Michael
Michael
Michael
i n t h e Department
of
English
A p r i l , 19 77
APPROVAL
Name:
Degree:
T i t l e of Thesis:
F o l l y and Wisdom:
Examining Commit t e e :
Chairman :
Robert H . Dunham
,
c
I '
Michael S t e i g
Senior Supervisor
Mason Harris
---.-
,- ,
Ann Messenger
Masrgre t B 1om
External Examiner
Assistant Professor
University of B r i t i s h Columbia
Date Approved :
5 A P r I r )997
I h e r e b y g r a n t t o Simon F r a s e r U n i v e r s i t y t h e r i g h t t o l e n d
I f u r t h e r agree t h a t permission f o r
m u l t i p l e copying of t h i s t h e s i s f o r s c h o l a r l y p u r p o s e s may be g r a n t e d
b y me or t h e Dean of G r a d u a t e S t u d i e s .
It i s u n d e r s t o o d t h a t c o p y i n g
o r p u b l i c a t i o n of t h i s t h e s i s f o r f i n a n c i a l g a i n s h a l l n o t be a l l o w e d
w i t h o u t my w r i t t e n p e r m i s s i o n .
T i t l e of ~ h e s i s / ~ l s s e r t a t i o n :
Author :
(signature )
27 April 1977
(date)
iii
ABSTRACT
Y e t this
complex, u b i q u i t o u s c h a r a c t e r , l a r g e l y d e r i v e d from t h e f o l k - f o o l t r a d i t i o n
and Shakespearean drama, i s c e n t r a l t o Dickens's a r t i s t i c and moral v i s i o n .
I n h i s most f r e q u e n t m a n i f e s t a t i o n as Holy Innocent ( t h e simple-hearted o r
simple-souled i n d i v i d u a l ) , t h e f o o l a c t s a s a moral t o u c h s t o n e , s e r v a n t mentor, comic buffoon and e n t e r t a i n e r , s a t i r i s t and t r u t h - t e l l e r ,
presenting
h i s p a r a d o x i c a l b l e n d of f o l l y and wisdom.
The t h e s i s b e g i n s w i t h a g e n e r a l survey of Dickens's d i v e r s e f o o l - t y p e s
and t h e s o u r c e s which c o n t r i b u t e d t o h i s c o n c e p t i o n of t h e s e f i g u r e s , w h i l e
t h e procedure i n t h e main s t u d y i n v o l v e s a d e t a i l e d i n v e s t i g a t i o n of t h e p r i mary m o t i f s w i t h i n t h e Dickensian Holy Innocent convention.
fool-type
child-fool)
Each i n d i v i d u a l
(Pickwick and h i s l i t e r a r y d e s c e n d a n t s , t h e f o o l - l u n a t i c ,
and t h e
i s s e e n t o perform p a r t i c u l a r f u n c t i o n s , though a l l a r e s i g n i f i -
c a n t l y i n t e r - r e l a t e d , p r i n c i p a l l y concerned w i t h t h e f o o l a s a symbolic
counterbalance t o s o c i a l corruption.
o f t e n an e x p l i c i t a n t a g o n i s t of s o c i a l and i n d i v i d u a l e v i l , e s t a b l i s h i n g a
community of innocence t o c o u n t e r a c t t h e p e r v e r s i t i e s of t h e l a r g e r s o c i e t y .
The f o l k - f o o l o r f o o l - l u n a t i c d i s p l a y s a more complex i n t e r m i n g l i n g of d i v i n e
and demonic madness, s u b t l y embodying Dickens's own ambivalent r e s p o n s e t o
s o c i a l v i o l e n c e and t h e power of t h e f o o l t o r e s i s t c o r r u p t i o n .
I n n o c e n t ' s personal-thematic
The Holy
r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h t h e c h i l d and t h e woman,
Dickens's uses of t h e f o o l
A l a r g e p a r t of Dickens's
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
CONTENTS
Page
APPROVAL
ii
ABSTRACT
iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
v ii
CHAPTER ONE:
Introduction:
1.
2.
Witty F o o l s and F o o l i s h W i t s
CHAPTER TWO:
From Pickwick t o B o f f i n :
Social Evil
CHAPTER THREE:
CHAPTER FOUR:
BIBLIOGRAPHY
The Ambiguous
1.
2.
The Child-Fool
3.
Conclusion
vii
Oxford U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1966-74),
The f o l l o w i n g abbrevia-
t i o n s a r e used throughout:
Pickwick P a p e r s
David Copper f i e d
DC
-
O l i v e r Twist
Bleak House
BH
-
Nicholas Nickleby
NN
-
Hard Times
HT
-
Old C u r i o s i t y Shop
OCS
-
L i t t l e Dorrit
LD
-
Barnab y Rudge
BR
-
T a l e of Two Cities
TTC
M a r t i n Chuzzlewit
MC
-
Great E x p e c t a t i o n s
Christmas Books
CB
-
Our Mutual F r i e n d
DS
-
Edwin Drood
OMF
-
CHAPTER ONE
Introduction:
There
The f o o l , how-
V i c t o r i a n novel-
The most
The Dickensian f o o l ,
I n h i s most f r e q u e n t
i n d i v i d u a l ) , t h e f o o l a c t s a s moral touchetone, s e r v a n t -
presenting
h i s p a r a d o x i c a l b l e n d of f o l l y and wisdom.
Every d i s c u s s i o n of t h e f o o l t r a d i t i o n e n c o u n t e r s a n immediate o b s t a c l e
--
t h e problem o f d e f i n i t i o n .
. . . .112
These d e f i n i t i o n s , however,
a l t h o u g h i n f o r m a t i v e , do n o t r e s o l v e a l l t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s .
"average human standard"?
What i s t h e
The s u b t l e i r o n i e s of t h e Erasmian-Shakespearean
As S t u l t i t i a h e r s e l f
a p a r t of Dickens's i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of C h r i s t ' s b e a t i t u d e s a s i t i s of
Dostoevsky's; and t h e e x i s t e n c e of d i v i n e simpletons i n Dickens's works i s
perhaps one of t h e chief reasons why Dostoevsky admired them s o much. 115
C. B. Cox s i m i l a r l y s t a t e s t h a t "in l i t e r a t u r e , t h e g r e a t and v i r t u o u s man
...
Dick's b r a i n s may b e a l i t t l e
I n a more s u g g e s t i v e a n a l y s i s , J . C. Reid s u g g e s t s t h a t
. . . a c h a l l e n g e t o t h e c o r r u p t and s o p h i s t i c a t e d ,
an image of a needed r e v e r s a l of
value^."^
and
While such i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s a r e
A v i t a l p a r t of Dickens's C h r i s t i a n v i s i o n , t h e Holy
Dickens's
While much of t h e d e t a i l e d a n a l y s i s
t h e madman o r v i l l a g e i d i o t .
Since a n t i q u i t y ,
a l i c e n s e t o v i o l a t e p o l i t e convention by speaking t h e
"Children 61 f o o l e s they s a y can n o t l [ y ] . "lo This a s p e c t
....
""
. . . communicated d i s a g r e e a b l e t r u t h s
t o tyrants
G r i s k i n , f o r example, n o t e s t h a t
"These w e r e
If
--._
-
--
a l s o h e l d t o be t h e v e h i c l e f o r h i g h e r s p i r i t u a l f o r c e s .
The v i l l a g e i d i o t
\---
t h u s became t h e d i v i n e i d i o t - - t h e
higher r e a l i t y .
M r . Dick, and Maggy, t h e mental incompetents whose clouded minds ( p a r a d o d c a l l y ) possess an a c u t e i n t u i t i v e i n s i g h t , exemplify t h i s t r a d i t i o n a l concept.
Dickens, furthermore, deeply i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e proper treatment of lunacy,
was a p p a l l e d by t h e abysmal c o n d i t i o n s and c a l l o u s d i s r e g a r d endured by t h e
humanity, and they themselves ( l i k e t r u e Holy Innocents) repay t h e i r bsnef a c t o r s w i t h a f e r v e n t l y pure and p e r c e p t i v e devotion.
The Holy I n n o c e n t ' s moral insight--his
wisdom--has
i n t e r m i n g l i n g of s i m p l i c i t y and
S t . Paul
well.
t h e w i s e and h o l y f o o l i s p r i m a r i l y a c r e a t i o n of r e n a i s s a n c e humanist
thought,16 and i n t h e works of such t h i n k e r s a s Thomas
;Kempis
and Nicholas
Kernpis's
IDIOT:
This is, i t may be, t h e d i f f e r e n c e betweene t h e e and nee;
thou t h i n k e s t they [ s i c ] s e l f e w i s e , when thou a r t n o t , and hereupon
a r e proved; b u t I know my s e l f e an I d i o t ; and hereupon am more humble,
and i n t h i s peradventure more l e a r n e d . 1 9
Erasmus's P r a i s e of F o l l y (1511), t h e foremost document of t h e r e n a i s s a n c e
folly-wisdom p r i n c i p l e , c a r r i e s t h i s argument t o i t s l o g i c a l conclusion:
"To
(I%,
39, 616).
. . . is an i d i o t ' s
f o l l y , weighed a g a i n s t a simple
A s Crisparkle says t o
. . . and
(3,10,
i t was t h e h i g h e s t
107).
This p r i n c i p l e
a c t i o n o r emotion n o t d i r e c t l y c o n t r i b u t i n g t o s e l f - i n t e r e s t , 2 2
only t o be
In
...
...
...
(Immediately preceding t h e
....
Dickens s c o r n s and
On
The p o i n t
A s o l d Martin
. . . is wiser
than some
loving
H i s own L i f e of
h e a r t e d , s p i r i t u a l l y u p l i f t i n g r e l i g i o u s devotion. 25
Whether o r n o t Dickens
i n d i r e c t i n f l u e n c e was pervasive:
"Like many g r e a t t e a c h e r s , h e i s f o r g o t -
27
i t is n o t s u r p r i s i n g t h a t such a v e r s a t i l e comic-dramatic f i g u r e a s
...
wise
I n c o n t r a s t , although I can f i n d no d i r e c t r e f e r -
30
Bottom's
r e l a t i o n s h i p of t h e o u t c a s t o r
. ..
and L i t t l e N e l l , Tom Pinch and Mary Graham, M r . Toots and Florence Dombey.
Although t h e f o o l and t h e p r i n c e s s a r e never romantically u n i t e d ( a f a c t
i l l u m i n a t i n g t h e f o o l ' s i n n e r t e n s i o n s and f r u s t r a t i o n s ) , they are o f t e n
bound t o g e t h e r a t a deeper thematic and personal l e v e l , s h a r i n g an innocent
view of l i f e and a c o d t m e n t t o love, e x e r c i s i n g a redemptive e f f e c t on
others.
Of a l l Shakespeare's jesters, Lear's Fool e x e r t e d t h e most pervasive
i n f l u e n c e on Dickens's imagination.
o r i g i n a l t e x t of King Lear t o t h e s t a g e , c o r r e c t i n g t h e i d i o s y n c r a c i e s of
...
33
One pas-
It
It would be d i f f i c u l t t o p r a i s e s o exqui-
---------------
Whether Dickens was d i r e c t l y i n f l u e n c e d by G r i s k i n ' s view of t h e f o o l ' a perc e p t i o n , moral i n s i g h t , symbolic c o n t r a s t , pathos, and genuine human devotion
i n h i s l a t e r novels, o r whether he published t h e work because i t concurred
w i t h h i s own conception of t h i s f i g u r e i s d i f f i c u l t t o determine.
The paper
F a l s t a f f ' s connections
37
and,
while earlier c r i t i c s d i d n o t s p e c i f i c a l l y i d e n t i f y t h e k n i g h t w i t h t h a t
t r a d i t i o n , they too emphasized h i s f o o l - l i k e c a p a c i t y t o combine a comic
and moral v i s i o n .
. . . .1138
F a l s t a f f ' s imprudence, s e l f -
39
A t t h e same time, however, v a r i o u s nineteenth-century writers, while cont i n u i n g Morgann's a d u l a t i o n , regarded F a l s t a f f with e v e r i n c r e a s i n g g r a v i t y .
W. Maginn's I1Shakespeare Papers No. 1:
Bentley's Miscellany (1, 1837, 494-508) during t h e time of Dickens's e d i t o r s h i p , proposes t h a t F a l s t a f f ' s w i t and g a i e t y mask a deep-rooted sense of
f r u s t r a t i o n and f a i l u r e :
agree,
40
t e n s i o n between
''Many r e a d e r s w i l l r i d i c u l e t h e i d e a of a
First,
17
Evelyn M. Simpson s u g g e s t s , Jonson "is more of a r e a l i s t than Dickens, he
is h a r d e r , f i e r c e r , less humane."
Dickens i s sel-
- 50).
defense of Kate Nickleby (NN,
(e.g.,
44
picaresque knavery.
t o h i s childhood reading:
As w e l l a s various s t y l i s t i c and p l o t s i m i l a r i t i e s
Don Q d x o t e i t s e l f , f o r i n s t a n c e , contin-
uing t h e i r o n y of t h e Pauline-Erasmian
and i n f l u e n t i a l study of t h e holy f o o l .
i f Quixote ie "a sane man turned mad o r a madman verging on s a n i t y , " a quest i o n t h a t lies a t t h e h e a r t of Cervantes's i r o n i c v i s i o n :
Dickens himself a s s e r t s t h a t
The sympathy (of both reader and author) awakened by Don Quixote and
Pickwick Papers h a s , i n a d d i t i o n , a more profound i n t e n t i o n .
Cervantes and
thematic import.
S i m i l a r p a t t e r n s a r e manifested throughout many of Dickens's f a v c u r i t e
eighteenth-century novels.
Vicar of Wakefield, which Dickens claimed had "done more good i n t h e world,
and i n s t r u c t e d more kinds of people i n v i r t u e , than any o t h e r f i c t i o n e v e r
written,"49
Parson M-,
like-
. . . . He was
h i s characteristic.
Tristam himself s e r v e s
of t h e n o v e l ' s main c h a r a c t e r s ;
es of t h i s c l a s s i c f i g u r e , r e p r e s e n t s S t e r n e ' s most s o p h i s t i c a t e d a n a l y s i s
of t h e Holy Innocent and presages Dickens's own complex fool-types.
Toby's
Toby d i s p l a y s a p o t e n t s a t i r i c
...
....
f i g u r e of t h e servant-mentor--also
Dickens
"Preface
," m i ) , and
f o ~ l - t ~ ~Whereas
e . ~ ~ Quixote e x i s t s i n h i s f a n t a s t i c dream-world o f k n i g h t s
and e n c h a n t e r s , Sancho limits h i s d e s i r e s t o t h e immediate p h y s i c a l g r a t i f i c a t i o n of food, d r i n k , and s l e e p .
H i s i n t e l l i g e n c e i s derived from n a t u r e
and p r a c t i c a l wisdom.
And when
a pitcher.
H i s s o u l is
And f o r t h a t s i m p l i c i t y I l o v e him a s d e a r l y a s my h e a r t - s t r i n g s ,
and
. . . but
(45, 642).
It i s n o t inconceivable, f o r example, t h a t t h e
t h e Harlequin's
s t a n d a r d c a s t i n innumerable
l i k e e a r l i e r fool-figures,
institution^,"^^
t i o n with t h e s a r d o n i c o u t c a s t f o o l .
c l e a r l y i n d i c a t i n g h i e connec-
Dickens himself a p p r e c i a t e d t h i s
These e n t e r -
william J.
warm-hearted Clown and t h e f i g u r e s of t h e Shakespearean and Cervantic t r a d i t i o n e ( p a t t e r n s expressed i n both Dickens's own novels and h i s e d i t o r i a l
changes i n Grimaldi's Memoirs) is e x p l i c i t .
Robert Goldsmith warns t h a t "in looking too hard and long a t t h e f o o l s
i n t h e p l a y s of Shakespeare and h i s contemporaries, w e may e a s i l y l o s e our
s e n s e of p e r s p e c t i v e .
Dickens's uses of
v i r t u a l l y complete c r i t i c a l n e g l e c t .
This p r e s e n t discus-
c r e a t i o n s a f t e r t h e s e c l a s s i c f o o l - f i g u r e s i s , of course, impossible t o d e t e r -
period--employ
A s noted e a r l i e r , f o o l s tend t o be o u t c a s t o r i s o l a t e d f i g u r e s ,
an e x p l i c i t a n t a g o n i s t of s o c i e t y ' s c o r r u p t i n g n a t u r e .
Extending t h e m o t i f s
Whatever t h e p a r t i c u l a r n a t u r e
This e x p l o r a t i o n , i n f a c t ,
simul-
i n i t i a l l y appear.
The
S i m i l a r l y i s o l a t e d , i n t h i s c a s e by mental
f u l d e r i v a t i o n of t h e t r a d i t i o n a l folk-fool,
Devoid of i n t e l l i g e n c e o r i n d i v i d u a l w i l l , t h e i d i o t was
t r a d i t i o n a l l y regarded as t h e v e h i c l e f o r e x t e r n a l powers, a p a t t e r n t h a t
Dickens e n l a r g e s , making h i s f o o l - l u n a t i c s t h e unconscious r e f l e c t o r s of t h e
dominant and d e s t r u c t i v e f o r c e s i n t h e i r s o c i a l world.
ous and o f t e n seemingly c o n t r a d i c t o r y a p p l i c a t i o n s .
I n a d d i t i o n t o parodying
The
b u t h i s v u l n e r a b i l i t y t o t h e i n f l u e n c e of t h a t c o r r u p t i o n e n a b l e s Dickens
t o more f u l l y explore t h e n a t u r e of t h a t c o n f l i c t , a r t i c u l a t i n g h i s own
l a t e n t doubts and ambivalence.
The f o o l - l u n a t i c ' s
addled w i t s , moreover, i n t r o d u c e a f u r t h e r i s s u e :
prore
s i g n i f i c a n t s t r e n g t h s and weaknesses.
I n c o n t r a s t t o t h e t r a d i t i o n a l fool-
Simi-
Despite such a u t h o r i a l i n t e r v e n t i o n ,
The i n t e r v e n t i o n i t s e l f , i n f a c t , s e r v e s t o
The i n t r i n s i c l i m i t a t i o n s of t h e
Always c l o s e l y re-
l a t e d t o t h e t r a d i t i o n a l f o o l , t h e c h i l d , c o n s t i t u t i n g a s i g n i f i c a n t motif
w i t h i n t h e Dickensian Holy Innocent convention, o f f e r s a p o s s i b l e r e s o l u t i o n .
Like o t h e r Holy Innocents, t h e e a r l i e s t examples of t h e child-fool a r e essent i a l l y symbolic, e x i s t i n g i n a mythically s u p e r n a t u r a l world p r o t e c t e d by
Providence and f a t a l l y vulnerable t o any i n t r u s i v e r e a l i t y .
t h i s motif s t e a d i l y evolves, t h e c h i l d - f o o l ' s
And y e t , a s
A t once
t o t r a n s i t i o n a l f i g u r e s l i k e t h e c h i l d , and u l t i m a t e l y t o
t h e c h i l d - f o o l motif.
Dickens a l s o c o n t i n u a l l y s t r e s s e s t h e n e c e s s i t y of
p r e s e r v i n g o r r e g a i n i n g t h e c h i l d ' s and f o o l ' s innocence through moral educat i o n o r r e b i r t h , a p a t t e r n which, ubiquitous among f o o l s and non-fools a l i k e ,
continues t o disseminate t h e d o c t r i n e of holy s i m p l i c i t y throughout t h e normal
world.
The development of t h e Holy Innocent i n Dickens's f i c t i o n may seem on
occasion almost e x c l u s i v e l y t h e h i s t o r y of t h e f o o l ' s weaknesses and d e c l i n e .
Yet t h a t development a l s o i n c l u d e s t h e h i s t o r y of t h o s e c h a r a c t e r s who can
unify t h e s a l i e n t f e a t u r e s of t h e f o o l and t h e normal world, t h e c h i l d and
t h e a d u l t , s i m p l i c i t y and m a t u r i t y , innocence and experience, and make them
mutually complementary, a u n i t y which, i n s h o r t , r e p r e s e n t s t h e essence and
cornerstone of Mckens's moral philosophy.
2.
another c l a s s i c fool-
f i g u r e , t h e w i t t i l y i n t e l l i g e n t comic j e s t e r , occupies a s i g n i f i c a n t i f
lesser p o s i t i o n i n h i s uses of t h e f o o l t r a d i t i o n .
H i s t o r i c a l l y t h e comic
adopting t h e n a t -
says
(e.
V.
Further
Unlike t h e l i m i t -
symbolic
Holy Innocents.
Discussing Touchstone's r o l e i n As You Like I t , John Palmer observes
t h a t t h e w i t t y f o o l ' s "part i n t h e comedy is t o shed t h e l i g h t of r e a l i t y
and common sense upon i t s f a n c i f u l f i g u r e s and diversions,'' t o "see t h i n g s
a s they are b u t without malice," and t o "have a keen f l a i r f o r absurdity i n
people and t h i n g s - n o t l e a s t f o r h i s own i n f i r m i t i e s .
'16'
It i s v i r t u a l l y t r u i s t i c t h a t Weller repre-
lh2
pendent c h a r a c t e r s i n t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e novels:
A s f o o l s , they c o n t r i b u t e a necessary s y n t h e s i s of
Touchstone's res-
s h a r i n g t h e i r i n s i g h t s while
Both Q u i l p and
M c k , whatever t h e i r d i f f e r e n c e s i n p e r s o n a l i t y , a r e p e r c e p t i v e s a t i r i s t s ,
e q u a l l y cognizant of a n o t h e r ' s knavery.
Dick d i s p l a y s a g e n t l e , almost e n t e r t a i n i n g v i s i o n .
i n s i g h t f u l response t o t h e a v a r i c i o u s Brass family, while ( i n h i s pseudov i o l e n c e ) parodying and n u l l i f y i n g t h e dwarf's demonic anger.
Like
delight-
'
Such
0 0 1 6 . ~Quilp,
~
f o r example, i s e q u a l l y e c c e n t r i c
and, throwing
himself upon t h e ground, a c t u a l l y screamed and r o l l e d about i n t h e mst uncont r o l l a b l e d e l i g h t " (21, 164).
I n c o n t r a s t t o t h i s p e r v e r t e d , s o l i t a r y joy,
I n t h e i r c e l e b r a t e d fight-scene,
as Dick prances
Like Q u i l p
Sam h a s l i t t l e d i f f i c u l t y i d e n t i f y i n g and
M r . Fitz-Marshall,
The Weller-Jingle r e l a -
t h e blunt--wery smart--top-boots
tile--green
shawl--quite
on--nosegay
t h e gen'lm'n"'
i n h i s button-hole-broad-brimmed
day--five
children--mother--tall
sandwiches--forgot
t h e arch-crash--knock--children
head off--sandwich
i n h e r hand--no
shocking, shocking!"'
(2, 11).
"'Terrible
lady, e a t i n g
look round--mother's
m u t h t o p u t i t in--head
of a family off--
G a r r e t t Stewart d i s t i n g u i s h e s between
. . . J i n g l e c a p i t a l i z e s on i t . "66
u i s t i c s k i l l have no c o r r e c t i v e purpose o r b e n e f i c e n t i n t e n t i o n , b u t a r e
s o l e l y concerned w i t h deluding t h e credulous and p r o f i t i n g from t h e i r inexperience.
Pickwickian i d y l l .
Although Sam and Dick may s h a r e some of t h e i r most engaging q u a l i t i e s
w i t h J i n g l e and Quilp, t h e i r thematic-symbolic
r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h Pickwick
Although i n i t i a l l y
I n t h e midst of h i s l u d i c r o u s account of t h e r e l a t i v e
...
'It's a d e v i l of a t h i n g , gentlemen
when r e l a t i o n s f a l l o u t
and d i s a g r e e . I f t h e wing of f r i e n d s h i p should never moult a
f e a t h e r , t h e wing of r e l a t i o n s h i p should never be c l i p p e d , b u t b e
always expanded and s e r e n e . Why should a grandson and g r a n d f a t h e r
peg away a t each o t h e r w i t h mutual wiolence when a l l might be b l i s s
and concord? Why not j i n e hands and f o r g e t i t ? ' (2, 19)
Whereas Q u i l p , furthermore, i s c r u e l l y amused by t h e Marchioness's l o n e l i n e s s
and ignorance, Dick is s y m p a t h e t i c a l l y a t t r a c t e d t o t h e n e g l e c t e d g i r l , earne s t l y lamenting t h e f a c t t h a t "nobody e v e r c a l l e d t o see h e r , nobody spoke of
h e r , nobody cared about her" (36, 271).
S i m i l a r l y , Dick i s i n s t r u m e n t a l i n
remains
c l a s t i c f u n c t i o n ; h i s c o n s t a n t e f f o r t s t o e d u c a t e Pickwick, q u a l i f y i n g t h e
Holy Innocent's n a i v e & while s t i l l endorsing h i s moral e x c e l l e n c e , temper
t h e n o v e l ' s i d y l l i c atmosphere.
. . . cast
upon t h e
Dick's pseudo-poetic
Dick i s a double f o o l , a w i s e f o o l
I
1
Dick, i n c o n t r a s t , i n a p a t t e r n of some
Through h i s
As Garrett Stewart observes, when Dick g r a n t s t h e Marchioness h e r d i g n i f i e d t i t l e ("'To make i t seem more r e a l and p l e a s a n t , I s h a l l c a l l you t h e
Marchioness, do you hear?"'
normally p l a y f u l c h a r a c t e r :
Thie i s a romantic daydream i n which t h e "real" and t h e "pleasantt'
can b e w i l l e d a t once i n t o conjunction; y e t a t t h e same time i t
bespeaks a mature f a i t h i n t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s of a b e t t e r world,
a f a i t h nurtured i n t h e love of p o e t r y , where t h e r e a l and t h e
p l e a s a n t , t r u t h and beauty, do r e g u l a r l y coincide. Here, domestic a t e d and made comic, i s a t r u e R o m n t i c p o e t ' s f a i t h i n the
sue t a i n i n g power of imagination. 6 9
This b e l i e f i n imagination a s t h e pathway t o "a b e t t e r world" where "the r e a l
and t h e p l e a s a n t
t h e f o o l a e "a
Robert Coldsclith, on
t o laugh
t r a n s i t o r y l o v e l i n e s s of t h e Arcadian dream. 1 1 7 1
h a s i t both ways.
Dickens , however, l i t e r a l l y
(478).
"'This poor l i t t l e
J u s t a s Dick g r a n t s
'It's w e l l I am a l i v e r e r .
Marchioness, b u t f o r you"'
(478-9).
"'Liverer indeed!'
s a i d Dick thought-
. . . I'd
o u t , "'Sober'
(66, 490).
As Stewart p o i n t s
a s a new and
y e a r s , he never slackened
are simply too light and supple for a novel whose unremitting impulse is
toward all that lies underground.1'73 And yet, as fool, Dick is the
"creator of spiritual freedom" who moves beyond the simple evil-energy/
virtue-passivity dichotomy of the novel's main action.
If his story is
"too light and supple," it also contains much that is painful and harsh--the
Harchioness's brutalized, perverted childhood, Dick's own fever and near
death. As Willeford maintains, "the fool among us is a perpetual link to
the light and the life in [the world's] darkness,"74 the wise comic who
combines the salient features of both realms to create unity rather than conflict. Ae M c k states, in a passage applicable to his particular role in the
novel and with implications extending far into the evolution of the Dickensian
Holy Innocent as well, "I was wafted here upon the pinions of concord
came
...
and heart-burning, and to sow in their place, the germs, of social harmony"
(13, 103).
Quilp dies in darkness, for the extremes remain self-destructive. Only the
imaginative yet "hardheaded" fool is reborn.
Even among their immediate successors, none of whom equals Sam and
Dick in imaginative power or thematic importance, Weller's and Swiveller's
characteristic unifying nature is dominant. Hark Tapley, the clearest subsequent manifestation of the comic jester, merely "fans what is left of the
Weller spark,"75 but like his antecedents, he promotes concord and harmony
in a world rife with "mutual wiolence," assimilating the passive virtue of
the Holy Innocent and the greater dynamism normally associated with the
villainous rogue to form an effectively ameliorative synthesis.
The moral sensitivity of Hark's character, linking him to Martin
Chuzzlewit's primary representatives of holy simplicity, is continually re-
Contemplating
. . . coupled
Tom Pinch w i t h t h i s t r a i n
( 4 , 44; 27,
The "ornamental
. . . inventive
and
comic genius,
t h e most independent-spirited,
most o r i g i n a l , s p i r i t u a l ,
(54, 832).
energy h a s a p o s i t i v e b e n e f i c e n t e f f e c t :
there's a
"conwivial"
Micawber
Sleary i s perhaps
For a s t h e f i g u r e s
roguish knave and
Traditional characters l i k e
is n o t q u i t e s o neat.
As w e have s e e n , f o r example, t h e d e c e i t f u l J i n g l e
roguish y e t w i t t y c a r i c a t u r e s of t h e w i s e l y
A s t i l l more humourous c r e a t i o n , t h e A r t f u l Dodger,
statement,
"L
t h e primary
figure,""
is i n c r e a s i n g l y r e a l i s t i c , a l t e r s t h e n a t u r e of h i s knavish v i l l a i n s and t h u s
t h e w i t t y f o o l ' s power of u n i f i c a t i o n .
80
Equally important,
rr
i t s component elements:
(2.I.
"Better
5. 32-3), s a y s F e s t e , y e t t h e f o o l i s h
t o Jenny Wren
Like t h e p a t t e r n s of growth throughout t h e Holy Innocent's v a r i o u s c h a r a c t e r types, t h e maturation process enunciated i n t h e comic jester motif a s s e r t s
t h a t personal development and r e b i r t h i s t h e only c e r t a i n avenue through
which r e l i g i o u s values can be given form and substance i n t h e r e a l world,
and i t is towards t h i s concern--the
NOTES:
CHAPTER ONE
H i s S o c i a l and L i t e r a r y H i s t o r y (1935; r p t .
The Viking P r e s s ,
1972), p. 35.
"In Defence of ~ i c k e n s , " Essays and S t u d i e s , 11 (1958), 88-9.
Michigan S t a t e
U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1955).
lo Quoted by Goldsmith, p. 8.
l1 A H i s t o r y of Court Fools (1858; r p t . New York:
PP. 3, 6.
. London:
Zandellan
Routledge and
Francisco:
C a l i f o r n i a S t a t e L i b r a r y , 1940), p. 2.
20 P r a i s e of F o l l y , p. 240.
22
118), Kate's t e a r s (10, 121), p a r t i e s (19, 231), l o v e (34, 431), and Madeline
Bray's unworldliness (47, 615)
S i m n and
26 P r a i s e r s of F o l l y , p. 91.
''
Q u a r t e r l y , 71 (1972), 75-90.
28 P l e i s s n e r , pp. 67-8.
29 Quoted i n Harry F u r n i s s ' s "A Shakespeare Birthday:
A Reminiscence of
pp. 124-5.
U n i v e r s i t y of C a l i f o r n i a
33 "Dickens o r F o r s t e r ?
34 Ibid., p. 133.
'
38 Shakespearian C r i t i c i s m , ed
raper's
. Daniel
P r e s s , 1972). p. 211.
39
40 Charles Mckens:
Simon
S t e i n and
(3, 35-40),
more h e a r t l e s s o r v u l g a r a d v e n t u r e s a s w e l l ; h i s l i f e was t r a n s l a t e d i n t o
E n g l i s h a s e a r l y a s 1528, and Dickens may have r e a d about him i n Jonson,
Thoms, and C a r l y l e (who, i n " ~ e r m a n L i t e r a t u r e i n t h e X I V and XV c e n t u r i e s , "
C r i t i c a l and n i s c e l l a n e o u s Essays, Vol. I1 [London:
C. de Boer, 1928), p. 4.
p. 58.
p. 144.
5 0 Compare, f o r example, P r i m r o s e ' s and Pickwick's s a l u b r i o u s e f f e c t s on
t h e inmates of t h e p r i s o n s .
Houghton Mif f l i n
University
Penjedo P r e s s , n.d.).
George
wa
1U
B r a z i l l e r Inc.,
1956), p. 163.
57 -*I b i d * p. 163.
'hi
Harvard U n i v e r s i t y
P r e s s , 1975), 1-35.
, 1964),
p. 384.
63 As Welsford s t a t e s , "comedy i s t h e e x p r e s s i o n of t h e s p i r i t of t h e
Fool" (The Fool, p. 324), a f a c t t h a t i n Dickens's works s u b s t a n t i a l l y
enhances t h e f o o l ' s moral n a t u r e .
S w i v e l l e r o f f e r s a s o p h i s t i c a t e d i n s i g h t i n t o t h i s element of t h e
It should a l s o
and Angus
I b i d . , p. 105.
A s Welsford n o t e s ,
1%
Swiveller-like
The World of H i s
Mark
CHAPTER TWO
Throughout a
book, Cervantes's s a t i r i c v i s i o n undergoes a gradual y e t profound metamorphosis; and a s h i s demented p r o t a g o n i s t comes i n c r e a s i n g l y i n t o c o n t a c t with
t h e more c o r r u p t c l a s s e s of Spanish s o c i e t y , t h o s e same c h i v a l r i c i d e a l s
become less t h e o b j e c t s of s a t i r e than t h e v a l u e s needed t o redeem t h e call o u s l y b l i n d world.
It i s Dickens whose
conception h a s broadened.
moreover, a s h e ,
i n t e r p o l a t e d t a l e s and t h e i r emphasis on
c o n f r o n t a t i o n which i s of
For
Enid Welsford
h i s innocence is b l i n d naivet;,
h i s detach-
r e s e n t s Dickens's e a r l i e s t i n v e s t i g a t i o n i n t o t h i s q u e s t i o n of t h e f o o l ' s
moral p o t e n t i a l , t e s t i n g and exploring t h e s t r e n g t h s and weaknesses of t h e
Holy Innocent's i n t e r a c t i o n with t h e s o r d i d l y "real" world.
On t h e one hand, M r . Pickwick e u b s t a n t i a t e s Welsford's view of t h e f o o l ' s
imperturbability.
H i s c h i l d - l i k e s o u l r a d i a t e s s h e e r d e l i g h t i n l i f e and
"Mr.
b u f f , w i t h t h e utmost
"The very s e r v a n t s n
The miseries of t h e
H i s decision
behavior" and t h a t " P i c b i c k ' s p r i n c i p l e is a means of escape, an unders t a n d a b l e b u t s t i l l s e l f i s h attempt t o preserve h i s own i l l u s o r y image of
h i s greatness.
. . .,'7
Pickwick's "prin-
h e a r t m u s t i n t e r n a l l y condemn?
l o v i n g devotion
naivet;
and r e s i l i e n c y a r e n o t without s e v e r e l i m i t a t i o n s .
t o t a l l y innocent world-view,
In fact, a
i s n o t always morally p e r c i p i e n t :
'The streets [of Stroud, Rochester, Chatham, and c romp ton] p r e s e n t
a l i v e l y and animated appearance, occasioned c h i e f l y by t h e conv i v i a l i t y of t h e m i l i t a r y . It i s t r u l y d e l i g h t f u l t o a p h i l a n t h r o p i c
mind, t o see t h e s e g a l l a n t men s t a g g e r i n g along under t h e i n f l u e n c e
of an overflow, both of animal and a r d e n t s p i r i t s ; more e s p e c i a l l y
when w e remember t h a t t h e following them about, and j e s t i n g with them,
a f f o r d s a cheap and innocent amusement f o r t h e boy population.
Nothing (adds M r . Pickwick) can exceed t h e i r good humour. I t was b u t
t h e day b e f o r e my a r r i v a l t h a t one of them had been most g r o s s l y
i n s u l t e d i n t h e house of a publican. The barmaid had p o s i t i v e l y
r e f u s e d t o draw him any more l i q u o r ; i n r e t u r n f o r which h e had
(merely i n p l a y f u l n e s s ) drawn h i s bayonet, and wounded t h e g i r l i n
t h e shoulder. And y e t t h i s f i n e fellow was t h e very f i r s t t o go
dawn t o t h e house n e x t morning, and express h i s r e a d i n e s s t o overlook
t h e m a t t e r , and f o r g e t what had occurred.' ( 2 , 14)
Dickens c l e a r l y i n t e n d s Pickwick's n a i v e a n a l y s i s t o be a w i n g , y e t t h e
b l i n d n e s s t o t h e more s o r d i d a s p e c t s of human n a t u r e is undeniably present.
Even l a t e r i n t h e novel (when t h e changes i n Pickwick's buffoonish q u a l i t i e s
a r e e v i d e n t ) t h i s theme re-appears.
Immediately b e f o r e he l e a r n s of the
...
Simultaneously,
On t h e one hand, h e
Drawing
sir" :
Take what? I n t h e o r d i n a r y a c c e p t a t i o n of such language, i t should
have been a blow. As t h e world runs, i t ought t o have been a sound,
h e a r t y c u f f ; f o r M r . Pickwick had been duped, deceived, and wronged
by t h e d e s t i t u t e o u t c a s t who was now wholly i n h i s power. Must w e
t e l l t h e t r u t h ? It was something from M r . Pickwick's waiatcoatpocket, which chinked as i t was given i n t o Job's hand, and t h e giving
of which, somehow o r o t h e r imparted a s p a r k l e t o t h e eye, and a
s w e l l i n g t o t h e h e a r t , of our e x c e l l e n t o l d f r i e n d , as he h u r r i e d
away.
(41, 598)
Whereas Pickwick previously e x e r t e d a benevolent e f f e c t by his =re presence,
h e now consciously d i r e c t s h i s c h a r i t a b l e f e e l i n g s i n a more a c t i v e f a s h i o n ,
r e l e a s i n g J i n g l e and Job from t h e F l e e t and financing t h e i r emigration.
For
a s t a t e of mind
which, a s h e e x p l o r e s t h e F l e e t f u r t h e r , s t e a d i l y i n c r e a s e s :
There were t h e same s q u a l o r , t h e same turmoil and n o i s e , t h e same
g e n e r a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , i n every corner; i n t h e b e s t and t h e worst
a l i k e . The whole p l a c e seemed r e s t l e s s and t r o u b l e d ; and t h e
people were crowding and f l i t t i n g t o and f r o , l i k e t h e shadows i n
an uneasy dream.
' I have seen enough,' s a i d M r . Pickwick, a s h e threw himself
i n t o a c h a i r i n h i s l i t t l e apartment. 'My head aches w i t h t h e s e
scenes, and my h e a r t too. Henceforth I w i l l b e a p r i s o n e r i n my own
roam. ' (45, 645)
This voluntary r e n u n c i a t i o n of h i s q u e s t marks a p o t e n t i a l turning-point i n
Pickwick's c a r e e r f u l l y a s profound a s Don Quixote's f i n a l d e f e a t .
I n both
c a s e s , t h e i d e a l i s t s a r e disenchanted, t h e i r r o s e a t e v i s i o n s of t h e world
overwhelmed by d i s i l l u s i o n m e n t .
Their responses t o t h i s f a c t , h w e v e r ,
Defeated by t h e Knight
"'Now
a l l profane h i s t o r i e s of knight e r r a n t r y a r e
reading of them.
""
i n d e f i n i t e l y , t h e b a t t e r i n g of r e a l i t y .
1111
Quixote's i d e a l i s m i s u l t i m a t e l y i n f l e x i b l e , unable t o encompass new experi e n c e ; s t r i p p e d of h i s " f o l l y , " he d i e s i n a "sanity" t h a t shuns imagination
and renounces t h e power of t h e q u e s t .
It may be conjectured t h a t Pickwick's r e t r e a t i n t o h i s rooms when conf r o n t e d w i t h t h e most widespread scene of irremediable s u f f e r i n g he h a s y e t
encountered r e p r e s e n t s a s i m i l a r disenchantment, an admission of t h e Holy
Innocent's v u l n e r a b i l i t y .
him from h i s l e t h a r g y by r e - a s s e r t i n g t h e c h i v a l r i c q u e s t ,
quickly revives Pickwick.
12
such an appeal
wish t o f o r g i v e h i s enemies,
h i s release.
i n h i s l i t e r a r y descendants--the
Cheerybles, f o r example--the
Holy Innocents
The Cheerybles'
philanthropy, i n f a c t , i s a d i r e c t r e s u l t of t h e i r own e a r l y h a r d s h i p s i n
t h e "wildernees of ond don":
a wil&rness,'
t o me once.
(NN,
"'Wilderness!
Yes i t i s , i t is.
35, 450, my i t a l i c s )
Good!
It
'It w a s a w i l d e r n e s s
I have never f o r g o t t e n i t .
Thank God!'"
While he a s s i s t s J i n g l e and
. . . was not
f i r s t entered it.
(667).
"[Pickwick] h u r r i e d from
Quixote
H i s r e t i r e m e n t , then, a t t h i s p o i n t i n h i s l i f e , is f a r
community of t h e f o o l s .
Although
h e r a t t e n t i o n , " t h a t h e r h e a r t , % r i m f u l l of t h e f r i e n d l i e s t f e e l i n g s t o
a l l mankind" (20, 246), can b e a c t i v e l y engaged.
The f o o l community,
a symbolic ( y e t o f t e n e f f e c t i v e ) opponent of t h e l a r g e r
(19, 238-40), w i t h t h e
There was
t h e superannuated bank c l e r k , Tim Linkinwater's f r i e n d ; and t h e r e
was t h e chubby o l d l a d y , Tim Linkinwater's sister; and t h e r e was s o
much a t t e n t i o n from Tim Linkinwater's s i s t e r t o H i s s La Creevy, and
t h e r e were s o many jokes from t h e superannuated bank c l e r k , and Tim
Linkinwater himself was i n such t i p t o p s p i r i t s , and l i t t l e Miss La
Creevy was i n such a comical s t a t e , t h a t of themselves they would
have composed t h e p l e a s a n t e s t p a r t y conceivable. Then, t h e r e were
Mrs. Nickleby, s o grand and complacent; Madeline and Kate, s o
b l u s h i n g and b e a u t i f u l ; Nicholas and Frank, s o devoted and proud;
and a l l f o u r s o s i l e n t l y and tremblingly happy; t h e r e was Newman s o
subdued y e t s o overjoyed, and t h e r e were t h e twin Brothers s o
d e l i g h t e d and i n t e r c h a n g i n g such looks, t h a t t h e o l d s e r v a n t stood
t r a n s f i x e d behind h i s m a s t e r ' s c h a i r , and f e l t h i s eyes grow dim a s
they wandered round t h e t a b l e .
(63, 817)
Against t h i s cotmuunity of innocence, t h e morally bankrupt f o r c e s of t h e HawkW i t i t t e r l y world a r e v i r t u a l l y impotent.
The triumph of Pickwick and h i s community i n t h e i r c o n f r o n t a t i o n w i t h
e v i l t h e r e f o r e ensured t h a t t h e Holy Innocent would remain an important f i g u r e
i n Dickene's l a t e r works, c o n t i n u i n g t h e c e n t r a l c o n f l i c t between t h e opposing
world-views.
P i n c h ' s t r a n s f o r m a t i o n , i n f a c t , i s s t i l l more r a d i c a l
Tom, i n f a c t , a s
Dickens c l e a r l y s u g g e s t s , s u r v i v e s h i s d i s i l l u s i o n m e n t p r e c i s e l y because h e
is a
-
fool:
sage enough t o know t h a t , having been disappointed i n one man, i t would have
been a s t r i c t l y r a t i o n a l and eminently w i s e proceeding t o have revenged hims e l f upon mankind i n g e n e r a l , by m i s t r u s t i n g them one and a l l " (556).
Lack-
I n c o n t r a s t t o h i s previous g u l l i b i l i t y , f o r
Never mind.
I don't c a r e .
I ' d r a t h e r be a baby'"
q u i t e a baby.
H e d i d i t a l l , and i n f i n -
He
..
'I
(76).
"f oolishl')
" H i s own
T r o t t y ' s p a r t i c u l a r fool-
f u n c t i o n s a r e e s s e n t i a l l y r e l a t e d t o those of t h e Dickensian f o o l - l u n a t i c
( s e e Chapter Three), t h a t i s , t h e unconscious r e f l e c t i o n of t h e major f o r c e s ,
symbolized by t h e b e l l s , governing h i s world.
thought T r o t t y i n d e s p a i r .
(I, 96).
"'No, no.
We c a n ' t go r i g h t
We a r e
Scrooge
For t h e most p a r t , d e s p i t e i t s
generosity,
d e d i c a t i o n t o i d e a l s , d e l i g h t i n companionship, and t h e c a p a c i t y t o s h a r e
a n o t h e r ' s sorrows--needed
t o preserve t h e i r v a l u e s i n t h e f a c e of s o c i a l chaos.
. . . always
read f o r
e t h o s possesses t h e g r e a t e r l i f e - s u s t a i n i n g r e s i l i e n c y .
I n an e a r l y scene, f o r example, when Walter and t h e Captain seek Dombey's
f i n a n c i a l a s s i s t a n c e f o r Sol G i l l s , t h i s e s s e n t i a l d i f f e r e n c e i s made manifest.
you s h a l l do i t
and how
and you, who are s o grand and g r e a t , having g o t i t , a r e going t o l e t him have
i t , as a g r e a t favour and o b l i g a t i o n " (10, 132-3).
Cuttle, In contrast,
For a l l
i s money?"
"chucked away."
...
...
. . . s h i n i n g on a l l beholders w i t h
extra-
The f o o l s , i n e f f e c t , s h a r e a cornunity
It is i n t e r e s t i n g t o note t h a t
And y e t , whereas
. . . a s i f he d i d not
(468, my i t a l i c s ) .
and h i s l a t e r
experience," only a f t e r he is convinced t h a t Toots i s n o t "a profoundly a r t f u l and d i s s i m u l a t i n g hypocrite" [39, 544]), a c t s w i t h g r e a t d e l i c a c y and
Walter.
Like e a r l i e r Pickwickian f o o l s , C u t t l e d i s p l a y s a r e s i l i e n t y e t
To t h e f i r m of -bey
and Son, t h e
. . ." (67,
811).
[49, 689-9011,
. . . and
I've
A t one level, t h i s passage i s a s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d account of Walter's miracul o u s escape; a t another l e v e l , i t has much wider thematic i m p l i c a t i o n s .
"There are p e r i l s " even f o r f o o l s ( t h e Captain h i m s e l f , f o r example, has
endured them both a t s e a , and, more important, i n Carker's o f f i c e ) , b u t
It
t e c t e d by Providence.
cal:
Carker,
exclaims t h e Captain.
'Hooroar!'
soole
"'To Wal'r
and t h e Captain e x h i b i t i n g
o t h e r g l a s s , Mr. Donbey, w i t h
Dickens has,
i n f a c t , manipulated e v e n t s , claiming, f o r example, t h a t Sol G i l l s ' s i n v e s t ments (whatever they may be) "instead of being behind t h e time" w e r e " i n
t r u t h , a l i t t l e ahead of i t .
. ." (62,
874).
One might j u s t l y s p e c u l a t e
a n a l y s i s of s o c i a l e v i l h a s becolae i n c r e a s i n g l y s o p h i s t i c a t e d .
Holy Innocent's e a r l i e r opponents--Jingle,
Seth Pecksniff--+sere,
Whereas t h e
f o r t h e most p a r t , i n d i v i d u a l o r i s o l a t e d evils, t h e
unabated.
J u s t as t h e s o c i a l and economic t h e o r i e s
c o n f l i c t with s o c i a l e v i l , h i s own
l i m i t a t i o n s i n v i s i o n , i n s i g h t , and s t r e n g t h .
The r e s u l t of such q u e s t i o n i n g
is an i n c r e a s i n g l y s o p h i s t i c a t e d and ambivalent a n a l y s i s , a s Dickens v a c i l l a t e s between h i s emphasis on t h e Holy Innocent's C h r i s t i a n values and major
symbolic f u n c t i o n s , and h i s growing r e c o g n i t i o n t h a t such t r a d i t i o n a l elements
have l o s t much of t h e i r former trenchancy.
As e a r l y a s
Nicholas
than any e x p l i c i t f a i l i n g i n t h e
Once a g a i n , t h e con-
L i t t l e ErPily's f a r e w e l l l e t t e r t o t h e Peggotty
family, f o r example, although p r i m a r i l y remorseful, expresses some d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n w i t h t h e l i f e of t h e f o o l community ("If he don't b r i n g m e back a
lady" 131, 4521); Richard Carstone i s l u r e d i n t o Chancery by t h e prospect of
unearned wealth; Pip longs f o r t h e p r i v i l e g e s of s o c i a l prominence.
I n i t i a l l y a t l e a s t , Dickens's a t t e n t i o n i s focussed on t h e e f f e c t s of
such r e j e c t i o n on t h e coxnmunity i t s e l f .
And t h e consequence of
I n Dickens's v i s i o n , however, t h e
r e - e s t a b l i s h e d and even extended (by t h e a d d i t i o n of t h e Xicawbere), i s f i g u r a t i v e l y reborn i n i t s eventual emigration, and, a s Martha's presence i n t h e
r e s u r r e c t e d family r e v e a l s , i t s v a l u e s have become s t r o n g e r .
Rosa D a r t l e ,
Richard Carstone, s p e c i f i c a l l y ,
the vain
Jarndyce's a n t i -
Pickwick
S l e a r y ' s c i r c u s , l i k e t h e innocent-hearted
f o o l communities of previous
...a
special
e,I , 6,
."
Even t h e i r a d v e r s a r i e s a r e s i m i l a r ,
c o n x u n i t i e s of p a s t n o v e l s , s o Jarndyce h i m s e l f , i n h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h
Harold Skimpole, is s u b j e c t e d t o s e r i o u s c r i t i c i s m .
I n Jarndyce's mind,
an i n n o c e n t c h i l d - l i k e
and o u t r i g h t c r u e l t y .
For example,
J a r n d y c e ' s r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h such a
Jarndyce i s , i n f a c t , as h i s explana-
t i o n f o r Skimpole's c h i l d i s h n e s s i n d i c a t e s , l a r g e l y r e s p o n s i b l e f o r h i s
dependent's c h a r a c t e r :
'Why,'
i s a l l s e n t i m e n t , and--and
His i n a b i l i t y ( o r r e f u s a l ) t o r e c o g n i z e t h e t r u t h about
is r e p r e s e n t a t i v e .
o n l y r e c o v e r s h i s f a i t h by t h e a s s u r a n c e t h a t Skimpole's a c t i o n s were t o t a l l y
without g u i l e .
. . . that
the
t a i n t e d h e r b e n e f a c t o r "because
. . . his
i s an uncommon c h a r a c t e r , and h e
has r e s o l u t e l y kept himself o u t s i d e t h e c i r c l e ' ' (37, 525), and Jarndyce hims e l f states, "the p l a i n t r u t h is, I have forsworn and abjured t h e whole
business t h e s e many y e a r s , and my s o u l i s s i c k of i t
. . ." (62,
842).
As
Pickwick's a c t i o n s d u r i n g and
a f t e r h i s F l e e t experiences a r e a s i g n of i n n a t e s t r e n g t h :
he emerges from
from h i s
Jarndyce, i n
c o n f r o n t a t i o n w i t h s o c i a l c o r r u p t i o n , "forswearing
s e r i o u s l y d e c l i n e s i n t h e d a r k e r novels.
William D o r r i t suc-
I p r o t e s t a g a i n s t any one of us h e r e
...
For although
in
s t r e n g t h , i t quickly
relaxed i n t o i t s usual weak condition. H e went round t o h i s
b r o t h e r with h i s o r d i n a r y s h u f f l i n g s t e p , put t h e hand on h i s
shoulder, and s a i d , i n a softened voice, 'William, my d e a r , I
f e l t obliged t o say i t ; f o r g i v e m e , f o r I f e l t obliged t o say it!'
and then went, i n h i s bowed way, o u t of t h e palace h a l l , j u s t a s
11, 5, 485-6)
he might have gone o u t of t h e Marshalsea room. (I&,
Torn between h i s own e t h o s and t h e demands of t h e m e r c a n t i l e world, t h e Holy
Innocent must ( i f he i s not t o f a l l i n t o F r e d e r i c k ' s enervated despondency)
make some accommodations.
exclaims, "Feelings!
I pass my
Walworth,
. . . c u t o u t and
Great Expectations p r e s e n t s a s u b t l e y e t s i g n i f i c a n t v a r i a t i o n on t h e
Pickwickian fool-type.
For while
I r o n i c a l l y , Dickens's
Erasinus s i m i l a r l y v i l i -
[LD, I ,
H i s i n t e r v i e w w i t h Miss Havisham, f o r
"'Which I mean-
s o s e l f - a s s u r e d i n h i s p e r s o n a l and p r o f e s s i o n a l power t h a t h e d i s d a i n s t o
l o c k h i s house a t n i g h t (25, 194), t h e lawyer, f o r t h e only time i n t h e
novel, f e a r f u l l y retreats b e f o r e an opponent h e cannot c o n t r o l o r i n t i m i d a t e .
Dickens does n o t emphasize t h e p o i n t , b u t t h e i m p l i c i t assumption i s t h a t
even t h e m a s t e r f u l Jaggers must f e a r J o e ' s r i g h t e o u s anger, and t h a t Joe
(alone among t h e n o v e l ' s major c h a r a c t e r s ) i s completely beyond J a g g e r s ' s
power, f r e e of t h e g u i l t and b a s e motives t h a t Jaggers e x p l o i t s t o achieve
domination over o t h e r s .
I n c o n t r a s t t o t h e image p a t t e r n s of g u i l t and c r i m i n a l i t y t h a t
an a l l u s i o n which i s a l s o suggested (though r a t h e r o b l i q u e l y ) when Joe recounts how he welcomed t h e i n f a n t Pip t o h i s home, saying, "And b r i n g t h e
poor l i t t l e c h i l d
. . . there's
( 7 , 44).
Joe's
. . . w e wouldn't
[S,
have
36]), and
an ar-nt
overlooking both
S p e c i f i c a l l y , he s e r v e s
rise i n h i s mind:
Joe" (54, 423).
t h e Cheerybles', o r t h e Midshipman's
c o n t r a s t , i s n o t without l i m i t a t i o n s .
Through t h e f o o l ' s d e c l i n e i n s o c i a l
Socially
t h e f o o l ' s c o n f r o n t a t i o n w i t h an e v i l i n c r e a s i n g l y centered i n
I f t h e s e i s s u e s are t o be
In
Our Mutual F r i e n d , t h i s i n t e r e s t i s now focussed on t h e Pickwickian f o o l hims e l f , and a l t h o u g h merely a p r e t e n s e , B o f f i n ' s p l a u s i b l y and p e r s u a s i v e l y
d e l i n e a t e d d e g e n e r a t i o n is t h e culmination of t h e l o n g c o l l a p s e of t h e Holy
I n n o c e n t ' s moral c h a r a c t e r .
Throughout t h e e v o l u t i o n of
( s u b t l y l i n k e d by t h e i r i n i t i a l s ) , f o r example, r e v e a l t h e
e s s e n t i a l difference.
own advantage.
of
p a r a l l e l s Boffin's pretense,
Twemlow,
...
The s t i l l more
I n t h e more
.................................
a l s o r e v e a l s a l a t e n t s u s c e p t i b i l i t y t o t h e morally c o r r u p t i n g temptations
of wealth and s o c i a l prominence:
....
...
In t h e d e s t r u c t i v e l y uninnocent world of t h i s
I n an
For, d e s p i t e
f o o l a t t h e z e n i t h of h i s r e g e n e r a t i v e c a p a c i t y , e f f e c t i n g a p o s i t i v e and
l a s t i n g transformation i n B e l l a ' s c h a r a c t e r .
The Boffins, l i k e w i s e , i n t h e i r
I n i t i a l l y r e v e a l i n g a form of s e l f - g r a t i f y i n g
t i v e and s e l f l e s s fashion.
Apparently l a c k i n g t h e con-
v i c t i o n t o o f f e r an u n s u l l i e d image of e i t h e r a l t e r n a t i v e - - d e c l i n e o r reassertion--Dickens
opted f o r a compromise.
Whatever a t t i t u d e
Simultaneously, however,
100
i t is equally c l e a r t h a t t h e moral values t h a t t h i s fool-figure i n c a r n a t e s ,
t h e p r i n c i p l e s and b e l i e f s necessary f o r t h e p r e s e r v a t i o n of a human community i n the midst of s o c i a l chaos and moral impoverishment, a s w e l l a s t h e
i n d i v i d u a l c h a r a c t e r s ' capacity f o r growth and maturation, have exerted a
powerful i n f l u e n c e throughout Mckens's f i c t i o n .
Dickens r e t u r n s t o t h e
often i n different
k.i
i
NOTES:
CHAPTER TWO
Ai-nt
h n Quixote, p. 936.
lo The World of Don Quixote (Cambridge, Mass. : Harvard U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s ,
1967), p. 127.
l1 '%ervantes
now
exclaims, "perhaps w e s h a l l f i n d t h e lady Dulcinea behind some hedge, disenchanted and a s p r e t t y a s a p i c t u r e " (937).
A C r i t i c a l Anthology,
p. 467.
16
C r i t i c a l Anthology, p. 55.
17
See a l s o J u l i a n Moynihan's
Charles Dickens:
p. 189.
Oxford U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1954).
l e e s f avourably
21
The P r a i s e of F o l l y , p. 212.
24 "How W
e Must Read Great Expectations," Dickens t h e Novelist. F. R. and
Q. D. Leavis (Hara~ondsworth: Penguin Books, 1970), p. 392 n, 11.
26 I b i d .
27
"me
U n i v e r s i t y of C a l i f o r n i a P r e s s ,
CHAPTER THREE
. . . wallowing
i n t h e l o w e s t d e p t h s of d e g r a d a t i o n and n e g l e c t :
a miserable
i s an e x p l i c i t s o c i a l propagandizing, an a p p e a l f o r a proper u n d e r s t a n d i n g
of t h e c a u s e s and n a t u r e of lunacy and a r e c o g n i t i o n of t h e l u n a t i c a s a
s u f f e r i n g fellow-human r e q u i r i n g sympathy and l o v e .
Smike i n Nicholas
M r . Dick's
. . . that,
combined w i t h h i s
- 14, 2 0 5 ) .
f e v e r " (DC,
("'Broom-handles
and pokers"')
- I, 9 , 101), is a
of age and "has never grown any o l d e r e v e r s i n c e " (LD,
similarly plausible figure.
one must wish dead," moreover, when removed from t h e i r dismal e a r l y environments, Smike, M r . Dick, and Maggy repay t h e i r b e n e f a c t o r s ' kindness with
a f f e c t i o n a t e devotion, making l i m i t e d b u t c o n s c i e n t i o u s e f f o r t s a t s e l f improvement and s e l f - r e l i a n c e .
Dickens s e e k s t o p r e s e n t h i s mental d e f e c t i v e s
w i t h c l i n i c a l accuracy, o f f e r i n g s c i e n t i f i c e x p l a n a t i o n r a t h e r than r e l i g i o u s
and f o l k s u p e r s t i t i o n , and s u g g e s t i n g more l o g i c a l and humane methods of
treatment.
A s an o u t c a s t , f u r t h e r m o r e , t h e l u n a t i c r e i t e r a t e s Dickens's use of t h e
Holy ~ n n o c e n ta s t h e moral a n t a g o n i s t of t h e l a r g e r s o c i e t y .
Although, l i k e
One of t h e
power of non-rational p e r c e p t i o n , t h e f o o l - l u n a t i c
a s t r a d i t i o n a l l y been
t h e n a t u r a l f o o l possesses c o n s i d e r a b l e thematic v e r s a t i l i t y .
The i n n a t e l y
is a longstanding a s p e c t of t h i s o t h e r fool-type;
even i n t h e e a r l y novels
Al-
greed, anger, s e l f -
h i s ambiguous p r o t e a n c h a r a c t e r i n c a r n a t e s t h e l a t e n t ambiva-
[47, 3561).
the clever,
i n f l u e n c e of t h e folk-fool,
f a i l s t o a p p r e c i a t e Barnaby's s u b t l e r o l e i n
Dickens's ambivalent s o c i a l v i s i o n :
....
This a n a l y s i s is i l l u m i n a t i n g y e t l i m i t e d .
I n a s s e r t i n g t h a t Dickens's r e f u s a l
H i s v i s i o n of Barnaby i s c o r -
demanded by t h e A r t h u r i a n f a b l e , b u t he i s i n t r i c a t e l y connected w i t h
Dickens's major theme.
...
I n c o n t r a s t t o t h e sane y e t o f t e n imperceptive
c h a r a c t e r s , h e p o s s e s s e s an i n t u i t i v e c a p a c i t y t o g r a s p e s s e n t i a l t r u t h .
express t h e t r u t h .
H i s i n s i g h t , more-
A s Welsford s t a t e s , t h e f o o l - l u n a t i c has t r a d i -
knowledge of t h e f u t u r e "5
'1
to
(6, 4 8 ) , and h i s c a p a c i t y t o "see" a tumultuous, menacing world l u r k i n g ben e a t h t h e s u r f a c e of r e a l i t y , symbolically f o r e t e l l t h e demonic energy w a i t i n g
t o be r e l e a s e d i n t h e r i o t s .
divinely-inspired
know? "')
,a
is i t t h a t they p l o t and h a t c h ?
remark c l e a r l y d i s c o n c e r t i n g t o t h e f a s h i o n a b l e knight:
Do you
'" These
(75, 574).
Like t h e
t h e d u l l men.
We're
Barnaby, i n e f f e c t , is both
t h e c r i t i c and a n t i t h e s i s of C h e s t e r ' s e t h o s :
'
F u r t h e r enhancing Barnaby's
q u e s t i o n of d i v i n e j u s t i c e .
Albany's p r a y e r ,
I f t h a t t h e heavens do n o t t h e i r v i s i b l e s p i r i t s
Send quickly down t o tame t h e s e v i l d e o f f e n c e s ,
It w i l l conre,
Humanity must p e r f o r c e prey on i t s e l f ,
Like monsters of t h e deep
(ZV. 2. 46-50)
(3, 28-9).
As Jamas K. G o t t s h a l l
an a c c u r a t e p i c t u r e . " 7
"The
Barnaby, i n f a c t , i n a world t o m by
"have q u i t e f o r g o t t e n such s m a l l heavenly c o n s t e l l a t i o n s a s C h a r i t y , Forebearance, Universal Love, and Mercy" (217), Barnaby--the
favoured c h i l d of God
and a r c h e t y p a l fool-seer--experiences
w i t h heaven.
In his
"The f o o l among
~
us is a p e r p e t u a l l i n k t o t h e l i g h t and t h e l i f e i n t h a t d a r k n e ~ s , " and
although o t h e r c h a r a c t e r s doubt heaven's j u s t i c e , Barnaby approaches t h e s c a f
f o l d hopefully:
now!''
( 7 7 , 595).
I n conjunction with h i s r o l e a s f o o l - s e e r , Barnaby i s a l s o a moral m i r r o r ,
r e f l e c t i n g t h e wisdom and f o l l y of o t h e r s .
Barnaby's r e l a t i o n s h i p with Lord Gordon, a f i g u r e who, a s Lindsay has suggested, i s a l s o derived from the f o o l tradition.''
Gordon's b e l i e f i n Barnaby's
unworldly,
Innocents.
. . . something i n f i n i t e l y
The t a i n t e d
"He t w i s t e d
t h e master,
and h i s p e r i o d i c outbreaks of v i o l e n c e f u r t h e r q u a l i f y h i s s t a t u s as a
Christian fool.
f i g u r e s peripher-
i n d i c a t e s t h e darker a s p e c t s
c o n t r i b u t i n g t o t h e c o r r u p t crusade with
equal violence:
Covered w i t h s o o t , and d i r t , and d u s t , and l i m e ; t h e i r garments
t o r n t o r a g s ; t h e i r h a i r hanging w i l d l y about them; t h e i r hands
and f a c e s jagged and b l e e d i n g w i t h t h e wounds of r u s t y n a i l s ;
Barnaby, Hugh, and Dennis h u r r i e d on b e f o r e them a l l [ t h e r i o t e r s ] ,
l i k e hideous madnen. A f t e r them, t h e dense throng c a m f i g h t i n g on:
some s i n g i n g , some s h o u t i n g i n triumph; some q u a r r e l l i n g among
themselves; some menacing t h e s p e c t a t o r s as they passed; some w i t h
him l i k e a madman.
Wo of t h e men l a y s t r e t c h e d a t h i s f e e t :
t h e one h e
( 5 7 , 439-40).
As the
H i s r e l i g i o u s z e a l o t r y and l i m i t e d
c o n t r i b u t i n g by h i s s e l f - d e l u s i o n t o t h e spreading t e r r o r :
i n g symbols of evil.
"This f l i g h t and
p u r s u i t , t h i s c r u e l burning and d e s t r o y i n g , t h e s e d r e a d f u l c r i e s and stunning n o i s e s , were they t h e good l o r d ' s noble cause!" (68, 524).
H e re-enters
..
the
As t h e t r a d i t i o n a l c l a i r v o y a n t f o o l , he f o r e t e l l s and e l u c i d a t e s t h e
f o r c e s of d e s t r u c t i o n t h a t u n d e r l i e h i s s o c i e t y .
f o r t h e rioters--innocent,
H e i s t h e standard-bearer
t h e i r symbolic counterbalance.
he is
t h e savagery t h a t h i s f o l l y i n i t i a t e s .
Barnaby, t h e ambiguous f o o l - l u n a t i c
rn~q
I*
w
1mnL
IIFN
I1
1
"The most g r a t e f u l , s i n g l e -
h e a r t e d , a f f e c t i o n a t e c r e a t u r e , t h a t e v e r breathed" (NN,
- 30, 386), Smike i s
a unique a d a p t a t i o n of a c l a s s i c character-type--the
servant-mentor.
He may
""
*@
rln
1
IIOYWIP
El
u:
5 t1
" t h e unhappy
s o Snike's p a i n s awaken
p a t e i n t h e s e " e v i l f o r c e s , " b u t t h e e v e r v i s i b l e e f f e c t s of h i s v i c t i m i z a t i o n
perform a s i m i l a r dramatic purpose.
opposing
mental-emotional s t a t e , b u t , i n v i r t u a l l y a l l h i s appearances, he r e p r e s e n t s
...
Who w i l l t a l k t o
'What f a c e s w i l l smile on me when I die!
me i n those long n i g h t s ! They cannot come from home; they would
f r i g h t e n me, i f they d i d , f o r I don't know what i t i s , and
s h o u l d n ' t know them. Pain and f e a r , pain and f e a r f o r me, a l i v e
o r dead. No hope, no hope!'
(8, 97)
Smike's v i s i o n , i n f a c t , warped by h i s childhood experience, seldom rises
above h i s obsession w i t h death; he escapes with Nicholas, vowing " t o go with
you--an-ere--everywhere--to
t h e world's end--to
159), and even t h e promise of a home w i t h Kate and M r s . Nickleby only inc r e a s e s h i s morbid s p e c u l a t i o n s :
' I could n o t p a r t from you t o go t o any home on e a r t h , ' r e p l i e d
Smike, p r e s s i n g h i s hand; 'except one, except one. I s h a l l never
be an o l d man; and i f your hand placed m e i n t h e grave, and I could
t h i n k , b e f o r e I d i e d , t h a t you would come and look upon i t sometimes
with one of your kind smiles, and i n t h e summer weather, when everyt h i n g was alive--not dead l i k e =--I could go t o t h a t home, almost
without a t e a r . '
'Why do you t a l k t h u s , poor boy, i f your l i f e i s a happy one with
me? ' s a i d Nicholas.
'Because I should change; not those about me. And i f they f o r g o t
ne, 2 should-never know i t , ' r e p l i e d Smike. ' I n t h e churchyard w e
a r e a l l a l i k e , b u t h e r e t h e r e a r e none l i k e me. I am a poor c r e a t u r e ,
b u t I know t h a t . ' (35, 443)
Even when accepted i n t o t h e l o v i n g household e s t a b l i s h e d by t h e Cheeryblea,
Smike i s d i s t r a u g h t by h i s confused f e e l i n g s towards Kate and h e r s u i t o r ,
Frank Cheeryble, and cannot f i n d peace ("Who was t h a t who, i n t h e s i l e n c e of
h i s own chamber, sunk upon h i s knees t o pray a s h i s f i r s t f r i e n d had taught
him, and f o l d i n g h i s hands and s t r e t c h i n g them w i l d l y i n t h e a i r , f e l l upon
h i s f a c e i n a passion of b i t t e r g r i e f ? " [ 4 3 , 5 6 6 ] ) , f o r , d e s p i t e t h e s o l i c i tous a t t e n t i o n s of h i s new family, Smike remains mentally paralysed, h i e
development a t r o p h i e d by h i s e a r l y e x p e r i e n c e of s u f f e r i n g .
Re-captured by
His
vanquished o r escaped.
The "dark cloud" which overhung Barnaby's l i f e and "never c l e a r e d away"
a f f irmed t h a t t h e f o o l ' s i n n a t e ambiguity would c o n t i n u e unabated; and,
a l t h o u g h V i r g i l G r i l l o i s c o r r e c t i n p o i n t i n g o u t t h a t Smike's symbolic r o l e
must end i n d e a t h , d e a t h i s n o t , p a r a d o x i c a l l y , t h e end of Smike's t h e m a t i c
effect.
The h o l y f o o l s d e f e a t t h e d a r k e r c h a r a c t e r s , and f u t u r e h a p p i n e s s is
I
I
I
capacity t o represent
c o n t r a d i c t o r y f o r c e s and e l e m e n t s , d i s p l a y i n g t h e f a i t h f u l d e v o t i o n and
n a t u r a l a f f e c t i o n of t h e Holy I n n o c e n t , a s w e l l a s t h e s u f f e r i n g , n e g l e c t , and
d e s p a i r t h a t c h a r a c t e r i z e t h e Squeers-Ralph Nickleby world.
While h e does n o t
i n t o t h e Cheeryble
community a l i v i n g symbol of t h e d e s t r u c t i v e f o r c e s r e i g n i n g i n t h e l a r g e r
foreshadows t h e more developed use of t h e f o o l - l u n a t i c i n
society--clearly
He s h a r e s t h e b a s i c function of counterbalancing s o c i a l
This p a t t e r n p e r s i s t s even a f t e r
Ostensibly, The
Chimes deals with Toby Veck's moral conversion, and while I do not question
Dickens's s i n c e r i t y , t h e work's f a c i l e conclusion, as a b r i e f account of
Toby's r e l a t i o n s h i p with t h e f o o l - l u n a t i c convention w i l l demonstrate, cannot
mask Dickens's deep-rooted doubts.
Like Barnaby, who "sees" t h e c o n f l i c t i n g impulses of h i s world r e f l e c t e d
i n clothes and moonlight, Toby "hears" s i m i l a r l y a n t i t h e t i c a l concepts i n t h e
peals of t h e church-bells.
T r o t t y ' s p s y c h o l o g i c a l - s p i r i t u a l a s s o c i a t i o n with
The
their relationship,
chimes "being connected w i t h any E v i l thing" (86), and t h e i r p e a l s sympatheti c a l l y echo h i s own hopefulness:
. . . Toby Veck,
Toby!
(90-1).
As Toby's
H e may
'Unnatural and
(117).
A s t h e c h i l d - s p i r i t s t a t e s , i n a passage p e r f e c t l y d e s c r i b i n g t h e
f o o l - l u n a t i c h i m s e l f , t h e phantoms of t h e B e l l s "take such shapes and occupat i o n s a s t h e hopes and thoughts of m o r t a l s , and t h e r e c o l l e c t i o n s they have
s t o r e d up, give them" (111, 125).
a s t h e Goblin of
t i o n of human e v i l (122-4),
t h e s e s p e c t r a l f i g u r e s , "ugly, handsome, c r i p p l e d ,
The v i s i o n of p a i n and d e s p e r a t i o n t h a t
m o r a l i t y b u t e x e r t i n g no s u b s t a n t i a l redemptive e f f e c t on t h e p e r v a s i v e
social evils.
Even w i t h o u t r e f e r e n c e t o t h e f o o l - l u n a t i c m o t i f , Michael
mi!!
rnl~rl%
On
J ur
.Irlil
Confirm-
more i n t r i c a t e l y connected w i t h t h e
I n such an i n n o v a t i v e metamorphosis, t h e f o o l - l u n a t i c s t i l l r e t a i n s
h i s e s s e n t i a l c a p a c i t y t o r e f l e c t c o n f l i c t i n g s o c i a l f o r c e s , b u t t h i s primary
f o o l - f u n c t i o n i s s u b t l y transformed, w h i l e t h e n a t u r a l f o o l h i m s e l f e v o l v e s
from a q u a s i - c o r r u p t p a r t i c i p a n t i n s o c i a l e v i l , t o an uncorrupt s a t i r i c
f i g u r e unconsciously parodying t h e world h e r e f l e c t s .
and t h e n
Both
"Fired w i t h a noble
I n g e n e r a l , t h i s motif o p e r a t e s a t two l e v e l s :
On
16
And T o o t ' s f o o l - l u n a t i c
though p r i m a r i l y enhancing h i s
H i s r e l a t i o n s h i p with the
p u g i l i s t i c Game Chicken, l i k e w i s e , c o n t i n u e s t h i s s a t i r i c a t t a c k ,
One might
Even w h i l e
il
nlrPH ,ii
RW.sr,
;2
s o c i a l a f f e c t a t i o n s and c o r r u p t i o n s .
''7
b
As n o t e d e a r l i e r , Toots i s an uncorrupt s o c i a l s a t i r i s t ; h i s u n w i t t i n g
l i n k s t o t h e Dombey world a r e d e r i v e d from t h e f o o l - l u n a t i c ' s
hi*
ma rsrb
mirroring
<
I*.
Toby's f o o l - n a t u r e s .
H i s r e c u r r e n t p h r a s e , "It's of no consequence," f o r
non-fools'
a s s e r t i o n t h a t t h e f o l l y of l o v e is indeed inconsequential--
Toots,
S p e c i f i c a l l y , u n l i k e o t h e r f o o l - l u n a t i c s , who, a l t h o u g h
T h i s i s n o t , of c o u r s e , a r a d i c a l t r a n s f o r -
'lull t
*dl
(32, 462)
Toots, t h u s , though d i s i l l u s i o n e d by t h i s b l e a k world, s h a r e s t h e Pickwickian
f o o l ' s r e s i l i e n c y , and, i n c o n t r a s t t o t h e non-imbecilic members of t h e Dombey
c l i q u e , e v e n t u a l l y r e c o g n i z e s t h e shallowness of h i s own f a s h i o n a b l e facade
and ambitions:
'Although I am very w e l l o f f , ' s a i d M r . T o o t s , w i t h energy, 'you
c a n ' t t h i n k what a m i s e r a b l e Beast I am. The hollow crowd, you
know, when they s e e me w i t h t h e Chicken, and c h a r a c t e r s of
d i s t i n c t i o n l i k e t h a t , suppose me t o be happy; b u t I ' m wretched.
I s u f f e r f o r M i s s Dombey, Captain G i l l s .
I c a n ' t g e t through my
meals; I have no p l e a s u r e i n my t a i l o r ; I o f t e n c r y when I ' m a l o n e . '
(464-5)
Although Toots h a s n o t l o s t h i s dominant comic q u a l i t i e s ( t h i s lament, f o r
example, b l e n d s s i n c e r e remorse w i t h a b u r l e s q u e of c h i v a l r i c d e v o t i o n ) , h i s
r e n u n c i a t i o n of t h e "hollow crowd" and t h e f a s h i o n a b l e Burgess and Co.,
indi-
He h a s become, i n f a c t , a s much
an a n t a g o n i s t a s a s a t i r i s t of t h e Dombey philosophy:
...
i s v a l u e l e s s w i t h o u t c o n t r i b u t i n g t o human w e l f a r e , M r . Toots r e v e a l s a
complete b r e a k w i t h t h e d i s t u r b i n g Dombey i n f l u e n c e s .
The s a t i r i c r e f l e c t o r
I n M r . Dick, i n f a c t ,
Some d e r i v e , i n p a r t , from
"
m a l i t y , f i n a l l y , a s w i t h many p r e v i o u s f o o l - l u n a t i c s ,
by r e d u c i n g h i s own
M r . D i c k ' s power t o r e f l e c t , s p e c i f i c a l l y , i n t r o d u c e s s t i l l
f u r t h e r v a r i a t i o n s on t h i s most p r o t e a n f o o l - f u n c t i o n ,
and h a s s i g n i f i c a n t
c o n n e c t i o n s t o Dickens's d e e p e s t p s y c h o l o g i c a l problems.
A s S t a n l e y Tick h a s
need t o e x p r e s s and e x o r c i z e
hCo
b ~ 4,m
18
,a#
dl YUl
(d n
i d i o t s u s c e p t i b i l i t y , r a t h e r t h a n r e f l e c t i n g ambiguity o r c o r r u p t i o n , becomes
1111
1
It
:Xi4
t h e f o u n d a t i o n of h i s spontaneous i n t u i t i v e sympathy:
He was by n a t u r e s o e x c e e d i n g l y compassionate o f any one who seemed
t o be ill a t e a s e , and was s o q u i c k t o f i n d any such person o u t ,
t h a t h e shook hands w i t h M r . Micawber, a t l e a s t half-a-dozen t i m e s
i n f i v e minutes. To M r . Micawber, i n h i s t r o u b l e , t h i s warmth, on
t h e p a r t of a s t r a n g e r , was s o extremely t o u c h i n g , t h a t h e c o u l d
o n l y s a y , on t h e o c c a s i o n of each s u c c e s s i v e shake, 'My d e a r s i r ,
you overpower me!'
Which g r a t i f i e d M r . Dick s o much, t h a t he went
a t it a g a i n w i t h g r e a t e r v i g o u r t h a n b e f o r e .
( 4 8 , 708, my i t a l i c s )
Unlike Barnaby o r Veck, whose f o o l - l u n a t i c n a t u r e r e f l e c t e d d i s r u p t i v e s o c i a l
c o n f l i c t s , M r . Dick i s s e n s i t i v e t o a n o t h e r ' s i n n e r p a i n , d i s p l a y i n g an
immediate s y m p a t h e t i c u n d e r s t a n d i n g of M r . W i c k f i e l d ' s d i s t r a u g h t e m o t i o n a l
s t a t e , and responding t o t h e wayworn David w i t h a h i g h l y s o p h i s t i c a t e d f u s i o n
of t h e Holy I n n o c e n t ' s humanity and t h e f o o l - l u n a t i c ' s
susceptible intuition.
s h o u l d wash him"
c h i l d i s h l y l i t e r a l , i s an i n s t i n c t i v e l y
Even i n t h a t l i t e r a l n e s s , moreover,
Edgar Johnson o b s e r v e s t h a t M r .
. . . to
A s David o b s e r v e s , " t h e r e i s
To
D e s p i t e t h e n o t e of condescension i n t h i s
I n h i s " r e a l attachment" t o
l i n k between them"
..
g r a n t s him a p r i v i l e g e d l i c e n s e :
..
' A poor f e l l o w w i t h
'Then, I have g o t i t , boy!' s a i d M r . Dick.
a craze, sir
a s i m p l e t o n , a weak-minded person--present company,
you know!' s t r i k i n g h i m s e l f a g a i n , 'may do what wonderful people may
n o t do. 1'11 b r i n g them t o g e t h e r , boy.
I ' l l t r y . T h e y ' l l n o t blame
...
me.
-
M r . Dick's a c t u a l i n t e r v e n t i o n i s r e l a t i v e l y s i m p l e ; l e a d i n g Annie i n t o t h e
D o c t o r ' s s t u d y where s h e k n e e l s b e s i d e h e r husband's c h a i r , M r . Dick merely
s t a t e s , "Doctor1
. . . What
i s i t t h a t ' s amiss?
Look here!":
'Annie!' c r i e d t h e Doctor.
'Not a t my f e e t , my dear!'
'Yes!' s h e s a i d .
'I beg and pray t h a t no one w i l l l e a v e t h e room!
Oh, my husband and f a t h e r , b r e a k t h i s l o n g s i l e n c e . L e t u s b o t h know
(657)
what i t i s t h a t h a s come between us!'
M r . Dick's
b r i e f speech, f u r t h e r m o r e , is perhaps l e s s t r a n s p a r e n t t h a n i t i n i t i a l l y
a p p e a r s (a q u a l i t y f r e q u e n t l y found i n t h e u t t e r a n c e s of t h e o r a c u l a r f o o l l u n a t i c ) , h i s s i m p l e comment "look here" i n d i c a t i n g b o t h "what i s amiss"
(Annie's sorrow) and t h e remedy (Annie's l o v e ) .
Throughout Dickens's p r e s e n t a t i o n of T o o t s ' s and M r . Dick's c h a r a c t e r ,
t h e n , t h e i r f o o l - l u n a t i c qualities--comedy,
function--complement
s a t i r e , m i r r o r i n g power, mnemonic
and s u p p o r t t h e i r moral r o l e s .
traditional
Unlike t h e d i v i n e
mystic i n s i g h t .
( E ,3,
33). a s e v e r e d e c l i n e
unconscious s u s c e p t i b i l i t y c a r r y t h e
-1
f o r i n s t a n c e , i s t h e s e n i l e Grandmother Smallweed, a t o t a l l y u n a t t r a c -
t i v e m a n i f e s t a t i o n of t h e f o o l - l u n a t i c m o t i f , whose vacuous g a r r u l i t y r e f l e c t s
b o t h h e r own t a i n t e d h i s t o r y and t h e c o r r u p t e t h o s of h e r s o c i a l m i l i e u :
""Ibenty
twenty
(21, 298).
func-
cannot c a l l
You y o u r s e l f wouldn't h e a r
Am I t o c a l l my own son-in-law,
Mister?"'
[15,
Her f o o l - l u n a t i c s u s c e p t i b i l i t y t o dominant
t h i n k t h e r e ' s a p a i n somewhere i n t h e
rampant i n t h e Gradgrind-Coketown s o c i e t y .
Although having v i r t u a l l y " a r r i v e d a t t h e p e r f e c t i o n of an a b s o l u t e
i d i o t , ' ' however, Mrs. Gradgrind i s s c a r c e l y a Dickensian d i v i n e i d i o t .
Her
In fact,
,[I, 8 ,
I 11
H e r whining s e l f - a b s o r p t i o n , however,
+ .
Her l i m i t e d i n t e l l i g e n c e ,
Among t h e most i n t e l l e c t u a l l y l i m i t e d of
of t h e Toots-Dick p a t t e r n .
20
u n i f i e d fool-lunatic/Holy
of a
Innocent motif i s f u r t h e r q u a l i f i e d by t h e d i s t u r b i n g
t h e unconscious spokesmen f o r d i s p a r a t e
M r . F ' s Aunt, untouched by any Holy Innocent q u a l i t i e s , r e p r e s e n t s and exp r e s s e s a l l t h e r a g e , a n g e r , and b i t t e r n e s s rampant i n L i t t l e D o r r i t ' s s o c i a l
world (Rigaud, Mrs. Clennam, F l i n t w i n c h , Miss Wade, Gowan, Tattycoram, Mrs.
General, and t h e Marshalsea i t s e l f a r e a l l r e f l e c t e d i n h e r u n a p p e a s i b l e
hatred).
21
s e r v e t o parody t h o s e d e s t r u c t i v e s o c i a l and p e r s o n a l f o r c e s , b u t t h e l a r g e r
e f f e c t o f h e r p r e s e n c e i n t h e work is f a r less comic.
Even the
Her f o o l - l u n a t i c s u s c e p t i b i l i t y , i n
p l i c a t e d ( f o r t h e f i g u r e ' s power t o r e f l e c t e x t e r n a l f o r c e s continues r e l a t i v e l y unimpaired from Barnaby t o M r . F's Aunt), and y e t more c e r t a i n ( f o r
t h e r e a r e no Boffin-like pseudo-restatements)
Pickwickian c o u n t e r p a r t .
of t h i s fool-type.
than t h e descent of h i s
LL
Simultaneously, i t
1 37
mind is s o l e l y possessed by f o r c e s of e v i l and c o r r u p t i o n .
Whatever t h e
p r e c i s e reason, t h e Dickensian i d i o t p l a y s a f a r l e s s c r u c i a l r o l e i n t h e
f i n a l n o v e l s , u l t i m a t e l y reduced, i n f a c t , t o a l i t e r a l l y p a r e n t h e t i c a l
appearance :
Betimes n e x t morning, t h a t h o r r i b l e old Lady Tippins ( r e l i c t of
t h e l a t e S i r Thomas Tippins, knighted i n mistake f o r somebody e l s e
by H i s Majesty King George t h e Third, who, w h i l e performing t h e
ceremony, w a s g r a c i o u s l y pleased t o observe, 'What, what, what?
Who, who, who? Why, why, why?') begins t o be dyed and varnished
f o r t h e i n t e r e s t i n g occasion.
(E,I , 1 0 , 118)
S t i l l r e f l e c t i n g and parodying the p e r v e r s e confusion of t h e non-fool world
without c o ~ r e h e n s i o n ,i n s i g h t , o r moral purpose, t h i s f i n a l f o o l - l u n a t i c
( a p p r o p r i a t e l y t h e u l t i m a t e l e a d e r of t h a t world) is t h e l o g i c a l culmination
of t h e Dickensian i d i o t convention.
NOTES:
CHAPTER THREE
F o o l s and Madmen."
End i n t h e Beginning
I can l o c a t e no p r e c i s e a n t e c e d e n t ' f o r t h i s f u n c t i o n .
L e a r ' s F o o l , who
( t h u s r e f l e c t i n g t h e c o n f l i c t i n g s o c i a l f o r c e s of t h e Lear
p. 104.
Probable Sources o f
"Devils Abroad:
moreover, a r e q u i t e s i m i l a r .
Both have r e d d i s h h a i r , l a r g e l u s t r o u s e y e s ,
Barnaby is c a l l e d
Hugh's w i l d n a t u r a l -
n e s s , s o c i a l i s o l a t i o n , r e b e l l i o u s n e s s , and c a u s t i c i n s i g h t a r e o f t e n a t t r i b u t e s of t h e t r a d i t i o n a l f o o l .
I
I.
connection t o t h e f o o l t r a d i t i o n .
Dickens's i n t e n t i o n i s f a i r l y complex.
15'
li!&
i n t e l l i g e n t and
il!l
! iy.
;Di
I 11
't
T h e i r wisdom i s u l t i m a t e l y r e v e a l e d a s a debased f o l l y t h a t l e a d s t o t h e i r
d e s t r u c t i o n , w h i l e Barnaby's f o l l y - - t h e
h i g h e r wisdom of love--is
The c o n t r a d i c t o r y n a t u r e of t h e f o o l - l u n a t i c ,
schematic i n t e r p r e t a t i o n .
h i s salvation.
however, c o m p l i c a t e s t h i s n e a t l y
By e x t e n d i n g t h e fool-metaphor
He n o t o n l y s t a n d s i n moral opposi-
t i o n t o such f i g u r e s , b u t s h a r e s t h e i r c o r r u p t i o n a s w e l l .
The l u n a t i c becomes,
C h a r l e s Dickens'
140
is
n o t a s m e n t a l l y d e f e c t i v e a s o t h e r r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of t h e Dickensian f o o l l u n a t i c motif.
H i s p o s i t i o n i n t h a t m o t i f , t h e n , r a i s e s an i n t e r e s t i n g
c r i t i c a l i s s u e , namely, t h a t w h i l e more t r a d i t i o n a l a s p e c t s of t h e f o o l a r e
o f t e n u s e f u l i n d i c a t o r s , t h e d i v i s i o n s i n Dickens's u s e of v a r i o u s f o o l - t y p e s
a r e o f t e n b e s t d e l i n e a t e d by t h e m a t i c f u n c t i o n .
C e c i l Palmer, 1 9 2 8 ) , p. 352.
U n i v e r s i t y of Georgia P r e s s ,
l 9 7 2 ) , p. 43.
Even Bunsby, however, a l t h o u g h a comic parody of t h e f o o l - l u n a t i c ,
n o t w i t h o u t some r e l a t i o n s h i p t o t h e n o v e l ' s t h e m a t i c concerns.
pronouncements, coming from a "voice w i t h i n him
. . . quite
is
H i s oracular
independent of
And i t i s not i n c o n c e i v a b l e
penetrates
l7 Novels of t h e E i p h t e e n - F o r t i e s ,
p. 192.
Holy Innocent
N i n e t e e n t h Century F i c t i o n , 19 (1964-5),
33-44,
p r e s e n t s t h e most i l l u m i n a t i n g
d i s c u s s i o n of t h i s c h a r a c t e r and h e r f u n c t i o n s , even r e l a t i n g h e r t o t h e
t r a d i t i o n of t h e t r u t h - t e l l i n g "babes and madmen" ( 3 7 ) ; my own b r i e f d i s c u s s i o n
is, i n p a r t , i n d e b t e d t o Wilde's a n a l y s i s .
22 It might b e argued t h a t J o e Gargery i s s u f f i c i e n t l y simple-minded t o b e
regarded a s a Dickensian f o o l - l u n a t i c .
e v e r , t h e unconscious r e f l e c t i o n o f e x t e r n a l i n f l u e n c e s , i s completely l a c k i n g ,
while J o e ' s p r i n c i p a l fool-functions
(as n o t e d i n t h e p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r ) more
p a t e r n a l i s t i c f i g u r e who c o u n t e r b a l a n c e s s o c i a l c o r r u p t i o n through h i s
adherence t o C h r i s t i a n v a l u e s .
f o o l - t y p e s should be c l a s s i f i e d , e s s e n t i a l l y , by f u n c t i o n .
CHAPTER FOUR
From t h e morally i n c o r r u p t i -
This p a r t i c u l a r r o l e
Dismissing Dickens's
argued, and a v a r i e t y of f a c t o r s ( i n v o l v i n g t h e c r e d i b i l i t y of t h e
Dickensian f o o l and t h e t r u e importance of t h a t f i g u r e ' s symbolic q u a l i t i e s )
need f a r g r e a t e r c l a r i f i c a t i o n .
I n p a r t , f o r example, one must acknowledge t h a t ~ i c k e n s ' s emphasis on
childhood's moral c l a r i t y and imagination d e r i v e s from h i s i n t e n s e r e a c t i o n
a g a i n s t two p r e v a l e n t V i c t o r i a n p h i l o s o p h i e s :
f i r s t , t h e C a l v i n i s t i c doc-
(E, I ,
3, 9 ) .
both t h e f a c t t h a t i n Dickens's view those w i t h "most b r a i n " t o o o f t e n rej e c t e d any r e l i g i o u s p r i n c i p l e s , and t h a t t h e c h i l d ' s s p e c i a l s p i r i t u a l power,
f a r from being a V i c t o r i a n i n n o v a t i o n , goes back ( a s David Copperfield acknowledges) t o t h e o r i g i n s of C h r i s t t a n i t y i t s e l f :
Dickens may e r r i n t h e o p p o s i t e d i r e c t i o n
A s noted i n my c h a p t e r on t h e
Pickwickian character-type,
t h e c h i l d - l i k e a d u l t f o o l , t h e man ( o r woman)
L o g i c a l l y , t h i s motif i s
t r i n i t y , as
On t h e one hand,
H i s symbolic
\I
XY
#I
c a l l y r e a l i s t i c f o o l ) a c t u a l l y t h r e a t e n h i s symbolic n a t u r e .
On t h e o t h e r
Occasionally, t h i s e f f o r t g i v e s r i s e t o
s t i l l g r e a t e r d i f f i c u l t i e s , y e t i t a l s o produces ( a l b e i t , o f t e n i n a t e n t a t i v e
form only) a p o s s i b l e r e s o l u t i o n , f i n a l l y merging i n c r e a s e d psychological
r e a l i s m and symbolic values.
li
i s t h e i d e a l r e l a t i o n s h i p i n which t o t r a c e t h e s e p a r t i c u l a r concepts.
1.
Even a s Dickens p r e s e n t s t h i s
These r e l a t i o n s h i p s a r e a complex
c h i l d and t h e f o o l form a union of shared innocence and mutual a f f e c t i o n l i n k i n g them i n t o a f i r m p e r s o n a l and moral bond; while, a s William Willeford's
The Fool and H i s S c e p t e r i n d i c a t e s ( s e e Chapter One of t h e p r e s e n t t h e s i s ) ,
t h e b a s e f o o l and t h e a n g e l i c p r i n c e s s c o n s t i t u t e a s i m i l a r personal-thematic
coalescence.
For j u s t a s t h e
f o o l f a l t e r s i n h i s c o n f l i c t w i t h t h e f o r c e s of darkness, s o even h i s d e a l i n g s
w i t h v i r t u o u s y e t "normal" human beings ( t h a t i s , t h o s e moral c h a r a c t e r s a t
a recognizably h i g h e r i n t e l l e c t u a l plane than t h e simple-minded o r simplesouled f o o l ) a r e f r e q u e n t l y f r a u g h t w i t h embarrassment and unease f o r both
c h a r a c t e r - t y p e s , a f a c t c l e a r l y i l l u m i n a t i n g Dickens's own i m p l i c i t reservat i o n s about h i s f o o l - f i g u r e s .
realism, r e v e a l s s i g n i f i c a n t i n t r i n s i c l i m i t a t i o n s ; and t h e t e n s i o n s t h a t
r e s u l t from t h e f o o l ' s romantic and s e x u a l d e s i r e s , t h e p a i n and f r u s t r a t i o n
engendered by h i s awareness of h i s mental and s o c i a l i n f e r i o r i t y r e p r e s e n t
a f u r t h e r major t h r e a t t o t h e Holy I n n o c e n t ' s i d e a l n a t u r e .
The e a r l i e s t example o f Dickens's e f f o r t s t o probe i n t o t h e Holy I n n o c e n t ' s
psyche, N i c h o l a s Nickleby's Smike a l s o p r e s e n t s t h e most extreme image of t h e
m e n t a l l y and s o c i a l l y i n f e r i o r f o o l ' s anguished self-awareness.
Compare, f o r
"How o f t e n , on t h e i r journey,
d i d t h e widow remember w i t h a g r a t e f u l h e a r t , t h a t o u t of h i s d e p r i v a t i o n
Barnaby's c h e e r f u l n e s s and a f f e c t i o n sprung!
How o f t e n d i d s h e c a l l t o mind
The f o o l - l u n a t i c Smike,
i n c o n t r a s t , responding t o h i s c r i p p l e d i n t e l l e c t , can e x p e r i e n c e o n l y a n
overwhelming s e n s e of f r u s t r a t e d i n f e r i o r i t y and i s o l a t i o n .
A s Miss La
Creevy n o t e s ,
' I am s u r e t h a t s i n c e h e h a s been h e r e , h e h a s grown, from some
s t r o n g c a u s e , more c o n s c i o u s of h i s weak i n t e l l e c t . H e f e e l s i t
more.
It g i v e s him g r e a t e r p a i n t o know t h a t h e wanders sometimes,
I have watched him
and cannot understand v e r y simple t h i n g s .
s i t brooding by h i m s e l f , w i t h such a look of p a i n as I could
s c a r c e l y b e a r t o s e e , and t h e n g e t up and l e a v e t h e room: s o
s o r r o w f u l l y , and i n such d e j e c t i o n , t h a t I cannot t e l l you how i t
h a s h u r t me. Not t h r e e weeks ago, h e was a l i g h t h e a r t e d busy
c r e a t u r e , overjoyed t o b e i n a b u s t l e , and a s happy a s t h e day was
long. Mow, h e i s a n o t h e r being--the same w i l l i n g , h a r m l e s s ,
f a i t h f u l , l o v i n g c r e a t u r e - - b u t t h e same i n n o t h i n g e l s e . ' (38, 487)
...
Whereas Barnaby l a c k s any profound connections w i t h t h e normal world t o illumi n a t e h i s d e p r i v a t i o n , Smike, responding t o p r e c i s e l y such a " s t r o n g cause,''
namely, h i s f u t i l e d e v o t i o n t o Kate Nickleby, becomes p a i n f u l l y "more conscious
of h i s weak i n t e l l e c t . "
On t h e o t h e r hand,
r e l a t i o n s h i p a r e s u b j e c t e d t o a more r i g o r o u s p s y c h o a n a l y t i c
examination, t h e r e g e n e r a t i v e g l o r y of t h e t r a n s c e n d e n t v i s i o n i s s u b v e r t e d
by t h e f o o l ' s unavoidable i n f e r i o r i t y .
Commenting on Smike's d e c l i n e ,
know
"Who w a s t h a t who, i n t h e
and t h e p r i n c e s s , g e n e r a t i n g "a p a s s i o n of b i t t e r g r i e f
," s i g n i f i e s
t h e un-
Steven Marcus s u g g e s t s
t h a t "Smike d i e s l i t e r a l l y because h e h a s never been loved and cannot withs t a n d an e x p e r i e n c e of l o v e , 114 b u t h i s argument does n o t do j u s t i c e t o t h e
complexity of t h e problem t h a t Dickens d i s c o v e r s , and i t i s Smike's t o r t u r e d
p e r c e p t i o n t h a t t h e b a s e f o o l i s f o r e v e r prevented from s h a r i n g f u l l human
l o v e i n a l o v i n g family group t h a t engenders h i s d e c l i n e .
Dickens, however, a l t h o u g h c l e a r l y i d e n t i f y i n g t h i s c e n t r a l problem, i s
not y e t prepared t o confront a l l i t s implications.
For a l l t h e p s y c h o l o g i c a l
Even h i s d e a t h , whatever i t s t h e m a t i c o r
And i n o r d e r t o f u l l y con-
s i d e r t h e f e a s i b i l i t y of a p s y c h o l o g i c a l l y c r e d i b l e , s y m b o l i c a l l y powerful
Holy I n n o c e n t , Dickens must e x p l o r e t h e s e i s s u e s i n more n e a r l y normal Holy
I n n o c e n t s performing s i g n i f i c a n t moral r o l e s .
I)l
'f
+I
i
I
ir
t h e f o o l ' s r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h t h e p r i n c e s s o p e r a t e s a t a s t r i c t l y thematicsymbolic l e v e l .
On t h e one
1
I.
I
r e l i g i o u s devotion t o t h e d i v i n e Nell.
On t h e o t h e r hand, t h i s marriage i s
t o a more normal f i g u r e i n
. . . a bright
s e x u a l f e e l i n g s would be abhorrent:
N e l l remains "the b r i g h t
. . . to
(69, 520).
Even
e s s a y s , t h e p o t e n t i a l l y d i s r u p t i v e impulses g e n e r a t e d by t h e g u l f between
t h e f o o l and t h e p r i n c e s s a r e c a r e f u l l y p a l l i a t e d :
'Once, I c o u l d n ' t h e l p b e i n g a f r a i d t h a t i f s h e came back w i t h
f r i e n d s about h e r s h e might f o r g e t , o r b e ashamed of having
known, a humble l a d l i k e me, and s o might speak c o l d l y , which
would have c u t m e , Barbara, deeper t h a n I can t e l l . But when
I came t o t h i n k a g a i n , I f e l t s u r e t h a t I was doing h e r wrong
i n t h i s ; and s o I went on, as I d i d a t f i r s t , hoping t o s e e h e r
once more, j u s t a s s h e used t o be.'
(520)
A t t h e s t r i c t l y t h e m a t i c l e v e l a t which t h e Nell-Kit r e l a t i o n s h i p e x i s t s , t h e
t r a n s c e n d e n t v i s i o n t h a t i n s p i r e s t h e f o o l ' s l o v e is beyond any d i s t u r b i n g
impulses o r f r u s t r a t i o n s :
(520).
am g r a t e f u l t o h e r f o r i t , and l o v e
[7]) c o n s t a n t l y s t r e s s i n g h i s i n n a t e i n f e r i o r i t y , i s a q u e s t i o n r e q u i r i n g
further elucidation.
h i s c o n f l i c t w i t h d u p l i c i t y and e v i l w i t h o u t s a c r i f i c i n g h i s i n n a t e innocence
and goodwill, Tom occupies a c e n t r a l p o s i t i o n i n Martin Chuzzlewit's moral
structure.
I
I
Tom's simple-hearted
H i s innocent r e j o i n e r t o Martin's s e l f -
r e p r e s e n t s a d i r e c t s a t i r i c a t t a c k on t h a t
...
D i a m e t r i c a l l y opposed t o t h e s o r t of c a l l o u s e g o c e n t r i c i t y t h a t M a r t i n embod-
t a u g h t them
( 9 2 ) , a motif c o n s t a n t l y
reiterated:
No s l i g h t c i r c u m s t a n c e , p e r h a p s , could have b e t t e r i l l u s t r a t e d t h e
d i f f e r e n c e i n c h a r a c t e r between John Westlock and M a r t i n Chuzzlewit,
t h a n t h e manner i n which e a c h of t h e young men contemplated Tom
Pinch
There was a c e r t a i n amount of j o c u l a r i t y i n t h e looks
of b o t h , no doubt, b u t t h e r e a l l resemblance ceased. The o l d p u p i l
could n o t do enough t o show Tom how c o r d i a l l y h e f e l t towards him,
and h i s f r i e n d l y r e g a r d seemed of a g r a v e r and more t h o u g h t f u l k i n d
t h a n b e f o r e . The new one, on t h e o t h e r hand, had no impulse b u t t o
laugh a t t h e r e c o l l e c t i o n of Tom's extreme a b s u r d i t y ; and mingled
w i t h h i s amusement t h e r e was something s l i g h t i n g and contemptuous,
i n d i c a t i v e , a s i t appeared, of h i s o p i n i o n t h a t M r . Pinch was much
t o o f a r gone i n s i m p l i c i t y t o b e admitted a s t h e f r i e n d , on s e r i o u s
and e q u a l terms, of any r a t i o n a l man.
(12, 203-4)
....
Old M a r t i n , l i k e w i s e , " d i s g u s t e d by what i n h i s s u s p i c i o u s n a t u r e h e c o n s i d e r ed a shameless and fulsome puff of M r . P e c k s n i f f , " r e g a r d s Tom a s "a d e c e i t f u l ,
s e r v i l e , m i s e r a b l e fawner," and y e t cannot h e l p b u t f e e l some m i s g i v i n g s ,
" f o r h e had f e l t k i n d l y towards Tom a t f i r s t , and had been i n t e r e s t e d by h i s
seeming s i m p l i c i t y " ( 2 4 , 390).
self-
b l i n d e d m a l i c e i s r e v e a l e d when h e l u d i c r o u s l y i n t e r p r e t s Tom's g u i l e l e s s
c h a r a c t e r i n terms of h i s own m i s t r u s t f u l cunning:
"'I've
h e a r d something
my r e l a t i o n s , b u t t o l e a v e t h e c o u r s e c l e a r " '
(391).
Dickens, f u r t h e r m o r e ,
Tom's i n n a t e v i r t u e :
t h e t e a r s w e r e i n h i s e y e s ; f o r he s a i d t h a t Tom, m i s t r u s t e d and d i s l i k e d by
him a t f i r s t , had come l i k e summer r a i n upon h i s h e a r t ; and had disposed i t
t o b e l i e v e i n b e t t e r t h i n g s " (52, 808-9).
steadfast belief
"Remem-
t a i n e d by Tom's u n f l a g g i n g d e v o t i o n :
"'Without t h e s i l e n t c a r e and f r i e n d -
But
(31, 490).
Together, t h e f o o l and t h e p r i n c e s s c o n s t i t u t e a
mutually r e i n f o r c i n g symbolic u n i t y t h a t f u r t h e r c o u n t e r b a l a n c e s t h e s o c i a l
w o r l d ' s widespread h y p o c r i s y and shallowness.
Although Tom's symbolic r o l e s a r e s t r o n g l y d e l i n e a t e d , however, t h a t
" l u r k i n g something" i n h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h Mary Graham g e n e r a t e s c o n s i d e r a b l e a r t i s t i c and t h e m a t i c d i f f i c u l t y .
"'
A s Martin p a i n t s a glowing p o r t r a i t of
...
F r u s t r a t e d i n h i s one s e r i o u s l o v e a f f a i r and s e x u a l
rescued from h i s s e l f - t o r m e n t .
A s S t e i g s u g g e s t s , t h e n , Dickens's e l a b o r a t e
of course
i t must n o t b e r e s e n t f u l , j e a l o u s , o r envious":
10
. . . an
u n c r e a t i v e 'solace"'
stewart correctly
If
Denied any a c t i v e o u t l e t
f o r h i s energy o r d e s i r e s ( e s p e c i a l l y t h o s e p o t e n t i a l l y d i s r u p t i v e i m p u l s e s ) ,
Tom must b e s a f e l y r e l e g a t e d t o a l o v i n g and untroublesome c e l i b a c y i n which,
Dickens i n s i s t s , t h e r e i s no p a i n o r g r i e f , "God be thanked."
Tom Pinch, t h e n , b r i n g s t h e problem of t h e f o o l ' s psychosexual r e a l i t y
t o a r a t h e r u n s a t i s f a c t o r y y e t perhaps i n e v i t a b l e conclusion.
A s a counter-
b a l a n c e t o t h e p r e v a i l i n g v i c e s of h i s s o c i e t y , s y m b o l i c a l l y r e p r e s e n t i n g
t h e redemptive innocence needed t o r e v i v i f y i t s s t a g n a n t moral s e n s e , t h e
Holy Innocent i s a s u c c e s s f u l f i g u r e .
A s a simple-hearted c h a r a c t e r who c a n
g a i n a s t r o n g e r , more i n s i g h t f u l p e r c e p t i o n from h i s c o n f l i c t w i t h e v i l , t h e
Holy Innocent r e p r e s e n t s a s o p h i s t i c a t e d image of Dickens's e t h o s .
And y e t ,
as a p s y c h o l o g i c a l l y b e l i e v a b l e f o o l - f i g u r e whose s e x u a l and a g g r e s s i v e
e n e r g i e s must b e f o r c i b l y subdued i n t h e normal world, Tom, a t t h e n o v e l ' s
end, must p l a y h i s f u t i l e l y e l e v a t e d organ i n s o l i t u d e .
e v e n t u a l w i f e , can only laughingly regard him a s "the devotedest and innocentest i n f a n t " (56, 780) i n whom s e x u a l f e e l i n g s a r e u t t e r l y unexpected:
But i n s t e a d of walking up s t a i r s , t h e b o l d Toots [ a c t i n g on t h e advice
of t h e Game Chicken t o c o n c i l i a t e Susan] made an awkward plunge a t Susan
when t h e door was s h u t , and embracing t h a t f a i r c r e a t u r e , k i s s e d h e r
on t h e cheek.
'Go along with you!' c r i e d Susan, ' o r 1'11 t e a r your eyes o u t . '
' J u s t another!' s a i d M r . Toots.
'Innocents
'Go along w i t h you!' exclaimed Susan, g i v i n g him a push.
l i k e you, too! Who'll begin n e x t ? Go along, S i r ! ' ( 2 2 , 316)
Toots's c h i v a l r i c d e c l a r a t i o n s of love a r e made e q u a l l y l u d i c r o u s :
'Captain G i l l s , ' s a i d M r . Toots, g e s t i c u l a t i n g v i o l e n t l y w i t h t h e
hand i n which he h e l d h i s h a t , 'Admiration i s n o t t h e word. Upon my
honour, you have no conception what my f e e l i n g s a r e . I f I could be
dyed b l a c k , and made M i s s Dombey's s l a v e , I should consider i t a
compliment. I f , a t t h e s a c r i f i c e of a l l my p r o p e r t y , I could g e t
r e a l l y t h i n k I should
transmigrated i n t o Miss Dombey's dog--1-1
never l e a v e o f f wagging my t a i l . ' ( 3 9 , 545)
The poignant s e l f - e f f a c i n g a t t i t u d e of Tom, o r t h e d e p a i r i n g torment of Smike
a r e completely a b s e n t , Dickens's new emphasis on t h e comic elements i n Toots's
hopeless devotion defending a g a i n s t t h e i n n e r pathos of t h e Holy Innocent's
p a i n f u l self-awareness.
(62, 876).
Toots's r e l a t i o n s h i p with
. . . t h e most
But, on
o c c a s i o n , Dickens's e f f o r t s t o d i m i n i s h t h e p o t e n t i a l p a i n i n M r . T o o t s ' s
s o r r o w f u l awareness of h i s p e r s o n a l l i m i t a t i o n s through t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n of
incongruous comic elements o r c h i v a l r i c m o t i f s cannot o b s c u r e t h e deeper
reality:
And g e n t l e M r . Toots, who wanders a t a d i s t a n c e , l o o k i n g w i s t f u l l y
towards t h e f i g u r e t h a t he d o t e s upon, and h a s followed t h e r e , b u t
cannot i n h i s d e l i c a c y d i s t u r b a t such a time, l i k e w i s e h e a r s t h e
requiem of l i t t l e Dombey on t h e w a t e r s , r i s i n g and f a l l i n g i n t h e
l u l l s of t h e i r e t e r n a l madrigal i n p r a i s e of Florence. Yes! and he
f a i n t l y u n d e r s t a n d s , poor M r . Toots, t h a t t h e y a r e s a y i n g something
of a time when he was s e n s i b l e of b e i n g b r i g h t e r and n o t addleb r a i n e d ; and t h e t e a r s r i s i n g i n h i s eyes when h e f e a r s t h a t h e i s
d u l l and s t u p i d now, and good f o r l i t t l e b u t t o b e laughed a t ,
diminish h i s s a t i s f a c t i o n i n t h e i r s o o t h i n g reminder t h a t h e i s
r e l i e v e d from p r e s e n t r e s p o n s i b i l i t y t o t h e Chicken, by t h e absence
of t h a t game head of p o u l t r y i n t h e c o u n t r y , t r a i n i n g ( a t T o o t s ' s c o s t )
(41, 577)
f o r h i s g r e a t m i l l w i t h t h e Larkey Boy.
The sudden appearance of t h a t "game head of p o u l t r y " somewhat d e f l a t e s t h e
impact of T o o t s ' s i n n e r pathos (a s a d n e s s p e r f e c t l y r e a l i s t i c ) , b u t does n o t
J u s t a s Toots i s p a i n f u l l y aware of h i s p e r s o n a l l i m i t a t i o n s ,
eliminate it.
i n h e r d i s t r e s s w i t h o u t a t e a r f u l smile" (35, 506), becomes a t e n t a t i v e prop o s a l of m a r r i a g e , F l o r e n c e ' s r e a c t i o n i s immediately one of shock and embarrassment:
"'Oh,
alarmed and d i s t r e s s e d .
c r i e s F l o r e n c e , f o r t h e moment q u i t e
S t o p , i f you p l e a s e .
(581).
As
I b u r s t o u t l a u g h i n g f i r s t , and t h e n I choked"'
(18, 2 5 0 )
This
its implications.
A s a r e s u l t , h e employs an i n t r i g u i n g compromise, p r e s e n t -
On t h e o t h e r hand, t h e
F r e q u e n t l y , of c o u r s e , t h e f o o l ' s p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h t h e c h i l d
--Toots,
...
v i c t i m s of t h e n o n - f o o l / u n c h i l d - l i k e
Both c h a r a c t e r - t y p e s a r e o f t e n t h e
f o r c e s i n t h e i r s o c i a l world, and t h e i r
I n several varia-
t i o n s on t h i s p a t t e r n , however, t h e t h e m a t i c c o n n o t a t i o n s a r e s e r i o u s l y
q u a l i f i e d by some d i s r u p t i v e p e r s o n a l f e e l i n g s .
Though h a r d l y i n d i c a t i v e of any deep-rooted ambivalence, t h e l a u g h t e r of
s t a t i o n and p e r s o n a l q u a l i t i e s .
Walter Gay, f o r
Dombey would
During t h e i n t e r v i e w , l i k e w i s e , Walter i s
Walter, n e v e r t h e l e s s , i s s u r e l y n o t g u i l t y of c a l l o u s n e s s i n h i s unexpressed
d i s c o m f o r t o v e r C u t t l e ' s p r e s e n c e ; f o r a l l h i s warm-hearted s u p p o r t and
symbolic c o n t r a s t t o Dombey, C u t t l e i s an u n q u e s t i o n a b l y l i m i t e d f i g u r e t o t a l l y o u t of p l a c e among h i s i n t e l l e c t u a l s u p e r i o r s .
with
"In
A s noted
Equally s i g n i f i c a n t , David i s a q u a s i - a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l
For t h a t m a t t e r , Dickens i s
13
almost P e c k s n i f f i a n i n h i s s e n t i m e n t a l l y p a t r o n i z i n g a d d r e s s e s t o Tom Pinch,
a p a t t e r n r e c u r r i n g i n h i s condescending a p o s t r o p h e s t o Twemlow ("Ah,
Twemlow!
to-day"
my
[OMF,
David's b e l i t t l i n g r e s p o n s e
t o t h e i n n o c e n t Tommy T r a d d l e s , f o r i n s t a n c e , c l e a r l y s i g n i f i e s h i s s t i l l
immature moral s e n s i t i v i t y :
a d m i t t e d t o myself t h a t s h e seemed t o be a n e x c e l l e n t k i n d of
g i r l f o r T r a d d l e s , too.
(41, 602)
w h i l e Dickens's o t h e r a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l p e r s o n a , P i p , d i s p l a y s a s i m i l a r l y
s l i g h t i n g condescension.
d e p i c t i o n s of p r i d e c o n t i n u e t o i l l u m i n a t e t h e awkward p o s i t i o n of s i m p l i c i t y
i n t h e normal world.
f e e l i n g s , b u t t h e r e a d e r c l e a r l y o b s e r v e s t h e f o o l ' s l a c k of s t a t u s even i n
t h e minds of t h o s e a f f e c t i o n a t e l y disposed towards him, and may j u s t l y specu l a t e on T r a d d l e s ' s p a i n had h e known David's unexpressed opinion.
Dickens
h i m s e l f e v i d e n t l y s h a r e s t h i s s p e c u l a t i o n , and i n h i s f i n a l v e r s i o n of t h e
f o o l - c h i l d r e l a t i o n s h i p , he d i r e c t l y c o n f r o n t s J o e ' s and P i p ' s p a i n f u l recogn i t i o n t h a t t h e d i s t a n c e between t h e Holy Innocent and t h e normal world i s
indeed impassable
know I
(13, 95), P i p s a y s of
unaware of Walter's d i s c o m f o r t and Dombey's d i s d a i n , J o e ( l i k e P i p ) i s painf u l l y conscious of P i p ' s ambivalent f e e l i n g s and h i s own i n n a t e l i m i t a t i o n s :
By doing b o t h ,
Dickens t h u s e x t e n d s t h e c e n t r a l concerns of t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p , i n t e n s i f y i n g
i t s t h e m a t i c import.
Regardless of c l a s s c o n s i d e r a t i o n s , p a i n and f r u s t r a t i o n
c e r t a i n r e s u l t s of t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p , t h e c l e a r e s t s i g n i n h i s w r i t i n g s t h a t
t h e e f f o r t t o a s s i m i l a t e t h e Holy Innocent i n t o t h e normal world i s doomed
t o failure.
Like C u t t l e , J o e i s a symbolic c o u n t e r b a l a n c e t o s o c i a l c o r r u p t i o n , h i s
Christian values representing Pip's salvation.
And y e t , i n h i s s e v e r e l y res-
t r i c t e d scope, h i s l a c k of a m b i t i o n , s o c i a l and i n t e l l e c t u a l l i m i t a t i o n s , i s
h e a n a p p r o p r i a t e model f o r P i p t o emulate?
A s A. E. Dyson n o t e s , "Pip i s
no Tom Pinch o r Tim Linkinwater; nor was Dickens, who t o some degree i d e n t i f i e s himself w i t h Pip. "I5 Both Dickens and P i p a r e i n t e l l i g e n t and a m b i t i o u s ,
and, w h i l e v a l u i n g J o e ' s innocence, b o t h a r e f u l l y conscious of h i s l i m i t a tions.
t h e y a r e n o t worth t h e e f f o r t .
t o be a g r e a t n o v e l i s t ?
Suppose h e wanted
Even i n t h e e a r l y
I n a l a t e r n o v e l , where t h i s problem i s e x p l o r e d
Betsey a c c e p t s M r . Dick i n t o
knows what t h a t
Even when
David's and
The r e a l i s t i c
The f o o l ' s f u t i l e
I n l i g h t of t h i s accumulation of i n n a t e weaknesses, t h e e f f e c t i v e -
i n d e t e r m i n a t e s o c i a l p o s i t i o n , s e n t i m e n t s s h a r e d by t h e r e a l i s t i c Dickensian
Holy I n n o c e n t , who, f o r e v e r i s o l a t e d by h i s i n t r i n s i c s o c i a l and mental
l i m i t a t i o n s , cannot t r u l y f u l f i l l Dickens's primary moral purposes.
2.
The Child-Fool
f o o l proves i n s u f f i c i e n t ,
dis-
through t h e agency of y e t
open t o r e c o n c i l i a t i o n .
devel-
I n t h e c h i l d - f o o l m o t i f , t h i s p r o c e s s i s p l a c e d on a f i r m e r b a s i s ,
and t h e p r e s e r v a t i o n of t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s c h i l d - l i k e o r f o o l - l i k e q u a l i t i e s
i n t o adulthood through a p r o c e s s of moral e d u c a t i o n t r a v e r s e s t h e g u l f between
t h e f o o l and t h e normal world by forming a m u t u a l l y r e i n f o r c i n g union of
p s y c h o l o g i c a l r e a l i s m and symbolic v a l u e s .
I n one s e n s e , i t might b e argued t h a t Dickens circumvents r a t h e r t h a n
resolves the question:
t h e c h i l d - f o o l e n a b l e s Dickens t o avoid c o n f r o n t i n g
I n t h e e v o l u t i o n of t h e c h i l d - f o o l m o t i f , n o n e t h e l e s s , Dickens
a disrup-
I n c o n t r a s t t o t h e s t e a d i l y d e c l i n i n g Pickwickian and l u n a t i c
f o o l s , t h e more v e r s a t i l e c h i l d - f o o l
(with h i s g r e a t e r c a p a c i t y f o r
Deriving h i s i n s p i r a t i o n f o r t h e c h i l d ' s s p e c i a l s p i r i t u a l i t y j o i n t l y
. . . From
because he dreams "so much of Heaven, and Angels, and k i n d faces" ( 7 , 49);
t h e " r u s t l i n g of an Angel's wings" a t t e n d s t h e d e a t h of C h a r l e s and Lucie
Darnay's young son i n A T a l e of Two C i t i e s (11, 21, 201); P a u l Dombey i s
g r a n t e d a v i s i o n of C h r i s t ; and "a whisper went about" a t L i t t l e N e l l ' s
f u n e r a l " t h a t s h e had s e e n and t a l k e d w i t h a n g e l s " (72, 5 4 3 ) , w h i l e , a s t h e
n o v e l ' s f i n a l i l l u s t r a t i o n i n d i c a t e s , s h e i s borne i n t o Heaven by a n g e l s a s
child-like as herself.
t h e human and t h e d i v i n e
Dickens's moral v i s i o n .
i s e v e r , i n t h e mass, b e t t e r , t r u e r , h i g h e r , n o b l e r , q u i c k e r t o f e e l , and
much more c o n s t a n t t o r e t a i n , a l l t e n d e r n e s s and p i t y , s e l f - d e n i a l and
d e v o t i o n , t h a n t h e n a t u r e of men" (3, 27).
J u s t a s t h e Pickwickian f o o l
The s p e c t r a l f i g u r e i n
- 29,
upon h e r noble head, seemed s c a r c e l y of h e r a g e , o r of t h e world" (OT,
212).
C o p p e r f i e l d ' s "child-wife,"
Dora, f o r i n s t a n c e , i s a somewhat s t r a i n e d r e p r e -
s e n t a t i v e of t h i s m o t i f ) , b u t f i g u r e s l i k e N e l l , F l o r e n c e , and Amy D o r r i t ,
d e s p i t e t h e animus of v a r i o u s c r i t i c s , e x e r t a s i g n i f i c a n t symbolic-moral
e f f e c t , which, l i k e t h a t of t h e a m e l i o r a t i v e s p i r i t s i n Jenny Wren's f a n t a s y v i s i o n , i s o v e r t l y messianic:
' I f you have s e e n t h e p i c t u r e - g a l l e r y of any one o l d family, you
w i l l remember how t h e s a m e f a c e and f i g u r e - - o f t e n t h e f a i r e s t and
s l i g h t e s t of them all--come upon you i n d i f f e r e n t g e n e r a t i o n s ;
and how you t r a c e t h e same sweet g i r l through a l o n g l i n e of
p o r t r a i t s - - n e v e r growing o l d o r changing--the Good Angel of t h e
race--abiding by them i n a l l reverses--redeeming a l l t h e i r sins--'
(E,69, 524)
i s immediately m a n i f e s t .
. . . in
inexperience,"
A s Sherman H. Eoff
I n c o n t r a s t t o t h e s e c u l a r e t h o s of an a g n o s t i c
Steven
t h a t t h e world i s s o
t r i n i t y i s n o t one
I n f a c t , when t h i s p a r t i c u l a r motif i s t r a n s l a t e d
T h i s e x p l o r a t i o n f o l l o w s complex and o f t e n c o n t r a -
d i c t o r y l i n e s of development, a f f i r m i n g and q u e s t i o n i n g t h e c h i l d - f o o l
s i ~ r m l t a n e o u s l y . I n o r d e r t o comprehend t h e f u l l n a t u r e of t h e problem and
i t s r e s o l u t i o n , w e must c o n s i d e r t h e c h i l d - f o o l ' s
p l a y s t h e r 6 l e t h a t c h i l d r e n p l a y elsewhere i n Dickens's f i c t i o n
. . the
For t h e c h i l d ' s r e l a t i o n -
r o l e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y h i s r o l e a s t h e t r u t h - t e l l i n g onlooker s e p a r a t e from t h e
c o r r u p t s o c i a l ( o r a d u l t ) world.
Dickens l a t e r acknowledges t h a t a d e p r i v e d
in
N e l l T r e n t and O l i v e r Twist a r e t h e a r c h e t y p e s o f t h e Dickensian c h i l d f o o l , t h e i r moral wisdom d i r e c t l y stemming from t h e i r immature innocence and
outcast position.
F i r s t , acknowledging t h e b i b l i c a l p r e c e p t t h a t wisdom o f t e n
In Little N e l l ,
"Nature o f t e n e n s h r i n e s
God b l e s s h e r , i n female
A l i e n a t e d from t h e c o r r u p t
Lying a t t h e h e a r t of h i s p a r t i c -
t r u e s p i r i t u a l homeland--the
Maylies--from
which he i s p h y s i c a l l y i s o l a t e d , i s i n t u r n an e x p l i c i t image
of t h e h o l y f o o l ' s a n t i - s o c i e t y ,
s o c i a l order.
however, h e r e t a i n s h i s h i g h e r s p i r i t u a l l i n k s t o i t , and i s t h u s m o r a l l y
s e p a r a t e d from t h e world i n which h e t r u l y e x i s t s .
The i r o n i c n a t u r e of
c h i l d of love" who p r e s e r v e s h i s c a p a c i t y f o r l o v e i n t h e l o v e l e s s y e t l e g a l
The s u b t l e s i m i l a r i t i e s
s o c i e t y and t h e Brownlow-Maylie
between F a g i n ' s a n t i -
f o o l community, i n f a c t , h o l d c o n s i d e r a b l e
spirit.
(9, 6 2 ) , w h i l e " a t o t h e r times t h e o l d man would t e l l them s t o r i e s o f robberies h e had committed i n h i s younger days:
175
The l o g i c of
O l i v e r ' s symbolic r o l e , however, i n e l u c t a b l y demands t h a t h e embrace a community honouring t h o s e " b e t t e r f e e l i n g s , " and a l t h o u g h F a g i n ' s s e d u c t i v e
a n t i - s o c i e t y can d e l i g h t O l i v e r ' s r e p r e s s e d emotions and p r o v i d e a r e f u g e
from t h e l a r g e r s o c i e t y , i t cannot f u l f i l l t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s of t h a t l a r g e r
symbolic p a t t e r n .
Confronting t h e c h i l d - s a i n t ' s
s p i r i t u a l powers and t h e
s t i m u l a t e t h o u g h t s of c o r r u p t i o n (e.g.,
t h e h i s t o r y of infamous c r i m i n a l s )
produce t h e o p p o s i t e e f f e c t on t h e m o r a l l y s e n s i t i v e c h i l d - f o o l :
"In a
....
"It
That
v a l u e s , b u t i f t h o s e v a l u e s can b e main-
Even w h i l e e x p r e s s i n g a l a r g e p a r t
I n a r e v e r s a l of t h e Pickwickian m o t i f ,
The novel
idealized nature,
Even a s o p h i s t i c a t e d psychosexual i n t e r -
a r e u n d e n i a b l e , however, t h e s e c h a r g e s do l i t t l e t o i l l u m i n a t e t h e n o v e l ' s
t o t a l meaning, and, i n f a c t , do a s e r i o u s i n j u s t i c e t o t h e t r u e c o m p l e x i t i e s
and s o p h i s t i c a t i o n of Dickens's v i s i o n .
t h e e v o l u t i o n of t h e c h i l d - f o o l ,
I f we c o n s i d e r N e l l a s one s t a g e i n
advancing t h e p a t t e r n s developed i n O l i v e r
pervasive indebtedness
t o King
ear. 24
Dickens' s contemporary, F r a n c i s J e f f r e y , s u g g e s t e d t h a t
I n l i g h t of
Throughout King L e a r ,
"holy water" f a l l s
an e x p l i c i t
N e l l ' s quasi-
r e l i g i o u s n a t u r e , a l r e a d y b r i e f l y d i s c u s s e d , i s e q u a l l y dominant, h e r image
11
a b i d i n g by them i n a l l reverses--redeeming
Her g r a n d f a t h e r , i n f a c t , r e g a r d s
"Foolish Nell"
( 1 , 7) s h a r e s h i s b a s i c d r a m a t i c f u n c t i o n s , a s s u a g i n g h e r g r a n d f a t h e r ' s s e l f b l i n d i n g mania.
...
' A d r e a d f u l , h o r r i b l e dream.
More o f t e n , of c o u r s e , i t i s
N e l l ' s g r a n d f a t h e r , l i k e w i s e , responding t o
h i s redemptive Cordelia-Fool,
t h o s e m i s e r i e s had made h e r .
(Lear
-9
embrace t h e n a t u r e of t h e h o l y f o o l .
poor, t h o u g h t l e s s , v a c a n t creature--a
Once a g a i n , d e s p i t e t h e obvious d i f f e r -
illuminating.
........
3. 8-18)
I n Dickens's v e r s i o n of t h i s s c e n e , N e l l ' s g r a n d f a t h e r d e s c r i b e s a s i m i l a r l y
p r o t e c t e d Edenic r e t r e a t :
'We w i l l , ' answered t h e o l d man, 'we w i l l t r a v e l a f o o t through
t h e f i e l d s and woods, and by t h e s i d e of r i v e r s , and t r u s t ourL e t us s t e a l
s e l v e s t o God i n t h e p l a c e s where He d w e l l s
away tomorrow morning--early and s o f t l y , t h a t w e may n o t b e s e e n
o r heard--and l e a v e no t r a c e o r t r a c k f o r them t o f o l l o w by.
Poor N e l l ! Thy cheek i s p a l e , and t h y eyes a r e heavy w i t h watching
and weeping f o r me--1 know--for m e ; b u t thou w i l t b e w e l l a g a i n ,
and merry t o o , when we a r e f a r away. To-morrow morning, d e a r ,
w e ' l l r u m o u r f a c e s from t h i s s c e n e of sorrow, and b e a s f r e e and
happy as t h e b i r d s . ' (12, 94)
....
N e i t h e r p a s t o r a l , however, i s s e c u r e from t h e d e s t r u c t i v e e f f e c t s of l a r g e r
s o c i a l and p e r s o n a l f o r c e s .
w i t h an unwarranted r o s e a t e v i s i o n , b u t , i n t h e h i s t o r y of N e l l , h e c o n f r o n t s
t h i s theme d i r e c t l y , acknowledging t h e grimmer f a c t s of L e a r .
Even t h e notor-
f a t h e r , and
"Look a t them,"
(29, 223).
Such
ell's s u r v i v a l .
3. 254)
. . . The
cause i s t o o good a
. . . finds herself,
t o p r e v e n t h e r s u r v i v a l . "26
a s d i d C o r d e l i a , i n a world o r g a n i z e d
O l i v e r was r e q u i r e d t o r e t a i n h i s moral i s o l a t i o n
i n a h o s t i l e s o c i a l m i l i e u u n t i l h e a t t a i n e d h i s t r u e s p i r i t u a l home--an
i s o l a t e d community s e c u r e from c o r r u p t i n g f o r c e s .
from London's " i n t e r m i n a b l e
..
. black
towers, n e v e r c e a s i n g i n t h e i r b l a c k
vomit, b l a s t i n g a l l t h i n g s , l i v i n g o r i n a n i m a t e , s h u t t i n g o u t t h e f a c e of
day, and c l o s i n g i n on a l l t h e s e h o r r o r s w i t h a dense b l a c k cloud'' (45, 336),
a l s o s e e k s t o d i s c o v e r an e d e n i c r e t r e a t .
But, w h i l e Providence p r o t e c t s
The
an i s s u e l a r g e l y
Nell's grandfather
Even t h e r u r a l r e t r e a t , however, i s n o t f a r
t r u e s p i r i t u a l home f o r t h e i d e a l i z e d c h i l d -
approachable o n l y through d e a t h .
Dickens's e a r n e s t d e v o t i o n t o
t h e a n g e l i c c h i l d u n q u e s t i o n a b l y produces s e n t i m e n t a l e f f u s i o n s , b u t h i s
conscious r e c o g n i t i o n t h a t t h e moral c o n f l i c t can have b u t one l o g i c a l outcome c l e a r l y s u g g e s t s some s i g n i f i c a n t growth i n h i s mature i n s i g h t .
While q u a l i f y i n g t h e
u n r e a l i t y of O l i v e r Twist, Nell's d e a t h l y r e t r e a t i s b u t a n o t h e r v a r i a t i o n
on t h e f o o l ' s r e t r e a t from r e a l i t y , r e c a l l i n g Smike's d e c l i n e and P i n c h ' s
e n f o r c e d c e l i b a c y , and Dickens must s t i l l s e e k t o p r e s e r v e t h e c h i l d ' s
s p e c i a l s p i r i t u a l powers a s a c e n t r a l element i n h i s moral v i s i o n , w h i l e
e n s u r i n g t h a t t h i s a p p a r e n t l y d e f e n s e l e s s f i g u r e remains an i n t e g r a l p a r t of
human m o r a l i t y i n t h e r e a l world.
assume d i v e r s e forms.
The i d e a l i z e d q u a l i t i e s of O l i v e r and N e l l ( i n t h e i r
A t t h e same time, t h e
''
She i s an i m p o r t a n t moral a g e n t , s h a r i n g t h e a f f e c t i o n
F l o r e n c e , i n f a c t , might b e con-
s i d e r e d a k i n d of g e n t l e r S t u l t i t i a , t h e h e a r t ( l i t e r a l l y and f i g u r a t i v e l y )
of t h e n o v e l ' s f o o l - f o r c e s ,
i n whose s e r v i c e a l l t h e o t h e r f o o l - f i g u r e s - -
C u t t l e , Toots, P a u l , Susan--act,
i n d i f f e r e n t ways, a s b e n e f a c t o r s o r d i s c i p l e s .
A t one l e v e l , P a u l c o n t i n u e s t h e p a t t e r n
...
That i n e f f a b l y "old-fashioned"
...
q u a l i t y i n h i s c h a r a c t e r i s o l a t e s him from h i s
a complex amalgam of f o o l - f u n c t i o n s :
They were t h e s t r a n g e s t p a i r a t such a time t h a t e v e r f i r e l i g h t shone
upon. M r . Dombey s o e r e c t and solemn, gazing a t t h e b l a z e ; h i s l i t t l e
image, w i t h an o l d , o l d f a c e , p e e r i n g i n t o t h e r e d p e r s p e c t i v e w i t h t h e
f i x e d and r a p t a t t e n t i o n of a sage. M r . Dombey e n t e r t a i n i n g complicated
w o r l d l y schemes and p l a n s ; t h e l i t t l e image e n t e r t a i n i n g Heaven knows
power of s a t i r i c r e -
f l e c t i o n , u n w i t t i n g l y parodying h i s f a t h e r ' s a r r o g a n t c h a r a c t e r :
gave abundant promise of b e i n g imperious i n a f t e r - l i f e ;
. . . in
" H i s temper
and h e had as h o p e f u l
J u s t a s Toots's
i m b e c i l i c b u r l e s q u e s of t h e s o c i a l world d e f l a t e d i t s c u l t u r a l p r e t e n s i o n s ,
s o Paul's c h i l d i s h self-importance
('"No,
I won't,'
r e p l i e d P a u l , composing
P a u l i s n o t , however, a n o t h e r
d e s t r u c t i v e power, a t t e m p t s t o p e n e t r a t e i t s d i s t o r t e d v a l u e s , p r i n c i p a l l y ,
i n h i s c o n f r o n t a t i o n s w i t h h i s f a t h e r and Mrs. P i p c h i n , i t s d i s t o r t e d a t t i x u d e s
towards l o v e .
a r e b l i n d t o genuine a f f e c t i o n , b a s i n g t h e i r p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s on f e e l i n g s
c o r r u p t e d by o t h e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n s .
P a u l , who s e e k s t h e l o v e t h a t h i s world
d e n i e s , i n s t i n c t i v e l y a t t e m p t s t o comprehend t h e u n d e r l y i n g b a s i s of t h e
Dombey-Pipchin p e r v e r s i o n .
Such a con-
n e c t i o n between c h i l d and f o o l p o s s e s s e s a f i r m b a s i s i n t h e h i s t o r y of t h e
f o o l t r a d i t i o n ; "Children & f o o l e s they s a y can n o t l [ y ] , " and l i k e t h e
i n n o c e n t s a t i r i s t i n t h e legend of t h e Emperor's New C l o t h e s , t h e c h i l d o f t e n
s h a r e s t h e debunking v i s i o n of t h e l i c e n s e d c o u r t j e s t e r :
'Papa! w h a t ' s money?'
The a b r u p t q u e s t i o n had such immediate r e f e r e n c e t o t h e s u b j e c t
o f M r . Dombey's t h o u g h t s , t h a t M r . Dombey was q u i t e d i s c o n c e r t e d .
'What i s money, P a u l ? ' he answered, 'Money?'
'Yes,' s a i d t h e c h i l d , l a y i n g h i s hands upon t h e elbows of h i s l i t t l e
c h a i r , and t u r n i n g t h e o l d f a c e up towards M r . Dombey's; 'what i s money?'
M r . Dombey was i n a d i f f i c u l t y . He would have l i k e d t o g i v e him some
e x p l a n a t i o n i n v o l v i n g t h e terms circulation-medium, c u r r e n c y ,
d e p r e c i a t i o n of c u r r e n c y , p a p e r , b u l l i o n , r a t e s of exchange, v a l u e of
p r e c i o u s metals i n t h e market, and s o f o r t h ; b u t l o o k i n g down a t t h e
l i t t l e c h a i r , and s e e i n g what a l o n g way down i t was, h e answered:
"Gold, and s i l v e r , and copper. Guineas, s h i l l i n g s , half-pence.
You
know what t h e y a r e ? '
'Oh y e s , I know what t h e y a r e , ' s a i d Paul.
'I d o n ' t mean t h a t , Papa.
I mean what's money a f t e r a l l ? ' (92)
Unlike L e a r ' s Fool, P a u l h a s no conscious i n t e n t i o n of e d u c a t i n g h i s unenl i g h t e n e d f a t h e r , b u t h i s u n t u t o r e d q u e s t i o n s , s e e k i n g a d e f i n i t i o n of money
t h a t i s o u t s i d e t h e scope of Dombey's thoughts and language, r e p r e s e n t a
similar s a t i r i c attack:
'Why d i d n ' t money s a v e me my Mama?' r e t u r n e d t h e c h i l d .
'It i s n ' t
c r u e l , is i t ? '
'Cruel!' s a i d M r . Dombey, s e t t l i n g h i s n e c k c l o t h , and seeming t o
r e s e n t the idea.
'No. A good t h i n g c a n ' t b e c r u e l . '
' I f i t ' s a good t h i n g , and can do a n y t h i n g , ' s a i d t h e l i t t l e f e l l o w ,
t h o u g h t f u l l y , a s h e looked back a t t h e f i r e , ' I wonder why i t d i d n ' t
s a v e m e my Mama. ' ( 9 3)
P a u l ' s c o n f u s i o n , a p e r p l e x i t y t h a t n e i t h e r O l i v e r nor N e l l could s h a r e , a l s o
p r e s e n t s a more s u b t l y d e f l a t i n g comment:
(93).
Whereas ~ o r n b e y ' s p e r v e r t e d
world-view i s f u r t h e r
Dickens employs an i d e n t i c a l
thematic alter-egos:
A t t h i s exemplary o l d l a d y , Paul would s i t s t a r i n g i n h i s l i t t l e
arm-chair by t h e f i r e , f o r any l e n g t h of time. H e never seemed t o
know what w e a r i n e s s was, when he was l o o k i n g f i x e d l y a t M r s . P i p c h i n .
H e was n o t fond of h e r ; he was n o t a f r a i d of h e r ; b u t i n t h o s e o l d ,
o l d moods of h i s , s h e seemed t o have a g r o t e s q u e a t t r a c t i o n f o r him.
There he would s i t , l o o k i n g a t h e r , and warming h i s hands, and l o o k i n g
a t h e r , u n t i l h e sometimes q u i t e confounded Mrs. P i p c h i n , Ogress a s
s h e was. Once s h e asked him, when they were a l o n e , what h e w a s t h i n k i n g
about.
'You,' s a i d P a u l , w i t h o u t t h e l e a s t r e s e r v e .
'And what a r e you t h i n k i n g about me?' asked Mrs. Pipchin.
' I ' m t h i n k i n g how o l d you must b e , ' s a i d P a u l .
'You mustn't s a y such t h i n g s a s t h a t , young gentleman,' r e t u r n e d
t h e dame. ' T h a t ' l l n e v e r do. '
'Why n o t ? ' asked Paul.
'Because i t ' s n o t p o l i t e , ' s a i d Mrs. P i p c h i n , s n a p p i s h l y .
'Not p o l i t e , ? ' s a i d Paul.
'No. '
'It's n o t p o l i t e , ' s a i d P a u l , i n n o c e n t l y , ' t o e a t a l l t h e muttonchops and t o a s t , Wickam s a y s . '
P a u l i s l i k e l y unaware of t h e s e f a c t s , b u t h i s
own e x p e r i e n c e of emotional s t a g n a t i o n h e i g h t e n s h i s s e n s i t i v i t y t o t h e
s t r a i n e d atmosphere of Mrs. P i p c h i n ' s e s t a b l i s h m e n t :
'How can you a s k such
'Why!' r e t u r n e d t h e d i s c o n c e r t e d o l d lady.
t h i n g s , S i r ! why a r e you fond of your s i s t e r Florence?'
' ~ e c a u s es h e ' s v e r y good,' s a i d Paul.
' T h e r e ' s nobody l i k e F l o r e n c e . '
'Well!' r e t o r t e d M r s . P i p c h i n , s h o r t l y , 'and t h e r e ' s nobody l i k e me,
I suppose.'
' A i n ' t t h e r e r e a l l y though?' asked P a u l , l e a n i n g forward i n h i s c h a i r ,
and l o o k i n g a t h e r v e r y h a r d .
'No,' s a i d t h e o l d lady.
' I am v e r y g l a d of t h a t , ' observed P a u l , rubbing h i s hands t h o u g h t f u l l y .
' T h a t ' s a v e r y good t h i n g . '
Mrs. P i p c h i n d i d n ' t d a r e t o a s k him why, l e s t s h e s h o u l d r e c e i v e some
p e r f e c t l y a n n i h i l a t i n g answer.
(137)
A s F. R. Leavis s u g g e s t s , P a u l ' s p e n e t r a t i n g q u e s t i o n s touch t h e core of
. . she
r e l i e s w i t h u t t e r c o n v i c t i o n on devoted
...
Although t h e emotional
P a u l ' s more p r e c o c i o u s f o o l - f u n c t i o n s ,
i n f a c t , the sharp
b a r b s h u r l e d a g a i n s t h i s moral a n t a g o n i s t s , q u e l l i n g t h e d e s p o t i c M r s . P i p c h i n
( h e r s e l f a "child-cjueller"
cent Mr.
T h i s s a t i r i c power may
b e l a r g e l y u n w i t t i n g , b u t i t i n t r o d u c e s an added dimension t o t h e c h i l d - f o o l ,
d i s t i n g u i s h i n g P a u l from t h e b l a n d e r c h a r a c t e r s of O l i v e r and N e l l , and pres a g i n g t h e c o n s c i o u s l y c a u s t i c w i t and i n t e l l i g e n c e of Jenny Wren.
Other i n n o v a t i o n s developed i n Dombey and Son a l s o c o n t i n u e t o i n f l u e n c e
Dickens's u s e o f t h e c h i l d - f o o l .
Although P a u l s h a r e s p a r t of t h e u n r e a l i t y
of N e l l and O l i v e r , e s p e c i a l l y i n h i s r e v e r i e s about d e a t h , h i s i n n e r l i f e
i s more l u c i d l y a n a l y s e d w i t h i n c r e a s e d emphasis on t h e p s y c h o l o g i c a l e f f e c t s
of an e m o t i o n a l l y s t u n t e d childhood.
T h i s p a t t e r n n a t u r a l l y produces a g r e a t -
e r concern w i t h t h e d e s t r u c t i v e impact of s o c i a l f o r c e s on t h e v u l n e r a b l e
c h i l d , and s e v e r a l of Dickens's l a t e r c h i l d r e n ( n o t a b l y , J o , t h e Smallweeds,
Tom Gradgrind, and Charley Hexam) a r e i n t e l l e c t u a l l y o r morally damaged by
such f o r c e s . 30 The importance of t h e morally s e n s i t i v e c h i l d - f o o l i n Dickens's
e t h o s n o n e t h e l e s s remains i n t a c t , and t h e works s u c c e e d i n g Dombey and Son cont i n u e h i s e f f o r t s t o combine r e a l i t y and romance, s t r e n g t h of c h a r a c t e r and
symbolic q u a l i t i e s , i n a u n i f i e d f i g u r e .
Once a g a i n , t h e s e e f f o r t s a r e n o t
Like F l o r e n c e ' s , even S i s s y ' s more symbolic r o l e s p o s s e s s some s i g n i f i cance, i m p a r t i n g added f o r c e t o t h e n o v e l ' s moral c o n f l i c t s .
I n a world
"child's"
imagina-
M r . Gradgrind i s s i m i l a r l y d e f e n s e l e s s a g a i n s t S i s s y ' s f o o l - n a t u r e ,
weapons f a l l i n g e q u a l l y powerless:
h i s usual
. . . he
R a t h e r , a s Gradgrind ack-
p l i c a b l e s u p e r n a t u r a l b e i n g t h a n a r e a l i s t i c c h i l d whose symbolic q u a l i t i e s
have a l e g i t i m a t e p s y c h o l o g i c a l b a s i s .
C l e a r l y , Dickens i s s u g g e s t i n g t h a t
c h i l d - f o o l ' s s a t i r i c mode.
Like t h e c o n f l i c t be-
Comparing t h e schoolroom t o a n a t i o n
i s t h e o n l y response of a f o o l t o a q u e s t i o n i n v o l v i n g
Sissy, defining
i s t h e f i r s t p r i n c i p l e of t h i s s c i e n c e ? '
...
[55]), s h a r e s t h e
( t o g e t h e r w i t h h e r avowedly C h r i s t i a n n a t u r e ) s t r e n g t h e n s h e r connection w i t h
t h e s a t i r i c child-fool.
S i s s y ' s more d i f f i d e n t
a t t i t u d e c e r t a i n l y obscures t h i s f a c t , b u t h e r e q u a l l y d e f l a t i n g r e s p o n s e s
t o M'Choakumchild and Gradgrind, i n c o n t r a s t t o P a u l ' s e x c l u s i v e l y i n t u i t i v e
animus, d e r i v e from h e r firmly-held moral b e l i e f s , and t h u s e x p r e s s h e r cons c i o u s ( i f somewhat t i m i d ) o p p o s i t i o n t o t h e u t i l i t a r i a n s c h o o l of thought.
S i s s y may n o t e q u a l t h e F o o l ' s b r i l l i a n t and d e l i b e r a t e l y s a r d o n i c w i t , b u t
h e r s a t i r i c t h r u s t s seem on o c c a s i o n t o b e b u t one s t e p away from i n t e n t i o n a l :
' I a m almost ashamed,' s a i d S i s s y , w i t h r e l u c t a n c e .
'But to-day,
f o r i n s t a n c e , M r . M'Choakumchild was e x p l a i n i n g t o u s about N a t u r a l
Prosperity.'
' N a t i o n a l , I t h i n k i t must have been have b e e n , ' s a i d L o u i s a ,
' Y e s , i t was.--But i s n ' t i t t h e same?' s h e t i m i d l y asked.
'Then M r . M'Choakumchild s a i d h e would t r y m e once more.
h e s a i d , Here a r e t h e s t u t t e r i n g s - '
' S t a t i s t i c s , ' s a i d Louisa.
'Yes, M i s s Louisa--they always remind me of s t u t t e r i n g s .
And
. . .'
(57)
Dickens's d e p i c t i o n of h e r c h a r a c t e r r e p r e s e n t s a continued
advance i n t h e r e a l i t y of h i s c h i l d - f o o l s ,
p r o g r e s s i n g from t h e mythic N e l l
t o a f i g u r e whose v a l i d p s y c h o l o g i c a l b a s i s , r a t h e r t h a n undermining h e r
symbolic-thematic f u n c t i o n s , a c t u a l l y enhances t h e d r a m a t i c e f f e c t i v e n e s s of
those fool-roles.
I n Dickens's e f f o r t s t o f i n a l l y r e s o l v e t h e s e fundamental q u e s t i o n s of
r e a l i t y v e r s u s romance, p s y c h o l o g i c a l depth v e r s u s mythic symbolism,
Our
A s p i r i t u a l c h i l d - f o o l whose t h e m a t i c r o l e s l i n k h e r w i t h Dickens's
Jenny i s n o n e t h e l e s s a c h a r a c t e r of d e t a i l e d psycho-
symbolic c h i l d - s a i n t s ,
Jenny, i n f a c t , f a r from p o s s e s s i n g t h e s e n t i m e n t a l
s t i l l s i g n i f i c a n t s p i r i t u a l q u a l i t i e s can b e s t r e n g t h -
D e s c r i b i n g t h e Headstone-
Peecher s c h o o l , Dickens c a u s t i c a l l y n o t e s t h a t
a l l t h e p l a c e w a s pervaded by a grimly l u d i c r o u s p r e t e n c e t h a t e v e r y
p u p i l was c h i l d i s h and i n n o c e n t . This p r e t e n c e , much favoured by t h e
l a d y - v i s i t o r s , l e d t o t h e g h a s t l i e s t a b s u r d i t i e s . Young women
o l d i n t h e v i c e s of t h e commonest and w o r s t l i f e , were expected
t o p r o f e s s themselves e n t h r a l l e d by t h e good c h i l d ' s book, t h e
Adventures of L i t t l e Margery, who r e s i d e d i n t h e v i l l a g e c o t t a g e
by t h e m i l l ; s e v e r e l y reproved and m o r a l l y squashed t h e m i l l e r
when s h e was f i v e and h e w a s f i f t y ; d i v i d e d h e r p o r r i d g e w i t h
s i n g i n g b i r d s ; denied h e r s e l f a new nankeen b o n n e t , on t h e ground
t h a t t h e t u r n i p s d i d n o t wear nankeen b o n n e t s , n e i t h e r d i d t h e
sheep who a t e them; who p l a i t e d straw and d e l i v e r e d t h e d r e a r i e s t
So
o r a t i o n s t o a l l comers, a t a l l s o r t s of unseasonable times.
unwieldy young dredges and h u l k i n g mudlarks were r e f e r r e d t o t h e
e x p e r i e n c e s of Thomas Twopence, who, having r e s o l v e d n o t t o rob
(under circumstances of uncommon a t r o c i t y ) h i s p a r t i c u l a r f r i e n d
and b e n e f a c t o r , of e i g h t e e n p e n c e , p r e s e n t l y came i n t o s u p e r n a t u r a l
p o s s e s s i o n of t h r e e and s i x p e n c e , and l i v e d a s h i n i n g l i g h t e v e r
afterwards.
(11, 1, 214-5)
The p a r o d i c a l l u s i o n s t o t h e immaculate moral s e n s e of t h e p a s t o r a l N e l l and
t h e d i v i n e l y rewarded h o n e s t y of O l i v e r Twist a r e i m p l i c i t , demonstrating
Dickens's awareness t h a t t h e c h i l d - s a i n t i s a g r o t e s q u e l y romanticized f i g u r e .
Jenny, f i r s t i n t r o d u c e d s h o r t l y a f t e r t h i s p a s s a g e , c o n t i n u e s Dickens's rea p p r a i s a l i n a more s e v e r e f a s h i o n .
father:
t h e house.
s a i d t h e person of
o v e r by r a t s and s p i d e r s and b e e t l e s .
and they'd have t i c k l e d you n i c e l y .
( 2 , 241).
h e r exces-
moral n a t u r e .
32
. . . and
(243).
a c c e n t u a t e s t h e p s y c h o l o g i c a l l y r e a l i s t i c foundation of J e n n y ' s d i s t u r b i n g
b i t t e r n e s s , he does n o t n e g l e c t t o emphasize h e r " c e l e s t i a l imagination";
and,
i n s p i r e d by t h e s p l e n d o u r of t h o s e quasi-Wordsworthian "long b r i g h t s l a n t i n g
rows" of a n g e l i c c h i l d r e n , Jenny i s s p i r i t u a l l y t r a n s f i g u r e d , seeming t o e n t e r
a p u r i f i e d s t a t e of p r e - e x i s t e n c e :
"By d e g r e e s , a s s h e progressed i n t h i s
( 2 , 243).
On t h e o t h e r
Jenny a l s o p a r t a k e s of Nell's s e a r c h f o r t h e
Imagina-
(4, 281).
proves Jenny's s a l v a t i o n , a l l o w i n g h e r t o r e s i s t
R a t h e r , Jenny
Like S i s s y , whose l i f e -
A s S t e w a r t n o t e s , " t h e g i r l who h a t e s
a c r e a t i v e way of k e e p i n g a l i v e
Many of J e n n y ' s i n s i g h t f u l b a r b s a r e , of c o u r s e ,
[lo,
5331 ) , b u t , a l t h o u g h h e r s o r d i d
e x p r e s s i n g h e r antagonism t o s o c i a l p r e t e n s i o n .
He'd c a r r y me up w i t h him'
I'
[ l l , 3471 ) , he t o o f a l l s under t h e
s a r d o n i c s c r u t i n y of Jenny's s a t i r i c c r e a t i o n s .
J u s t a s L e a r ' s Fool d e s c r i b e s
Even
cerning vision:
'And s o , Miss Wren,' s a i d M r . Eugene Wrayburn, ' I cannot persuade you
t o d r e s s me a d o l l ? '
'No,' r e p l i e d Miss Wren, s n a p p i s h l y ; ' i f you want one, go and buy
one a t t h e shop. '
'And my charming goddaughter,' s a i d M r . Wrayburn, p l a i n t i v e l y ,
'down i n H e r t f o r d s h i r e - - '
('Humbugshire you mean, I t h i n k , ' i n t e r p o s e d Miss Wren.) (111, 10, 532)
Jenny's i n s i g h t s i n t o Wrayburn's c h a r a c t e r , i n f a c t , p e n e t r a t e i n t o areas of
which h e h i m s e l f i s unaware.
'I think of
h e f e l l t o t a l k i n g p l a y f u l l y w i t h Jenny Wren.
up a d o l l , M i s s Jenny,' he s a i d .
had b e t t e r n o t , ' r e p l i e d t h e dressmaker.
not?'
are s u r e t o break i t . A l l you c h i l d r e n do.'
(11, 2 , 238)
misses e n t i r e l y ) t h a t h e i s s t i l l a n i r r e s p o n s i b l e c h i l d .
T h i s i s n o t t o s u g g e s t , however, t h a t Jenny's power of t r u t h i s r e l a t e d
t o t h e s u p e r n a t u r a l moral s e n s e of O l i v e r o r N e l l ; r a t h e r , a s h e r o f t e n rep e a t e d e x c l a m a t i o n , "I know t h e i r t r i c k s and t h e i r manners," i n d i c a t e s , i t i s
t h e n a t u r a l consequence of h e r l o n g a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h t h e most degraded elements
i n h e r s o c i a l world t h a t h a s s t i m u l a t e d J e n n y ' s p e r c e p t i o n .
Thus, although
Jenny h a s grown m o r a l l y i n s i g h t f u l , s h e i s n o t , a s some c r i t i c s s u g g e s t , poss e s s e d of "a s u r e i n s t i n c t of moral d i s c r i ~ n i n a t i o n , " f~o~r h e r c o r r u p t e d background h a s made h e r s u s p i c i o u s a s w e l l a s d i s c e r n i n g .
She may r e c o g n i z e
a c t i v e l y engag-
i n g i n p o s i t i v e e m o t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s , a c c e p t i n g and e x p r e s s i n g love.
L i z z i e Hexam i s perhaps t h e major f i g u r e i n t h i s m a t u r a t i o n p r o c e s s , e x e r t i n g
b o t h a conscious and unconscious e f f e c t i n s o o t h i n g and animating Jenny's
embittered s p i r i t .
S i g n i f i c a n t l y , as i n S w i v e l l e r ' s
"'My L i z z i e , my poor L i z z i e !
0 my b l e s s e d
(11 1
349).
Responding
She
times.
dropping tears.
me"'
(732).
The f i n a l c o n t r i b u t i n g f a c t o r i n J e n n y ' s moral growth, h e r r o l e i n t h e
evolution.
I have s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e
. .
. Ask h e r i f s h e h a s
'Ask h e r i f s h e h a s s e e n t h e c h i l d r e n
smelt the flowers?'
' I understand him now
You mean
'Oh! I know!' c r i e d Jenny.
my l o n g b r i g h t s l a n t i n g rows of c h i l d r e n , who used t o b r i n g me e a s e
and r e s t ? You mean t h e c h i l d r e n who used t o t a k e me up, and make me
light?'
Eugene s m i l e d , 'Yes.'
' I have n o t s e e n them s i n c e I saw you. I n e v e r see them now, b u t
I a m h a r d l y e v e r i n p a i n now.'
'It was a p r e t t y f a n c y , ' s a i d Eugene.
'But I have heard my b i r d s s i n g , ' c r i e d t h e l i t t l e c r e a t u r e , 'and
I have smelt my f l o w e r s . Yes, indeed I have! And b o t h were most
b e a u t i f u l and most Divine!'
' S t a y and h e l p t o n u r s e me,' s a i d Eugene, q u i e t l y .
'I should l i k e
you t o have t h e fancy h e r e , b e f o r e I d i e . '
(IV, 10, 737)
...
Whereas e a r l i e r c h i l d - s a i n t s ,
Jenny
Eugene s e e k s i n h i s d e l i r i u m ("wife")
through h i s marriage t o L i z z i e .
and t h u s e n s u r e s h i s moral s a l v a t i o n
t h a t " t h e l u n a t i c , t h e l o v e r , and t h e poet" s h a r e a common n a t u r e , apprehendi n g "more than cool reason e v e r comprehends" (V. 1. 5-8); throughout Dickens's
works, l i k e w i s e , t h e t r i p l e elements of f o l l y , love, and imagination have been
c o n t i n u a l l y equated and i n t e r t w i n e d .
provides one of t h e
symbolic
maturation.
I n h e a l i n g , Jenny i s h e a l e d .
P o s s e s s i n g none of t h e s i m p l e t o n ' s
Jenny t h u s r e - i n t r o d u c e s
t h e most n o t a b l e f u n c t i o n of t h e comic j e s t e r ,
c o n t r i b u t i n g a s e n s e of v i t a l i t y t o t h e o f t e n p a s s i v e f o r c e s of goodness,
w h i l e h e r more a d a p t a b l e c h i l d - f o o l n a t u r e r e c o n c i l e s i t s p o t e n t i a l l y d i s r u p t i v e tensions.
The c h i l d - f o o l ' s
. . . woman i n
s e l f - r e l i a n c e and t r i a l "
w h i l e N e l l succumbs t o
II
interpre-
Tom
can p r e s e r v e t h e i r v a l u e s i n t o m a t u r i t y .
i n the experience
"You
i n the
3.
Conclusion
Simul-
Throughout h i s w r i t i n g s , t h e n , i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h h i s
Much of h i s s u c c e s s i n t h i s v e n t u r e i s
r e v e a l e d i n t h e e v o l u t i o n of t h e c h i l d - f o o l , which, w i t h i t s g r e a t e r c a p a c i t y
f o r growth and a d a p t a t i o n , r e v e r s e s t h e d e c l i n e of t h e v a r i o u s f o o l - t y p e s i n
Dickens's works, and, by u n i f y i n g t h e Holy I n n o c e n t ' s symbolic n a t u r e and
p s y c h o l o g i c a l r e a l i t y , demonstrates t h a t t h e s e two f a c t o r s can be mutually
reinforcing.
A s we have
Both c h a r a c t e r - t y p e s ,
moreover, s h a r e a p o s i t i v e
Jupe, c l a r i f i e s t h i s growth.
A s Stephen Blackpool e x c l a i m s ,
i n c r e a s i n g l y dynamic, s o a g r e a t e r emphasis on a c t i v e , s e l f - r e l i a n t c a p a c i t y
dominates t h e c h i l d - f o o l ' s
Bleak
"Dear g i r l .
Dear h e a r t .
Good
incarnate goodne~s,"~w
' h i l e John Lucas c o u n t e r s t h a t s h e "was born i n t h e
Marshalsea and n o t i n Heaven, and i f s h e symbolizes a n y t h i n g i t i s t h e power
of t h e human t o cope w i t h t h e worst t h a t s o c i e t y i s and does. "38
The t r u t h ,
a m e l i o r a t i n g t h e worst
f o o l a more r e a l i s t i c p s y c h o l o g i c a l f o u n d a t i o n , s o t h e woman g i v e s t h e c h i l d
a f u l l e r e x p r e s s i o n , embodying t h e n e x t s t a g e i n t h e c h i l d ' s growth--the
adult
The c h i l d p o s s e s s e s t h e p o t e n t i a l f o r u n i f y i n g t h e d o c t r i n e of
D i s c u s s i n g t h e n a t u r e of
Dickens's u s e s of t h e f o o l
s i g n i f i e s t h e c o n t i n u a t i o n of l i f e , t h e r e s t o r a t i o n of harmony.
For Dickens
b e extended.
As noted e a r l i e r , l o v i n g p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s a r e an expres-
s i o n of t h e s p i r i t of t h e Dickensian Holy I n n o c e n t , an o r i g i n a l v a r i a t i o n on
t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l image of t h e f o o l a s p e r e n n i a l s o c i a l o u t c a s t .
Even t h e nor-
Pocket and C l a r a , J o e and Biddy, t h e r e a l i s t i c romantic bonds a r e a s i g n i f i cant extension of t h e f o o l ' s nature.
Like t h e i r b e s t e a r l y p r o t o t y p e , t h e
s a r y q u a l i f i c a t i o n of t h e i d e a l i z e d f o o l - p r i n c e s s u n i o n , s u g g e s t i n g t h a t
The l a t e r fool-marriages,
i n e f f e c t , a r e g e n u i n e l y human w h i l e
s t i l l e v i n c i n g an e l e v a t e d symbolic e s s e n c e , an i m p o r t a n t r e c o g n i t i o n ( a s i n
t h e c h i l d and t h e woman) of t h e s p i r i t u a l w i t h i n t h e human.
Once a g a i n ,
As i n t h e c a s e of t h e f o o l s , t h e
We
One of
e n d o r s i n g o n l y t h e former type:
lf41
t h e t r u e n a t u r e of Dickensian h o l y s i m p l i c i t y and t h e c a p a c i t y of
Dickens, i n
Throughout Dickens's e x p l o r a t i o n of t h e
Not merely l i m i t e d t o e x p l i c i t f o o l - f i g u r e s
( o r even
Dickens a s s e r t s , i n e f f e c t ,
f i n a l l y , t h a t i t i s p o s s i b l e t o r e g a i n a p u r e r moral s e n s e .
Eugene Wrayburn,
Similar
Martin
i m p r e s s i o n a b l e n a i v e & and " u n d i s c i p l i n e d h e a r t " a r e s t r e n g t h e n e d and temp e r e d ; Louisa and Gradgrind l e a r n t h e importance of childhood fancy; Sidney
Carton r e p e a t s t h e s a c r i f i c e of C h r i s t ; P i p l e a r n s from t h e s i m p l i c i t y o f
Joe; B e l l a and Eugene a r e r e b o r n through love.
As S a i n t P a u l s t a t e s , " i f any
A s Dickens h i m s e l f observed
acter's s u p e r n a t u r a l l y i n f a l l i b l e moral s e n s e i s u n l i k e l y t o r e p r e s e n t a
credible d i d a c t i c device.
By p r e s e n t i n g r e a l i s t i c human b e i n g s engaged i n
fool-figures.
"they w i l l n o t l e t
NOTES:
CHAPTER FOUR
The V i o l e n t E f f i g y :
Faber
., p.
Dickens:
296.
The I n i m i t a b l e Dickens:
Macmillan,
," S t u d i e s
i n t h e Novel, I (1969)
181.
"Preface1' t o Penguin e d i t i o n of Martin Chuzzlewit, ed. by P. N.
Furbank,
* Don Quixote, p.
675.
p. 185.
moral c o n n o t a t i o n s , i s a p a l e r e f l e c t i o n of t h e e a r l i e r problem.
l3As J. H i l l i s Miller o b s e r v e s , "the s e n t i m e n t a l i t y " i n such a d d r e s s e s
"is i t s e l f a sign of Dickens's u n e a s i n e s s .
He wants t o p r e s e n t Tom a s an
a t t r a c t i v e f i g u r e , b u t h e cannot h e l p b e t r a y i n g by h i s p a t r o n i z i n g t o n e t h e
pp. 121-2).
l9 Dickens:
21 Dickens:
H i s L i f e and W i t ( ~ e wYork:
24
George
pp. 69-70;
A Myth f o r V i c t o r i a n England,"
pp. 80-3.
25 Quoted by F o r s t e r , p , 174.
Macmillan, 1 9 6 5 ) , p. 201.
I1
o n l y "home" h e , l i k e N e l l , can p o s s e s s .
Jo,
. . . and
31 C h a r l e s Dickens:
'They d i e s i n t h e i r
i n heaps.
(31, 432).
34 The V i o l e n t E f f i g y , p. 109.
They d i e s
I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e e a r l y examples o f s u c h u n s a t i s f a c t o r y m a r r i a g e s ( K i t
Sloppy, a r a t h e r minor f o o l - f i g u r e p r e s e n t e d i n t h e
41 V u l g a r i t y i n L i t e r a t u r e (London:
42 I b i d .
43 P r a i s e of F o l l y , p . 253.
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C h a r l e s Dickens: A C r i t i c a l
Auden, W. H. "Dingley D e l l and t h e F l e e t . "
Anthology. Ed. Stephen Wall. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1970,
458-68.
Burns, Wayne.
The P a n z a i c P r i n c i p l e . Vancouver:
Penjedo P r e s s , n. d.
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L i f e of Our Lord.
New York:
Ed. P. Radin.
London:
San
Ed. Richard F i n d l a t e r .
New York:
The H e a r t of C h a r l e s Dickens:
- L e t t e r s from C h a r l e s Dickens t o Angela
Burdett-Coutts. Ed. Edgar Johnson. New York: D u e l l , Sloan and P e a r c e ,
Dostoevsky, Fyodor.
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"Falstaff,
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