of the particles
under compaction, and the lower
the temperature the greater this
resistance is.
41
MANUFACTURING
PROCESS AND
TRANSPORTATION
Mixing
Asphalt mixes are normally
manufactured in either continuous
or batch-type asphalt works. The
asphalt plant can be mobile or stationary. Capacity normally varies
between about 100 and 300 tonnes
per hour in batch plants while continuous asphalt plants are used for
the production of larger volumes of
the same type of mix. Here capacity
varies between 50 and 600 tonnes
per hour.
Naturally, the constituent
components of an asphalt mix all
have a decisive influence on the
final quality of the mix. As more
than 90% of the mix comprises
aggregate, the quality of the mix is
42
Using a material feeder increases the overall paving capacity while at the same
time avoiding contact between truck and paver. More homogeneous mix temperature and better evenness can be expected. Constant speed and quality of the
paved material also improve the compaction result.
Transportation
Transportation of the mix from
the asphalt plant to the site goes
through three stages before it is laid
down on the road surface: loading
at the asphalt plant, transport to the
site and tipping into the hopper of
the paver. To avoid disruption the
transportation must be well planned
and carried out correctly.
During loading it is important
to minimise the risk for segregation.
Loading must be quick and the load
should be distributed as evenly as
possible over the whole trailer. A
steep-sided pile will cause the mix
to segregate. The transport to the
site must be well-planned. If a paver
has to stop to wait for a new load,
the quality of the surfaced road will
suffer. It can lead to unevenness and
reduced compaction both of which
may shorten the service life of the
road. On the other hand, a convoy
of waiting lorries should be avoided
at the site. The asphalt mix may
cool off while waiting, which may
lead to unsatisfactory compaction
Tack coating
Tack coating is the use of an asphalt emulsion or cutback to glue
or bind together two surface layers
for instance when adding a new
43
ASPHALT PAVERS
The task of an asphalt paver is to produce an even surface layer with homogeneous
pre-compaction in order to give sufficient mix stability for the oller to start the compaction
process. It also has to provide a homogeneous texture.
44
Material flo
The asphalt mix is discharged into
the receiving hopper of the paver as
it pushes the rear tyres of the haul
truck. The mix is carried from the
hopper to the rear of the machine
by twin or single slat conveyors,
and then on to the auger (screw
conveyor) which distributes the mix
laterally over the entire working
width of the screed. The height of
the auger is adjustable to allow for
different layer thicknesses.
The material flow is regulated
by the speed of the slat conveyor
and the auger.
1
2
3
4
A smooth material flow th oughout the paver from the hopper (1), through the conveyors
(2), past the auger (3) and to the screed (4) is essential to good paving results.
Screed unit
The screed levels and pre-compacts
the asphalt mix to a specified
thickness, grade, cross-slope and
crown profile. The self-levelling
floating screed is attached to the
tractor by side arms at tow-points
located on either side of the tractor
near its central point. Here, the
vertical movements caused by
any surface unevenness are at a
minimum. This allows the screed to
produce an even surface even if the
underlying base is somewhat irregular. As each, successive asphalt
layer is placed on top of the other;
irregularities become less and less
apparent.
The tow points are set to give
the required thickness of the mat.
Their position may then be continuously finely adjusted by electronic systems. A grade controller
automatically maintains the surface
level against a reference surface
such as a control ski or a string line,
while a slope controller is used to
maintain the transverse inclination
of the screed.
Angle of attack
The angle between the bottom plate
of the screed and the surface being
paved is known as the angle of
attack. This varies from screed to
screed according to screed weight,
the contact area of the bottom plate
and the shape of the leading edge
of the screed. The layer thickness
and type of material also influences
the required angle of attack
The desired surface evenness
is obtained if all the forces acting
on the screed are in equilibrium.
Only then will the screed maintain
a constant angle of attack resulting
in an even layer thickness.
1
2
4
3
6
5
The angle between the bottom plate of the screed and the surface being paved is
known as the angle of attack. Any change in the level of the tow points results in a
corresponding adjustment of this angle. The desired surface evenness is obtained if
all the forces acting on the screed are in equilibrium.
45
Tamper
The tamping mechanism uses a
vertical, high-amplitude tamper bar
that moves at low frequencies. The
main purpose of the tamper is to
facilitate the flow of material below
the screed plate. The tamping unit
is followed by a static or vibrating
bottom plate (screed plate). The
width of the tamper and the tamping frequency limits the maximum
paving speed. Drag marks can be
the result of the paving speed is
too high in relation to the tamper
frequency.
Choice of screed
and tractor unit
Vibrations
The screed plate is equipped with
a vibration generating system.
The vibrations reduce the friction
between screed plate and asphalt
mix, letting the screed float more
easily over the material. The vibrations will also cause some of the bitumen to rise to the asphalt surface,
providing additional lubrication and
enhancing the surface texture.
High compaction screeds
For special applications such as
cement-stabilised layers and base
46
Tamper bar
Bottom plate
Secondary compactor
PAVING
OPERATIONS
Any stoppages in the operation
will result in a pavement of inferior
quality and a shorter life-time.
The paver speed should be kept
constant and should correlate
with the available mix tonnage
(determined by the asphalt plant
capacity and the number of available trucks).
To achieve specified results,
a number of points need to be
taken into consideration. First the
required paving width has to be
set and the screed must be heated
to prevent the mix sticking to the
bottom plate.
The tow points need to be set
to the height that corresponds to
the desired mat thickness. If necessary, the screed must be adjusted
to allow for a crown profile.
The height of the auger is also
crucial to the outcome. If it is set
too low it will interfere with the
material flow under the screed
which will result in an open texture
and cause the mat to tear or create
an uneven surface. If it is too high,
the mix might not reach the outer
edges of the screed, too much mix
will sit in the auger channel and
this will make it more difficulty
to move the paver forward. Too
much material also means it will
move slowly and may cool down
too much before going under the
screed.
Ideally, the distance between
the mat surface and the lower
edge of the auger flights should
be equivalent to roughly five times
the maximum stone size.
There are a number of factors
that need to be controlled during
a paving operation. They include:
Head of material (in front of the
screed)
Paving speed
Actual layer thickness
Surface evenness
Paving width
Joints
Laying temperature
Mix segregation
Head of material
The head of material (the amount
of material spread out in front
of the screed) should be constant
over the entire working width.
It has a decisive influence on the
vertical position of the screed. As
mentioned earlier, the levelling
action of a screed relies on a state
of equilibrium between all the
forces acting on it. Any change
in these forces causes the screed
47
Paving speed
The paver speed should be as con
stant as possible since variations
in speed will result in an uneven
surface. An automatic system to
pre-set and maintain speeds under
varying load conditions is recommended.
Stoppages are also a problem.
They may not only blemish the surface, they also result in temperature
segregation. Every time the paver
stops the screed tends to sink into
the mat. The material in the auger
box ahead of the screed and the
mix just behind the paver, which
are inaccessible to the rollers then
cool down, while the mix below
the screed remains hot. When the
paver starts again the screed will
lift slightly to overcome the cooler
material ahead of the screed leaving
a ridge in the mat.
If the paver is forced to stop,
the screed can be locked in position
using a screed stop system which
works off the hydraulic lift cylinders. This prevents the screed from
sinking into the mat and reduces
the problems associated with paver
stoppages.
48
Joints
The paving and compaction procedures employed for longitudinal
and transversal joints are important
to the overall quality and appearance of an asphalt surfacing.
When laying an asphalt lane
beside an existing lane the height
of the screed above the surface
must be carefully adjusted to allow
for the compaction effect of the following roller, i.e. the un-compacted
layer should be some 1520%
thicker. An automatic grade controller working off the adjacent lane is
very useful for joint matching.
The side overlap of the joint
should be about 25 to 50 mm.
There should be as little raking of
Segregation of the mix can occur across the mat, at its edges and at the centre. It is
one of the most common causes of damage to asphalt surfacings.
49
ASPHALT COMPACTION
There are a number of types of roller for asphalt compaction in current use.
These include vibratory, static and pneumatic tyred rollers. The actual choice of machine
depends on the type and size of the job, and is often related to local preferences.
50
51
ROLLING PROCEDURES
Roller compaction of asphalt mixes can be divided into three stages,
Initial rolling, Main compaction and Finish rolling.
52
Thickness
Minutes
Temperature, C
Thickness
Hours
Temperature, C
The cooling pattern of asphalt is determined
by layer thickness, ambient temperature,
ground temperature and weather conditions.
Thin asphalt layers cool more rapidly than
thick ones. They therefore may require fast
and effective compaction.
53
Roller input
The number and size of rollers
required on a job is determined
by the lay down rate expressed in
square metres per hour. To arrive
at this figure a number of elements
have to be taken into consideration.
A number of elements must be taken
into consideration to arrive at this
figure.
Every paving job can be mea
sured by the tonnage of hot mix
to be laid down per hour. On large
jobs the tonnage figure is usually
governed by the capacity of the
asphalt plant. Mix tonnage, the paving width, and the layer thickness
together determine the speed of the
paver. The speed multiplied with
the paving width will give you the
lay down rate in square meters per
hour. This then serves as a basis for
the required roller input. Allowances should be made for temporary
peaks in mix supply.
Suitable rolling speeds range
from 2 to 6 km/h. Low speeds are
Rolling pattern
The paved width is divided into
roller lanes. The number of lanes
depends on the drum width and
paving width. The drum width
should be related to the paving
width so that, for example, three
parallel roller lanes are sufficient
to cover the paving width and that
excessive overlap is avoided.
Lane changes should be made
on a previously compacted surface
to avoid marks on the mat. In
addition, the roller should never be
allowed to stand still on a hot mix.
Joint compaction
Efficient joint compaction is im
portant to pavement quality. As
illustrated, there are two main
alternatives to ensure adequate
joint compaction.
Transversal joint. Start by rolling along the joint with about 10 cm (4) of the drum on the hot asphalt. Move more of the drum over on
the hot mix for every pass. If the space is limited due to obstructions or traffi , try rolling at an angle to the joint.
54
Harsh mixes
The increase in traffic loads has led
to the need for more stable asphalt
surfacings. As a consequence,
harsh asphalt mixes, containing
high viscosity bitumen and crushed
aggregate with high stone content,
are now becoming more
and more common. Their high
mechanical resistance to compaction requires efficient compaction
methods. In this respect, vibratory
rollers are the best choice to meet
specified densities.
Tender mixes
Soft tender mixes are prone to
lateral displacement during compaction which may result in small
transversal surface cracks (3 to 5
mm deep). They can normally be
closed by suitable finish rolling
or by subsequent traffic action. If
longitudinal cracks appear they
are often deep and very difficult
to close completely. The rolling
of tender mixes requires special
measures. Often they must be
The main difficulti s working with harsh mixes are in overcoming the resistance to
compaction, which is a result of the internal friction of the aggregate. Therefore, high
compaction effort should be appliednormally using vibratory rollers.
Tender mixes are very plastic in their hot state and may be pressed out under the drum during
rolling resulting in hairline cracks and the risk of lateral mix displacement.
Adequate compaction may be reached if the mix is allowed to cool somewhat.
55
CHOICE OF ASPHALT
COMPACTORS
When selecting a roller or combination of rollers consideration should
be given not only to the ability of the machine to reach the specifie
density but also to the economics involved in doing so.
56
Vibratory roller
Static roller
Pneumatic roller
SPECIFICATIONS
AND FIELD CONTROL
In an end result specificatio , an authority sets a minimum degree of
compaction which is then checked by laboratory and field t sts.
End result specifications a e the most common for large projects.
Continuous Compaction
Control-quality and productivity improvement.
A continuous compaction control
system with GNSS positioning and
infra-red temperature meters help
make rolling operations more efficient. At the same time it is a tool
that helps the operator achieve higher and more homogeneous compaction. By visualizing the actual
number of passes, it is possible to
reduce the risk of under-compaction due to operator errors. This
also minimizes inefficiencies due
to excessive passes that can lead
to over-compaction.
57
COLD MILLING
APPLICATIONS
Cold milling is an integrated part of the construction
cycle of any road. Asphalt
milling is used to remove
an old and worn wearing
course or the entire asphalt
pavement. It can also be
used to improve the surface
friction or remove ruts on a
wearing course that is otherwise in good condition.
58
Why it is done
Adding a new layer of asphalt on
top of an old and distressed one is
only a temporary fix. Cracks will
migrate through the new material
and destroy it in a short time. The
adhesion between the layers will
also suffer unless the cracked pave
ment is removed. Curb height is
another issue; adding new wearing
courses will effectively leave no
curb height after a while.
On bridges there is a weight
restriction, adding a new wearing
course means that 100150 kg/m
of asphalt would be added to the
existing weight. This could jeopardize the stability of the bridge. The
solution to these issues is to use a
planer to remove the old asphalt
and to replace it with a new layer.
Asphalt paving requires an even
surface to provide a uniform layer
thickness. Old asphalt wearing
courses can be rutted and have
incorrect cross slope. This can all
be corrected using a cold planer to
remove the uneven layer.
Compact cold planers are
also used to prepare a surface for
paving, cutting close to curb stones,
around man-holes and gutters etc.
Drums/holders/bits
The drum is the true area of production for a cold planer, the width
Kicker
Cutting bit
Edge cutter
Tool holder
Components.
Picture of a milling
drum with named
parts and arrows
showing the build-up
of the drum.
59
Applications
High capacity/large jobs
The high capacity jobs require large
production machines, always equip
ped with an electronic levelling
system. These jobs have a typical
working width from 1,02,2 meters
and a cutting depth of 0320 mm.
The planer is followed by a
road sweeper and sometime high
pressure cleaners to ensure a dust
free surface. Tack coating and
laying of the new wearing course
follows on the cleaned surface.
This means that the process must
flow continuously and with good
results. The method is described
as mill and fill and is typically
used during night-time work on
otherwise busy roads. Proper
levelling and control of the milling
depth as well as the logistics on
the site is critical on these jobs.
1 cm of excessive removal of
material over 10 km means that an
additional 490 tons of asphalt must
be paved to reach the correct level.
This would represent a significant
amount of money.
60
Special applications
Joints/cleaning
Levelling systems
61
COMPACTION, PAVING
& MILLING EQUIPMENT
It is difficult to evaluate the pe formance of rollers without field t sts.
These should preferably carried out on different materials and under different
conditions. This section, however, defin s and discusses the parameters and
data which may be employed to evaluate and compare rollers from a
specificatio .
The ISO8811 standard establishes the guidelines as to which technical
data and parameters are suitable for specifying vibratory rollers.
Vibratory roller specifications a e therefore structured and comparable if
presented according to the standard.
62
A VIBRATORY ROLLER
Vibratory rollers evolved from the original static rollers,
which generated compaction by static weight only.
The comparison of two vibratory rollers is a difficult tas ;
in fact, it is impossible to perform from a specification
sheet only. However, different parameters have an
impact on a rollers effect. So it is important to have
a thorough understanding of the parameters involved.
Compaction performance
VITAL DATA
Static linear load
Frequency
Amplitude (fixed or variabl )
dard includes the weight of the operator as well as full fuel and half-full
water tanks in the static operating
weight. A significant increase in
the static linear load increases the
compaction effort, and reduces the
number of passes required.
The total weight of a self-propelled single-drum vibratory roller does
not give a direct indication of the
compaction effect. Comparisons based on total weight can therefore be
misleading. A true picture emerges
only by comparing the static linear
loads of the vibrating drum modules.
Frequency and amplitude
Frequency is the number of drum
impacts per time unit measured in
Hz (vibrations per second) or vpm
(vibrations per minute).
Amplitude is the maximum
movement of the drum from the
axis, and is usually expressed in
mm. This means that the total drum
movement corresponds to twice the
nominal amplitude. The influence
of frequency and amplitude on the
compaction effect has been the subject of discussion for many years.
Laboratory and field tests indicate
that frequencies between 25 and
40 Hz (1,500 and 2,400 vpm) have
maximum compaction effect on
soil. A change in frequency within
this range will not significantly
affect compaction effort.
63
Degree of
compaction
Low amplitude
High amplitude
Depth
The normal relationships between compaction effect, frequency and amplitude
on soil. Amplitude has a significant eff ct
whereas frequency may vary within a
given optimum range.
A vibratory tandem roller can have one or two vibrating drums. In general double vibrating
drums increase capacity by about 80%, as the roller does not have to make so many
passes.
64
A roller with a drum width of 1500 mm covers paving widths from 3,5 up
to 4,2 m with three parallel lanes. Using a roller with 1700 mm drum width is,
in this case, uneconomical as it will still require three parallel lanes.
The overlap will increase and the efficiency will go dow . Roller size must
match both the compaction requirement s and the expected paving width in
order to assure the compaction quality as well as the operational efficienc .
CENTRIFUGAL FORCE
AND TOTAL APPLIED
FORCE (TAF)
mum drum width to cover the asphalt paver width using a minimum
number of parallel rolling lanes.
Drum diameter
A large diameter reduces rolling
resistance. This can be especially
important in preventing shoving
of asphalt mats, and in minimising
hair-line cracks when rolling tender,
unstable asphalt mixes. A large
drum diameter is preferable.
DRUM DESIGN
VITAL DATA
Drum width
Drum diameter
Drum shell thickness
Drum width
In soil compaction, the drum width
generally determines surface area
capacity. A wider drum results in
a greater surface coverage per pass.
However, the same does not apply
to asphalt compaction, where the
width of the asphalt paver also has
to be taken into account. In asphalt
surfacing work, the drum width of
the roller needs to be correlated to
the paving width. There is an opti-
Split drums
A split drum design allows the two
drum halves to operate at different
speeds. This reduces scuffing of
the asphalt mat when operating
on sharp curves. If a roller does
not have split drums, the operator
should follow the standard accepted
rolling procedures on curves to
ensure the job is done properly. Be
careful not to use split-drum rollers
on soil applications. Rolling on stiff
soils creates a forging effect on the
drum shell. This will eventually
widen the drum and bridge the
gap between the two drum halves,
destroying the intended purpose
and benefits of a split drum.
65
TRACTION
VITAL DATA
Soil rollers
Operating weight
Tractor module weight
Drum module weight
Tyre size
Gradeability
Asphalt rollers
Operating weight
Front drum module weight
Rear drum module weight
Gradeability
Drum drive
Drum drive improves traction
because it permits the entire weight
of the roller to be used to develop
the tractive effort. It is particularly suitable on thick layers and
difficult materials, for example
uniformly graded dry sand (dry
compaction).
It may also help gradeability,
i.e. the ability of the roller to work
on inclines. Adding a flow-divider
for the wheel and drum-drive
hydraulics will also help improve
traction.
Traction control and anti-spin
systems further improve the traction by reducing or eliminating the
Drum diameter
and static linear load
A large drum diameter and low static linear load results in a low angle
of approach to the material being
compacted and the larger the drum
diameter and the lower the static
linear load, the lower the angle of
approach. Consequently there is
less resistance to rolling.
Weight distribution between the
tractor and drum module
Without drum drive, a fifty-fifty
split between the weight of front
and rear modules indicates satisfactory traction. The heavier the
tractor module is in relation to
66
MANOEUVRABILITY
VITAL DATA
Turning radius inner
Turning radius outer
Wheel base
Lateral minimum overhang
Curb clearance
Speed range
SPRINKLING SYSTEM
An asphalt roller must have a satis
factory water sprinkling system
to prevent pick-up on the drums.
Modern asphalt rollers have a
Frame concepts
Tandem rollers are typically built
according to one of the two dominating frame concepts:
Articulated steering, with or
without optional pivot steering
67
A well-sorted, comfortable
operator station simplifi s
the operators job and
thus contributes to better
roller performance.
ENGINE
VITAL DATA
Emission rating
Make and model
Rated power at ......
Fuel tank capacity
68
TRANSPORTATION
VITAL DATA
Shipping weight
Overall width
Overall length
Overall height
OTHER IMPORTANT
FACTORS
The following information is
rarely mentioned in specification
pamphlets, and will require a more
detailed talk with a manufacturers
representative.
Operator comfort
The more comfortable an operator
is, the better the performance.
The operator station must promote
comfort. The platform should be
well insulated against vibrations
to prevent excess fatigue and the
ambient noise levels should not
disturb the well-being or concentration of the operator. Good allround visibility is essential to be
able to perform the job safely.
In addition, all controls should
be positioned within easy reach
of the seat, and the operator panel
should be logically sorted and easy
to read. Tachometers/hour meters,
voltmeters, fuel and temperature
gauges all contribute to making life
easier. A movable swivel seat, integrated with the most vital controls
improves driver ergonometric as
it allows him/her to place the seat
where it gives the best overview
of the area to be rolled.
Safety
Safety is vital not only for the operator but for those working close to
the roller as well.
The brake system must be active
on both drums in asphalt rollers and
on both drum and drive-wheels on
a single drum roller. This should
also be backed up by an emergency
system, both hand applied or automatically applied as the hydraulic
pressure drops. A parking brake is
also required.
Most accidents happen when
the operator is getting on or off the
roller, so attention should be paid
to non-slip platforms, safety rails
around the operator area, and the
provision of secure footholds up
to the platform. ROPS (Roll-Over
Protection Systems) or safety cabs
with built in ROPS protection
must be on the list of optional
equipment to enhance operator
safety. For many markets this is
a requirement.
Availability
Stoppages in large earth-moving or
asphalt surfacing operations are extremely costly. Machine availability
is therefore crucial.
ROPS that include a seat-belt provide protection for the operator in the event of a
roll-over. Combined with a Falling Object Protection System (FOPS) it also shields
the operator from falling debris when operating in a trench. Reverse alarms help
increase safety when reversing.
Adaptability
It is a great benefit if the roller can
operate over a wide range of field
conditions, for example on different
types of soil, terrain, and at high
altitudes. A rollers ability to do so
will be of great value to the user.
The adaptability of the equipment may also be a decisive factor
in the economy. For example,
vibratory tandem rollers are attractive because they are suitable for
both asphalt and base and sub-base
compaction.
Self-propelled vibratory rollers
which can be switched from smooth
to pad-foot drums are also at a
premium. With an interchangeable
drum, all the compaction work
can be done by one unit. This cuts
acquisition costs and will also help
keep down maintenance and spare
parts expenditure. Pad foot shells
reduce the amplitude on smooth
drum soil compactors, but can
be an acceptable compromise for
converting a smooth drum roller to
a pad foot version for shorter times.
69
A STATIC SMOOTH
DRUM ROLLER
Static smooth drum rollers were the first type of
mechanical equipment used
for soil and asphalt compaction. They are often used together with pneumatic tired
and/or vibratory rollers.
COMPACTION
PERFORMANCE
VITAL DATA
Static linear load
Drum diameter
70
Drums of equal
diameter provide
uniform compaction
effort across the
entire machine width,
which conventional
three-wheel rollers
do not.
Ballast
A 1012 ton static roller normally requires 23 tons of
ballast. Water is the most convenient type of ballast.
The main ballast is normally placed in the drums and
thereby lowers the centre of gravity.
Drum overlap
There should be an overlap of at least 50 mm, and
drums should overlap when turning.
Drum diameter
The larger the diameter of the drum, the lower the
rolling resistance and angle of approach to the material
being compacted. In general, when the static linear load
exceeds 50 kg/cm, it is desirable if the drum diameter
is 1,500 mm or more.
Drum arc and pressure
The drum arc is the area in contact with the drum at
a given penetration depth. This factor must be taken
into account when determining the compaction effect
and a rollers suitability on, for example, a tender
(unstable) mix. These mixes are prone to excessive
movement and cracks during rolling.
A small contact area gives a large contact pressure; however, if a roller with a small drum diameter
causes a bow wave and surface cracks. A roller with
larger drums will give better rolling performance and
compaction effect. In general, the greater the drum
diameter and contact area the more suitable the roller
is on unstable mixes.
71
Dual controls allow the operator to select the most confortable position for good all-round visibility.
Speed
As a rule, static smooth drum rollers achieve best compaction within
the speed range 3 to 6 km/h. Dual
speed hydraulic motors will provide for extra speed when moving
around the site.
Drum design
The edge of the drums should be
chamfered to reduce the risk of
drum marks on the asphalt mat, and
the drums must be equipped with
scrapers to allow the roller to work
on a wide range of materials.
A chamfered drum
edge will reduce drum-marks
on the asphalt
mat.
72
Brake system
The brakes must be sufficiently
powerful to operate safely even
when the roller is fully ballasted.
Fail-safe systems backed up by an
emergency system are essential to
operator and worksite safety.
GENERAL FEATURES
Operator comfort
The design of the machine should
allow for maximum operator safety,
comfort and visibility. Dual controls or swivel seat allow the operator to select the most comfortable
position for best safety, visibility
and, ultimately, productivity.
Maintenance
It is essential that the roller is
supported by a reliable mainten
ance service. It is best to check that
a full back-up service is available
where the roller is intended to be
used. This will ensure minimum
downtime should periodic servicing
or repair needs arise.
Regular checks of wear parts
and substances (i.e. water, oil, etc.)
should be conducted. Maintenance
must be easy to perform. Easily
accessible maintenance points and
long service intervals are important.
73
A PNEUMATIC
TYRED ROLLER (PTR)
Towed pneumatic tyred rollers have been used for many
years. In the early days, rollers up to 200 tons were not only
used for compaction but also for identifying weak spots
(proof rolling).
These towed versions have almost disappeared with the
evolution of vibratory rollers for soil compaction; therefore
this section only deals with self-propelled PTRs.
It by no means covers all there is to know, for example,
about tyre technology; but rather it discusses fundamental
compaction technology when using PTRs, and the basic
points to consider when selecting such a roller.
Compaction performance
VITAL DATA
Wheel load
Tyre ground contact pressure
Tyre contact area
74
= Wheel load
Ballast
Large amounts of ballast are normally needed to reach the required
operating weight. There are a
number of different ways to ballast
a PTR, for example iron bars,
sand and water. Scrap iron is used
as a permanent ballast. However,
it is time-consuming to load and
remove. In some cases iron bars
are fitted under the roller, but this
adds to the expense. Modern PTRs
have modular ballast systems
where weight can be conveniently
added. This simplifies ballasting
procedures and makes it easier
to keep track of the actual ballast
weight.
Normally 5 to 8 m are required
but as with iron bars loading and
unloading can be time-consuming.
On the other hand, sand is easier
to dispose of when the machine is
to be transported without ballast.
Sand also tends to dry out, so it has
to be checked from time to time to
ensure it is still wet.
kPa
240
200
220
240
250
260
270
35
psi
Water
Although easy to handle, the drawback of water is its low volumetric
weight. In addition, the ballast
tanks must be watertight. In some
cases a PTR equipped with a pump
and nozzles may be used for water
spreading. The pump, which is
electrically driven, fills and discharges the water.
Tyres
This section deals with some
of the geometry of a tyre and a
tyres compaction characteristics.
There are three main types of tyre:
830
Bead wire
Carcass
120
9
4
55
62
9
6
75
78
Tread
75
GENERAL FEATURES
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Asphalt pick-up
During the initial rolling, all
PTRs will pick up asphalt unless
special measures are taken. Special anti-sticking agents such as
bio-degradable emulsion oils are
commonly available and should be
used. A common method to prevent
pick-up is to preheat the tyres by
running the roller on a surface
that has already been compacted
by steel wheel rollers and is still
hot. Little or no pick-up will occur
once the difference in temperature
between the asphalt mat and the
tyre is no more than 20 to 50 C.
Water from the sprinkler system is
then sufficient to prevent any pickup. However, the amount of water
must be reduced to an absolute
minimum since it cools the tyres.
Mats and scrapers also help minimise pick-up during the initial tyre
warm-up period. Skirts around the
rubber tyres help keep the tyres hot.
Tyre skirts are especially useful in
windy conditions.
Operators station
Brakes
The net weight of the PTR is
approximately one third of the
maximum ballasted weight. As
the roller travels at relatively high
COMPACTION CAPACITY
One parameter that determines the
efficiency of a roller is its capacity.
The main factors to be taken into
consideration are:
A=
Drum width
Roller speed
Layer thickness (after compaction)
Number of passes
c x W x v x 1000
n
m2/h
c x W x v x H x 1000
n
m/h
c x W x v x H x 1000 x
n
t/h
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78
Compact planers
Compact planers (rear loading)
Designed as either 3- or 4-wheeled
units they allow quick transportation and the highest manoeuvrability. Compact planers are equipped
with an easily removable rear
conveyor system for working in
confined areas, across a road or
cutting around manhole covers.
These types of machines are
normally operated by one operator
only. Typically several smaller
jobs are finished during one day
with compact planers. Loading of
the reclaimed asphalt pavement
is either by a short conveyor into
an e.g. wheeled loader bucket or
with a standard long conveyor,
loading a dump truck. In practice
most of the times due to the job
circumstances (patch work jobs) or
available space compact planers
are used without a conveyor. In
order to have limited left-overs,
the drum is located at the rear end
of the chassis for a short overhang.
Compact planer
Manoeuvrability
As compact planers are used to cut
around man-hole covers it is vital
that they offer the best possible
manoeuvrability. They, literally,
need to turn on the spot in order to
perform as required.
Operators station
All frequent controls need to be
placed logically and within easy
reach of the operator. The platform
must provide safe access means as
well as proper guard rails etc. Good
all-round visibility and a low noise
level is important to provide a safe
and productive working environment. A vibration isolated platform
increases the operators comfort and
a roof helps protects from both sun
and rain.
A safe and well organized operators station is a vital part in assuring efficien , high
quality results.
Engine
The engine needs to deliver sufficient power for the milling drum
as well as propulsion of the planers.
Fuel efficiency is a key factor for
an economical milling operation.
Maintaining a low noise level is a
vital working environment parameter, it is also important to reduce the
disturbance of the general public as
milling operations often take place
at night. National and international
agreements determine the level of
emission control that the engine is
required to meet.
Conveyor system
An efficient, low maintenance
conveyor system with sufficient
capacity loads the material onto
the waiting truck for transportation off site. The conveyor can
be swung to either side, thereby
enabling the truck to run on a
parallel track.
Sprinkling system
Water is essential to the cold
milling operation; a sufficiently
large water tank helps the machine
to stay productive and not have to
stop for replenishment. The water
is needed to cool and lubricate the
bits as well as to help reduce the
dust that is generated in the milling
process. Optimizing the water
usage helps operational efficiency.
Easy to drain sprinkler systems and
tanks decreases the risk of damage
due freezing.
Good traction is
a key element of
a compact planer.
79
Large planers
Large planers (front discharge)
High capacity machines are equip
ped with a front loading conveyor
system as part of a two stage con
veyor system for efficient and quick
loading as well as with crawlers
instead wheels for reduced ground
pressure and better traction. The
primary conveyor picks up the
material from the cutter housing
and conveys it to the front part
of the machine, where it hands
over the milled material onto the
discharge conveyor. The discharge
conveyor is slideable to either side
to allow following a truck in a
curve or unload the material to the
side for later pick up. An efficient
transport organization is required
as the hourly production is quite
high. Well prepared logistics with
harmonized cutting speed, enough
dump trucks as well as water and
fuel tank trucks for refilling at any
time makes the difference for a
successful milling job. Sometimes
slowing down in order to allow a
constant milling process or cutting
hard asphalt pavement in two layers
is advisable. Sometimes parts of
or all the RAP remains on the road
as a base course for less demanding
road applications.
Large planer
Drum design
A high capacity drum is the key
performance part on a large planer;
it is in the interaction between the
drum and the asphalt that the actual
milling takes place. The wear on
the bits, and sometimes the holders
can be high. Fast and easy bit
changes are important to ensure
productivity on a large planer. The
drum must be designed for easy
replacement and maintenance.
Operator station
The large planer is a big piece of
equipment. Cameras are used to
help give the operator good overview of the working areas and all
corners of the machine. Logically
placed controls and a degree of
automation further improve both
80
Conveyor system
A front-loading conveyer that
can be raised and lowered as well
as swung sideways allows the
operator full flexibility regarding
adaptation to the truck that is being
used as well as where the truck
need to be; in the same track as the
planer or on a parallel one. Joystick
controls provide safe and accurate
steering of the conveyor.
Sprinkler system
Large amounts of water are required to keep the bits cool and the
dust under control. A high pressure
sprinkler system uses minimal
amounts of water while, at the same
time keeping the cutting bits clean
and cool. Water replenishment
CAPACITY CALCULATIONS
Achieving 100% productivity is virtually impossible
regardless what kind of construction equipment it
concerns; this is also true for a cold planer. This is due
to an array of potential scheduled and non-scheduled
interruptions (Water/fuel refill, tool change, waiting
for a truck, traffic etc). For this reason the theoretical
productivity must be multiplied with an efficiency
factor Fe. Fe normally rates from 80% for motor way
jobs down to 40% for city jobs.
e=
Actual productivity
Theoretical productivity
(Normally 0,40,8)
Loose volume
Bank volume
(normally 1,21,5)
Qs = W x v x 60 x e (m2/h)
Bank volume:
Qbv = W x v x 60 x e x D (m3/h)
Loose volume:
Qlv = W x v x 60 x e x D x fs (m3/h)
Weight:
Qw = W x v x 60 x e D x (ton/h)
Where
v is
e is Efficiency factor
fs is Swell factor
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Tractor unit
Undercarriage
Traction
VITAL DATA
Tracked Asphalt Pavers
Operating weight
Weight tractor
Weight screed
Track dimensions (length x width)
Wheeled Asphalt Pavers
Operating weight
Rear axle weight
Weight tractor
Weight screed
Number of drive wheels
Tyre sizes
Surface
If the asphalt paver is to work
on un-bound materials, tracks
are better than wheels as they
provide greater traction. A wheeled
asphalt paver is faster and easier to
transport than a tracked one, and
is often preferred for work on hard
surfaces.
Tracked asphalt pavers are used for laying large widths, close to 10 m with
a hydraulically extendable screed and 14 m with a fixed width sc eed.
Working width
On wide working widths, traction is
important owing to the large forces
acting on the screed. In general,
crawlers provide better traction
than wheels.
Assuming that the asphalt paver
is working under normal conditions,
machines with two drive wheels
can be used for widths up to about
67 m, machines with 4 drive
wheels for widths up to 8 meters
(depending on screed weight),
and tracked machines for widths
up to 10 m and more.
Mix design
The type of mix also has an effect
on traction. While bituminous
materials above 150C have a
comparatively high flow-ability,
cold asphalt mixes and stabilised or
unbound gravel bases have a higher
internal resistance to movement,
and will thus require greater
traction.
The paving width is limited for wheeled asphalt pavers. Pavers with a single drive axle can
pave widths of up to around 6,6 m, whereas models with four or six wheel drive can pave
up to 7,5 or 9 m respectively.
Screed type
As heavy screeds require more traction than light screeds, the screed
(telescopic, fixed, tamper, vibration
etc.) should be selected prior to
choosing the tractor unit.
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Transportation
VITAL DATA
Shipping weight
Overall width
Overall length
Overall height
Travelling speed
84
Engine
VITAL DATA
Make and model
Rated effect at ......
Fuel tank capacity
Cooling system
Optional engines
Material distribution
system
VITAL DATA
Hopper capacity
Number of conveyors
Auger diameter
Flow-through capacity
Material flo
A smooth uninterrupted material
flow through the asphalt paver is a
prerequisite to a effective job. The
material distribution system must
provide a constant supply from the
truck to the screed. Three major
assemblies need to be considered:
Hopper, Conveyor system and
Auger system
Hopper
The size of the hopper is important.
Large hoppers can accept large
quantities of mix, helping to pro-
85
Capacity
Capacity is ultimately a question of
the supply of asphalt to the asphalt
paver. A continuous supply of
material means that a large amount
of material can be laid down.
The capacity of an asphalt paver
is determined by the paving width,
the layer thickness and the average
speed of the asphalt paver.
Screeds
VITAL DATA
Screed type
Tamping
Vibrating
Fixed/Telescopic
Screed weight
Heating system
86
Tamper bar
Bottom plate
Secondary
compactor
Paving Performance
VITAL DATA
a) Tamping screed
Screed weight
Contact area of tamping
elements
Amplitude (tamper stroke)
Frequency
b) Vibrating screed
Screed weight
Contact area of bottom plate
Amplitude
Frequency
Screed weight
and contact area
Harsh mixes and stabilised or
unbound gravel require relatively
heavy screeds to obtain the desired
pre-compaction and a uniform, even
surface. Conversely, relatively light
screeds should be used on unstable,
tender asphalt mixes where there
is a risk of the screed sinking into
the mat.
Paving speed
The paving speed has an influence
on the paver pre-compaction.
The higher the speed, the lower
the density achieved.
The narrow contact area of
tampers precludes fast paving
speeds.
As the speed of the asphalt paver increases, the number of tamper
impacts per unit area decreases,
and consequently the material
feeding effect of the tamper also
decreases. If the speed is too high
compared with the tamper activity,
it may result in an uneven surface
with poor texture. The actual speed
limit depends on the width of the
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88
3D control systems
3D control systems that work in
relation to digital design files can
be used to control the paving where
the quality demands are high. The
systems are controlled and positioned from a satellite navigation
system (GNSS) and a laser. Using
a robotized total station is another
option to provide positioning information to the control system
General features
Safety
Rails should be provided in all
exposed areas to ensure that an
operator cannot fall off. Safety
guards should also be provided
over the auger to stop anything
from falling down into the system.
The screed covers and platform
should have good anti-skid protection. Fail-safe heating systems
will prevent the risk of explosion
and injury to the crew. On wheeled
asphalt pavers, the main hydrostatic
braking system must be backed up
by a hand brake and an emergency
foot brake.
Operator comfort
Paving can be arduous work. The
more comfortable and relaxed
the operator, the better the asphalt
paver will perform. All controls
must be within easy reach.
Versatility
Versatility depends on the type of
screed used and the ability of the
asphalt paver to cope with different
materials.
A telescopic screed for example,
is far more versatile than a fixed
screed as it can pave around obstacles.
A machine that can lay sub-base
material one day, and a smooth
wearing course the next, and that
can pave on a four-metre width
on one site and a seven-metre one
on another, will always be more
benficial.
Availability
The availability of an asphalt
paver is a function of the integral
quality of the machine. A high
integral quality results from the
wear resistance of the screed plate,
auger and conveyor chains, the
ability of the engine and hydraulics to withstand heavy tonnage
as well as the proximity of good
service back-up and spare parts.
Availability is enhanced if the
manufacturer uses well-known,
components throughout the
asphalt paver. That is because
easier access to replacement parts
heightens availability.
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