How 2 Deflections
How 2 Deflections
How 2 Deflections
8. Deflection calculations
R Webster CEng, FIStructE O Brooker BEng, CEng, MICE, MIStructE
Overview
In the past structures tended to be stiff with relatively short spans. As
technology and practice have advanced, more flexible structures have resulted.
There are a number of reasons for this, including:
The increase in reinforcement strength leading to less reinforcement being
required for the ultimate limit state (ULS) and resulting in higher service
stresses in the reinforcement.
Increases in concrete strength resulting from the need to improve both
durability and construction time, and leading to concrete that is more stiff
and with higher service stresses.
Tensile strength
The tensile strength of concrete is an important property because
the slab will crack when the tensile stress in the extreme fibre is
exceeded. In Eurocode 2 the concrete tensile strength, fctm, is a mean
value (which is appropriate for deflection calculations) and increases
as the compressive strength increases. This is an advancement when
compared with BS 8110 where the tensile strength is fixed for all
concrete strengths.
Creep
Creep is the time-dependant increase in compressive strain in a
concrete element under constant compressive stress. Creep is usually
considered in the design by modifying the elastic modulus using a
creep coefficient, h, which depends on the age at loading, size of
the member and ambient conditions, in particular relative humidity.
Eurocode 2 gives advice on the calculation of creep coefficients in
detail in Annex B. It also advises on the appropriate relative humidity
to use in Figure 3.1.
The cement strength class is required in the assessment of creep,
however, at the design stage it is often not clear which class should
be used. Generally, Class R should be assumed. Where the ground
granulated blastfurnace slag (ggbs) content exceeds 35% of the
cement combination or where fly ash (pfa) exceeds 20% of the
cement combination, Class N may be assumed. Where ggbs exceeds
65% or where pfa exceeds 35% Class S may be assumed.
Elastic modulus
The degree of restraint to shrinkage movements will influence the
effective tensile strength of the concrete. A layout of walls with high
restraint will decrease the effective tensile strength. Typical examples
of wall layouts are given in Figure 1. For a low restraint layout the
following expression may be used for the concrete tensile strength:
fctm,fl = (1.6 h/1000)fctm > fctm
where
fctm,fl = Mean flexural tensile strength of reinforced concrete
fctm = Mean tensile strength of concrete
Figure 1
Typical floor layouts
60
8. Deflection calculations
Ec,LT = Ec28/(1 + h)
where
Ec28 = 28-day tangent modulus = 1.05 Ecm
h = Creep factor. (Note that with Eurocode 2, h relates to a 28-day
short-term elastic modulus, whereas a true creep factor would
be associated with the modulus at the age of loading.)
The assessment of the long-term E-value can be carried out more
accurately after the contractor has been appointed because they should be
able to identify the concrete supplier (and hence the type of aggregates)
and also the construction sequence (and hence the age at first loading).
Loading sequence
The loading sequence and timing may be critical in determining
the deflection of a suspended slab because it will influence the point
at which the slab will crack (if at all) and is used to calculate the creep
factors for the slab. A loading sequence is shown in Figure 2, which
shows that in the early stages relatively high loads are imposed while
casting the slab above. The loading sequence may vary, depending on
the construction method.
Smaller loads are imposed when further slabs are cast above. The loads
are then increased permanently by the application of the floor finishes
and erection of the partitions. Finally, the variable actions are applied
to the structure and, for the purpose of deflection calculation, the
quasi-permanent combination should be used. (See Chapter 1,
originally published as Introduction to Eurocodes5 for further
information on combinations of actions.) However, it is likely that the
quasi-permanent combination will be exceeded during the lifetime
of the building and, for the purpose of determining whether the slab
might have cracked, the frequent combination may be critical.
Cracking
Deflection of concrete sections is closely linked to the extent of
cracking and the degree to which cracking capacity is exceeded. The
point at which cracking occurs is determined by the moments induced
in the slab and the tensile strength of the concrete, which increases
with age. Often the critical situation is when the slab is struck, or when
the load of the slab above is applied. Once the slab has cracked its
stiffness is permanently reduced.
It is therefore necessary to find the critical loading stage at which
cracking first occurs. This critical loading stage corresponds with the
minimum value of K, where:
K = fctm
^W
0.5h
where
W = The serviceability loading applied up to that stage
fctm = The concrete tensile strength at that stage
Where the frequent combination is the critical load stage, then
the degree of cracking (z) calculated for the frequent combination
should also be used for the quasi-permanent combination, but not for
Figure 2
Loading history for a slab an example
14
12
10
Load (kN/m)
b
f
e
d
Loading sequence
Slab struck
a
1st slab above cast
b
2nd slab above cast
c
3rd slab above cast
d
4
2
e
f
g
h
0
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
Duration (days)
61
Figure 3
Outline of rigorous method for calculating deflection
Shrinkage curvature
Shrinkage depends on the water/cement ratio, relative
humidity and the size and shape of the member. The effect
of shrinkage in an asymmetrically reinforced section is to
induce a curvature that can lead to significant deflection in
shallow members. This effect should be considered in the
deflection calculations.
Methods for
calculating deflections
W1
W2
W3
W4
W5
+
+
+
+
Eeff,1 Eeff, 2 Eeff, 3
Eeff, 4 Eeff, 5
where
Eeff = Ec28/(1+h)
Wn = Serviceability load at stage n
h = Creep coefficient at relevant loading time
and duration
62
Rigorous method
Does the moment at the critical load stage exceed the cracking moment?
If yes, the element is cracked at all subsequent stages.
z = 1 0.5(Mcr/M)2 [z = 0 for uncracked situation]
Use these critical values of fctm and z for subsequent stages.
If no, the element will not crack at any stage.
MQP
MQP
1
rfl = g E e Ic + ]1 g g E e Iu
Calculate the curvature due to shrinkage strain 1/rcs (see Panel 2)
Calculate the total curvature, 1/rt = 1/rfl + 1/rcs
Repeat the calculations at frequent intervals (say at 1/20 points) and integrate
twice to obtain the overall deflection.
Estimate deflections:
Overall deflection (quasi-permanent combination)
Deflection affecting partitions/cladding (Frequent combination deflection
less deflection at time of installation)
8. Deflection calculations
Table 1
Concrete properties
MPa
fck
fcm
= (fck + 8)
fctm
(22 [(fcm)/10]0.3
Ec28
(1.05 Ecm)
320
325
328
330
332
335
340
350
MPa
328
333
336
338
340
343
348
358
MPa
332.21
332.56
332.77
332.90
333.02
333.21
333.51
334.07
MPa
332.77
333.09
333.27
333.39
333.51
333.68
333.96
334.50
GPa
330.0
331.5
332.3
332.8
333.3
334.1
335.2
337.3
GPa
331.5
333.0
333.9
334.5
335.0
335.8
337.0
339.1
microstrain
746
706
683
668
653
632
598
536
microstrain
416
394
381
372
364
353
334
299
microstrain
544
512
494
482
471
454
428
379
microstrain
303
286
275
269
263
253
239
212
microstrain
441
413
397
387
377
363
340
298
microstrain
246
230
221
216
210
202
189
166
eca()
microstrain
325
338
345
350
355
363
375
100
Key
a fctm* may be used when striking at less than 7 days or where construction overload is taken into account.
Panel 2
Useful Expressions for a rectangular section
bh 2
2 + ] ae - 1 g ] Asd + As2 d2 g
xu =
bh + ] ae - 1 g ] As + As2 g
where
2
2
2
bh 3
h
I u = 12 + bh a 2 - xuk + ] ae - 1 g 6 As ]d - xu g + As2 ] x u - d 2 g @
= Breadth of section
xc =
bx c3
2
2
I c = 3 + ae As ^ d - x c g + ^ ae - 1 g As2 ^ d2 - x c g
ae = Modular ratio
Suc
Suc
1
rcs = g f cs a e Icu +^1 - g h fcs ae Iuc
Figure 4
Method for determining creep coefficient h(,t0)
1
2
3
2
3
t 0 10
t 0 10
20
30
20
30
50
50
100
7.0 6.0 5.0 4.0 3.0 2.0 1.0
h (?, t 0 )
a) Inside conditions - RH = 50%
Ke y
C20/25
C25/30
C30/37
C35/45
C40/50
C45/55
C50/60
100
7.0 6.0 5.0 4.0 3.0 2.0 1.0
h (?, t 0)
A
E
63
Figure 5
Simplified method
A simplified method for calculating deflection is presented in Figure 5.
It is feasible to carry out these calculations by hand, and they could be
used to roughly verify deflection results from computer software, or
used where a computer is not available.
The major simplification is that the effects of early age loading are not
considered explicitly; rather an allowance is made for their effect when
calculating the cracking moment. Simplified creep factors are used and
deflection from the curvature of the slab is approximated using a factor.
al
M = Wa (1-a ) l
3 4a 2
48 (1-a)
If a = 1 , K = 1
12
2
No
Is Mcr > MQP?
Section is cracked
z = 1 0.5(Mcr/MQP)2
W/2
al
0.125
Wal
2
a2
6
1
rn
MQP
Eeff Ic
MQP
+ ^1 g h E
eff Iu
Calculate total shrinkage strain ecs from ecs = ecd + eca where:
ecd = kh ecd,0 = Drying shrinkage strain
kh = Coefficient based on notional size, see Table 2
ecd,0 = Nominal unrestrained drying shrinkage, see Table 1
eca = bas(t) eca() = eca() for long-term deflection, see Table 1
0.104
ql 2
8
0.102
ql
15.6
q
MA
MC
MB
K = 0.104 (1
b=
al
1
Calculate total curvature r
t,QP
1
rn
1
rcs
1
KL 2 rt,QP
where K can be obtained from Figure 6 and L is the span.
Calculate quasi-permanent deflection from dQP
MA + MB
MC
Do you need
to calculate deflection
due to cladding and
partitions?
No
Finish
Yes
2 2
a (4 a )
12
if a = l , K = 0.25
qa l
2
MA
MB
K = 0.083 (1
b=
MC
al
b
)
10
End deflection
a (3 a )
=
6
load at end K = 0.333
Wal
al
q
al
2
Wl (3 4a 2)
24
64
0.9 fctm I u
Yes
Section is uncracked
z=0
M=
h xu
(Note the factor 0.9 has been introduced into this method
because the loading sequence is not considered)
0.0625
W/2
al
0.125
START
1 Calculate long term elastic modulus, Eeff from: Eeff = Ec28/[1+h (,t0)]
2 Calculate effective modulus ratio, ae from ae = Es/Eeff, where Es is
elastic modulus for reinforcement (200 GPa)
3 Calculate depth to neutral axis for uncracked condition, xu
4 Calculate second moment of area for uncracked condition, Iu
Figure 6
Loading
MA + MB
MC
1 (5 4a 2 )
80 3 4a
b
)
4
8. Deflection calculations
Precamber
Table 2
Values for Kh
h0
kh
>100
1.0
>200
0.85
>300
0.75
>500
0.70
Notes
h0 is the notional size (mm) of the cross-section = 2Ac/u
where
Ac = Concrete cross-sectional area
u = Perimeter of that part of the cross section which is exposed to drying
Flat slabs
Figure 7
Coefficient for development of creep with time after loading
0.60
0.55
0.50
Flat slabs are very popular and efficient floor systems. However,
because they span in two directions, it can be difficult to calculate their
deflection. TR58 8 gives several suitable methods for assessing flat slab
deflection. Of these, a popular method is to take the average deflection
of two parallel column strips and to add the deflection of the middle
strip spanning orthogonally to get an approximation of the maximum
deflection in the centre of the slab.
The recommended acceptance criteria for a flat slab are shown in Figure 9.
0.45
Accuracy
0.40
0.35
0.30
0.25
100
300
500
h 0 (mm)
700
t = 90, t0 = 3
t = 90, t0 = 7
t = 60, t0 = 3
t = 60, t0 = 7
t = 28, t0 = 3
t = 28, t0 = 7
900
Notes
t = Age of concrete when partitions/cladding applied
t0 = Age of concrete when struck
fck = 30 (fcm = 38), however the coefficient is not particularly sensitive to concrete class
Figure 8
Figure 9
Precambering of slabs
Precamber
Notes
a
X
Deflection due to
quasi-permanent
combination
Deflection due to
frequent combination
Deflection affecting partitions
65
8. Deflection calculations
Cladding tolerances
There should be open discussions between the designers for the various
elements to determine the most cost-effective way of dealing with the
interaction of the structure and cladding.
When a slab deflects, the load on the central fixings will be relieved
References
1 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS EN 199211, Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures. General rules and rules for building. BSI, 2004.
2 MOSS, R M & BROOKER, O. How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2: Beams. The Concrete Centre, 2006.
3 MOSS, R M & BROOKER, O. How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2: Slabs. The Concrete Centre, 2006.
4 MOSS, R M & BROOKER, O. How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2: Flat slabs. The Concrete Centre, 2006.
5 NARAYANAN, R S & BROOKER, O. How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2: Introduction to Eurocodes. The Concrete Centre, 2005
6 BRITISH CEMENT ASSOCIATION. Early striking and improved backpropping. BCA, 2001. (Available from www.concretecentre.com)
7 PALLETT, P. Guide to flat slab formwork and falsework. Construct, 2003
8 THE CONCRETE SOCIETY. Technical report No. 58 Deflections in concrete slabs and beams. The Concrete Society, 2005.
9 GOODCHILD, C H & WEBSTER, R M. Spreadsheets for concrete design to BS 8110 and EC2, version 3. The Concrete Centre, 2006.
10 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS 81101. Structural use of concrete Code of practice for design and construction. BSI, 1997.
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