WHY STUDY FOLKLORE AND LITERATURE?

Mary E l l e n B. Lewis
Indiana University

The c u r r e n t r e n a i s s a n c e of t h e s t u d y of f o l k l o r e
and l i t e r a t u r e , r e p r e s e n t i n g p e r h a p s a d e s i r e t o
r e i n s e r t humanities i n t o a n i n c r e a s i n g l y s o c i a l
s c i e n t i f i c approach t o f o l k l o r i s t i c s , h a s produced a
v a r i e t y of p a p e r s and p u b l i c a t i o n s . But i t h a s n o t
a s y e t d e a l t overtly with the e x p l i c i t reasons f o r
t h e s t u d y p e r se, though some j u s t i f i c a t i o n is
surely implicit i n motivating the various s t u d i e s
which have been made. N o n e t h e l e s s , t h e q u e s t i o n
s h o u l d be b o t h r a i s e d and answered: Why s t u d y
f o l k l o r e and l i t e r a t u r e ?

Both f o l k l o r e and l i t e r a t u r e a r e p a r t s of
c u l t u r e , produced o r c r e a t e d by c u l t u r a l b e i n g s .
T h e i r s t u d y expands o u r knowledge of i t s makers and
p o s s e s s o r s - - t h e i r c r e a t i v e p r o c e s s e s and s t r a t e g i e s ,
t h e i r m a t e r i a l ' s f u n c t i o n . The s t u d y of t h e two
r e l a t e d c u l t u r a l phenomena, i n tandem o r s i m u l t a n e -
ously, points out t h e i r shared roots i n a c u l t u r a l
t r a d i t i o n which p r o v i d e s n o t o n l y c o n t e n t , b u t
s t y l e , s t r u c t u r e , and s t r a t e g y , and f o r c e s u s t o
l o o k a t t h e l i t e r a r y r e d a c t o r and o r a l r e d a c t o r a s
standing i n s i m i l a r relationships t o the received
c u l t u r a l t r a d i t i o n s . Are t h e y i n f a c t p a r a l l e l ?
Do we know enough a b o u t t h e s o u r c e s o r p r o c e s s e s o f
e i t h e r t h e o r a l o r l i t e r a r y r e d a c t o r t o answer t h i s
q u e s t i o n ? The comparison of t h e t w o - - f o l k l o r e a s
o r a l l i t e r a t u r e and w r i t t e n l i t e r a t u r e - - r a i s e s , i f
n o t a n s w e r s , such i m p o r t a n t q u e s t i o n s a b o u t
c r e a t i v i t y , change, communication, t h u s s u g g e s t i n g
t h e u l t i m a t e v a l u e of t h e s t u d y of f o l k l o r e and
literature. But l e t me o f f e r t h r o u g h
example some a d d i t i o n a l and more e x p l i c i t r e a s o n s .

Wayland D. Hand's e d i t i o n of b e l i e f s , found i n

volumes S i x and Seven of t h e Frank .
-
C. -
-- Brown
-
Collection - of North C a r o l i n a F o l k l o r e , c o n t a i n s a
magnitude of t e x t s , numbered and a r r a n g e d i n l o g i c a l
f a s h i o n : 5303-5315
f a s h i o n : 5303-5315 d e a l w i t h t h e o w l ' s p r o g n o s t i c a t o r y
r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h d e a t h , s u c h a s "To h e a r a s h i v e r i n g
owl i s a s i g n of d e a t h " ; 5330-5334 f o c u s on whippoor-
w i l l s f o r e t e l l i n g d e a t h ; 5205-5214 d e a l w i t h dogs i n
s i m i l a r p r o p h e t i c c a p a c i t i e s . Category 5622 t e l l s
t h a t " I f a s p i d e r i s consumed f a l l i n g i n t o a lamp,
witches a r e near." As isolated b e l i e f s , catalogues
s u c h a s Hand's o f f e r a m u l t i p l i c i t y of t e x t u a l d a t a
and of l o r e b u t g i v e l i t t l e i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h e f o l k :
Who b e l i e v e d t h e s e ? How were o r a r e t h e y m a n i f e s t e d i n
a c t u a l l i f e ? How do t h e d i s c r e t e b e l i e f s f i t i n t o t h e
t o t a l b e l i e f s y s t e m of a group?

E a r l y i n t h e Adventures of Huckleberry F i n n , Huck

alludes t o these very signs:

The s t a r s was s h i n i n g , and t h e l e a v e s r u s t l e d

i n t h e woods e v e r s o m o u r n f u l ; and I h e a r d a n
owl, away o f f , who-whooing a b o u t somebody t h a t
was d e a d , and a w h i p p o w i l l and a dog c r y i n g
a b o u t somebody t h a t was g o i n g t o d i e ; and t h e
wind was t r y i n g t o w h i s p e r something t o me and
I c o u l d n ' t make o u t what i t was, and s o i t
made t h e c o l d s h i v e r s r u n o v e r me. Then away
o u t i n t h e woods I h e a r d t h a t k i n d of sound
t h a t a g h o s t makes when i t wants t o t e l l a b o u t
something t h a t ' s on i t s mind and c a n ' t make
i t s e l f u n d e r s t o o d , and s o c a n ' t rest e a s y i n
i t s g r a v e and h a s t o go a b o u t t h a t way e v e r y
night grieving. I g o t s o down-hearted and
s c a r e d , I d i d wish I had some company.
F r e t t y soon a s p i d e r went c r a w l i n g up my
s h o u l d e r , and I f l i p p e d i t o f f and i t l i t i n
t h e c a n d l e ; and b e f o r e I c o u l d budge i t was a l l
s h r i v e l e d up. I d i d n ' t need anybody t o t e l l m e
t h a t t h a t w a s a n a w f u l bad s i g n and would f e t c h
m e some bad l u c k , s o I was s c a r e d and most
shook t h e c l o t h e s o f f o f me. I g o t up and
t u r n e d around i n my t r a c k s t h r e e t i m e s and
c r o s s e d my b r e a s t e v e r y t i m e ; and t h e n I t i e d
up a l i t t l e l o c k of my h a i r w i t h a t h r e a d t o
keep w i t c h e s away. But I h a d n ' t no c o n f i d e n c e .
You do t h a t when y o u ' v e l o s t a h o r s e - s h o e t h a t
y o u ' v e f o u n d , i n s t e a d of n a i l i n g i t up o v e r t h e
d o o r , b u t I h a d n ' t e v e r h e a r anybody s a y i t was
 any way t o k e e p o f f bad l u c k when y o u ' d k i l l e d
a spider. 1

Throughout t h e n o v e l one s e e s t h e s e and similar b e l i e f s

a s a v i t a l p a r t o f Huck's b e l i e f s y s t e m , t h e v a l u e s h e
h o l d s and u s e s t o d i r e c t h i s l i f e . Twain g i v e s Huck
what I would c a l l a n e c o l o g i c a l b e l i e f system--in t u n e
w i t h n a t u r e and h e r s i g n s , f a t a l i s t i c b u t a c c e p t i n g of
t h e preeminence o f good l u c k o v e r b a d . T h i s b e l i e f
s y s t e m o r w o r l d v i e w , which Huck l e a r n e d from h i s
f a t h e r , is reinforced i n h i s relationship with J i m .
I t e n a b l e s him t o a c c e p t t h e w o r l d r e a l i s t i c a l l y and
t o j u d g e and r e s p e c t h u m a n i t y , n o t m e a s u r i n g i t / t h e m
by e x t e r n a l p r e c e p t s b u t by r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e w o r t h
within. Huck's t r a d i t i o n a l l y i n h e r i t e d and p r o v e n
b e l i e f s y s t e m s u p p o r t e d and s u s t a i n e d him, a n s w e r i n g
h i s q u e s t i o n s ; b u t , more i m p o r t a n t l y , i t a l l o w e d h i s
humanity t o e x p r e s s i t s e l f w i t h o u t t h e b l i n d e r s o f t h e
"sivilized" s t a t e .

I n h e r i t e d from h i s d i s s o l u t e f a t h e r , tempered by
h i s c o n t a c t w i t h a l t e r n a t e s y s t e m s and by h i s own i n n e r
i n t e g r i t y , Huck's t r a d i t i o n a l b e l i e f system--shared
w h o l e h e a r t e d l y w i t h J i m i n t h e i r w o r l d on t h e r a f t - -
was a t once t o o p u r e and t o o n o n r a t i o n a l t o r e m a i n
whole f o r l o n g under s u s t a i n e d a s s a u l t s from M i s s Wat-
s o n ' s b r a n d o f " s i v i l i z a t i o n l ' o r Tom's f a n t a s t i c d i s -
r e g a r d of humanity. Thus Twain s e n d s Huck o f f , f i r s t
t o t h e r i v e r and t h e n t o t h e n e x t f r o n t i e r , t o a l l o w
him t o r e t a i n t h e measure of humanity h e p o s s e s s e d t o
t h e e n d , t o remain b o t h p r o d u c t o f and symbol f o r h i s
t r a d i t i o n a l and i n h e r i t e d b e l i e f s y s t e m .

Huck's b e l i e f s y s t e m i s d e p i c t e d o v e r t l y i n
i n c i d e n t s and s i g n s which n o t o n l y p r o v i d e e l e m e n t s o f
c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n , b u t d e f i n i t e l y m o t i v a t e and c a r r y
along the p l o t . E a r l y i n t h e b o o k , a; I h a v e
i n d i c a t e d , Huck a n t i c i p a t e s bad l u c k g e n e r a l l y . L a t e r
M i s s Watson t h w a r t s Huck's c o u n t e r a c t a f t e r s p i l l i n g
t h e s a l t - - t h a t i s , t h r o w i n g some o f t h e s a l t o v e r h i s
l e f t s h o u l d e r - - b e c a u s e i t i s messy. Huck f e a r e d t h e n
t h e bad l u c k which would n e c e s s a r i l y f o l l o w . And i t
d i d w i t h t h e a r r i v a l of P a p , whose r e a p p e a r a n c e h e
a n t i c i p a t e d a f t e r h e saw P a p ' s f o o t p r i n t , which b o r e
t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c c r o s s i n t h e l e f t boot heel--"to
keep o f f t h e d e v i l . ' ' Though seemingly i n s i g n i f i c a n t ,
t h e s e e v e n t s move t h e s t o r y and foreshadow e v e n t s t o
come.

But Huck's b e l i e f system i s b e s t s e e n i n t h e

c h a r a c t e r of J i m ; and Huck's response t o J i m a s a
s t o r e of t r a d i t i o n a l knowledge shows n o t o n l y Huck's
growing humanity, b u t a l s o a growth i n J i m ' s own s e l f -
esteem. J i m ' s o v e r t b e l i e f system b e f o r e running away,
however, d i f f e r s i n Twain's c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n from h i s
o v e r t b e l i e f system a f t e r w a r d s , which he s h a r e s w i t h
Huck. A s a s l a v e , J i m i s a c t e d upon: he b e l i e v e s
t h a t w i t c h e s a r e e v e r - p r e s e n t and o f f e r s w i t c h e s a s an
e x p l a n a t i o n f o r a l l t h a t happens, even when t h e r e a d e r
and o t h e r c h a r a c t e r s know t h a t w i t c h e s a r e n o t t h e
cause. I n f a c t , l a c k of knowledge of t h e t r u t h by t h e
s l a v e s , c h a r a c t e r s and r e a d e r s a l i k e , a f f o r d s J i m and
t h e s l a v e s a very low s t a t u s . Motivated by h i s b e l i e f
i n witches, J i m b u i l d s a personal experience s t o r y o u t
of h i s b e l i e f and s m a l l changes i n h i s environment:

Afterwards J i m s a i d t h e w i t c h e s bewitched him

and p u t him i n a t r a n c e , and rode him a l l o v e r
t h e S t a t e , and t h e n s e t him under t h e t r e e s
a g a i n and hung h i s h a t on a limb t o show who
done i t . And n e x t time J i m t o l d i t h e s a i d
they rode him down t o New Orleans; and a f t e r
t h a t , every t i m e h e t o l d i t h e s p r e a d i t more
and more, t i l l by-and-by he s a i d they rode
him a l l o v e r t h e world, and t i r e d him most t o
d e a t h , and h i s back was a l l over s a d d l e - b o i l s . 2

W e know Tom and Huck took t h e c a n d l e and l e f t f i v e

c e n t s t o pay f o r i t , t h a t t h e y p u t h i s h a t on a limb.
J i m ' s e x p l a n a t i o n - - t h a t h e was r i d d e n by w i t c h e s and
g o t t h e n i c k e l from t h e devil--grows d i r e c t l y o u t of
h i s s e r v i l e s t a t u s and i t s a t t e n d a n t b e l i e f system.
It i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o n o t e i n t h i s connection t h a t t h e
n e x t time t h e r e a d e r c o n f r o n t s s l a v e s i n t h e s t a t e of
s l a v e r y , they t o o a r e a c t e d u p o n , showing e x c e s s i v e
f e a r of w i t c h e s . On t h e P h e l p ' s P l a n t a t i o n , Nat
attributes a n y t h i n g o u t of t h e o r d i n a r y t o w i t c h e s :

The n i g g e r had a good-natured, chuckle-headed

f a c e , and h i s wool was a l l t i e d up i n l i t t l e
 bunches w i t h t h r e a d . T h a t was t o keep w i t c h e s
o f f . He s a i d t h e w i t c h e s was p e s t e r i n g him
a w f u l , t h e s e n i g h t s , and making him s e e a l l
k i n d s o f f s t r a n g e t h i n g s , and h e a r a l l k i n d s
o f s t r a n g e words and n o i s e s , and h e d i d n ' t
b e l i e v e h e was e v e r witcl-ed s o l o n g , b e f o r e ,
i n h i s l i f e . He g o t s o worked u p , and g o t t o
r u n n i n g on s o a b o u t h i s t r o u b l e s , h e f o r g o t
a l l a b o u t what h e ' d b e e n a g o i n g t o d o . 3

But Jim--and no d o u b t N a t , t o o , i f h e had r u n away o r

b e e n f r e e d - - l e f t w i t c h e s b e h i n d and became a n a c t i v e r e a d e r
of t h e s i g n s , p a r t i c u l a r l y t h o s e of p r o g n o s t i c a t i o n ,
when h e r e a c h e d J a c k s o n ' s I s l a n d and t h r o u g h o u t h i s
i d y l l i c e x i s t e n c e on t h e w o r l d o f t h e r a f t . J i m ' s know-
l e d g e i s proven v a l i d i n enough i n s t a n c e s t o r e a f f i r m
t h e b e l i e f s y s t e m , n o t o n l y t o h i m s e l f , b u t t o Huck.
And Huck c a n s a y i n a f f i r m a t i o n o f t h e s y s t e m and of
J i m , "I had h e a r d a b o u t some of t h e s e t h i n g s b e f o r e ,
b u t n o t a l l o f them. J i m knowed a l l k i n d s o f s i g n s .
He s a i d h e knowed most e v e r y t h i n g . I 1 4 Huck h i m s e l f
corroborated J i m ' s b e l i e f t h a t looking over o n e ' s l e f t
s h o u l d e r a t t h e moon p r o v i d e d bad l u c k , b e c a u s e h e t o o
held that belief. Even b e f o r e J i m e s c a p e d from s l a v e r y ,
h i s common worldview w i t h Huck b r o u g h t Huck t o t h e
o l d e r man f o r i n f o r m a t i o n - - t h r o u g h t h e h a i r b a l l - -
concerning Pap's p l a n s . The s h a r e d s y s t e m , h e l d
before t h e i r v i r t u a l l y f a m i l i a l acquaintance, is
r e i n f o r c e d by t h e i r m u t u a l r e l i a n c e on i t . U n l i k e t h e
h a i r b a l l from t h e f o u r t h stomach of a n o x , which con-
t a i n e d a s p i r i t t h a t f o r e t o l d and which J i m u s e s w h i l e
a s l a v e , h i s t r a d i t i o n a l l o r e when f r e e becomes f a r
more r e l e v a n t and i m p o r t a n t i n t h e e v e r y d a y , o n g o i n g
p r o c e s s e s of l i f e . P r e s e n t e d c o n v e r s a t i o n a l l y , a
v a r i e t y of seemingly i n s i g n i f i c a n t b e l i e f s a r e
e x c e e d i n g l y i m p o r t a n t t o s p e c i f i c i n c i d e n t and t o t h e
g e n e r a l theme. When b i r d s f l y a l o n g , p e r i o d i c a l l y
s t o p p i n g and t h e n resuming f l i g h t , J i m l i k e n s t h i s
t o what c h i c k e n s do when f o r e t e l l i n g r a i n . Sub-
s e q u e n t l y i t r a i n s , p r o v i n g t h e s i g n ' s v a l i d i t y . Huck
i s p r e v e n t e d from c a t c h i n g b i r d s by J i m ' s v e r b a l i z a t i o n
of t h e b e l i e f t h a t y o u ' l l d i e i f you d o ; he knows:
t h a t i s what c a u s e d h i s f a t h e r ' s d e a t h . C o u n t i n g t h e
number o f t h i n g s you e a t f o r d i n n e r o r s h a k i n g t h e
t a b l e c l o t h a f t e r sundown a l s o b r i n g bad l u c k . If
bees are not told of their owner's death, they will
weaken, quit work, and die. Almost a code of ethics,
enough are shown to be viable to validate the system.
Not only violating the tabu against touching snakeskin,
but ignoring the traditional snakelore that the dead
snake's mate will come to it, Huck puts the skin in Jim's
blanket as a practical joke. When Jim retires, bad
luck occurs on both counts: he is bitten. Again,
from his wealth of knowledge comes the cure: chop off
the head and throw it away, skin the body, roast some
of the meat and eat it, tie rattles around the wrist.
Fortunately, the cure works and saves Jim from the bite;
but, of course, it does not counter the original bad
luck from touching the snakeskin, which is repeatedly
and conveniently blamed for bad luck. When Jim realizes
that they have missed Cairo, he refers back to this
early incident: "Po' niggers can't have no luck. I
awluz 'spected dat rattle-snake skin warn't done wid
it's work.I15 The belief system, then, accepts at this
point. The time for action, for avoidance--in knowing
what not to do--is past. Shared by the runaway slave
and the boy-man Huck, the belief system not only
characterizes these individuals as superstitious and
as holding beliefs we do not believe, but also motivates
and moves the plot on.

Huck and Jim's belief system is not the only one

found in Twain's masterful novel, though it may be safe
to say that Twain found more to admire in the ecological
system than in the two other major worldviews presented.
To an extent this is indicated by his paraphrase of
Ben Jonson's comment on "Chevy Chase": "Let me make
the superstitions of a nation and I care not who makes
its laws or its songs either.'% The dominance of Huck
and Jim's system and Twain's own preference for it is
further underlined by the essentiality of the beliefs
and t k i r structure in the structure of the novel.
Conveniently structura as cause and effect--if this,
then that--the sign is read, and the results follow as
the story progresses. Both content and structure
motivate and contribute directly to the plot development.
In focusing his and our attention on one belief system,
which enabled its practitioners to achieve maturity
and special attributes of humanity, Twain underscores
his views of society and its values. By stressing
t h e l e a s t " ~ i v i l i z e d ~ ~ o nhe e , can show by i r o n i c c o n t r a s t
i t s i n h e r e n t s u p e r i o r i t y and v u l n e r a b i l i t y : i t c a n n o t
s t a n d up under " s i v i l i z e d " a s s a u l t s . To p e r s i s t , i t s
b e l i e v e r s must go t o y e t a n o t h e r o u t p o s t , a n o t h e r
frontier. (Perhaps t h i s meshes w i t h t h e American dream
of t h e f r o n t i e r and man's p e r f e c t a b i l i t y through i t . )
The "pure i n heart1'--those who v a l u e humanity f i r s t - -
are i n t r o u b l e , t h e n and now. S o c i e t y t a i n t s and
c o r r u p t s them. R e a l i s t t h a t he was, Twain r e f u s e s t o
l e t t h i s happen; he m a n i p u l a t e s , he does what i n a c t u -
a l i t y i s h a r d l y p o s s i b l e : h e s t o p s t h e world and l e t s
h i s c h a r a c t e r g e t o f f . This i s a r t - - f i c t i v e t r u t h - - n o t
f a c t . I t s a y s more t o us because i t i s . I n m a n i p u l a t i n g
and a l t e r i n g , Twain f o r c e s us t o acknowledge h i s p o i n t .

I n f a c t , Twain must p r o v i d e c o n t r a s t i n g b e l i e f
s y s t e m s , r e p r e s e n t i n g a l l t h e spectrums of s o c i e t y , i n
o r d e r t o make h i s p o i n t . Each system can be judged as
i t a f f e c t s o r does n o t a f f e c t t h e c e n t r a l f i g u r e , whose
b e l i e f system, a s Twain p r e s e n t s i t , i s t h e e c o l o g i c a l
one--that i s , Huck and J i m ' s . The " s i v i l i z e d " s t a t e i s
b e s t e x e m p l i f i e d by Miss Watson i n t h e e a r l y p o r t i o n s of
t h e book, and later--and somgwhat d i f f e r e n t l y - - b y t h e
Grangerfords. Thoroughly imbued w i t h r e l i g i o u s p i e t y ,
w i t h p r o p r i e t y , w i t h e x c e s s i v e conformity and
r e g u l a r i t y - - a b o v e a l l , w i t h r e s p e c t a b i l i t y - - M i s s Wat-
s o n ' s world, f i l l e d w i t h e x t e r n a l s a n c t i o n s , c o l l i d e s
w i t h Huck's world of n a t u r e and i n t e r n a l f e e l i n g . H i s
poignant a t t e m p t s t o accommodate h i m s e l f , however
b r i e f l y , t o t h i s world and t o t h e b e l i e f i n t h e
e f f i c a c y of p r a y e r f a i l n o t s o much because of h i s d i s -
b e l i e f a s because of a mismatch of e x p e c t a t i o n s . I n
h i s world of marginal e x i s t e n c e , when one needed some-
t h i n g , one r e a l l y needed i t ; s i g n s and p r o g n o s t i c a t i o n s
f o r e t o l d t h e outcome, charms and amulets might
f a c i l i t a t e s u c c e s s . The a l i e n n o t i o n of " s p i r i t u a l
g i f t s , ' ' f o s t e r e d by M i s s Watson's brand of b e l i e f and
r e l i g i o n , was of no u t i l i t y . And t h e i s s u e of
" s p i r i t u a l g i f t s " was a r e a l one: one was good and
p i o u s even i f f i g h t i n g w i t h o t h e r s i n a feud whose
i n i t i a l cause was l o s t t o memory. Huck saw t h i s b e l i e f
system and how p a r t i a l and b a s i c a l l y inhumane i t was.
He o p t e d t o keep h i s own, which, of c o u r s e , u l t i m a t e l y
allowed him t h e g r e a t e s t humanity of a l l .
 The b e l i e f system of Tom, and perhaps of t h e King
and Duke a s w e l l , r e p r e s e n t s t h e most s u p e r f i c i a l and
inhumane of a l l : based on b o o k l o r e , r o o t e d i n f a n t a s y ,
nonproductive i n t h e extreme, Tom's b e l i e f system i s
fragmentary and can o p e r a t e o n l y s p o r a d i c a l l y - - i n
f a c t , l i k e t h e Duke and t h e K i n g ' s , i t i s u t t e r sham.
Surely imagination is a v i t a l ingredient i n l i f e , b u t
c a r r i e d t o t h e extreme and denying r e a l i t y , i t l e a d s
b o t h Tom and t h e Duke and King t o s a c r i f i c e a n o t h e r
human b e i n g . When i t s p i l l s o v e r i n t o t h e r e c o g n i z a b l e
realm of game, Huck--never one f o r t h e n o n u t i l i t a r i a n - -
q u e s t i o n s i t s v a l u e . H i s own b e l i e f system, f i r m l y
r o o t e d w i t h i n , a c c e p t i n g of p e o p l e , a l l o w s him t o
c o e x i s t even w i t h t h e c r u e l , and f o r t u n a t e l y u n s u s t a i n -
a b l e , system.

It i s e s s e n t i a l l y through b e l i e f % s t e m s (which
a r e made up of d i s c r e t e b e l i e f s ) t h a t G a i n makes h i s
p o i n t i n t h e book. I n doing s o , he p r o v i d e s a whole
i n which t o £ , i t t h e p a r t s ; h e g i v e s u s b o t h t h e
general c u l t u r a l as w e l l as the specific context, as
h e g i v e s t h e l o r e t o t h e p e o p l e . He a l s o shows us
b e l i e f s a s a f u n c t i o n i n g r e a l i t y . A d d i t i o n a l l y , he
p r o v i d e s v a r i a n t s of a l r e a d y known b e l i e f t e x t s , a s
we saw i n t h e -- Frank C . -- Brown C o l l e c t i o n of North
Carolina Folklore--that i s , f o l k l o r e data.

We do n o t know f o r s u r e how a c c u r a t e M r . Clemens

w a s , b u t even t h e most f a r - o u t s c i e n c e f i c t i o n , l i k e
U r s u l a LeGuinls --- L e f t Hand of Darkness, relies h e z v i l y
on a s p e c t s of t h e mimetic. Authors must w r i t e o u t o f
t h e i r e x p e r i e n c e and t h e i r l i v e s ; t h e i r views may be
skewed and s e l e c t i v e , b u t t h e y a r e a l s o s u g g e s t i v e of
r e a l i t y . S e n s i t i v e t o nuance, t o s u b t l e t y , t o t h e
i n t r i c a c i e s of human i n t e r a c t i o n , a u t h o r s may p r o v i d e
v a l u a b l e i n s i g h t s i n t o a p e o p l e ' s traditions--more s o
t h a n does t h e l o r e - - g i v i n g f u n c t i o n and c o n t e x t a s
w e l l . A s Richard M. Dorson s a y s i n t h e J o u r n a l of
American F o l k l o r e Symposium, " C o l l e c t o r s almost
i n v a r i a b l y c o n c e n t r a t e on t e x t s , and omit a c c o u n t s of
i n f o r m a n t s o r t h e m i l i e u , and i n any c a s e t h e y l a c k
t h e s k i l l of n o v e l i s t s i n d e p i c t i n g t h e f o l k back-
ground ."7 N o v e l i s t s , t h e n , may p r o v i d e b o t h a g e n e r a l
example t o be followed by c o l l e c t o r s , a s w e l l a s
s p e c i f i c m a t e r i a l a b o u t t h e c o n t e x t s and f u n c t i o n s
o f f o l k l o r i c t r a d i t i o n s which may b e v e r i f i e d . 8 The
example from The A d v e n t u r e s --- of Huckleberry Finn t h u s
p r o v i d e s a v a r i e t y of r e a s o n s f o r t h e s t u d y o f f o l k -
l o r e and l i t e r a t u r e . L i t e r a t u r e may p r o v i d e
examples o f l o r e i n i t s f u l l e s t s e n s e - - a s p o s s e s s e d
by p e o p l e and used by them i n t h e t o t a l c o n t e x t o f
life.

A n o t h e r r e a s o n f o r t h e s t u d y o f f o l k l o r e and
literature (limiting folklore t o oral literature o r
v e r b a l a r t ) i s t o r e v e a l c o n t i n u i t i e s and r e l a t i o n -
s h i p s between t h e s e two forms o f a r t . P e r h a p s t h i s
i n t u i t e d r e l a t i o n s h i p l e d many e a r l y s c h o l a r s , s u c h
a s Bishop P e r c y and t h e Chadwicks, to- s t u d y o r a l
l i t e r a t u r e , f o r t h e y saw i t a s p r e c u r s o r o r
a n c e s t o r o f w r i t t e n l i t e r a r y f o r m s . 9 The s t u d y o f
o r a l and w r i t t e n l i t e r a t u r e s i d e by s i d e may r e v e a l
on t h e o n e hand a n a u t h o r ' s c o n s c i o u s c r e a t i v i t y ,
h i s o r h e r change o f s p e c i f i c m a t e r i a l , t h u s g i v i n g
u s i n s i g h t i n t o v a r i a t i o n and s t a b i l i t y which may
b e t r u e o f a l l l i t e r a t u r e , o r a l o r w r i t t e n . On t h e
o t h e r h a n d , and p e r h a p s more i m p o r t a n t , t h e s t u d y
o f t h e two s i m u l t a n e o u s l y may r e v e a l p a r a l l e l c o n t e n t
and themes, s t y l e s , f o r m and s t r u c t u r e . The f o c u s
h e r e i s on l o r e r a t h e r t h a n on t h e f o l k p e r s e ; b u t
t h r o u g h s t u d y of much o r a l and w r i t t e n l o r e we may
d i s c o v e r g e n e r a l a r t i s t i c f o r c e s of a l l p e o p l e .

S i n c e a l l l i t e r a t u r e i n t e n d s t o communicate,
s t r a t e g i e s f o r doing s o a r e important. I n an
e x c i t i n g p i e c e o f e t h n o l i t e r a t u r e , Chinua Achebe
u s e s a s t r a t e g y which h a s o r a l l i t e r a r y p a r a l l e l s .
One of t h e c e n t r a l background i s s u e s i n t h e n o v e l ,
Arrow o f God, c o n c e r n s l a n d r i g h t s - - w h i c h v i l l a g e o r
g r o u p owns a p a r t i c u l a r p l o t o f f a r m l a n d , d e c i s i o n
and a c t i o n b e i n g d e p e n d e n t on h i s t o r i c a l l e g e n d r y , o f
t h e beginnings i n t h a t l o c a l e . The v a r i o u s b e l i e f s
vying w i t h one a n o t h e r f o r ascendancy a c t u a l l y
a f f e c t t h e b e h a v i o r o f t h e n o v e l ' s c h a r a c t e r s and
t h e outcome o f t h e book. The C h i e f P r i e s t E z e u l u ,
h e i r t o h i s t o r i c a l t r a d i t i o n s , c o u l d c a l l on t h e
v a l i d i t y of t h e p a s t , of h i s t o r y , t o s u p p o r t h i s
v i e w and t h u s a t t e m p t t o sway t h e p e o p l e t o h i s
position: "My f a t h e r s a i d t h i s t o m e t h a t when o u r
v i l l a g e f i r s t came h e r e t o l i v e t h e l a n d b e l o n g e d t o
O k p e r i . I t was O k p e r i who gave u s a p i e c e o f t h e i r
l a n d t o l i v e in."lO But Nwaka, who urged war on Ok-
p e r i t o g a i n t h e d i s p u t e d l a n d , d i s a g r e e d : "My f a t h e r
t o l d me a d i f f e r e n t s t o r y . He t o l d me t h a t Okperi
p e o p l e were w a n d e r e r s . He t o l d me t h r e e o r f o u r
d i f f e r e n t p l a c e s where t h e y s o j o u r n e d f o r a w h i l e and
moved on a g a i n . They were d r i v e n away by Umuofia,
t h e n by Abame and A n i t a . Would t h e y go t o d a y and
c l a i m a l l t h o s e s i t e s ? " l l Nwaka's view p r e v a i l e d and
t h e r e was war--terminated by t h e White Man, who used
t h e opportunity t o a s s e r t c o n t r o l over t h e indigenous
p o p u l a t i o n on whom t h e c o l o n i a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n l o o k e d
down. L a t e r i n t h e n o v e l , Achebe g i v e s a European
a d m i n i s t r a t o r ' s views on t h e c a u s e of t h e w a r , s t r a n g e -
l y and understandably i g n o r a n t of t h e h i s t o r i c a l
t r a d i t i o n b e h i n d t h e war: "As I was s a y i n g , t h i s war
s t a r t e d b e c a u s e a man from Umuaro went t o v i s i t a
f r i e n d i n Okperi o n e f i n e morning and a f t e r h e ' d had
o n e o r two g a l l o n s of palm w i n e - - i t ' s q u i t e i n c r e d i b l e
how much o f t h a t d r e a d f u l s t u f f t h e y can t u c k awav--
anyhow, t h i s man from Umuaro h a v i n g drunk h i s f r i e d ' s
palm wine r e a c h e d f o r h i s i k e n g a and s p l i t i t i n
two. . .. "12 A s i n t h e a c t i v e o r a l l e g e n d , Achebe's
l i t e r a r y v e r s i o n i n v o l v e s a b e l i e f responded t o
cumulatively i n a conversational context. It provides
a l i t e r a r y example o f a l e g e n d , which s p p o r t s t h e
d i a l e c t i c t h e o r y o f Ldgh and ~ L z s o n ~lYi , and o f f e r s a
model f o r l e g e n d c o l l e c t i n g which i n c l u d e s t h e f o l k .
But more i m p o r t a n t l y h e r e , i t o f f e r s a n example of a
p a r a l l e l s t r a t e g y u s e d i n b o t h o r a l and w r i t t e n
l i t e r a t u r e . One s h o u l d s t u d y f o l k l o r e and l i t e r a t u r e ,
t h e n , f o r t h e mutual l i g h t t h e y s h e d on a l l l i t e r a t u r e s - -
w h e t h e r c r a l o r w r i t t e n - - a s w e l l a s cn t h e e s t h e t i c o f
t h e p e o p l e s who make and r e s p o n d t o t h e l i t e r a t u r e .

Undoubtedly, a n o t h e r r e a s o n f o r s t u d y i n g f o l k l o r e
and l i t e r a t u r e i s r e l a t e d t o t h e above b u t h a s
separate aspects: o r a l l i t e r a t u r e , l i k e written
l i t e r a t u r e , h a s a n e s t h e t i c dimension. It may b e
judged by i t s p o s s e s s o r s , from a n emic p e r s p e c t i v e , o r
from w i t h o u t , by a n e t i c p e r s p e c t i v e . Some works of
o r a l l i t e r a t u r e have t r a n s c e n d e d t h e i r m i l i e u ; o t h e r s
might i f s u i t a b l y t r a n s l a t e d and p u b l i s h e d . The
Odyssey i s c e r t a i n l y a p r e e m i n e n t example. So i s
the b e a u t i f u l Scots ballad:

The k i n g s i t s i n Dumferling t o u n e ,
D r i n k i n g t h e b l u d e - r e i d wine:
"0 whar w i l l I g e t g u i d s a i l o r ,
To s a i l t h i s s c h i p o f mine?"

Up and s p a k a n e l d e r n k n i c h t ,
S a t a t t h e k i n g s r i c h t kne:
" S i r P a t r i c k Spence i s t h e b e s t s a i l o r
That s a i l s upon t h e s e . "

The k i n g h a s w r i t t e n a b r a i d l e t t e r ,
And s i g n d i t w i h i s h a n d ,
And s e n t i t t o S i r P a t r i c k Spence,
Was w a l k i n g on t h e s a n d .

The f i r s t l i n e t h a t S i r P a t r i c k r e d ,
A loud lauch lauched he;
The n e x t l i n e t h a t S i r P a t r i c k r e d ,
The t e i r b l i n d e d h i s e e .

"0 wha i s t h i s h a s don t h i s d e i d ,

T h i s ill d e i d don t o me,
To s e n d me o u t t h i s t i m e o ' t h e y e i r ,
To s a i l upon t h e s e !

"Mak h a s t e , mak h a s t e , my m i r r y men a l l ,

Our g u i d s c h i p s a i l s t h e m i r n e : "
"0 s a y n a s a e , my m a s t e r d e i r ,
For I f e i r a f i e a d l i e s t o r m e .

" L a t e , l a t e y e s t r e e n I saw t h e new moone,

W i t h e a u l d moone i n h i r arme,
And I f e i r , I f e i r , my d e i r master;
That we w i l l cum t o harme."

0 o u r S c o t s n o b l e s were r i c h t l a i t h
To w e e t t h e i r c o r k - h e i l d s c h o o n e ;
Bot l a n g owre a ' t h e p l a y wer p l a y d ,
T h a i r h a t s t h e y swam aboone.
 0 l a n g , l a n g may t h e i r ldi'.es sit,
W i t h a i r f a n s i n t o t h e i r hand,
O r e i r t h e y s e S i r P a t r i c k Spence
Cum s a i l i n g t o t h e l a n d .

0 l a n g , l a n g may t h e l a d i e s s t a n d ,
W i t h a i r g o l d kems i n t h e i r h a i r ,
Waiting f o r t h a i r a i n d e i r l o r d s ,
For t h e y ' l l se thame n a m a i r .

Haf owre, h a £ owre t o Aberdour,

I t ' s f i f t i e fadom d e i p ,
And t h e i r l i e s g u i d S i r P a t r i c k Spence,
W i the Scots lords a t h i s f e i t . 1 4

What a r e t h e d i f f e r e n c e s between t h e emic and e t i c

e s t h e t i c p e r s p e c t i v e s ? What do t h e y t e l l u s a b o u t
t h e p r o d u c e r s and p o s s e s s o r s of f o l k l o r e and
literature?

T h i s p r e l i m i n a r y d i s c u s s i o n of and j u s t i f i c z -
t i o n f o r t h e s t u d y of f o l k l o r e and l i t e r a t u r e
s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e r e a r e many q u e s t i o n s y e t t o b e
raised, but that l i t e r a u r e certainly o f f e r s
i n s i g h t i n t o b o t h t h e l o r e and t h e f o l k , a l l o w i n g
us t o see l o r e a s p a r t of a complex whole Laving
fn.nction and meaning i n t h e l i v e s of p e o p l e . It
s u g g e s t s t h a t such s t u d y may r e v e a l p a r a l l e l s
between w r i t t e n l i t e r a t u r e and o r a l l o r e , n o t o n l y
i n c o n t e n t and f o r m a l f e a t u r e s , b u t i n c r e a t i v e
p r o c e s s ; i t may r e v e a l works of o r a l l o r e whose
e s t h e t i c i s u n i v e r s a l ; i t may p r e s e n t a d d i t i o n a l
d a t a . Answering t h e question--why s t u d y f o l k l o r e
and l i t e r a t u r e - - s e e m s e s s e n t i a l i f t h e a p p r o a c h i s
t o become, as i t once was, a c e n t r a l p a r t o f
folkloristics.
 NOTES

1. Samuel Langhorne Clemens, Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, f a c s i m i l e of t h e 1 s t e d i t i o n

(Scranton. Pa.: Chandler P u b l i s h i n g Company, 1962), p. 20.

2. Ibid., pp. 23-24.

3. Ibid., p. 297.

4. Ibid.. p. 71.

5. Ibid., p. 129.

5. Nark ' b a i n . Following t h e Equator (New York: Harper and B r o t h e r s . 1929). pp. 2 , 163.

7. Richard M. Dorson, "The I d e n t i f i c a t i o n of F o l k l o r e i n American L i t e r a t u r e , " Journal

of American F o l k l o r e 70 (1957): 7.

8. See my "Beyond Content i n t h e A n a l y s i s of F o l k l o r e i n L i t e r a t u r e : Chinua h c h e b e ' s

Arrow -
- of -
God," - ---
Research i n A f r i c a n L i t e r a t u r e s 7 (1976): 44-52 a s an example.

9. Percy vould have p r e f e r r e d s u c c e s s as a w r i t e r , b u t h i s endeavors were p o o r l y

r e c e i v e d ; he t u r n e d t o h i s long c a r e e r of e d i t i n g . R e l i q u e s of Ancient E n g l i s h
P o e t r y s u b s e q u e n t l y became a kind of primer Lor p o e t s . who used i t s c o n t e n t s a s a guide.
See G . .Xalcolrn Laws, The B r i t i s h L i t e r a r y Ballad (Carbondale: Southern I l l i n o i s U n i v e r s i t y
P r e s s , 1972); t h e t r a d i t i o n a l genre i s b u t a beginning p o i n t .

10. C h i n u Achebe, Arrow of God (Garden C i t y , N. Y.: Doubleday 6 Company, 1969). p. 17.

11. Ibid., p. 18.

12. Ibid., p. 41.

13. See Linda ~ & and ~ hAndrew ~ & s o n y i . "The D i a l e c t i c s of t h e Legend," F o l k l o r e P r e p r i n t

S e r i e s , v o l . 1, no. 6 (Bloomington: I n d i a n a U n i v e r s i t y , December 1973). aud Forthcoming
i n World Anthropology: Papers and Conference P u b l i c a t i o n s of t h e n t h I n t e r n a t i o n a l
Congress of A n t h r o p o l o g i c a l and E t h n o l o g i c a l S c i e n c e s , F o l k l o r e i n t h e Modern World,
vo1. 1 , t o b e p u b l i s h e d by Mouton P u b l i s h e r s , The Hague.

14. F r a n c i s James Child, E n g l i s h and S c o t t i s h Popular B a l l a d s . v o l . 2 (New York:

Dover Publications, 1965), pp. 20-21. This i s C h i l d ' s A t e x t , t a k e n from P e r c y ' s
Reliques. 1965. I. 71.