MA in Sociology

Paper-X

Gender Studies
By: Prof. Navaneeta Rath
Department of Sociology
Utkal University

Directorate of distance &continuing education

Utkal University, Vani Vihar
Website: www.ddceutkal.org

UNIT-1
1.0.

OBJECTIVES

1.1 Social Construction of Gender

1.1.1. Gender vs. Biology
1.1.2. What is Gender?
1.1.3 Theories of Gender
1.2. What is sex?
1.3 Difference between Sex and Gender
1.4. Gender difference and Inequality
1.4.1 Culture and Inequality
1.4.2 Social Processes and Gender Inequality
1.4.3 Social Institutions and Gender Inequality
1.5: Public Private Dichotomy
1.6 Sexual Division of Labour
1.7. Production and Reproduction Interfaces
1.7.1 Sex segregation in families.
1.7.2 Sex segregation in workplace.
1.7.3 Split labour market.
1.7.4 Earning differentiation.
1.7.5 Disparity in security coverage.
1.7.6 Glass ceiling.
1.7.7 Sectoral distribution
1.8 Patriarchy as Ideology and Practice
1.8.1 Origin of the Institution of Patriarchy
1.8.2Features of Patriarchy
1.8.3Feminist Challenge to Patriarchy
1.9 Key Words
1.10 References

Unit: 1
This unit gives an over view of how gender is socially constructed. It discusses how
the biological basis to the differences between the sexes does not explain the
inequalities faced by the sex groups in the society. In the society variations are
marked in the roles, responsibilities, rights of and relations between sex groups
depending on the social prescriptions relating to sex affiliations. The differences,
inequalities and the division of labour between men and women are often simply
treated as consequences of natural differences between male and female humans.
But, in reality the social norms, institutions, societal expectations play a significant
role in deciding and dictating the behaviour of each sex group. So, gender is a social
construct. The present unit looks at the debate on gender vs. biology , how gender
differences are created though social norms and practices and how gender
differences are institutionalised in the society through various social institutions and
the way they override and negate gender equality, the discourses on public private
dichotomy leading to sexual division of labour and the evolution and
institutionalization of patriarchy as an ideology and practice.
1.0 Objectives: After studying this unit, you can
Conceptualize what is Gender and what is Sex and draw a
line of distinction between the two.
Understand gender as a social construct.
Note the difference in gender roles, responsibilities, rights and
relations.
Develop an idea about the discourse on public private dichotomy
leading to sexual division of labour.
Trace out the evolution and institutionalization of the institution
of Patriarchy.

1.1 Social Construction of Gender

Introduction:
The distinctions between men and women are more social than natural.
The conceptual distinction between sex and gender seeks to capture
this view of the matter. Gender became a key sociological concept
owing to the impact of feminism. Thus, arguing that anatomy is not
destiny and that one is not born, but rather becomes, a woman,
Simone de Beauvoir questioned the assumptions behind such
formulations in her feminist classic The Second Sex. At least in the
social sciences, there is now unanimity in accepting that distinctions
between men and women are more social than natural. This clearly
projects gender is a social construct, not an outcome of the biological
difference. There is a conceptual distinction between sex and gender.
They are not one and the same.
Margaret Mead, an American anthropologist, was one of the first to
empirically ground the distinction between the biological and social
characteristics of men and women. She did this rather dramatically
through her study of the conceptions of masculinity and femininity
among the Arapesh, Mundugamor and Tchambuli, three societies in the
New Guinea Islands. On the basis of this study, she argued that
masculinity is often equated with aggression on the one hand and
femininity with nurturance on the other. This association of traits have
no intrinsic relation with biological sex. Meads study contributed
significantly to the shaping of the concept of gender in the latter half of
the twentieth century.
The distinction between sex and gender, which came to dominate
theorization in the sociology of gender in the 1970s, is founded on the
idea of universality of sex and variability of gender. Ann Oakleys Sex,
Gender and Society (1972) made the sex-gender distinction very
popular in sociology. For Oakley, sex is a word that refers to the
biological differences between male and female: the visible differences

in genitalia, the related difference in procreative function. Gender,

however is a matter of culture, it refers to the social classification into
masculine and feminine.

1.1.1Gender vs. Biology

Biologists and sociologists often contradict each other on the issue of
sex and gender correlation. Often the Biologists say that gender
differences are determined by biology. To them, primary sex
characteristics and secondary sex characteristics define the physical
distinctions between males and females. Puberty further defines the
differences between males and females: males develop more muscles
and a lower voice and gain more body hair and height, while females
develop breasts and form more fatty tissue and broader hips. Also
according to biologists, sex is inherited (fertilization determines our
sex). Furthermore, socialization and social institutions merely reflect
and sometimes exaggerate inborn tendencies. Biology leads males
and females to different behaviours and attitudes. Thus ,gender has a
biological root.
The biological stand point advances the argument that there are some natural
differences in the physical, cognitive and emotional make up of men and women
and accordingly, these are reflected in their self concept, attitudes, perceptions,
relationship and activities. The fundamental biological/physical differences between
the gender groups are:
Genetic difference girls XX, boys XY
Hormonal difference testosterone (aggression) and androgen are higher in
males while estrogen is higher among females.
Gonadal difference Ovaries in females and testes in males
Genital difference penis/clitoris
Reproductive difference women are loaded with reproductive capacity by
nature.

The fundamental cognitive and attitudinal differences between males and females
on the basis of biology are:

Musculature women are physically weaker than men.

Brain function Women are more verbal, where as men are action oriented.
Style women are more diplomatic, men are more direct.
Affection women are more sympathetic, caring and affectionate, while men
are straight, task oriented.
It is commonly argued that biological differences between males and females
determine gender by causing enduring differences in capabilities and
dispositions. Higher levels of testosterone, for example, are said to lead men
to be more aggressive than women; and left brain dominance is said to lead
men to be more rational while their relative lack of brain lateralization leads
women to be more emotional.
Sociologists, on the other hand, argue that gender is learnt through
socialization. Every culture asserts the behaviours and attitudes that are
appropriate for ones sex. The sociological significance of gender is that it is a
device by which society controls its members. Sociologists reinforce that the
types of work men and women do in each society are determined not by
biology but by social arrangements. Biology causes some human behaviour ,
but they are related to reproduction or differences in body structure.
Sociologists are of the opinion gender roles and gender identity are more
fashioned by nurture. Conventional wisdom, culture create and sustain
gender identity and gender roles in a society. Gender appropriate behaviours
are learnt from the people around who play a significant role in gender
socialization. Culture takes whatever difference that exists at birth and
exacerbates them. Different cultures have different values and expectations
placed on gender.
However it can be asserted that in determining gender differences, biology
and sociology go hand in hand. This is because biology determines the
inherent differences (such as the physical characteristics that separate human
beings i.e. different hormones that influence their emotions), but sociology
determines their life stance, their behaviours, and the opportunities they are
given. An example of this would be how close a woman is to her child. The
woman has the ability to give birth to a child (which is a role assigned to us by
biology) and since she carries her child for nine months, she is closer to their
baby than the father and takes up a more care giving role spontaneously.

However, gender socialization in society determines how the child interacts

with each parent in the future, and establishes the courses the child takes in
life. Socialization teaches us the societal expectations from each sex group
and directs our behavioural expressions.

1.1.2What is Gender?
Gender refers to the socially constructed roles of and relations between men and
women. Gender refers to the social attributes and opportunities associated with
being male and female and the relationships between women and men and girls and
boys. These attributes, opportunities and relationships are socially constructed and
are learned through socialization processes. They are context/time, specific and
changeable.
In simple terms, gender explains the differences between men and women. Gender
is an analytical category that is socially constructed to differentiate the biological
difference between men and women. The term gender is also used to describe the
differences in behaviour between men and women which are described as
masculine and feminine. Feminist writings focus on this aspect and claim that
these differences are not biological but are social constructions of patriarchal
society. Some theorists suggest that the biological differences between men and
women also result in their mental and physical differences. They argue that
biologically, men are physically and mentally superior to women. Other theorists
suggest that the biological difference between men and women are exaggerated.
The differences are socially constructed by the patriarchal system of society by
which men are described as superior to women. Therefore women become
subordinate to men in the society.
Gender is defined by FAO as the relations between men and women, both
perceptual and material. Gender is not determined biologically, but is constructed
socially. It is the central organizing principle of societies, and often governs the
processes of production and reproduction, consumption and distribution. Gender
issues focus on women & on the relationship between men and women, their roles,
access to and control over resources, division of labour, interests and needs. Gender
relations affect household security family well-being, planning, production and
many other aspects of life. Gender is part of the broader socio-cultural context.
Ann Oakley in her book, Sex, Gender and Society written in 1972 explores the term
gender. The author defines the concept Gender as a product of culture. It refers to
the social classification of men and women into masculine and feminine. Gender has

no biological origin. Oakley says that in the Western culture women play the roles of
the housewife and mother. This is because women are made to play these roles
because of their biology. The western culture also believes that any effort to change
the traditional roles of men and women in the society can cause damage to the
social fabric. Gender is not something we are born with, and not something we
have, but something we do (West and Zimmerman 1987) something we perform
(Butler 1990).

1.1.3Theories on Gender
There are four major sociological theories on gender. They are the Functionalist
Theory, the Symbolic Interaction Theory, The Conflict Theory and The Feminist
Theory.
Functionalist theorists argue that men fill instrumental roles in society while women
fill expressive roles, which works to the benefit of society. Instrumental roles
comprise of the need for leadership and fulfilment of the task on the one hand and
the expressive role refers to need for morale and cohesion on the other. Further, it
is our socialization into prescribed roles that is the driving force behind gender
inequality.
Symbolic interaction theorists look at gender from the micro perspective and
examine gender stratification on a day-to-day level. For example, men are more
likely to interrupt women in conversations and in their workspaces which generally
reflect greater power possessed by the males. These theorists also focus on how
gender roles are internalized by males and females.
Conflict theorists view women as disadvantaged because of power inequalities
between women and men that are built into the social structure. For example, from
this viewpoint, wage inequalities that exist between men and women result from
mens historic power to devalue womens work and benefit as a group from the
services that womens labour provides.
Feminist theory emerged out of the womens movement and aims to understand
the inferior position of women in society for the sole purpose of improving their
position in society. There are four major frameworks that have developed out of
feminist theory: liberal feminism, socialist feminism, radical feminism, and
multiracial feminism.

Liberal feminists argue that gender inequality results from past traditions that
pose barriers to womens advancement. Socialist feminists, on the other hand,
argue that the origin of womens oppression lies with the system of capitalism.
Because women are a cheap supply of labour, they are exploited by a capitalist,
which makes them less powerful both as women and as workers. Radical feminists
see patriarchy as the main cause of womens oppression and argue that womens
oppression lies in mens control over womens bodies. Finally, multiracial feminists
examine the interactive influence of gender, race, and class, showing how together
they shape the experiences of all women and men.
1.2What is Sex?
In a very broad way, sex refers to the biological and physiological
differences between male and female sex. The term sex is a physical differentiation
between the biological male and the biological female. Thus, when an infant is born,
the infant comes to be labelled as a boy or a girl depending on his/her sex. The
genital differences between male and female is the basis of such characterization.
However, it has been argued that having been born into one sex or another,
individuals are then socialized according to specific gender expectations and roles.
Biological males learn to take on masculine roles. They are socialized to think and
act in masculine ways. Biological females learn to take on feminine roles. They are
socialized to think and behave in feminine ways. As the feminist writer Simone de
Behaviour puts it One is not born a man but becomes one, one is not born a
woman but becomes one.
At birth, besides the basic biological differences in the genitals and
reproductive organs, there is not much difference between the male
child and the female child. Society makes the differences between boy
and girl through gender constructions. The biological differences
between the sexes do to some extent explain certain psychological and
socially constructed differences. This view is criticized by some feminist
writers like Judith Butler. Judith Butler argues that sex is natural and
comes first. Gender is perceived as a secondary construct which is
imposed over the top of this natural distinction. Viewed thus, Butler
argues sex itself becomes a social category. This means that the
distinction between male and female is a social distinction made by
the society, that is, it is a social construction. It is a particular way of
perceiving and dividing the differences between male, female.

Judith Butler further explains sex is not just an analytical category. It

is a normative category as well. It stipulates what men and women are.
It also stipulates what men and women ought to be. It formulates rules
to regulate the behaviour of men and women.
Sex and gender are conceptually distinct from each other. Each is
socially constructed in different ways. Gender is a major social status
that organizes almost all areas of social life such as economy, ideology,
polity, family and so on. For an individual, the components of gender
are the sex category assigned at birth on the basis of the appearance of
the genitalia. Each category provides a gender identity, gendered sexual
orientation, marital and procreative status, a gendered personality
structure, gender beliefs and attitudes, gender at work and family roles.
All these social components of are supposed to be consistent and
congruent with ones biology.

1.3Difference between Sex and Gender:

The English language distinction between the words sex and gender
was first developed in the 1950s and 1960s by British and American
Psychiatrists and other medical personnel working with intersex and
trans-sexual patients. Since then, the term gender has been increasingly
used to distinguish between sex as biological and gender as socially and
culturally constructed. The term sex, since classical times, has been
used to designate matters related to biology. The term gender has
generally been used in social or cultural contexts. Sex is a biological
categorization based primarily on reproductive potential, whereas
gender is the social elaboration of biological sex.
Sex is based in a combination of anatomical, endocrinal and
Chromosomal features and the selection among these criteria for sex
assignment is based very much on cultural beliefs about what actually
makes someone male or female. Thus the very definition of the
biological categories male and female, and peoples understanding of
themselves and others as male or female, is ultimately social.

The fundamental differences between sex and gender can be presented as follows:
SEX
GENDER
Sex refers to the biological
Gender refers to the
and
physiological
socially constructed roles,
characteristics that define
behavior, activities and
men and women. It also
attributes that a given
includes
genetic
society
considers
differences.
appropriate for men and
Biological
sex
is
women.
determined by genetic
Gender is an acquired
and
anatomical
identity that is learned,
characteristics.
changes over time, and
.
varies widely within and
across cultures.

From
the
aforesaid
perspective sex is fixed
and based in nature.

From
the
aforesaid
perspective gender is fluid
and based in culture.

Sex is a more scientific

term
that
explains
physical traits and sexual
preferences.

Sex refers to biological

differences;
chromosomes, hormonal
profiles, internal and
external sex organs.

Gender carries a more

social tone. It refers to the
different
clothing,
activities, career choices,
and positions people hold
in society.
Gender describes the
characteristics that a
society
or
culture
delineates as masculine or
feminine.

Sex categories male and

female.

Gender categories include

masculine
and

feminine.
Aspects of sex dont vary
substantially
between
different human societies.

Aspects of gender vary

with societies with varying
cultures.

Sex is imbibed identity; it

is ones biological identity
and
is
biologically
assigned.

Gender
is
acquired
identity, socially learned
expectations and behavior
culturally transmitted.

Some
sexual
manifestations can be
found
from
the
reproductive abilities of
women
and
physical
features.

Some
gender
manifestations can be
found
through
the
activities women perform
in the society.

Thus, Gender is not something we are born with, and not something
we have, but something we do , something we perform. Sex is a
biological categorization based primarily on reproductive potential,
whereas gender is the social elaboration of biological sex. Gender builds
on biological sex, but it exaggerates biological difference, and it carries
biological difference into domains in which it is completely irrelevant.
Sex is based in a combination of anatomical, endocrinal and
chromosomal features, and the selection among these criteria for sex
assignment is based very much on cultural beliefs about what actually
makes someone male or female. Thus the very definition of the
biological categories and peoples understanding of themselves and
others as male or female, is ultimately social. Anne Fausto-Sterling
(2000) sums up the situation as follows: labelling someone a man or a
woman is a social decision.
1.4Gender Inequality and Difference:
Gender inequality refers to disparity between individuals due to gender.
It is the process where there is differential treatment and dividends for
both the gender groups. It is normally noted in the social structure that

the women are debarred, deprived, disadvantaged and marginalized in

terms of their rights, reaches to the like resources and life
opportunities. They are segregated and their visibility, voice is always
low in comparison to their male counterparts. Gender differences are
the typical differences between men and women. Gender differences
are predecessors to gender inequalities and sometimes gender
inequalities heighten gender differences. Culture, social processes,
social institutions which are the components of the social structure
largely stimulate gender inequality.

So far as the culture is concerned, uniformly and universally every culture provides a
higher weight age to the males in comparison to the females. Females are
stigmatized to avail opportunities and to prove their worth. Culture of silence is
accepted as the standard ideal for the females. The social processes also permeate
gender inequality. Right from the socialization process to stratification and
communication, gender discriminations are quite discernible. So far institutions are
concerned educational institutions, in health sector, family, in economy, in media, in
political institutions, the unequal and inferior status of women is vividly manifested.
Thus social structure through its components generates and upholds gender
inequality.
1.4.1Culture and Gender Inequality:
Culture is part of the fabric of every society. It shapes "the way things are done"
and our understanding of why this should be so. Culture is the whole complex of
distinctive spiritual, material, intellectual and emotional features that characterize a
society or a social group. It includes arts, literature, and modes of life, the
fundamental rights of the human being, value systems, traditions and beliefs.
Gender is a cultural construct. Expectations about attributes and behaviours
appropriate to women or men and about the relations between women and men
are shaped by culture. Gender identities and gender relations are critical aspects of
culture because they shape the way daily life is lived in the family, in the wider
community and the workplace.
Gender (like race or ethnicity) functions as an organizing principle for society
because of the cultural meanings given to being male or female. This is evident in

the division of labour according to gender. In most societies there are clear patterns
of "women's work" and "men's work," both in the household and in the wider
community - and cultural explanations of why this should be so. The patterns and
the explanations differ among societies and change over time.
Every culture prescribes its own expectations from the males and the females.
Culture stipulates different norms of socialization and positioning the male and the
female, defining their functions and interrelations. In most of the societies the
culture expects men to be independent and women to be dependent, men as
competent and women as complacent, men as bread winners and women as victims
and sex objects, men as superior and women as inferior. Thus, the culture prescribes
the dos and donts for the male and the females.
The culture not only delineates the expectations but also prescribes the norms of
socialization. It brings a clear-cut distinction in the prescription and practice of
socialization for the children on the basis of their sex. The parents right from the
beginning call the boys in some names which are earmarked as boys names and so
also the girls in some particular names which the culture prescribes as girls names.
In the matters of providing dress the gender distinction is imposed, so also in
providing toys, in decorating their bedrooms. The culture also intends the agencies
of socialization to teach different manners to the children on the basis of their sex.
The gender based manners required by a boy includes adventure, assertive,
aggressive independent, task oriented while for the girls it is to become
sympathetic, sensitive, sober, dependent, emotional and people oriented.
So far as the cultural prescriptions of the positioning of the gender groups are
concerned, almost all cultures put the men at superior positions and women as
subordinates. This syndrome is found in the family, in the community, in
neighbourhood, in co-educational schools, in work places, in religious institutions.
Even in the matters of politics, the culture refers a man to be a leader and a woman
to be a follower. A man is expected to be the power wilder, while a female as
powerless. Similarly according to the cultural norms, property remains in the name
of males and the women are never the owners of property. Thus culture promotes
gender inequality but the process of modernization is now changing culture to bring
gender equity.

1.4.2Social Processes and Gender Inequality:

Social processes are the fundamental activities through which people interact and
establish social relationships. To quote Horton and Hunt, "The term Social process
refers to the repetitive form of behaviour which is commonly found in social Life".
Thus, social process consists of sequence of events, repetition of events,
relationships between the events, continuity of events and special result. The vital
and universal social processes of the society include socialization, social
stratification, communication and social change where instances of gender
inequality are vividly noted.
Society expects different attitudes and behaviours from boys and girls.
Gender socialization is the tendency for boys and girls to be socialized differently.
Boys are raised to conform to the male gender role and girls are raised to conform
to the female gender role. A gender role can be defined as a set of behaviours,
attitudes, activities and personality characteristics expected and encouraged of a
person based on his or her sex. Gender socialization is the process of learning the
social expectations and attitudes accepted as appropriate for ones sex. Sociologists
explain the significance of gender socialization by suggesting that males and females
behave differently in the society because they are taught different gender roles.
Gender socialization is often described as a more focused form of socialization
where children of different sex groups are socialized into the gender roles they are
expected to perform.
Gender socialization begins right from the birth of a child with the vital
question posed Is it a boy or a girl? The agencies of socialization like family, peer
group, schools, and media play a significant role in the process of gender
socialization.
A good example of gender socialization is when a girl is asked to be sober and polite
in her dealings and a boy is instructed to be smart and dashing. Sometimes gender
socialization generates inequality in the society. However, it can be concluded that
gender socialization is simply teaching the gender stereotypes to children right from
the beginning. Stereotypes refer to the societys shared knowledge of customs,
myths, ideas, religion. Social psychologists feel that the stereotype is an important

component of an individuals social knowledge. Stereotypes influence human

behaviour. Stereotypes are thus the institutionalized knowledge that are learned,
transmitted and changed through the process of socialization. A stereotype is
defined as an unvarying form or pattern, specifically a fixed or conventional notion
or conception of a person, group which prevent development of individuality and
block the individual to get out of it. For e.g. the traditional role of women to cook,
clean and care children and the men to earn a living and support their families are
gender stereotypes which still continue to dominate the society. Stereotypes are
rooted in cultural practices and are transmitted from one generation to the other.

Gender stereotypes are injected into our cognitive processes. Stereotypes

create share mental pictures which perpetuate as dominant values reinforced by
the society.
Gender socialization is not spontaneous. Certain institutions play a significant
role in promoting gender socialization. The prominent institutions in gender
socialization include the family, peer group, school and the media.
So far as stratification is concerned, it is again gendered in character. Men and
women are polarized through stratification. Then they are ranked. Gender
stratification refers to the ranking of the sexes in such a way that women are
unequal in power, resources, prestige, or presumed worth. Gender stratification
generates social inequalities and gender differential in the distribution of power,
prestige and property. Due to gender stratification different rights, responsibilities,
reaches and relationships emerge between men and women. The availability of
opportunities, accessibility to such opportunities and affordability for such
opportunities become variant for men and women. Life resources, life opportunities
are better available, accessible to men and become better affordable by them in
comparison to females.
So far as responsibility sharing and role performance are concerned, women though
perform difficult, prolonged roles and have heavy responsibilities, they often go
invisible and unrewarded. On the other hand males works and responsibilities are
highly valued and heavily paid.

Communication is the chief process that maintains social stability, order and inters
connectedness. Language is the chief vehicle of communication. Language itself
exhibits its gender bias and generates gender inequality. Language perpetuates
male dominance by ignoring, trivializing and sexualizing women. Use of the pronoun
he when the sex of the person is unspecified and of the generic term mankind to
refer to humanity in general are obvious examples of how the English language
ignores women. Common sayings like:
Thats womens work (as opposed to thats mens work)
Jokes about women drivers.
Phrases like Women and children first or wine, women and song are
trivializing.
Women, more than men, are commonly referred to in terms that are sexual
connotations.
Terms referring to men (studs, jocks) that do not have sexual meanings imply
power and success, whereas terms applied to women (broads, dogs, chicks)
imply promiscuity or being dominated.
In fact, the term promiscuous is usually applied only to women, although its
literal meaning applies to either sex.
Social change is another social process which brings alteration in the existing
social order. The process of social change is always assumed to be engineered by
men. Stewardship in social movements leading to change is always taken by the
males. Reformers are often males. The change always becomes eager to bring better
conditions for the males while for the females they have a reservation to maintain
the status-quo. Even-if changes are designed to cover both the sex groups; the
women lag behind in the process of change.
1.4.3Social Institutions and Gender Inequality:
Social institutions have their prototype gender treatment procedure which lay
the foundation of gender inequality. Family is the first institution which the child
encounters. In the family right from infancy through early childhood and beyond,
children learn what is expected of boys and girls, and they learn to behave according
to those expectations. Girls and boys are perceived and treated differently from the

moment of birth. Parents describe new born daughters as tiny, soft and delicate,
and sons as strong and they interact differently with new born daughters and sons
in the family. How parents treat their children may be the most important factor in
the creation of sex stereotypes. When one compares the life of the young girl to
that of the young boy, in the family a critical difference emerges:
Girl is treated more protectively and she is subjected to more restrictions and
controls.
Boy receives greater achievement demands and higher expectations.
Girl infants are more talked to.
Girls are the objects of more physical contact such as holding, rocking,
caressing, and kissing.
Fathers provide the strongest pressures for gender specific behaviour. They
reward their daughters and give them positive feedback for gendered behaviour.
With their sons they use more negative feedback and punish them for gender
inappropriate behaviour.
Mothers are more likely to reinforce behaviour of bother boys and girls with
rewards and positive feedback. Similarly the role performance of the father and
mother in the family on gender basis has an implicit impact on the children. They
find the mother within the domestic arena and the father in outdoor economic
pursuits. They find the mother with them, in the kitchen, in discharging the
household chores while they find the father deciding the family budget, disbursing
the money, and staying outside the house for lingering hours. This brings the picture
of gender differentiation in the child.
Further, gender inequality is created by the family when children of different sex
groups are treated differently in their food, fashion, and provision of education.
Next to family, the child gets exposed to the school. School practices are also gender
biased in character which strengthens gender inequality. The major areas associated
with the school are class room transactions, dresses, teachers attitude, curriculum,
primers, sports and exposures in which gender differential practices are noticed.In
the class rooms of almost schools separate sittings arrangements are made for the
boys and girls. School choir groups are primarily dominated by girls. Teachers

frequently invite the boys to the black boards and teachers tables, but girls rarely
appear there. Teachers thus react differently to the girls and boys. They have
different kinds of contact and expectations from boys and girls. Boys receive more
attention from teachers and are allowed to talk in the class. More answers in
mathematics and science are expected from the boys by the teachers while more
answers in literature, social sciences are expected from the girls. Tasks like greeting
the guests by escorting them to the stage or the venue are allotted to the boys,
while garlanding the guests become the allotted tasks of the girls. Opening the keys
of the class rooms, fetching water, dismantling and organizing the desks, boards fall
into the domain of the boys works while cleaning, sweeping, decorating the class
rooms are the regular duties of the girls. Teachers provide heavy physical
punishment to the boys while vocal rebuke is afflicted on the girls.
Societys expectation again gets reflected in the curriculum and primers. Business
studies, Industrial drawings, Mathematics are optional subjects preferred for the
boys while Home Science, Physiology, Home Economics; Crafts, Music are optional
subjects which girls are encouraged to take. So far as vocational education are
concerned boys are required to opt for woodwork, mechanics and taught skills while
girls are taught cooking, gardening, sewing and secretarial skills. School primers are
found to be lacking gender neutrality. Female figures are lesser visible in comparison
to male figures. Boys outdoor activities, outdoor economic pursuits and adventures
are glorified in the stories while girls indoor activities, passive nature are idealized.
Men leading and women following, men at work and women as care givers are
portrayed in many primers.
School sports clearly generate gender inequality. Playing with opposite gender
groups is discouraged. Boys are encouraged to play outdoor games, in larger groups,
competitive games, while girls are encouraged to play indoor games, in small
homogenous groups, in collaborative games. Games are meant to promote
toughness and aggressiveness in the boys while games are used to promote
tolerance and accommodative qualities in girls. Horse riding, shooting are promoted
among boys while chess, badminton are encouraged for girls. Exposure visits, school
representations are encouraged for boys and discouraged for the girls. Thus, school
practices silently but strongly promote gender inequality.

The economic institution of the society out and out generates gender inequality.
Production system is male dominated; higher share of consumption is undertaken
by males and the distribution system favours males. The employment market is
male friendly and the entire organized sector is male dominated. While the informal
sector accommodates more women, ownership of property and larger share of
income goes to the males and women seldom have an ownership in their names. To
quote Eitzen and Baca Zinn (2003) Women perform 60% of work worldwide, they
earn 10% of income and own 10% of the land. Of late the ILO has noted most
women are home based workers. They are often unpaid, underpaid, deferred paid
and in many household economic activities they are the invisible hands which goes
unrecognized. Women lack adequate skill and training, potentiality for mobility and
they became the immediate victims of labour displacement. So, there is a
feminization of poverty.
Women are segregated from the decision making process. They suffer from
political apathy and the rate of political participation among them is perceptibly low.
Their voice in the political forum is limited due to under representation and lack of
political knowledge. Thus, their visibility is nominal and vigilance is absent among
them. Thus, political institutions generate gender inequality.
The mass media too reflect societys assumption about gender. Media defines
the lives of women in terms of men. Advertisements portray women as beautiful,
comfort seeking and luxury crazy while males as hardy, toiling. Media becomes
more vociferous about male achievements and adventures and project women as
low achievers and there is a feeble representation of female adventures. Stories
about men adorn the media while women as victims of violence get media
coverage.
Thus, social institutions through their operating mechanism create and
perpetuate gender inequality. Most social institutions are male dominated and male
driven which provide scanty space to the women and strengthen gender inequality.
Various development institutions have built on this concept to develop their own
`working definitions` of the term gender equality, as part of the global ` gender
mainstreaming` initiatives which have been taking place since the 1990. It is a
priority area in the national agendas of different nations. Constitutions of different

nations make provisions for ensuring gender equality. Legal safeguards are created
to secure better opportunities for women to bring them in par with men.
Programmes are designed to promote gender equality and institutions are created
to safeguard the interests of women and prevent the practice of gender difference.
Some achievements have been made in this direction, yet lot is to be done to create
a gender equal environment.

1.5Public and Private Dichotomy

The Western tradition sees the world as composed of two spheres: the public, and
the private. Public sphere comprises of the system of governance, power play,
regulations and legal protections. Private sphere on the other hand, refers to the
arena where domestic responsibilities dominate; there is the absence of power, lack
of regulation and legal protection coverage. The public/private division originates
from classical liberal political philosophy. The public political sphere is the realm of
the government, while the private, apolitical sphere is that of family, home, and
sexuality. According to the liberal tradition, the two spheres also correspond with
the two sexes. The public is the realm of men. The justifications being the men are
the traditional breadwinners and are assumed to be the rational and political sex.
The private is the realm of women who are considered as the care givers and
irrational and politically ignorant and incompetent. This, public private dichotomy
has all throughout proved detrimental to the plights of women.
There is no clear record of the origin of this public/private division. It is sometimes
claimed that it had its root in the primitive community itself. In the primitive society,
the male-hunter-gatherer strolled along burdened with his spear and a throwing
stick, his female mate trudged along after him carrying their infant, their shelter,
their food supplies and her digging stick. It appears that, from the moment of the
development of human interaction and language, women have always been
associated with the private, and men with the public.
The liberal political origins of the public private concept lie in the writings of the
social contract theorists. These theorists attempted to explain the new social order
that emerged from social contract comprised two spheres : one, public and political
and the other, private and away from politics. Only men were deemed to possess
the capacities for citizenship and so the public realm was necessarily a masculine
one. While women were beings whose sexual embodiment prevented them from

having the same political standing of men. Thus the men through their
monopolization of public sphere were privileged than the women.
Feminist writers debating public private dichotomy have undertaken historical or
anthropological analyses of its origin and development. The concept of the public
and private has also had a role in the development of theories of womens
subordinated status. Some feminist writers propose Marxs theory also explain
womens secondary status in the public sphere. Similarly theories of patriarchy
explain the nature of womens subordination and her activities being confined to
the private sphere. Since the Industrial Revolution in the late 19th and early 20th
centuries, men have been defined as the money-making workers and women as the
child-bearing emotional support for men.
These empirical studies on a range of issues reveal that the public and the private
are not to be taken as separate realms, as binary opposites, but that the public and
private are mutually interdependent set of social relations. Studies on gender,
household work, and paid work have shown that mens advantaged position in paid
work cannot be understood separately from the fact that women continue to
perform the bulk of housework and childcare.
Research studies have analysed the effects that construction of the public and the
private have on womens and mens experiences and opportunities. In a study by
Lister in 1997 examines how the ideology of the public and the private has
effectively served to exclude women from the category of citizen. This has got
consequences for their political participation, created economic dependency, and
increased the rate of domestic violence, rape or sexual harassment for women. Thus
public private dichotomy or binary:
Perpetuates gender hierarchy.
Legitimizes male domination of the state and institutions.
Perpetuates patriarchy.
Strengthens sexist assumptions.
Gives birth to gender inequality and social exclusion of women.
1.6Sexual Division of Labour:
The sexual division of labour is a basic structural element in human social
organization. Humans are the only primates who have evolved their sexual division
of labour. Sexual division of labour is traditionally seen as a natural arrangement

that forms the basis of all economic specialization and social structure leading to the
formation of kinship groups and the family. In the terminology of Talcott Parsons, it
is a term referring to the specialized gender roles of male bread winner and female
housewife. This sexual division of labour strengthens the public private dichotomy.
Ideology, biology and culture contribute significantly towards creating this
gender based division of labour. Male and female have different biological makeups. Chromosomal and hormonal differences make males and females physically
different. This brings difference in their physical abilities. Males are taller, heavier
and more muscular while females are shorter, lighter and are less muscular.
Accordingly tasks are provided to them right from the primitive era. Murdock
observes there are different tasks for men and women which have become mere
universals. Males right from the nomadic era are allotted with tasks like hunting
large animals, cleaning and tilling large patches of land, metal works, wood and
bone works, boat building and trapping. Tasks accorded to the females include food
production, cooking, collecting fruits, carrying water, caring infants. Reproduction is
accepted as the specialization of women. While production is taken as the
specialized skill of men and the use of plough pulled more men to agriculture, food
processing is traditionally allotted to women.
Ideologically the common mindset remains that women have lesser cognitive
ability in comparison to males. Therefore, the public works and activities involving
the manipulation of power, property and prestige are delegated to them. They are
taken as the sole prerogatives of the males. Decision making, creating and
recreating consumable goods and commanding social prestige are only possible
through male endeavour. So, public sphere is denied to the women and domestic
sphere is assigned to them. It is believed that in domestic arena the tasks are more
natural; routine bound which do not require much mental activities. So, the
prevalent ideology assigns private sphere to the women and public sphere to the
men.
Cultural explanations of sexual division of labour have been explained in the
previous pages particularly the structural differences created by sex based
socialization process, the role distribution mechanisms, the agencies of socialization,
communication, and media reinforce the sexual division of labour.

1.7Production and Reproduction Interfaces:

The production and reproduction dichotomy represents the double standard
adopted in devising division of labour on gender basis. Paid works signify production
(assigned to the males) while unpaid works such as rearing and care works assigned
to the women represent activities associated with reproduction. The employment
market is not gender neutral. It prefers and is supportive to the males. The normal
notion of the society is that production activities generate an economic return. So, it
is the privilege of the males. On the other hand, reproduction activities are
biological in origin and dont have any economic yield. So, reproduction is the duty
of the woman. Associated with reproduction activities is the role of mother, wife,
and the ultimate caretaker of domestic life, which undermines the vital role a
woman can play. Reproduction and feminity go hand in hand while production and
masculinity are interchangeable with each other. This sources and conforms to the
public private dichotomy.

This production, reproduction and role assignment at home determines the

precise nature of womens economic and social experiences.
The reproduction ability of women is never glorified rather is used to arrest her
production capacity. The ongoing practice of the society clearly suggests
reproduction generates tenacity for home confinement of the women and brings
limited representation in the production system. This becomes evident from certain
parameters
that
can
be
discussed
in
the
following
lines.
The parameters are:

Sex segregation in families.

Sex segregation in workplace.
Split labour market.
Earning differentiation.
Disparity in security coverage.
Glass ceiling.
Sectoral distribution.

1.7.1Sex Segregation in the Families:

The production reproduction dichotomy has its first manifestation in the
family. The men are allotted with outdoor economic activities. Fulfilling the material
needs of the family, taking vital decisions for the family are the unwritten duties of
the males, while the women have a feeble role in this. The womens reproductive
ability imposes them to become good wives, mothers, caregivers and family
managers. Cooking, cleaning, carrying fuel, fodder, water are their earnest duties.
Their physical power is glamorized in providing difficult jobs but within the four
walls of their household. They lack bargaining power and are denied to demand for
any economic return. This sex segregation in the families is a clear evidence of the
public private dichotomy.
1.7.2Sex Segregation in the Workplace:
The production reproduction bifurcation or the public private dichotomy comes to
limelight when women are systematically segregated in their workplaces. Women
are found to be concentrated in stereo typed jobs. Gender segregation in
occupations relates to the different work that men and women do as a consequence
of their patterns of socialisation, identifying tasks traditionally seen as womens
work or mens work. The occupational segregation is caused by gender bias based
on stereotypical, biological and social differences between men and women. The
concentration of men and women in different kinds of jobs is known as occupational
segregation. Two kinds of gender segregation have been identified: horizontal
segregation and vertical segregation.
Horizontal segregation is where the workforce of a specific industry or sector is
mostly made up of one particular gender. An example of horizontal segregation can
be found in construction, where men make up the majority of the industrys
workforce, whereas childcare is almost exclusively a female occupation.
Vertical segregation is where opportunities for career progression within a company
or sector for a particular gender are narrowed. Vertical segregation affects women
far more than men.
Women till today dominate the pink collar occupations. There are certain jobs which
are designated as female jobs and these are known as soft, pink collar jobs while the

male are positioned in hard, white collar jobs. Clerical jobs, sales jobs, front office
jobs, sewing waitress jobs, domestic helps, nurses and primary school teachers are
clustered by women while top executive jobs, management positions, technical
occupations are monopolized by males in greater numbers.
1.7.3Split Labour Market:
Labour market itself has its gender orientation. It takes the production,
reproduction prescriptions to favour males on the pretext that they are
economically more vibrant and contributing than the females. The labour market
holds womens socialization is for child rearing, domestic management and they
have a lower aspiration in comparison to the males. Womens commitment to
family is an accepted value while males devotion to and innovations in workplace
are given better weight age. So, the labour force accommodates more men, and
men for heavy, non-traditional, technical activities. Further, women become the
immediate as well as ultimate victim of labour displacement. Mans displacement is
given a second thought with the idea that he is the breadwinner and upon his labour
force participation depends the survival of the entire family.
1.7.4Earning Discrepancies:
The sex based division of labour produces earning discrepancies between men
and women. Men are conceived to be at the pivot of production while women as
the centre of reproduction. Though mainstreaming efforts are on for women in the
labour market, the traditional mindset has not been completely eroded. Till now,
women are fitted into lower paid jobs, devote less time to production and
concentrate more on domestic management and due to reproduction
responsibilities lack adequate skill and training which fetch them lesser pay than
men.
1.7.5Disparities in Security Coverage:
Women are least covered by security measures. As women are less accommodated
in organized sectors, they fail to enjoy social security. Women are accommodated in
large numbers in informal sector where social security is absolutely absent. Further,
hire and fire, vulnerabilities and exploitation are maximum for women which they
accept because of their informal sector work. They have seldom a union for
collective bargaining.

1.7.6Glass Ceiling:
Glass ceiling becomes a common practice for the women in corporate
professions. It refers to the practice by which women are prevented to go up in the
corporate hierarchies. Job mobility is restricted for them on the grounds that they
remain off the corporate ramp to build families and they fail to devote lingering
time to their corporate profession. Again glass ceiling operates on the production
reproduction contradictions.
1.7.7Sectoral Distribution:
Women are pushed into the primary and tertiary sectors and secondary sector
participation is low among them. In the same vein, in the organized sector, their
visibility is low while in the unorganized sector, their participation is perceptively
higher. Thus, division of labour in society is gender based. Reproduction and
production stamps bring differentiation in labour force participation among men
and women. Glorified reproduction ability of women undermines their production
potentiality which ultimately casts an impact on their economic participation and
benefit sharing. This results in feminization of poverty and relegates women into a
secondary status.
However, feminists have long raised their voice against this production
reproduction dichotomy and public private debate. Of late, the mainstreaming
effort of the Government is trying to collapse such barriers. Yet, all women have not
come across such barriers to take up vigorous public and production role. The
society has to take up a new vision of women where womens reproduction role is
to be combined with production and partnership roles to bring gender equality in
division of labour.
From the beginning of first wave feminism and the fight for women's suffrage,
women have been using politics to enter the public realm of men, thus challenging
the stark division between public man and private woman. A goal of the feminist
movement has been to create equality between the sexes, both in the public and
private spheres of life. In doing so, the gendered spaces of men and women have
become blurred. The mantra of second wave feminism, "the personal is political,"
signifies the first attempt to break down the gendered division between the private

sphere attributed to women and the public sphere of men. Carol Hanisch coined the
slogan, The Personal is Political. It suggests dominant positions of men are not
confined to public life but all aspects of life represent the power relationship.
With the creation of the first international womens rights treaty, the public/private
divide began to break down. The Convention on the Elimination of Discrimination
against Women (CEDAW) began to bridge the gap between the public and private,
holding states parties accountable for rights violations committed in the private
sphere, by private actors. The treaty, adopted in 1979, prohibits all forms of
discrimination in all areas of life, including within the home. The treaty does not
permit discrimination against women under the guise of culture or tradition. No
doubt, due to the gender transformative policies the public- private dichotomy is in
a process of transition now.

1.8Patriarchy as Ideology and Practice:

Patriarchy is a form of society where power is deposited with the fathers. It is the
opposite term of matriarchy. This form of social organization is universally found in
most of the societies. It represents the men as supreme and women as subordinates
so far as power, control and decision making are concerned. Under patriarchy form
of social organization, the woman is not only subordinated to the man, but falls
victim to myriad forms of disadvantages, deprivations, discriminations, exploitations
and oppressions. Patriarchy legitimizes and institutionalizes male dominance. Thus,
patriarchy is a social system in which a father is the head of the family. Ownership of
property and surname are traced through the male line, and men have legal or
social authority over women and children. It is a social organisation that grants
power to men and oppresses women through political, social and economic
institutions with the harmful effect of gender binary.
Patriarchy literally means the rule of the father in a male dominated family. It
is a social and ideological construct that considers men, the patriarchs or the fathers
as superior to the women. Sylvia Walby in Theorizing Patriarchy calls it a system
of social structure and practices, in which men dominate, oppress and exploit
women. Patriarchy creates a hierarchical social structure on the basis of gender
where the man is positioned higher than the woman. It creates unequal power
relations where the man becomes the repository of power and controls womens
production, reproduction and sexuality. Family, kinship network, state, religion and

media perpetuate the culture of patriarchy by promoting male domination and

womens subordination. Patriarchy gives birth to double standards for men and
women in different spheres of life.
Patriarchal societies champion the ideology of motherhood and visualise woman as
the prime caregiver. These societies restrict womens mobility and burden them
with the responsibilities to nurture and rear children. The traditionalist view accepts
patriarchy as biologically determined and as the biological functions of men and
women are different, the social roles and tasks assigned for women are also
different.
Patriarchy is a universal phenomenon, but the degree of its operation is not
uniform. Its magnitude varies in terms of class, caste, religion, region, ethnicity and
the prophecy and practice adopted by a group. Patriarchy again exhibits intra group
variations depending upon space, species and time. Within a class it varies on the
basis of religion and region, within a caste it varies on the basis of the exposure and
access of women to education, economic resources.
1.8.1Origin of the Institution of Patriarchy:
It is believed patriarchy emerged from the biological differences between men and
women. Particularly, the biological advantages of women to bear children created
differential social tasks and assigned them the responsibilities like motherhood,
nurturing, educating and raising children by becoming entirely devoted to families.
To quote Sigmund Freud for women anatomy is destiny and it is womens biology
which determines their psychology, productive ability and roles. In the same vein
Heywood suggests the social differentiation between men and women basically
emerge from their biological distinction. Feminists challenge patriarchy. They argue
that the biological difference might lead to some difference in their roles, but the
former should not become the basis of a sexual hierarchy in which men are
dominant. The feminists propose patriarchy is man-made and has developed
historically by the socio-economic and political processes in society.
Another view suggests invasion and expansion ventures strengthened patriarchy.
Men were considered befitting for rough journeys and harsh conditions of war
fields. Their physical prowess was recognized better to encounter enemies and

expand their territories. So, they were solicited to come out and women were asked
to nurture families. These dichotomous tasks brought differentiation and hierarchies
where the woman was pushed to lower ranks.
Further, dependence on agriculture and hunting for livelihood required male labour
force. The male became designated as the bread winners and women as the care
takers. Social cleavages based on gender promoted patriarchy.
However, all the differentiations emanate from the biological differences and
differences in the psychological make ups of the women to be sympathetic and
caring.
1.8.2 Features Arising Out of the Practice of Patriarchy:
Thus, the foregoing discussions clearly indicate that a patriarchal society is
male dominated, male identified and male centred. Oppression of women and their
subordination are central to the idea of patriarchy. The key features emerging out of
the practice of patriarchy can be discussed as below:
Patriarchy generate public private dichotomy:
It simply implies private realm should be the operational area of women and
public realm should be adorned by men.
Patriarchy promotes patrilineage and patrilocality:
In a patriarchal society descent is traced through the Pater or father. The line of
inheritance passes from the father to the son which is called patrilineage.
Further, the patriarchal order is patrilocal where the wife and off springs stay in
the fathers home.
Patriarchy entails males control over womens sexuality:
Men decide the dress code for women. Chores demanding flexibility in body
movements are denied to women and her efficiency is derecognized and her
employability in non-conventional occupations is restricted. Hostility is
inflicted to the women operating machines or riding vehicles. Women are
treated as the treasurers of customs, traditions and cultural practices. Their
participation as devdasis, practice of fasting are highly valued and permitted

by cultures. In securities are created for her and she is made dependent on
the patriarch.
Patriarchy controls womens fertility:
Women are treated as child producing machines by men. Customary
practices demand the preference for male children and permit female
feticide, female infanticide and negligence of girl children. Unwed mother are
oppressed and excluded in the society and prostitution is looked down upon
where the male does not figure though he is intensively involved in putting
such stamps on the woman. A womans wishes and decisions are seldom
respected with regard to the time of conception, frequency of conception and
the number of children the family desires to have. Her fertility is at mans
command.
Patriarchy controls womens labour:
Patriarchy demands a male order, male supremacy and gender based division
of labour. Commanding, controlling and yielding positions are rationed by
men while the subservient, implementing and non paying positions are
accorded to the women. Employment market favour men than women.
Women are put into back breaking and unpaid labour force.

Thus, patriarchy provides centrality to men whereby command and control

are cornered by men and women are relegated to subordinate positions in all
aspects of life.
1.8.3FEMINIST CHALLENGE TO PATRIARCHY:
Feminists challenge patriarchy. They argue that the biological difference might lead
to some difference in their roles, but the former should not become the basis of a
sexual hierarchy in which men are dominant. The feminists propose patriarchy is
man-made and has developed historically by the socio-economic and political
processes in society.
Patriarchy is conceptualized and analysed by several feminist scholars in different
ways. They challenge patriarchy. They argue that the biological difference might
lead to some difference in their roles, but the former should not become the basis

of a sexual hierarchy in which men are dominant. The feminists propose patriarchy
is man-made and has developed historically by the socio-economic and political
processes in society. Feminists challenge patriarchy as an instrument to serve the
interest of the males. To them patriarchal ideology manifests itself in knowledge,
ideology, values and practices prevalent in the society. Some feminists oppose the
use of the term Patriarchy and prefer it to be replaced by the term Gender
oppression. Michele Barret argues sometimes we make a hedonistic use of the
term patriarchy indicating its unchanged nature. But with the present efforts at
gender mainstreaming, the feminist attempt to ensure gender equity will soon
challenge the continuity of patriarchy. Patriarchy is in a process of change though
continuity of some features is still noted today.
1.9Key words: Gender, gender Identity, Gender Role, Sex, Sexual Division of
Labour, Patriarchy

1.10References
1. Bhasin, Kamala (2003): Understanding Gender, Kali for Women.
2. Holmes, Mary (2007): What is Gender? Sociological Approaches, Sage
Publication.
3. Jackson, Stevi, Scott, Sue (2002), Gender: A Sociological Reader, Routledge
4. Butler, J,( 2004) Undoing Gender , Routledge
5. Evans,Mary.( 2003) Gender and Social Theory Open University Press

UNIT-I
Review Exercise
Essay Type Questions
1. Describe gender as a social construct.
2. Delineate the ways in which social inequality and differences are perpetuated in the society?
3. What is publicprivate dichotomy? How does it influence sexual division of labour in society?
4. Write a short essay on Patriarchy.
5. Examine the gendered character of the social institutions.
Short answer type answers
1. Write a note on Gender vs. Biology.
2. Differentiate between Sex and Gender.

3. Discuss how culture generates gender inequality?

4. Elaborate the theories of gender.
5. Describe the features of Patriarchy.

UNIT-II
UNIT-2
1.0 OBJECTIVES
2.0 Status of Women through Various Ages
2.1 Ancient Period:
2.1.1The Rigvedic Period
2.1.2The Age of the Atharva, Sama and Yajur Veda
2.1.3The Age of Upanishads
2.1.4The Status of Women in the Epics
2.1.5Women in Dharmashastras and Puranas
2.1.6Women during the Buddhist Period
2.1.7 Jainism and Women
2.2 Medieval Period
2.2.1Women during Bhakti Movement
2.3 Women in Modern India
2.3.1 Women in British India
2.3.2 Social Reform Movements and Women in India
2.3.3The Nationalist Movement and Women in India
2.3.4 Growth of Women's Organizations
2.3.5 Enactment of Social Legislations
2.4Status of Women in Post- Colonial Period
2.4.1Womens Journey in India: From Preventions to Privileges
2.4.2Socio-Religious Institutions and the Status of Women in India
2.5 Indias Pluralism: A Challenge to the Status of Women
2.5.1Status of Tribal Women in India
2.5.2 Status of Dalit Women in Modern India
2.6 Key Words
2.7 References

This unit centres on the discussion on the status of women in India in

various ages. The status of women in India has not remained consistent
all throughout history. Rather, it has undergone changes from time to
time. The basic objective of the unit is to impress upon the readers how
status of women is conditioned by the dominant religious, social and
cultural traditions of different times. It also will focus on the fact how in
a heterogeneous country in India the status of women varies from
community to community and across region and religion. In this
context, the entire Indian history is divided into three broad phases, i.e.
The ancient period, the medieval period and the modern period. The
ancient period refers to the period of the Vedas, the Upanishads, the
epics and the period of Buddhism and Jainism. The medieval period
basically refers to the period of Islamic invasion and Islamic regime. The
modern period spans from the beginning of the colonial era to the
present day. The status of women in the modern period will cover their
status during the colonial and post colonial or post independence time.
1.0Objectives:
After studying this unit, you can
Have a broad idea about the position of women in Indian society
in different ages.
Develop an impression about the factors affecting the status of
women in different periods of time.
Assess the position of women in different groups or
communities.
Estimate the role of institutions in influencing the position of
women.

2.0 Status of Women through Various

Ages
The development of women in a society is always indexed by the status
accorded to its women folk. The better the status of women, the better is their
development. However, the status of women is not constant through the ages.
Particularly in a country like India, which has witnessed many political upheavals
and alien invasions, the status of women has always remained in a flux. Because,
the socio political and cultural climate of the country has undergone changes
depending upon the regime, religious traditions developed in different times.
Therefore the status of women in India can be best described by depicting their
positions and plights in different ages. In this context, it is worthwhile to mention
here that the status can be delineated in three different eras. They are: the
ancient age, the middle age and the modern age which includes the colonial
period and the post colonial period.
2.1 Ancient Period:
The ancient period is said to be the period of the Vedas, the Upanishads and the
epics. During this period, the Indian social structure was conditioned by the
prescriptions made by the Vedas, the Upanishads and the epics which were
considered to be guiding documents for functioning of the society and were
prescribing the normative order of the society.
There were four Vedas like Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda and Artharva veda.
The Rigveda was the first ancient document of the Aryans. According to the
famous historian Max Muller the age of Rigveda approximately extends from
2500B.C. to 1500 B.C. Max Muller divides the Vedic literature in four periods.
Those periods are:
The Chhands Period
The Mantra Period
The Bhraman Period and
The Sutra Period
2.1.1 In the Rigveda, women were described as spiritual and divine
beings. The Rig Veda makes it quite clear that during this period child

marriage was not prevalent and girls were getting married after
reaching puberty. This becomes evident through the frequent reference
made to unmarried girls. During this period, marriage between brothers
and sisters were prohibited. The girls had considerable freedom to
choose their life partners. Bride price and dowry practices were
tabooed. The woman was respected not only in her parental house but
in her in-laws place and wielded some authority in her husbands
family. She was taken as a part and parcel of the religious practices and
her active participation in the sacrificial offerings was solicited. During
this period, the practice of sati did not exist, remarriage of widows was
permitted, and women enjoyed considerable freedom in economic
activities like agriculture and manufacture of bows. Women moved
around freely and attended public feasts and dances. These references
are available from the works of Grammarians such as Katyayana and
Patanjali.

According to different studies on position of women during the Rig

Vedic period, it becomes apparent that women enjoyed considerable
degree of freedom right from their childhood. This indicates that the
Ridvedic period valued the women equally with the men. They were
given absolute freedom to select their own husbands. So, it seems that
the Rig-Vedic period valued womens choice, freedom and opinion.
Marriage did not put an end to the freedom enjoyed by the women.
Rather, according to the Rigvedic hymn, the status of daughter in law
was equally an elevated one in her in- laws place. As per the text, she
was treated as either an empress or a Samrajni and was given equal
importance among the members of the husbands family including
father-in-law, husband and brother-in-law. So, the male female
discrimination in position, power and prestige did not figure during this
period.
The Rig Veda, considered the girl as auspicious. There was no gender
consideration. So, the girl child was equally welcomed to the family.
Girls were allowed to enjoy equal rights with the boys. The family had
the responsibility to give her Sanskaras to make her a refined
member of the society.
Educating the girl child was obligatory for parents. Girls education was
considered essential for her effective role performance not only in the
family, but in the larger society. The girls were to attain education till

they attained the age of twenty five years which indicate the high value
attached to women and their education.
In Rigveda, the importance of Bhramhacharya was quite significant.
There were no gender biases in principle and practice. The girl child was
allowed to participate in her fathers funeral procession which was later
on banned for her.
Girls were supposed to wear Upanayana, the sacred thread that
enabled them to acknowledge the divine knowledge and consciousness
present within them. They had the privilege to perform religious rights
under the guidance of their Guru.
The women were given the prerogative to choose their life partners.
This system was known as Swayamvar. No trace of girl-child marriage
is available in the Vedic texts. The freedom accorded to the adult girls
for selecting their life partners was to enable and empower them to
lead a healthy family life. From this it is induced that the Rigvedic
society was more or less a gender neutral society where there was no
evidence of a Patriarchal culture.
Enough care was given when daughters were supposed to get married.
Through mantras women were empowered equally as men do. To
quote a verse from the Rigveda,
O women these mantras are given to you equally as to men May your
thoughts, too be harmonious. May your assemblies be open to all
without discrimination. I (the Rishi) give you these mantras equally as
to men and give you all equal powers to absorb (the full powers) of
these mantras. (Rigveda, 10,191-3) The parental preference hovered
around selecting a learned groom. As Vedas prescribed an educated girl
should be married to an equally educated man. Uneducated daughters
should also prefer men of learning to fill up the vacuum they suffer
from.
After the marriage the bride took up the role of a Pathni of her
husband. The pathni was expected to lead her husband life long as a
Dharmapathni .The Vedas provided a high position to the women in
married life. According to the Vedas, the married woman becomes the
virtual manager of the family and the society. In Rigveda, there is the
mention of the concept of a Pati Vrata Pathni (devoted wife). A Pati
Vrata Pathni (devoted wife) had a high esteem in the society. The
Rigveda compared her with the dazzling and glowing Fire-God. It is

said that when a woman enters in to the institutions of marriage and

family, the process is compared with the river entering into the sea. It is
indicative of the surrendering and the dedicated nature of the wife who
after marriage loses self identity and gets recognition through her
husband. But, it was not as matter of imposition, but spontaneous
expression.
The married woman was considered as an integral part of the husband
in the performance of the Dharma. Without her, the five Mahayagnas
were disallowed for the man. She was taken as the core performer of
the Yagna along with her husband. According to ancient Hindu
Scriptures, no religious rite can be performed with perfection by a man
without the participation of his wife. Married men along with their
wives were allowed to perform sacred rites on the occasion of various
important festivals. Wives were thus befittingly called Ardhangani
(better half). They were given not only important but equal position
with men, but were treated as complementary to the men. Mention of
it are available in the Rigveda, the Samaveda, the Yajurveda, the
Artharva veda. The Chhands Period, the MantraPeriod, the Bhraman
Period and the Sutra Period too carried the same view of women so far
as the religious activities were concerned. So, during the Vedic period,
when the social structure was dominated by religious values and
culture, women were given a high value by the society being treated as
the chief or core partners of the performance of religious rites along
with the men. This bears the clear testimony of the high status given to
the women in the society. In the case of widows, Vedas never
prescribed for their burning after the death of their husbands. The
widows are given equal rights of inheritance as the recognised heir of
their husbands property and treasures. The practice of Sati is nowhere
mentioned in the Rig-Veda. Dowry system was there. But it was not a
social evil, was just a symbolic practice. During this period, a great
honour was accorded to the women.
2.1.2The Age of the Atharva, Sama and Yajur Veda (1500-600 B.C.):
During this period, freedom of marriage and remarriage of widows continued
to be allowed. Son preference was continuing, the sale of a daughter was viewed
with extreme disfavour and Sati was not prevalent. The marriage ceremony was
the same as in the previous period; dowries were given as a token to the girls at

the time of marriage to enable them to start a new home. The picture of an ideal
family life continued. However, during this period, the grip of rituals on society
was increasing and so was the importance of the Brahmans. Female workers
were involved in some skilled works like dying, embroidery and basket making
and there was a gradual decline in their position in comparison to the Rig Vedic
Period.
There has been a divided opinion regarding the position of women in the Vedic
ages. According to many scholars the Vedas accorded a position of importance to
women. There was considerable freedom enjoyed by them in matters of
marriage, education etc. William Durant sums up the position of the Vedic
woman thus:"Women enjoyed far greater freedom in the Vedic period than in
later India. She had more to say in the choice of her mate than the forms of
marriage might suggest. She appeared freely at feasts and dances, and joined
with men in religious sacrifice. She could study, and like Gargi, engage in
philosophical disputation. If she was left a widow there was no restrictions upon
her remarriage.
But there are other scholars such as Wheeler, Prof. Indra etc., who opine that the
Vedic woman was a slave, and the evils such as wife burning, child marriages,
purdah system etc. had their seeds in the Vedic literature only. But the texts
studied in whole, gives the impression that the early Vedic women enjoyed a
position of dignity, honour and importance.
2.1.3The Age of Upanishads:
During this period the marriage between the male of a higher caste and female
of a lower caste (anuloma marriage) prevailed. The Griha-sutras give detailed
information regarding the rules and rituals of marriage, qualifications of bride
and bridegrooms. The rules of Panini regarding Abhi-Vadna (salutation as a mark
of respect to elderly persons in the house) brought down the general level of
womanly culture and led to deterioration in their status. Marriage was
considered as a holy bond and not a contract. The woman held an honoured
position in the household and was allowed to sing, dance and enjoy life. Sati was
not generally prevalent, widow remarriage was allowed. Preference was given to
womens education. Women were engaged in teaching profession, many of
whom possessed highest spiritual knowledge. The famous dialogue between
Yajnavalkya and his wife Maitreyi and Gargi Vachakhavi show the enlightened

character of the women of that age. The Brihadaranyakopanishat laid down the
procedure to beget a learned daughter.
Panini distinguishes between a teachers wife and a lady teacher while giving the
sutras for acharya and acharyani, and upadyaya and upadhyayani. This reveals
that there were women who took teaching as a profession. Similarly the words
Kathi etc. denote that women had no restriction in studying the Veda. Women
wore the sacred thread and performed rituals. Gargi, the famous composer of
Vedic hymns was considered a brahmavadini as she requested for the highest
spiritual knowledge from her husband instead of material wealth .
Gradually, during this period, the birth of a daughter was regretted and the
importance was given to sons, because the conviction was ancestors were
worshiped by sons. Purdah system was not prevalent. In the Post Vedic period,
the professions open to woman in higher sections of society were teaching,
medical healing and business. This shows the close equation and egalitarianism
that was prevalent in the society. Though gender preference was taking
momentum, yet a considerable degree of freedom was ensured to the women.
Thus, in a nutshell literary and historical researches have revealed and affirmed
that women held a position of equality with men during the Vedic period. They
never observed purdah (veil) in the Vedic, in the period of the Upanishads and
epic periods. They enjoyed freedom in areas such as education, marriage,
economic production, spending money, religious activities which are considered
as the vital institutions of the society. They enjoyed freedom in selecting their
mates (Swayam vara). Love marriages (Gandharva Vivaha) were also permitted.
Widows were permitted to remarry. The custom of Niyoga was
prevalent in which a brother or the nearest relative of a deceased
husband could marry the widow with the permission of elders. Women
were given complete freedom in family matters and were treated as
Ardhanginis (Better halves).
Though male children were preferred to female children, daughters
were never ill treated. They received education like boys and went
through the Brahmacharya discipline including the Upanayana ritual.
Women studied the Vedic literature like men and some of them like
Lopamudra, Ghosa and Sikata Nivavari, figure among the authors of
the Vedic hymns. Other women scholars of the age included

Vishwavara, Apala, Shashijasi, Indrani, Sasvati, Gargi, Sulabha,

Maithreyee etc
In property matters there were disparities between men and women
.Women enjoyed limited rights in inheriting property. Each unmarried
daughter was entitled to one-fourth share of patrimony received by her
brothers. They had control over their Stridhan (Gifts and properties
received at the time of marriage).As a wife woman had no direct share
in her husbands property. As a widowed mother, she had some rights.
Thus it could be generalized that the social situation was not in favour
of women posessing property, and yet protection was given to them as
daughters and wives.
In the religious field, wife enjoyed full rights and regularly participated
in religious ceremonies with her husband. Women actively participated
in the religious discourses. They could even perform sacrifices by
themselves in the absence of their husbands. Thus, access to life
resources, social institutions were given to women. Equal opportunities
were ensured to them. No visible discrimination was practised against
them. Women enjoyed a good quality life with social security and
dignity.
2.1.4The Status of Women in the Epics
Women in the epics also had given honorable positions like women of
the Vedic age. The two classical epics, the Ramayana and the
Mahabharata have given a respectable place for women. In both of
these we find vast references of the expression of courage, strong will
power, and valour of women, like Kaikeye, Sita, Rukmini, Satyabhama,
Subhadra, Draupathi, Savithri and others.
Gradually,the Epic age witnessed a sharp decline in the conditions of
women. Polygamy and polyandry were introduced. King Dasarath,
Ravana, Draupadi exemplified polygamy and polyandry.In this way, the
images of woman created by the Hindu lore became paradoxical and
contradictory in the Mahabharata and Ramayana days. Later Vedic age
denied to her reading Vedas and getting education.
There are many references in Mahabharata, according to which women
were the origin of all male violence. However, there are also citations
which speak about their elevated position and respect which they
enjoyed in society. Queen Kaikeyi used to accompany king Dasarath to

the battles. The kings also consulted their queens on political issues.
The character of a woman was very high and supreme. The examples of
Sita, Savitri, Damayanti, Subhadra etc., demonstrates the perfect
character of a woman of this age and their love and sacrifices for their
husbands. The philosophical conversation between Yajnavalkya and
Gargi in the court of king Janak of Videha and between Yajnavalkya and
his wife, bear witness to the high education and status of women. Dr. R.
C. Majumdar remarks, "These two incidents eloquently testify the high
position, learning and mental equipments of women in ancient India, to
which it would be difficult to find a -parallel in the history of the world".
2.1.5Women in Dharmashastras and Puranas
During the period of Dharmashastras, the position of women
underwent a major change. Daughters were regarded as second class
citizens. Freedom of women was curtailed. The discontinuance of
upanayanam, neglect of education, and the lowering of age at marriage
declined the position and status of women.
In the social field pre puberty marriages came to be practiced, widow
remarriage was prohibited; husband was given the status of God for a
woman, education was totally denied to women, custom of Sati
became increasingly prevalent. Purdah system came into vogue and
practice of polygyny came to be tolerated. In the economic field, a
woman was totally denied and the saying was a wife and a slave
cannot own property. In the religious field, she was forbidden to offer
sacrifices, prayers, practice penance, and undertake pilgrimages.
The Puranas also did not look down on women. Whereas the Devi
Purana eulogises the Shakti aspect of women, the Brahmavaivarta
Purana makes Radha the Conscious Magnetic Force of Krishna. When
we turn to the Puranas for such evidence we find in the story of Savitri,
the freedom given to her by her father in choosing her husband. And
when Narada says that Satyavan will die within a year, Savitri doesnt
change her mind. And her father accepts her decision. These incidents
amply prove that the Purana women made their own decisions, and
were as independent as their men were. If they seemed to play second
fiddle to their husbands, it was more by choice than by decree.

During the period of smrutis, a great honour was accorded to the

women. Manu, the great law giver, long ago said, Where women are
honoured, there reside the Gods. To quote the verse of Manu, yatr
naryasto pojyantay, ramantay tatr devta [3/56] .Manu Smriti
emphasized that during those time, widows were allowed to marry
their husbands brothers. The honoured status that women enjoyed in
the family and society began to undergo radical changes, particularly
since the pronouncement by Manu the Hindu law-giver, regarding a
womans changing position through her life cycle. Manu later on
proposed that a woman is never independent throughout her life and
as such she is never liberated. At every stage of her life cycle she is
under the clutch of a male. In childhood she is subject to her fathers
control, in youth to her husbands dictates and when her husband is
dead to her sons directions. This subordinates the position of a
woman. Thus, the championing of patriarchal culture had its origin in
Manus writings.
Women started getting deprived of the Upanayana ceremony and
thereby of education. Manu relegated her to an entirely subservient
position. He preaches self-negation as the highest ideal of a wife. She is
asked to serve and worship her husband even if he is not a person of all
virtue and character. Since service and worship of the husband are the
primary duties of a wife, by so performing she can hope to attain
heaven. Manu deprived women of her economic rights also. He said, A
wife, a son and a Slave, these three are declared to have no property,
the wealth which they earn is for him to whom they belong.
It appears that Manu had a very poor opinion about women. According
to him women should be guarded against her evil inclinations.
Otherwise she will bring sorrow to both the families. He also observed
that if a woman is chaste, it is because she has not found a proper man,
place and opportunity. He, therefore, calls her a Pramada, atemptress.
Thus, in a nutshell literary and historical researches have revealed and
affirmed that women held a position of equality with men during the
Vedic period. They never observed purdah (veil) in the Vedic and epic
periods. They enjoyed freedom in areas such as education, marriage,
economic production, spending money, religious activities which are
considered as the vital institutions of the society. They enjoyed

freedom in selecting their mates (Swayam vara). Love marriages

(Gandharva Vivaha) were also permitted.
Widows were permitted to remarry. The custom of Niyoga was
prevalent in which a brother or the nearest relative of a deceased
husband could marry the widow with the permission of elders. They
however were not able to divorce. Even men did not enjoy that right.
Women were given complete freedom in family matters and were
treated as Ardhanginis (Better halves).The practice of Sati is nowhere
mentioned in the Rig-Veda Dowry was there but it was not a social evil ,
was just a symbolic practice.
Though male children were preferred to female children, daughters
were never ill treated. They received education like boys and went
through the Brahmacharya discipline including the Upanayana ritual.
Women studied the Vedic literature like men and some of them like
Lopamudra, Ghosa and Sikata Nivavari, figure among the authors of
the Vedic hymns. Other women scholars of the age included
Vishwavara, Apala, Shashijasi, Indrani, Sasvati, Gargi, Sulabha,
Maithreyee etc
In property matters there were disparities between men and women
.Women enjoyed limited rights in inheriting property. Each unmarried
daughter was entitled to one-fourth share of patrimony received by her
brothers. They had control over their Stridhan (Gifts and properties
received at the time of marriage).As a wife woman had no direct share
in her husbands property. As a widowed mother, she had some rights.
Thus it could be generalized that the social situation was not in favor of
women processing property, and yet protection was given to them as
daughters and wives.
In the religious field, wife enjoyed full rights and regularly participated
in religious ceremonies with her husband. Women actively participated
in the religious discourses. They could even perform sacrifices by
themselves in the absence of their husbands. Thus, access to life
resources, social institutions were given to women. Equal opportunities
were ensured to them. No visible discrimination was practised against
them. Women enjoyed a good quality life with social security and
dignity.

In the social field pre puberty marriages came to be practiced, widow

remarriage was prohibited; husband was given the status of God for a
woman, education was totally denied to women, custom of Sati
became increasingly prevalent. Purdah system came into vogue and
practice of polygyny came to be tolerated.

2.1.6Women during the Buddhist Period

During the period of Buddhism, the status of women improved a little,
though there was no tremendous change. Buddha preached social
equality and tried to improve their cultural, educational and religious
status in the society.Buddhism did not consider women as being
inferior to men. Buddhism, while accepting the biological and physical
differences between the two sexes, considered the worth of both men
and women equal and useful for the society. To the Buddhists, the role
of the women is vital as a wife, a good mother in making the family life
a success. In the family, Buddhism advocated the equal distribution of
responsibilities and the success of a family is dependent upon the
dedication and sincerity of both the partners equally. The husband was
to consider the wife a friend, a companion, a partner, but not as a
subservient member. In family affairs, the wife was expected to be a
substitute for the husband when the husband happened to be
indisposed. In fact, a wife was expected even to acquaint herself with
the trade, business or industries in which the husband engaged, so that
she would be in a position to manage his affairs in his absence. This
shows that in the Buddhist society the woman occupied an equal
position with the husband. Lord Buddha's advice to the King Pasenadi
of Kosala, who was a close devotee of his, clearly shows that Buddhism
did not consider the birth of a daughter as a cause for worry and
despair. Thus the Buddhist religious ideology was pro women and
professed for a gender neutral society.
Buddhism did not restrict either the educational opportunities of
women or their religious freedom. Buddha unhesitatingly accepted
that women are capable of realizing the Truth, just as men are. This is
why he permitted the admission of women into the Order, though he
was not in favour of it at the beginning because he thought their
admission would create problems in the Sasana. Once women proved

their capability of managing their affairs in the Order, Lord Buddha

recognised their abilities and talents, and gave them responsible
positions in the Bhikkhuni Sangha. The Buddhist texts record of eminent
saintly Bhikkhunis, who were very learned and who were experts in
preaching the Dhamma. Dhammadinna was one such Bhikkhuni, Khema
and Uppalavanna were the two others.
Buddhism never regarded marriage as an inescapable thing for women.
Widowhood was not considered disrespectful. Women could pursue
education and they were permitted to become Sanyasis (saints). The
bhikshuni sangha opened new avenues of cultural activities for women.
Their political and economic status however remained unchanged.Thus
Buddhism tried to lay the foundation of an egalitarian gender culture in
the society where the abilities of women was well recognised.
2.1.7 Jainism and Women
In the time of Mahavira, Jainism brought a more enlightened attitude to
Indian religious culture. Jainism was a religion of equality. It accepted
that women are able to play their part on the road to liberation. But
although Jainism is in many ways dedicated to equality, for some Jains a
woman's very femaleness creates spiritual inequality.
Women in Jainism are treated within the same code of ethics as that is
prescribed for men. However, the status of women in Jainism differs
between the two main sects, Digambara sect and Swetambara sect.
Svetambaras maintained that women could attain liberation, whereas
Digambaras said they could not. Points that support the Svetembara
position include: Mahavira ordained many female ascetics, establishing a
strong tradition of nuns (though there are few in the Digambara
tradition today).Malli, the 19th tirthankara (fordmaker), was a women
(though Digambaras say she was a man).Marudevi (mother of the
first jina, Risabha), was the first person in this time-cycle to attain
liberation.
In Jainism, women were banned from being nude in public. The belief
was that if women go without clothing, men would experience sexual
desires, thus diverting them from divine liberation. In turn, women
would feel ashamed, and they would also be denied holy
deliverance.Women were believed to be harmful by nature. Their

menstrual blood was considered to be impure in several important Jain

texts. The bleeding that occurs in menstruation is thought to kill microorganisms in the body, making the female body less non-violent than
the male body.
Finally, members of the female sex are obliged to take care of children
and other dependents such as the aged according to the Jain advocacy.
Because by discharging these obligations, women had more earthly
attachments than these men. Thus, to some extent Jainism traced less
spirituality in women and treated them as members with more earthly
attachments and not suited for liberation.

2.2 Medieval Period:

Medieval India refers to the postclassical era, i.e. 8th to 17th century CE in
the Indian subcontinent. It is divided into two periods: The 'early medieval
period' which lasted from the 8th to the 13th century and the 'late
medieval period' which lasted from the 13th to the 17th century. The
medieval period gave a further set back to the Status of women in
India.
The status of women in India deteriorated during the medieval period
with the entrance of the Muslims. Several evil practices such as female
infanticide, sati and child marriage were practiced during this period.
Purdah was introduced to the Indian society. Women were also forced
to practice zenana. Polygamy was also common during this period.
Women also excelled in literature, music and arts. In the fear of Muslim
invaders kidnapping the Hindu girls, the practice of child marriage came
into being again. The seduction or kidnap of young girls by the Muslims
compelled the parents to arrange their daughters to marry in an early
age. This kept the women away from education, and had to suffer from
burdened family life in an earlier age.
The glorification of the ideal pathivrata made the society prohibit
widow remarriage. Child widows had a miserable life. They were denied
education and public life. Prohibition of sex-life made a few of them

lead immoral life and some even became prostitutes. To prevent sex
offences, child widows were forced to forsake all types of beautification
to make them unattractive. The glorification of Pathivrata and the
miserable life as a widow made many women to go for Sati. Sati refers
to a practice in which the married women used to jump into the funeral
pyre of their husbands with the hope of attaining sadgathi or
moksha. There were instances were married women are forcibly
pushed into the funeral pyre of their husbands. This inhuman practice
was imposed on the women and the women even if without their
desire were at the receiving end. There was also the horrible practice of
Jauhar in which the Rajput women used to immolate themselves
collectively with a view to protect their chastity.
After the Muslim invasion the Hindu women also forced to wear Purdah
(veil) like Muslims women to protect themselves from the sexy look of
the invaders. The purdah system led to the complete seclusion of
women from education and public life. Devadasi system is another
social evil which caused the degradation of Indian women. It is a
custom that denies marital opportunity to women in the name of
religion insisting them to become devadasis or basavis to serve the God
in the temple as dancers and singers. The devadasis and basavis were
compelled by circumstances to become prostitutes. This system spoiled
the prospects of many young girls in the medieval period.
Muslim women also were in an equally poor position in India. The
Muslim community which believes in male dominance could hardly give
equal rights to women. Muslim men could marry four women and
divorce any wife at will by giving her talaq. Women did not have similar
rights. They were restricted from public life, education, cultural and
religious activities.
Due to Muslim influence, the position of women went on deteriorating
during this period. The feeling of dejection on the birth of a daughter
led to female infanticide. Purdah system was introduced and women
were compelled to keep themselves within the four walls of their
houses with a long veil on their faces. The Islamic custom of Purdah
(veiling of women) forced the public world to be separated from the
private world, with women confined to the latter. Following its

subjugation by the Muslims, and fearing adverse outcomes for its

women, a large part of the Hindu India accepted the practice of veiling.
Monogamy was gradually getting over shadowed by the practice of
polygamy. During this period marriage between the same caste was
preferred although inter caste marriages were prevalent, and the Arsha
form of marriage was most popular, in which the father gave his
daughter after receiving a cow and a bull or two pairs from the bridge
groom. Extreme emphasis was laid on the physical chastity of women
which discouraged widow remarriage, divorce and encouraged the
practice of sati. There was a lowering of the age of marriage, girls were
not entitled to get educated as before and there was a sharp decline in
the position and status of women. Available literature seems to indicate
that married women in higher families did not usually appear in public
without veils. Repeated invasions by the Muslims further pushed the
Indian women towards inhuman traditions such as child marriage, the
dowry system, purdah and sati (the immolation of the widow on the
dead husbands pyre).
The gradual lowering down of the status of women was acute between
500 BC 500 AD. Several factors contributed for such a trend. These
factors are as follows.
The Introduction of Slavery: The introduction of slavery not only remained
confined to Greece but became adopted in other countries including India.
In India the lower caste Sudras became the slaves of the higher castes. So
inter caste marriage was strictly banned during this period. But as a matter
of practice some Non Aryan Sudra women got married to Aryan higher
caste members. But their unfamiliarity with the customs, rituals of the
higher castes prevented them from participating in the Vedic rituals. It was
decided thereafter to declare the class of women as in-eligible for studying
Vedic texts and to undertake Vedic religious activities. This proved
detrimental to the status of women in Indian society.
Complexity of the Vedic Tradition: Gradually the Vedic tradition was made
more complicated and demanded the study of Vedic text for lingering

years. As early marriage for the girls was the tradition of the time, the girls
were not allowed to devote such a long period to study the Vedas. This
prevented them to undertake Vedic rituals and made them inferior to their
male counterparts.
Frequent foreign Invasions: The period of 500 years i.e. 200 BC to 300 AD
is considered as a very dark period for northern India. During this period
the alien rulers made frequent attacks on India to drain the prosperity and
riches of the country. During their attack when they were defeating the
kings and capturing the kingdoms, they tried to capture the women and
exploit them. So the women were put within the four walls of their
households and were not exposed to the outside world. This also
restricted the freedom of the women and lowered their status.
Sati: Conquests and its consequences were getting deep on the women. To
preserve the dignity of the women, Sati which was confined to the warrior
class started became wide spread for other groups. Thus the womens life
was tied to the life of her partner and was terminated by self emollition on
the funeral pyres of her husband. This limited her freedom, imposed
barbaric practices on her and declined her status.
Denial of Widow Remarriage: At one point of time the customary practice
of the society became so rigid that it denied widow remarriage. Many
widows with or without children had a precarious life and had to depend
on the male folk for their survival and sustenance. This increased the
female dependency on males and made the women subservient of men.

Thus, during the medieval period, Indian women lost their earlier status and
were at the lowest ebb. However, women like Razia Begum rose to become a
ruler, Chand Bibi, Tara Bai and Ahaliya Bai Holker, left their great imprints for
their ruling capabilities. In Bhopal also, Begums or princesses ruled. With the
advent of Islam, once again, women like Jahanara, Begum Mumtaz and Noor
Jahan enjoyed respectable positions in the country. These remarkable ladies
though strict Muslims, publicly administered justice with their faces covered
by veils or burkhas.

2.2.1Women during Bhakti Movement

During this period, Bhakti Movement also spread all over the country. Bhakti
movement was an indigenous protest movement.The Bhakti movement
originated in seventh-century Tamil Nadu and spreaded northwards. Women
like Mira Bai, Mukta Bai, Jana Bai and others contributed to the spiritual life of
the country. Sikhism, which emerged during this period, also believed in the
equality of women and men. Guru Nanak the founder of Sikhism says: Within
a woman is a man conceived, from a woman he is born, he is married to a
woman and with her goes through life.... Why call her bad, she gives birth to
kings. None may exist without a woman. Only the one, true God is exterior to
woman. Thus the Bhakti cult gave a high position to the women by
glamorising her reproductive role.

2.3Women in Modern India:

Modern India spans from British raj in the country and extends up to the present
date. So, the status of women during this period can be conveniently discussed
under two heads, i.e. womens position during the colonial era and womens
position in the post colonial period or in the post- independent India.
2.3.1 Women in British India
British occupation of India began in 1772, and the British crown assumed charge
of administering the colony from the British East India Company in 1858. During
this period, there was no spectacular change in the status of the common
women. They continued to face male domination and atrocities. However, a
marked change was noted in the position of higher class women. Particularly, the
women from the ruling class could become a ruler or regent of their children at
the death of their deceased ruler husband. They were made empowered being
imparted with training in war craft and state craft. The lead role played by
Maharani Laxmi Bai in the First War of Independence in 1857 bears the
testimony of this.
During the British raj, the Indian society was exposed to western influence and
was witnessing rapid socio economic transformation. These transformations

attacked the traditional stratification system of Indian society based on gender,

ethnicity, estate system and caste system. Substantial progress was made in
eliminating inequalities between men and women in matters of education,
employment, social and political rights. Industrialisation, urbanisation, spread of
education, and social movements, enunciation of social legislations were some of
the important forces which affected the status of women in various ways.
During the British period, the process of industrialisation was introduced in India.
Industrialisation was followed by the process of urbanisation. Transport and
communication revolution was initiated by the British administration to
smoothen the process of governance of the country. These triplicate processes of
industrialisation, urbanisation and transport and communication revolution
started attacking the traditional institutions of the Indian society. There was a
diversification in the occupational roles and the status structure underwent a
process of change. All these greatly affected the traditional status of women.
The British Government took active initiatives to introduce education for the
women which proved to be a powerful force for providing a new outlook to the
Indian women during the colonial period. After the Bhakti movement, the
Christian Missionaries took interest in the education of girls and geared their
efforts to spread education among the women to change their deplorable
conditions. A girls school was started for the first time in Bombay in 1824. The
Hunter commission too emphasised on the need for female education in 1881.
However, till1875 womens access to higher education was denied. Till that
period, the universities of Calcutta, Bombay and Madras did not permit
admission to girls. After 1882 girls were allowed to go for higher education.
During British period there were two major movements which affected the
position of women. These were the Social Reform Movement of the nineteenth
century and the Nationalist Movement of the twentieth century.
2.3.2 Social Reform Movements and Women in India
Around the end of the nineteenth century, it was realised that women in India
suffered from myriad forms of disabilities like, child-marriage, practice of
polygamy, sale of girls for marriage purposes, severe restrictions on widows, noaccess to education. They were restricted to domestic and child-bearing
functions. The Indian National Conference started in 1885 by Justice Ranade

criticised these disabilities. The issues which attracted the attention of the
nineteenth century social reformers were the system of Sati, the ban on the
widow remarriage, polygamy, child marriage, denial of property rights and
education to women. Reformist organizations such as the Brahmo Samaj
founded by Raja Ram Mohan Roy in 1828, the Arya Samaj set up by Dayanand
Saraswati in 1875, and Ramakrishna Mission created by Vivekananda in 1897 and
individual male reformers like Eshwarchandra Vidyasagar, Ramakrishna
Paramahans, Keshab Chandra Sen, Maharishi Kare, Mahadev Ranade and Gopal
Krishna Gokhale led the fight against womens oppression by condemning the
evil social practices of polygamy, early marriage, enforced widowhood and made
an advocacy for female literacy to emancipate the women from oppressions and
to change their plights in the society.
Raja Ram Mohan Roy played an important role in abolition the of Sati system. He
raised his voice against child marriage and Purdah system. Ishwar Chandra
Vidyasagar also made pioneering efforts for the upliftment of the status of
women. His efforts culminated in the passing of the Widow Remarriage Act in
1856. He also pleaded for education of women. Maharshi Karve took up the
problems of widow remarriage and education of women. He established SNDT
Womens University in Maharashtra in 1916. Swami Vivekananda, Swami
Dayananda Saraswati, Annie Besant and Mahatma Gandhi also took interests in
the social and political rights of women.
The British administration supported the cause of the Indian social reformers.
Thus, in order to raise the status of Indian women, the British rule led to number
of socio religious reforms in the country.
2.3.3The Nationalist Movement and Women in India
Another very powerful force which helped to change the attitude towards
women in the country was the Nationalist Movement. In 1887, the National
Social Conference was formed. This organization intensified the social reform
campaign to further support womens emancipation. It created a separate entity
known as the Indian Womens Conference. Gandhiji openly held that sacred texts
and customs, which rationalized injustices to women or advocated female
subservience, deserved neither respect nor compliance.

Gandhiji advocated for womens induction into public life. At the same time he
valued their domestic role. His tools of mass agitation politics served him well in
getting women out of the private into the public sphere. Thus during the
freedom struggle no distinction was made in the participation of either women
or men and the rigid public- private dichotomy for women was challenged. This
gave equal status to both the gender groups. In recognizing the contributions of
women, the principle of Gender Equity and Equality was later on enshrined in
the Constitution of free India in 1950.
Gandhis clarion call to the women community to join the freedom struggle was a
landmark attempt to bring women in mass scale from the private to the public
and political domain. Gandhiji opposed the evil social practices of child marriage,
the prevention of widow remarriage, the crippling system of purdah, the dowry
system. He was an advocate of womens liberation. Gandhi encouraged women's
active participation in the freedom struggle. He had tremendous faith in
women's inherent capacity for non-violence.
With Gandhi's inspiration, the women got heavily mobilised and took the
struggle right into their homes and raised it to a moral level. Women organized
public meetings, sold Khadi and started picketing shops of liquor and foreign
goods, prepared contraband salt, and came forward to face all sorts of atrocities,
including inhuman treatment by police officers and imprisonment. They came
forward to give all that they had - their wealth and strength, their jewellery and
belongings, their skills and labour-all with sacrifices for this unusual and
unprecedented struggle. Thus, womens moral and physical support was well
observed during the nationalist movement.
Gandhi's call to women to involve themselves in the freedom struggle had farreaching results in changing their outlook. The cause of Swaraj swept all taboos
and old customs practised against the women. Many women in their individual
lives shed their age-old prejudices against the caste system. They had no
hesitation in leaving the boundaries of their protected homes and going to the
jail. Women's participation in the freedom struggle feminized nationalism and
the nationalist struggle helped them to liberate from age-old traditions.

Womens struggle entered a new phase with the arrival of Mahatma Gandhi on
the Indian political scene. Women had been associated with the freedom
struggle before that too. They had attended sessions of the Indian National
Congress and taken part in the swadeshi movement in Bengal, 1905-11 and in
the Home Rule Movement. But the involvement of really large number of women
in the national movement began when Gandhi launched the first Non Cooperation Movement and gave a special role to women. Peasant women played
an important role in the rural satyagrahas of Borsad and Bardoli. Women
participated in the Salt satyagraha, in the Civil Disobedience Movement, in the
Quit India Movement and in all the Gandhian satyagrahas. They held meetings,
organized processions, picketed shops selling foreign cloth and liquor and went
to jail. It transformed the lives of many young widows such as Durgabai
Deshmukh or Kamaladevi Chattopadhyaya. Women won respect for their
courage and the large numbers in which they participated in the freedom
struggle and at the Karachi session of the Indian National Congress in 1930, the
resolution on Fundamental Rights gave equal rights to women.
One of the note worthy results of Gandhijis efforts has been the awakening of
women, which made them shed their deep-rooted sense of inferiority and rise to
dignity and self- esteem. For Gandhi,"When woman, whom we all call abala
becomes sabala, all those who are helpless will become powerful". Women like
Sarojini Naidu, Lakshmi Menon, Sushila Nayyar and Rajkumari Amrit Kaur rose to
prominence and became the role models for the common women.
2.3.4 Growth of Women's Organizations

Some women organizations like the Banga Mahila Samaj, and the Ladies
Theosophical Society functioned at local levels to promote modern
ideas for women. These organizations took up issues like women's
education, abolition of social evils like purdah and child marriage, Hindu
law reform, moral and material progress of women, equality of rights
and opportunities, etc. Some womens organisations such as Bharat
Mahila Parishad (1904), Bharat Stri Mahamandal (1910), Womens
Indian Association (1917), National Council of Women in India (1925)
and All India Womens Conference (1927) took up issues like womens
education, abolition of social evils, Hindu law reform, equality of rights

and opportunities and womens suffrage. It can be said that, the Indian
women's movement worked for two goals during the freedom
movement.
They
were:
(i)
Uplift
of
women.
(ii) Equal rights for both men and women. Both these goals contributed
significantly towards providing a changed status to the women.
2.3.5 Enactment of Social Legislations
During the British period, the Government enacted some progressive
legislation that impacted on the women. These legislations include:
1.Abolition of Sati Act,1829
2.Child Marriage Restraint Act 1929 popularly known as the Sarda Act
3. Child Bearing Restraint Act of 1929
4.
Hindu
Law
of
Inheritance,
5. Hindu Women's Right to Property Act, 1939

1929

2.4 Status of Women in Post- Colonial Period

However the major effort to promote the situation of women came in
the post independence era when the constitutional protections, legislative
promulgations, programme initiations and creation of institutions gave a
concrete shape to womens development in the country. During this period,
equality became the much avowed goal of the Government and the
Government made concerted efforts to ensure gender equality through
safeguards and welfare measures. Right from the fag end of the twentieth
century, empowerment approach to womens development became the
dominant strategy for ensuring development to the women in the country.
(All these are discussed in elaborate terms in Unit-IV of this module.) These
Constitutional provisions, legal measures and institutional supports have
played a significant role in changing the position and plights of women in the
country in the post independence period.
2.4.1Womens Journey in India: From Preventions to Privileges

Women have always held a certain paradoxical position in a country like

India. On one hand, the country has seen an increased percentage of
literacy among women, women positioned in higher professions and on
the other hand, the country has failed to free itself from the ugly
practices of female infanticide, dowry torture, trafficking, poor health
conditions and lack of education among a sizable number of women.
The patriarchal culture and the conventional role expectations from the
women have not been eroded.
When our country got its independence, the participation of women in
the national freedom struggle was widely acknowledged. The Indian
Constitution guaranteed equal rights to women, considering them legal
citizens of the country and as equal to men in terms of freedom and
opportunity. India was a premier and pioneering country to reflect
gender justice through its Constitution. However, these noble
intentions of the Constitution could not make much head way in
providing an elevated status to the women, because of the
continuation of the traditional mind sets, attitudes and culture in the
country.
At the time of independence, the developmental parameters were not
in favour of women. The national female literacy rate was alarmingly
low being 8.9 per cent. The Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) for girls was
24.8 per cent at primary level and 4.6 per cent at the upper primary
level (in the 11 14 years age group). There existed insoluble social and
cultural barriers to education of women and access to organized
schooling. Only women from the elitist group were allowed to occupy a
public space, which they were expected to manage along with their
domestic role as homemakers. The occupations like teachers, nurses
were earmarked for the women taking their traits into account. The
practice of child marriage continued which brought early motherhood
and health impairs to innumerable number of girls. Dowry system was
an accepted practice. Sprawling inequalities persisted in womens
access to education, health care, physical and financial resources and
opportunities, and enjoyment of basic rights in political, social and
cultural spheres.

The practice of Dowry not only brought torture to girls in their marital
life, but due to the custom the birth of a girl child was considered as
inauspicious and undesirable. Till today the sentiment continues to
exist. This gives birth to the practice of female foeticide, infanticide and
neglect of girl children at homes. The United Nations Childrens Fund,
estimated that up to 50 million girls and women are missing from
Indias population because of termination of the female foetus or high
mortality of the girl child due to lack of proper care. This indicates the
gender considerations dominating the minds of parents and negating
an equal position to a female child. Though a number of constitutional
amendments were made for womens social, economic and political
benefits, yet they were never effective to bring a radical change in the
situation. Women in India suffered from rampant malnutrition and an
extremely poor health status. Around 500 women were reported to die
every day due to pregnancy related problems due to malnutrition, early
child bearing age and repeated pregnancies.
2.4.2Socio-Religious Institutions and the Status of Women in India
India is a heterogeneous country .The plurality of language; religion,
ethnicity, and culture play a significant role in influencing womens
position in the community. So,
womens status in various socio
religious institutions becomes worth mentioning here.
Religion
Each religion has different Personal Laws relating to women and each
religious group has its own law of Dharma (conduct). Indian womens
domestic and extra domestic spheres are largely derived from religious
prescriptions. Religious norms and values define her role, relations and
rights in the society.
Religious personal laws govern family relations in India. Traditionally,
religious laws place men at higher stage. There are certain features
common in all personal laws, including the reformed Hindu personal
law, which perpetuates inequality between women and men:
Under all the personal laws it is the man who is the head of the
family in all circumstances.
The line of succession is through the male line.
The womans residence after marriage is the husbands house.
The right to divorce is far more lenient with the man.
Women often do not get equal right to property.
Thus, personal laws of each religion state categorically that the
main aim and objective of a womans life is marriage and

begetting progeny. Each religion has made rather rigid laws in

respect of womens position, marriage, married life, widowhood,
maintenance, divorce, remarriage, unchastely, guardianship
minority, adoption and succession. The social institutions too
exert pressure on women in India. These social institutions
include Kinship, Marriage and Family, which are deep rooted in
history, religion and culture of the nation.
Kinship, Marriage and Family
India has a predominantly patrilineal system of descent. In the
Patrilineal kinship system, a son is the fathers natural apprentice,
successor, and supporter of the parents in old age. Sons are supposed
to build up family prestige and prosperity. All this imparts a special
value to the son to continue the family name. As per religious customs,
a son is necessary for performing the prescribed rituals for his parents
when they die. Traditionally, this right was not given to women. All
these traditions and practices accord a low status to the women.
Marriage
Marriage as an institution is accepted as the be-all and end-all of a
womans life. The institution of marriage forces a women to give up her
independent identity and to search her identity through her husband.
The institution of marriage expects an ideal woman to be dedicated and
sacrificing in nature. It overlooks her independent identity, fails to
recognise her contributions. Thus, marriage gives her roles without
status, duties without rights which are detrimental to her status.
Family
Besides her kinship status, her husbands social position and his
contribution to the family economy influence a womans status in the
family. The parental family controls the womens rights of education,
choice of employment and right of decisions and finally marriage- with
which both the women and the power to exercise control over her are
transferred to the husbands family. In cases, where there is an attempt
on the part of women to deviate from clearly defined conduct, tensions
arise often resulting in serious threats, including physical violence, to
the women from their families. Thus, the social institutions in India
have their typical gender orientation and are unfavourable to the
women.
Irrespective of so much noble efforts, till today the development of
women in the country is not spectacular, which is quite indicative from

the reality check made from time to time on the situation of women.
The reality check or the stocktaking on the development of women is
done taking some parameters in to account which is discussed below.
Demographic composition of women is an indicator of their development. So
far as the demographic composition of the women is concerned, women present
a skewed sex ratio in comparison to males. In the Population Census of 2011, it
is revealed that there are 940 females per 1000 of males. The Sex Ratio 2011
shows an upward trend from the census 2001 data. Census 2001 revealed that
there were 933 females to that of 1000 males. Since decades India has seen a
decrease in the sex ratio. But since the last two of the decades there have been
in slight increase in the sex ratio. Since the last five decades the sex ratio has
been moving around 930 of females to that of 1000 of males. This sex ratio is
much below the world average that is 990 females. Sex selected deaths through
feticide are becoming frequent in the country, infanticide, maternal mortality,
higher incidence of child mortality in case of girls, honour killing and violence are
taking the lives of the girls and women in the country.
In the educational sphere women too lag behind in terms of their male
counterparts. This becomes traceable through the low literacy rates, low
enrolment, and high rate of dropout among them. The higher becomes the
grade; the lower becomes the representation of women. Quality education and
technical education are still the monopoly of males. Gender bias, the tradition of
socializing the girls in domestic chores, the cultural practice of early marriage are
some of the reasons which keep girls out of the ambit of education. As per
Census 2011, 65.5% female in India are literate as against 82.14%males. The
Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) for females at the primary level stood at 115.39. At
the middle classes level, the GER for females was 78.30. The Dropout Rates were
observed to be 27.25 for females, in the classes IV in 200910. These were 44.39
in classes IVIII and 51.97 in classes IX in the same years. In 2005-06, the U.G.C.
estimated womens share in higher education to be 40.5% and in professional
education it was 29.5%. All these statistics reveal out the poor progress of the

women in education which is worldwide accepted as the most powerful

development indicator.

Health status again signalizes the position of the population. The better the
health status, the better is their development and vice versa. The
women in India

health status of

remains extremely bleak. The government is taking all necessary

steps to perk up their lot in the form of compulsory education for girl child,
regular and free medical check-ups and medical aid for pregnant women and
many such schemes. But, little is the achievement in this direction.
Undernourishment, malnourishment, food insecurity and starvation are common
among the women in the country. Anaemia is frequent among the women of
lower economic status. Mal nutrition is common among women belonging to
poor households. 52% of married women suffer from anaemia. One of the major
causes for malnutrition in India is gender inequality. Due to the low social status
of Indian women, their diet often lacks in both quality and quantity. India
recorded around 57,000 maternal deaths in 2010, which translate into a
whopping six every hour and one every 10 minutes. The current Maternal
Mortality Rate (MMR) of India is 212 per one lakh live births. It is estimated that
23.9 lakh people are infected with HIV in India, of whom 39% are females. Early
marriage, repeated child births, under nourishment contribute for poor health
status of women and higher rates of maternal mortality. Availability of health
services is poor for the women, accessibility to health facilities is limited and
there is absolute absence of affordability capacity among them. Institutional
deliveries are still a mirage for the women in the rural areas of the country.

The economic position of women is very sordid in nature in India. There remain
strong cultural obstacles in India to women's economic emancipation. The

workforce participation rate of females in rural sector was 26.1 in 2009 10 (NSS
64th Round) in Urban sector, it was 13.8 for females. In the rural sector, 55.7%
females were selfemployed, 4.4% females had regular wage/salaried
employment and 39.9% females were casual labourers. A total of 20.4% women
were employed in the organized sector in 2010 with 17.9% working in the public
sector and 24.5% in the private. The labour force participation rate of women
across all agegroups was 20.8 in rural sector and 12.8 in urban sector
respectively in 200910 (NSS 64th Round). In 200910, the average wage/salary
received by regular wage/salaried employees of age 1559 years was Rs. 155.87
per day for females in rural areas and for urban areas; it was Rs. 308.79.
Despite rapid economic growth, the inability of women to play a part in
the Indian economy remains as deep and persistent as ever. Women in
India have of course always worked, but their work is undervalued.
Women are also at a disadvantage when it comes to inheriting
property. Although the Hindu Succession Act of 1956 gave women the right to
own property, it was not implemented until 2005. In2005, the law was
amended to give daughters the same inheritance rights as sons. Census
of India reveals that only 11 percent of agricultural landowners are women.
Women work longer hours than men and carry the major share of
household and community work that is unpaid and invisible.
Women are underrepresented in governance and decisionmaking
positions. At present, women occupy less than 8% of the Cabinet
positions, less than 9%of seats in High Courts and the Supreme Court,
and less than 12% of administrators and managers are women. In June
2009, out of 40 Cabinet Ministers, there were only three female
Cabinet Ministers. There were only 4 female Ministers of State (MOS),
out of 38 MOS in 2009. Womens share is only 11% in the Indian
Parliament at present.
The problem of gender-based violence is getting worse in the country.
National Crime Record Bureau statistics show crimes against women
increased by 7.1 percent nationwide since 2010. There has been a rise

in the number of incidents of rape recorded too. In 2011, 24,206

incidents were recorded, a rise of 9 percent from the previous year. A
total of 2, 28,650 incidents of crimes against women were reported in
the country during 2011. Kidnapping and abductions are up by 19
percent and trafficking rose by 122 percent in the same period. Crimes
that include the Indian term "eve-teasing" or harassment and heckling
and sexual innuendoes against women in public places including
streets, public transport, cinema halls, along with the rape of minors
and women in tribal and villages often go unreported and unrecorded.
2.5 Indias Pluralism: A Challenge to the Status of Women
India is pluralist nation. Our Constitution has laid down in Articles 25 to
30 the rights of religious, cultural and linguistic minorities. There is,
however, a big gap between noble intentions and actual realisation.
The minorities continue to face several problems. The status of Indian
women can be viewed in terms of the status women in individual
communities.
In India each community is governed by the Personal Laws of the
community in matters relating to family, inheritance, and adoption etc.
India consists of one of the largest Muslim populations in the world.
According to the 2011 census the share of the Muslims in Indias
population is 13.4%. The country houses the third-largest Muslim
population in the world.
Muslim women in India constitute one of the most deprived groups
who are unable to fully enjoy their equal rights. Their deprivation and
vulnerability derives from the following sources:
Cultural and Religious sources
Legal sources
Socio-Economic and Educational sources
From violence inflicted on them.
Muslim women are triply marginalised: as Muslims, as women and as
members of a community that, taken as a whole, is economically
disadvantaged. After six decades of independence majority of Muslim
women is one of the most disadvantaged, least literate, economically

impoverished and politically marginalized sections of Indian society. E.H.

White (1978) reports illiteracy, ignorance, male domination and
traditional beliefs have hindered the progress of the Muslim women in
India. The subordination of Muslim women owes to a host of factors,
including the social, economic, political and educational marginalisation
of the Muslim community as a whole, as well as the indifference of
agencies of the state as well as Muslim leaders to the question of
Muslim womens subordination and the need for their substantive
empowerment. On all-India basis, 66 per cent Muslim women are
estimated to be illiterate. The findings of the Sachar committee show
that Muslims are at double disadvantaged with low level of education
combined with low quality of education. Muslim women are
educationally backward, and the dropout rate is significantly high among
Muslim women as compared to Hindu women and their Muslim male
counterpart.
Less than 17 per cent of Muslim women (enrolled in schools) complete
eight years of schooling; less than 10 per cent complete higher
secondary schooling, which is below the national average. The
proportion of Muslim women in higher education is only 3.56 per cent.
The average rate of work force participation for Muslim women is 14
per cent, the work participation for urban Muslim women is 11.4 per
cent, while it is only 20 per cent for Muslims in rural areas. Sixty per
cent of Muslim women are married by the age of 17. The Muslim
Women's Survey reported that approximately 20 per cent of
respondents experience verbal and physical abuse in their marital
homes; over 80 per cent of this is at the hands of their husbands. The
NCAER survey indicates 31 percent of Muslim households are below
poverty line and the burden of poverty is maximum on women.
Tahir Mahamood (2006) writing on Muslim personal law vis-a-vis the
status of Muslim women says that Muslim women are being treated as
secondary members in the Muslim community because of distorted and
misinterpretation of Muslim law by its own scholars and elites.
Salima Jan (1998) in her study `Women's studies in Islamic perspective'
concluded that Islam has given women the rights which no other religion
has given. Due to lack of proper knowledge of Shariat (Muslim Law) as
well as wrong practices largely deviating from the true Islamic teachings

wrong notions exist about Muslim women. An ideal Muslim matrimonial

law has not been used prudently but misused and Muslim women are
made to suffer and discriminated. So, Salima feels that it is necessary
to have adequate knowledge about the Islamic view point and this
knowledge will help us to reassess women's role in the light of new
changes and new situations. Muslim women in India are governed by
the Muslim Personal Law (Shariat) Application Act 1937 (popularly
known as the Shariat Act), but not by the Uniform civil code which is a
very pro women in character.

.2.5.1Status of Tribal Women in India

Tribal or adivasis, comprise of around 8.6 per cent of the national
population according to the2011 census. There are 11.3 percent tribal
who are as rural dwellers and 2.8 percent tribal are urban dwellers.
The sex ratio is better among the tribal compared to the general sex
ratio being 990 which indicates a better status of the tribal women.The
tribal are concentrated mostly in the central belt of India, and parts of
the North-East.
The status of tribal women is defined by their culture, social and
economic practices. Mitra and Singh write that discrimination against
women, occupational differentiation, and emphasis on status and
hierarchical social ordering that characterise the predominant Hindu
culture are generally absent among the tribal groups which allow the
women to have an equal status with their male counterparts. Bhasin
(2007) also writes that though tribes too have son preference, they do
not discriminate against girls by female infanticide or sex determination
tests. These contribute towards better sex ratio among the tribal and is
indicative of the better status accorded to women in the tribal society.
The status of tribal women can be judged mainly by the roles they play
in society. Their roles are determined to a large extent through the
system of descent. Most of the tribes in India follow a patrilinear
system. There are exceptional cases like the Khasi, Jaintia, Garo and
Lalung of Meghalaya in the North-East who follow the matrilinear
system. The Mappilas of Kerala too are a matrilineal community. There
are very rare cases of bilinear descent. Whether patrilinear or

matrilinear the tribal women are considered as economically vibrant

groups contributing significantly to the family economy and are
accorded with a better status.
Since women in the tribal communities toil hard, they are considered to
be assets. The practice of bride price during marriages is quite common
among them. In recent years as the capitalist economy is setting in and
women are being deprived of their traditional role, their economic
value is decreasing and the practice of bride-price is giving way to the
system of dowry which is responsible for declining their status in the
society.
The status of the tribal women usually depends on the economic roles
they play. The tribal in the past were usually forest dwellers and their
livelihood to a great extent depended on the food-gathering economy.
More than the men, the women walked long distances to fetch wood
and fodder. Besides, they also collected fruits, roots and tubers, lac,
gums and leaves for self-consumption and sale. As there has been large
scale deforestation, the role of tribal women in economic pursuit is
increasingly getting affected which has a negative impact on their
status.
In traditional tribal societies, the economic roles of men and women
were sharply divided. In the nomadic hunter-gatherer tribes, men were
engaged in hunting while women collected fruits, edible roots, tubers,
firewood and other household necessities. In some of these tribes,
women are involved in supplementary occupations, like rope-making.
In the pastoral tribes, looking after the cattle was the exclusive duty of
men folk. The economic roles of tribal women are more significant in
certain parts of the central and western Himalayas.
In many parts of the country, swidden cultivation or slash and burn
cultivation or jhum cultivation, as it is called in the North-East, was in
vogue. Easter Boserup calls swidden cultivation as a womens
enterprise since it is they who almost entirely managed the show.
While the men mainly felled the trees and spread them around on the
ground to dry before collectively kindling fire, it is the women who
were engaged in sowing the seeds, weeding and harvesting. However,
of late the status of tribal women is in a state of transition. The process
of modernization has heavily impacted on the tribal culture, economy

and society which in turn have contributed towards a decline status for
the tribal women. Taboos too prevent women from certain types of
ventures. For example in the Toda tribe of the Nilgiris, women are not
even allowed to enter the dairy as they are considered impure.
In recent years, due to the population explosion and in-migration, the
jhum cultivation is gradually losing its viability. Besides, due to the
capitalist policies of the state jhum cultivation is giving way to
permanent terraced wet-rice cultivation. Multi-cropping practices too
are getting lost and the emphasis on mono-cropping is being laid. Cash
crops and horticulture are also being preferred. In the process women
are losing their labour work and in many places of the North-East like
Nagaland and Arunachal Pradesh, migrant male labourers are being
employed. Apart from the hill areas, tribal have also in present days
opted for settled cultivation in place of the forest-based economy. They
also prefer to raise cash crops and exotic high-breed crops. In the
process the women are getting displaced from their work.
Christianity has brought about a significant emancipation of the tribal
women. While earlier the women were restricted from attending
schools, it is the missionaries who opened schools and encouraged the
girls to attend them. They also opened up church forums where women
could participate and also take the lead. Thus, with the introduction of
the missionary activities changes were noticed in the status of the tribal
women.
So far as the social customs are concerned, there is no child marriage,
no stigma on widowhood in the tribal community. A tribal woman
enjoys the right to decide about her marriage, etc. Instead of dowry
there is bride price indicating high social status of the tribal woman.
Bride price makes the girls assets for the families rather than liabilities.
A tribal woman can divorce and remarry easily. She earns and is,
therefore, to a great extent economically independent. The customs on
the one hand promote the status of the tribal women and in many
respects they impose taboos on her degrading her position vis-a vis her
male counterpart.
A tribal woman is prevented to inherit property in a patrilineal society.
The customary laws do not permit them to own land and home. In
matrilineal societies like the Khasi and Garo tribes of Meghalaya,

property is transmitted from mother to daughter. Property ownership

becomes a key factor in deciding the status of tribal women.
She is paid less as wages than her male counterpart for the same work.
Several taboos discriminating against tribal women exist in certain tribal
groups implying impurity and low status. The tribal women cannot hold
the office of a priest. There are taboos related to menstruation as in
non-tribal communities. The Kharia women, cannot touch a plough nor
can she participate in roofing of a house. The Oraon women are also
prevented from touching a plough. The Todas of Nilgiri Hills do not
touch menstruating women for fear of destruction of harvest. In certain
tribes only the males can participate in ancestor worship
(Satyanarayana and Behera, 1986). The Toda and Kota women in
southern India cannot cross the threshold of a temple. The Santal
women cannot attend communal worship. All these instances bear the
clear testimony of the inferior status accorded to the tribal women.
The tribal women hardly inherit land, particularly in the patrilineal
societies. The customary laws do not permit them to own land and
home. In matrilineal societies like the Khasi and Garo tribes of
Meghalaya, property is transmitted from mother to daughter. Property
ownership becomes a key factor in deciding the status of tribal women.
The tribal women in India have virtually no role to play in the social and
political spheres. In traditional tribal communities, women have no
political role at all. They substantially contribute to the decision-making
process in the family and home,. However, they have no direct say in
matters relating to common concerns in the village.
In most patrilineal societies women do not have an important role in
religious activities. They are not allowed to officiate in any of the
ceremonies, whether at birth, death or marriage, or in other occasions
or festivals.
In terms of the modern indicators of development, the tribal women
are no better. According to the NSS 66th round, 2009-10 literacy among
the tribal women in the country is recorded to be 54.4 percent. The
gross enrolment ratio for the tribal girls goes on decreasing with the
advancement in grades. For Classes I -V (6 -10 Years) while it is 136.7, it
becomes 87 in classes VI -VIII (11 -13 Years), 49.1 in Classes IX -X (14 -15

Years), 24.8 in Classes XI -XII (16 -17 Years). The dropout rates for ST
girls are very high. The dropout rate goes on increasing with the
increasing age and level of education. It is estimated that the dropout
rates (DOR) for tribal girls in class I V is 33.925.Between classes I VIII
it is 55.441, between classes I X , it is estimated to be 71.3.
The health situation of the tribal women is quite dismal. Only, 32.8
percent tribal women receive medical care from doctors according to
the National Family Health Survey-3 Report. The maternal mortality
rate between the age group of 15-49 among the tribal in India as
estimated by the Sample Registration System in 2007- 2009 was 212
per 1,00,000 live births. Under 5 mortality rates among the tribal girls
was estimated to be 128 in 2001 per 1000 live births which is a high
figure. The tribal women suffer from high morbidity rates. 10119 tribal
women in the age group of 15-49 per 100,000 are reported to have
diabetes, asthma, goitre or any other thyroid disorders (2005-06,
NFHS). Mal nutrition and under nutrition are common features of tribal
women. 68.5% tribal women are reported to be anaemic.
The labour force participation rate is comparatively high among the
tribal women. It was estimated to be 34.9 percent in 2009-10. 362
tribal women in rural areas and 212 in urban areas participate in labour
force. However, tribal women are basically, self employed and casual
labourers which do not bring them much economic yield to change
their position. Poverty is rampant among the tribal women in the
country. A major cause of poverty among Indias tribal women is the
lack of access to productive assets and financial resources. High levels
of illiteracy, inadequate health care and extremely limited access to
social services are common among poor tribal women in the country
pushing them into the circles of poverty. Thus, all these facts and
figures indicate that the tribal women in India are in a state of neglect.
Their plight is quite deplorable and needs immediate attention.

2.5.2 Status of Dalit Women in Modern India

Dalits are also known as untouchables. They are members of the lowest
social status group in the Hindu caste system. Dalits are outcastes falling
outside the traditional four-fold caste system consisting of the Brahmin,
Kshatriya, Vaishya, and Shudra castes. They are considered as impure
and polluting and are therefore physically and are socially excluded and
isolated from the rest of society. They were previously known as
Untouchables, Depressed Classes, and Harijans. Mahatma Jyotirao
Phule (1827-1890), a Marathi social reformer belonging to the
backward caste, was the first to use the term Dalit to describe the
outcaste untouchables as the oppressed and the broken victims of
Hindu Society. Dalits constitute seventeen percent of Indias total
population.
Dalit women suffer unimaginable oppression. Dalit women experience
triple discrimination based on their caste, their economic situation and
their gender. Their dignity, human rights and freedom are frequently
violated. They are economically marginalized, politically alienated and
socially oppressed. No doubt, because of the rising consciousness
among the Dalits, protective Constitutional provisions and legislative
measures their status is undergoing some transformation in
Independent India.
In India the constitutional and legislative safeguards to protect dalit
women from discrimination and violence, have proved to be ineffective
due to the deep rooted caste and gender biases within the
enforcement agencies. The United Nations Committee on the
Elimination of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) in its concluding
comments on India noted concern about the ongoing atrocities
committed against Dalit women and the culture of impunity for
perpetrators of such atrocities. It also calls upon the State party to
increase Dalit womens legal literacy and improve their access to justice
in bringing claims of discrimination and violation of rights.

It is estimated that 70% of Dalit women are illiterate in rural India.

According to the National Commission for Scheduled Castes and
Scheduled Tribes 2000, approximately 75% of the Dalit girls drop out of
primary school despite the strict laws of the Government of India,
which hold reservations for Dalit children. The early drop out from the
education system is caused due to poverty or to escape humiliation,
bullying and isolation by classmates and abuse by teachers. Only 27
percent of Dalits women give institutional deliveries in India. Dalit
women encounter immense atrocities in the society. Every day 3 Dalit
women are raped. Thousands of dalit girls are forced into prostitution
before they reach puberty. According to Indias Ministry of Labour, 85%
of the Dalit women have the most formidable occupations and work as
agricultural labourers, scavengers, sweepers, and disposers of human
waste. Many of these women work for minimal wages under the upper
caste landlords. Dalits women enjoy no land rights. When the Dalit
women refuse to work for low wages or fail to follow their harsh orders
it results open violence, humiliation, beatings, rape, and jail. There are
also a number of cases where the houses of Dalit women have been
burnt down.
The 1992-93 Annual report from the Ministry of Welfare shows 1,236
reported cases of rape on Dalit women and the National Commission
for SC/ST shows that approximately 10,000 cases of human right
violations on Dalits are reported every month. But when only one out
of ten of the cases are reported annually, nine go unreported.
After fifty-five years of Indias independence and despite the excellent
laws in place to protect Dalit women, they are still suffering
unimaginable atrocities from the high caste Hindus. It is believed that
thousands of these cases go unreported and unpublicized because the
poor Dalits that live in rural areas, who are the worst victims, have no
control on power, wealth, justice, police and the media .
The only way these Dalit women can escape the viscous cycle of
poverty, abuse and oppression is through education. Through
education more Dalit women can come to know their basic human
rights and they can then raise an even stronger voice against abuse and
exploitation from the upper castes. Many Dalit Non-Government
Organizations try to bring the plight of Dalit people to the attention of
the International community and to document and publicize human
right violations.

Thus, the foregoing discussions clearly generate the impression that

women in modern India have not come in par with the men. Till now
they lack opportunities and lag behind the men. Development is more
elite centric and remain confined to the urban educated and affluent
sections. Uneducated women in the rural areas are still in a
marginalized and are in an under developed state. Further Indias
plurality is a major challenge to ensure a uniform status to the women
in the country. Caste based, religion based and ethnicity based
differences bring gross disparities in the development of women. Laws,
Constitutional provisions though struggle hard to provide a better
status to the women of the country but, traditional stratifications based
on caste and religion still tussle with them and prevent them to be fully
effective. Still much has to be done to improve the status of the women
in the country. Education, skill development, capacity building can
ensure economic self sufficiency to the women and enable them to
raise their voice against oppression. They can escape them from the
traps of deprivation, denial and exclusion.
Key words: Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda and Artharva veda,The
Upanishads, the Puranas, the Manusmruti, the Dalit
References:
1. Ahuja Ram,(1993) Indian Social System. Jaipur: Rawat Publications
2. Basu, Aparna, (1976), Role of Women in the Freedom Movement, in
B.R.Nanda, ed, Indian Women From Purdah to Modernity, Vikas, Delhi
3. Chattopadhyaya, Kamaladevi, (1983), Indian Womens Battle for Freedom,
Abhinav Publications, New Delhi
4. Forbes, Geraldine, (1998), Women in Modern India, Cambridge University
Press, Cambridge.
5. Kaur, Manmohan, (1968), Role of Women in the Freedom Movement, 18571947, Sterling, New Delhi
6. Tripathi, L.K.(1998)edt. Position and Status of Women in Ancient India

UNIT-II
Review Exercise
Essay Type Questions
1. Examine the status enjoyed by the women in India during the
Vedic age.
2. Do you feel that the status of women in India declined during
the medieval period? Give justification for your answer.
3. Colonial period initiated transformation in the status of
women in India. Comment.
4. Discuss the provisions made by the Government of independent
India to protect and promote the position of women in the
country.
5. Critically evaluate the status of women in modern India.

Short answer type answers

1. Write a note on the status of women during the Rigvedic
period.
2. Evaluate the status of Muslim women in India.
3. Tribal women enjoy a better status than their male
counterparts in the country. Give your views.
4. Estimate the position of Dalit women in contemporary Indian
Society.
5. Write briefly about the legal provisions that attempt to
ensure justice to Indian women today.

Unit-III
Issues Affecting Women
UNIT-3
3.0 OBJECTIVES

3.1Women and Education

3.1.1International Declarations on Spreading Education among the
Women
3.1.2State of Womens Education: The World Scenario
3.1.3 Indias Commitment to Womens Education
3.1.4 Women and Education: the Present Indian Scenario
3.1.5What Ails Girls Education In India?

3.1.6 Interventions Needed to Improve Education among Girls in India

3.2 Women and Health

3.2.1International Declarations on Ensuring Good Health to Women
3.2.2 Womens Health: the World Scenario
3.2.3 Indias Commitment to Improve the Health Status of Women
3.2.4 Situation of Womens Health in India
3.2.5 What Prevents Better Health Status to Women in India?
3.2.6 Interventions Needed to Improve Health among Women in India

3.3WOMEN AND WORK

3.3.1International Declarations on Womens Integration into the

Work force
3.3.2 Gap between Prophecy and Practice
3.3.3Womens Work in India: a Situational Analysis
3.3.4 Challenges to Womens Workforce Participation in India

3.3.5How can the women be better integrated into the

labour market?
3.4WOMEN AND DOMESTIC VIOLENCE
3.4.1 Defining Domestic Violence
3.4.2 Forms of Domestic Violence
3.4.3 Impacts of Domestic Violence on Women
3.4.4 Domestic Violence in the International Legal Framework
3.4.5 Domestic Violence: Global Fact sheet
3.4.6Domestic Violence Measures Undertaken by Government of
India
3.4.7 Domestic Violence: The Indian Situation
3.4.8Factors Perpetuating Domestic Violence
3.4.9Interventions Needed To End Domestic Violence

3.5 Key Words

3.6 References

This unit provides an impression to the students about the issues faced by women in
India. The basic aim is to analyse the position of women with regard to education,
health, work and security, the basic necessities of life. Education is not only an
instrument of enlightenment, but an agency of empowerment. Health that is good
health can not only promote productivity but can ensure a long dieses free life to
the women. Work opportunities will ensure livelihood support and empower the
women economically. Freedom from violence has much to do with a peaceful life
and it signifies equal power relation between men and women. Access to and
availability of these four opportunities can increase the quality of life of the women
and can ensure them a better status. Government has made enormous efforts
through Constitutional provisions, legislations, and programmes to bring the women
in par with the men in these areas or to provide opportunities for the enjoyment of
basic rights to the women in the country. But, still the women lag behind. Therefore,
the present unit reflects upon the International commitments, provisions made by
the Government of India to ensure equality to the women in the areas of education,
health, employment and security, the actual scenario and to detect the preventing
forces and to suggest remedies to overcome them.
3.0 Objectives:
After studying this unit, you can
Develop an idea as to what extent education, health workforce
participation and freedom from violence have an impact on the
status of women.
Gain a detailed impression about the international commitments
to ensure education, health among women. You can also get an
idea about the international efforts to integrate women in the
workforce and commitments to end violence against women.
Estimate the situation of education, health scenario, workforce
participation scenario and violence committed against women in
the country.
Identify the factors that prevent education, health, workforce
participation among women and lead to increasing violence
among them.

 Get knowledge about the required interventions that can

remove the challenges and change the educational, health,
employment and violence scenario noted among the women
and contribute to place them in a better position.

3.1Women and Education

Education is said to be a great gender equalizer. It is one of the most
important means of emancipating women from the conservative, rigid
taboos and enlightening them. It can generate in them a sense of
creativity and can allow them to look things critically. It has the ability
to empower women with the knowledge, skills and self-confidence
necessary to participate fully in the development process.
The educational achievements of women ripple very positive effects
within the family and across generations. Education is the catalyst
which changes women's roles in society. From the point of view of the
society, it is an accelerator of economic growth and is a significant
contributor to the process of nation building. Education of women can
tap the potentialities ingrained in the women population who
constitute almost half of the human resource of the world. Taking such
considerations into account education was declared as a basic human
right. Education of girls and women is a human right and an essential
element for the full enjoyment of all other social, economic, cultural
and political rights. The Millennium development goals (2000), the EFA
and Dakar goals (2000), and the Beijing Platform have consistently
placed emphasis on the importance of education in promoting gender
equality and the advancement of women. Spreading education among
the women has become a world commitment to reduce gender gap and
ensure healthy and balanced development.
3.1.1International Declarations on Spreading Education among the
Women
From time to time, the World has expressed its commitment to spread
education among the women. A few important declarations are
mentioned below.

The first International Declaration is the The International Declaration

of Human Rights, 1948. Article 26 of the Declaration spells out:
Everyone has the right to education. Education shall be free, at least in
the elementary and fundamental stages. Elementary education shall be
compulsory. Technical and professional education shall be made
generally available and higher education shall be equally accessible to
all on the basis of merit.
Education shall be directed to the full development of the
human personality and to the strengthening of respect for
human rights and fundamental freedoms. It shall promote
understanding, tolerance and friendship among all nations,
racial or religious groups, and shall further the activities of the
United Nations for the maintenance of peace.
Parents have a prior right to choose the kind of education that
shall be given to their children.
Thus, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights tries to make
education gender free and rather insists for its availability and
accessibility for every one which includes the girls.
The Declaration of Mexico on the Equality of Women adopted
at the World Conference of the International Women's Year
Mexico City, Mexico.[ On 19 June-2 July 1975] also declared the
need for promoting education among the women to allow them
to enjoy opportunities, rights and to build an international
community based on equity and justice. For this it
recommended, women, like men, require opportunities for
developing their intellectual potential to the maximum.
National policies and programmes should therefore provide
them with full and equal access to education and training at all
levels, while ensuring that such programmes and policies
consciously orient them towards new occupations and new
roles consistent with their need for self-fulfilment and the
needs of national development.

The World Conference on Education for All, assembled in

Jomtien, Thailand, from 5 to 9 March, 1990 recalling that
education is a fundamental right for all people, women and
men, of all ages, throughout the world; insisted for
universalizing access and promoting equity which made girls
education a national priority throughout the globe.
The United Nations Fourth World Conference on Women Beijing,
China - September 1995 observed that education is a human right and
an essential tool for achieving the goals of equality. Equality of access
to and attainment of educational qualifications is necessary if more
women are to become agents of change. Literacy of women is an
important key to improving health, nutrition and education in the
family and to empowering women to participate in decision-making in
society. Investing in formal and non-formal education and training for
girls and women, with its exceptionally high social and economic return,
has proved to be one of the best means of achieving sustainable
development and economic growth that is both sustained and
sustainable. So, it insisted upon
Ensuring equal access to education.
Eradicating illiteracy among women.
Improving women's access to vocational training, science and
technology, and continuing education.
Developing non-discriminatory education and training.
Allocating sufficient resources for and monitor the
implementation of educational reforms.
Promoting lifelong education and training for girls and women.
The World Conference on Higher Education, assembled at
UNESCO Headquarters in Paris, from 5 to 9 October 1998 in
Article 4 - Enhancing participation and promoting the role of
women clearly spelt out
Although significant progress has been achieved to enhance the
access of women to higher education, various socio-economic,
cultural and political obstacles continue in many places in the
world to impede their full access and effective integration. To
overcome them remains an urgent priority in the renewal

process for ensuring an equitable and non-discriminatory system

of higher education based on the principle of merit.
Further efforts are required to eliminate all gender stereotyping
in higher education, to consider gender aspects in different
disciplines and to consolidate womens participation at all levels
and in all disciplines, in which they are under-represented and, in
particular, to enhance their active involvement in decisionmaking.
Gender studies (womens studies) should be promoted as a field
of knowledge, strategic for the transformation of higher
education and society.
Efforts should be made to eliminate political and social barriers
whereby women are under-represented and in particular to
enhance their active involvement at policy and decision-making
levels within higher education and society.
The UN Millennium Declaration was agreed by 191 governments at the
September 2000 UN Millennium Summit. Goal 3 calls for gender
equality and womens empowerment. In this context, the declaration
called for meeting the education goal therefore requires that the
distinctive conditions preventing girls or boys from attending or
completing primary school is to be addressed. Reducing education
costs, improving quality, tackling parental concerns about female
modesty or safety and increasing the returns to families that invest in
female schooling are factors that can overcome social and economic
barriers to girls education. Eliminating gender disparities in education
is one of the most effective poverty reduction strategies.
The Dakar Declaration on Accelerating Girls Education and Gender
Equality, assembled in Dakar in May 2010 called for urgent action in
support of girls rights to education, gender equality and empowerment
opportunities.
It noted that powerless and poor girls make up the most
disadvantaged group in education. Achieving equity in education
will entail putting in place a rights-based empowerment
framework that will target the most vulnerable and transform
power hierarchies in learning spaces, communities and policy

structures in order to give poor and vulnerable girls a voice and

ensure that their right to quality education is sustained.
Gender equity is at the centre of transformative, quality
education. Attention to the physical, social and academic aspects
of multiple learning environments is necessary to enhance
opportunities, especially for adolescent girls, and to move
beyond basic education. Recognition of teachers as professionals,
supported by gender-responsive curricula, is the key to ensuring
gender equality.
Gender-based violence remains an obstacle to the full
achievement of girls rights to education. The members called for
effective strategies and for enforcement of legislation and
policies to ensure safe and secure learning environments for girls.
In January 2011, The Education International convened the On the
Move for Equality Conference, the first EI World Womens Conference.
A key outcome of the Conference was the adoption of Resolutions on
Gender Equality and on Education and the Elimination of Violence against Women
by the EI 6th World Congress in July 2011. The EI Gender Equality
Resolution provided the mandate for the development of the EI Global
Gender Equality Action Plan (GEAP).
3.1.2State of Womens Education: The World Scenario
Irrespective of several commitments and declarations, the world
falls back on the track of ensuring equal education to its women
population. The UNESCO data reveals despite the gains in
literacy, 774 million adults (15 years and older) still cannot read
or write and two-thirds of them (493 million) are women. Among
youth, 123 million are illiterate of which 76 million are females.
Even though the size of the global illiterate population is
shrinking, the female proportion has remained virtually steady at
63% to 64%. According to the World Literacy Foundation, 2011
even today, in most countries women and girls are the last to get
the opportunity to learn.
54% of children out of school are females. Out of school girls are
far less likely to enter primary school education than out of
school boys. Girls primary school completion rates are below 50

percent in most poor countries. The current picture for

secondary school completion is bleak. Even if girls are in school,
they are the first to leave when needed for domestic chores or to
be caregivers, and are often forced to leave due to child marriage
or pregnancy. 66 million girls out of school globally . There are 33
million fewer girls than boys in primary school (2013 Pearson
Foundation). The Education for All Global Monitoring Report,
2013 estimates millions of girls world are still being denied an
education in primary school. There are still 31 million girls of
primary school age out of school. Of these 17 million are
expected never to enter school. Three countries have over a
million girls not in school. In Nigeria there are almost five and a
half million, Pakistan, over three million, and in Ethiopia, over
one million girls out of school. There are also 34 million female
adolescents out of school, missing out on the chance to learn
vital skills for work. Almost a quarter of young women aged 1524 today (116 million) in developing countries have never
completed primary school and so lack skills for work. Young
women make up 58% of those not completing primary school.
Two-thirds of the 774 million illiterate people in the world are
female. Higher education till today is a monopoly of the males
and womens share in it is quite negligible. Technical education
though is gaining popularity among the girls, is more confined to
girls of higher economic and social classes.
3.1.3 Indias Commitment to Womens Education
India is a signatory to all the International Declarations on women. So,
right from the beginning, the Government of India has geared efforts to
spread education among women. Education has been a priority area in
the national agenda. The Governments commitment to spread
education among women is reflected in the Constitution, plans and
programmes. The Constitution of India included a number of articles
that had a direct or indirect bearing on the education of women. For
instance, Article 15 (3) empowers the State to make special provisions
for welfare and development of women and children which was
invoked to justify special allocations, personnel and relaxation of
procedures/ conditions to expand girls access to education at different
levels. Article 45 makes provision for free and compulsory education
for children. The State shall endeavour to provide, within a period of
ten years from the commencement of this Constitution, for free and

compulsory education for all children until they complete the age of
fourteen years which includes the girl children of the country. Article 46
prescribes to promote the educational and economic interests of
Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and other weaker sections. The
State shall promote with special care the educational and economic
interests of the weaker sections of the people, and, in particular, of the
Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes, and shall protect them
from social injustice and all forms of exploitation. Thus, this article
focuses on making special efforts for including the excluded women in
the ambit of primary education.
The 86th Constitutional amendment making education a fundamental
right was passed by Parliament in 2002. A f t e r t h a t A r t i c l e - 2 1
of the Constitution, Article-21-A was inserted
w h i c h states: The State shall provide free and compulsory
education to all c h i ld re n o f t h e a ge o f si x to f o u r te e n
y e a r s in su c h m a n n e r a s th e State may, by law, determine. The
Right of children to Free and Compulsory Education Act, a law to enable
the implementation of the fundamental right, was passed by
Parliament in 2009.This right to education is a milestone which
provides enormous right to a child to get educated. The girl child is not
exempt from this.

The various Committees studying the issue of womens education in the

country include the University Education Commission, headed by Prof.
S. Radhakrishnan, 1948-49, the Secondary Education Commission
headed by A. Mudaliar, 1953, the Durgabai Deshmukh Committee set
up in 1959, the Hansa Mehta Committee , the Education Commission,
1964-66, also known as the Kothari Commission. All these committees
and commissions emphasised on equalisation of educational
opportunities. The Kothari Commissions recommendations came into
force in the form of education policy, known as the National Policy of
Education, 1968. On the issue of women education, the policy
document clearly mentioned The education of girls should receive
emphasis, not only on grounds of social justice, but also because it
accelerates social transformation The National Policy on Education

(NPE), 1986 revised in 1992, focussed on education for womens

equality and empowerment. In 2005, the government of India set up
the CABE Committee on Girls Education and Common School System to
examine existing schemes, incentives and special measures aimed at
reducing gender disparity and increasing the participation and
retention of girls, in all sectors of education. It recommended free and
compulsory education for girls up to the age of 18 years and
emphasized that there should be no hidden costs in girls education.
The committee gave thrust to initiate measures to promote girls
education of such nature, force and magnitude that will enable girls to
overcome the obstacles posed by factors such as poverty, domestic/
sibling care responsibilities, girl child labour, low preference to girls
education, preference to marriage over education etc.
The Government of India has designed different strategies,
interventions, schemes and programmes with specific objectives that
can improve on girls education. Foremost among these, is the
programme for the Universalization of Elementary Education (UEE),
called Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA), launched at the beginning of the
century (2001). This national flagship programme has a clear focus on
bridging and eliminating gender differences in enrolment, retention and
quality of learning. There is a thrust and special focus on girls
education in the planning and provisioning for UEE, in SSA. Some of
these are listed below:

Free textbooks to all girls up to class VIII

Separate toilets for girls

Back to school camps for out-of-school girls

Bridge courses for older girls

Recruitment of 50% women teachers

Early childhood care and Education centres in/near schools in

convergence with ICDS programme etc.

Teachers sensitization programmes to promote equitable

learning opportunities

Gender-sensitive teaching-learning materials including textbooks

Intensive community mobilisation efforts

Innovation fund per district for need based interventions for

ensuring girls attendance and retention.

A range of strategies and interventions have been evolved that

are designed to improve girls participation in education, at building
systemic responsiveness, motivating girls and their parents and forging
partnerships with community based groups for girls education. Efforts
are also made to address issues within the classroom to create a
positive learning environment and monitor progress along key
indicators in girls education. The National Programme for Education of
Girls at Elementary Level (NPEGEL) has been formulated for providing
additional support for education of underprivileged/disadvantaged girls
at elementary level. NPEGEL is a part of SSA and will be implemented
under its umbrella but as a distinct and separate gender component
plan
of
SSA.
Kasturba
Gandhi
Balika
Vidhyalaya
(KGBV):
The Government of India has approved a new scheme called Kasturba
Gandhi Balika Vidyalaya (KGBV) for setting up to 750 residential schools
with boarding facilities at elementary level for girls belonging
predominantly to the SC, ST, OBC and minorities in difficult areas. The
scheme will be coordinated with the existing schemes of Department of
Elementary Education & Literacy viz. Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA),
National Programme for Education of Girls at Elementary Level
(NPEGEL) and Mahila Samakhya (MS). The objective of KGBV is to
ensure access and quality education to the girls of disadvantaged
groups of society by setting up residential schools with boarding
facilities at elementary level.
In order to promote education among the disadvantaged groups and to
encourage the girls of such communities, G o v e r n m e n t a t t h e

n a t i o n a l a n d S t a t e L e v e l s h a v e b e e n implementing,
from time to time, a number of programmes so as promote
their education among them. The major ones including:
Post matric scholarship to students
Provision of free school uniform and textbooks.
Provision of free reading writing materials
Establishment of residential Schools
Relaxation in the minimum qualifying marks for admission
for SC/ST candidates.
Career Orientation to students to ensure that the graduates have
knowledge, skills and attitudes for gainful employment in the wage
sector in general and self-employment in particular
Financial assistance for remedial coaching. It provides financial
a s si s ta n c e t o t h e e xi s t in g c o a c h i n g c e n tr e s t o p r e p a re
S C / ST c a n d id a te s f o r th e Na t io n a l El ig ib il i ty Te s t (N E T)
c o n d u c t e d b y UGC/CSIR.
Remedial Coaching scheme at UG/PG level
3.1.4 Women and Education: the Present Indian Scenario
With the various ambitious programmes of the Government of India to increase
availability, accessibility, ensure quality and expand education among its girl
children, though the state of womens education has made some progress in the
country, yet it is not very spectacular.
The female literacy rate has also increased from 8.86% in 1951 to 65.46
percent in2011 census which is a great leap for the women in the
country. The rural female literacy rate is 58.8 percent while the urban
female literacy rate is 79.9 percent. This indicates that there are still
regional disparities in womens education in the country and
availability, access and expansion are not only gender oriented, but
location centric in nature.

Gender disparities in education persist with far more girls than boys
failing to complete primary school according to the UNICEF Report. The
national literacy rate of girls over seven years is 54% against 75% for
boys. The Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) for females at the primary level
stood at 115.39. At the middle classes level, the GER for females was

78.30. The Dropout Rates were observed to be 27.25 for females, in

the classes IV in 200910. These were 44.39 in classes IVIII and 51.97
in classes IX in the same years. In 2005-06, the U.G.C. estimated
womens share in higher education to be 40.5% and in professional
education it was 29.5%. According to the District Information System
for Education (DISE) (2011-12), report, girls enrolment at the primary
level (Class I-V) stands at 48.35. Also, at the higher education level, the
gross enrolment ratio for male population is 20.8 while that for female
it is 17.9 respectively. According to All India Survey on Higher Education
(AISHE) 2010-11, at higher education level, 55 percent of male are
enrolled in under graduate and post graduate courses while only 45
percent of female are enrolled in the same. Also, 62 percent of male are
enrolled in PhD while only 38 percent of female are enrolled in the
same.
All these statistics reveal out the poor progress of the women in education
which is worldwide accepted as the most powerful development input and
indicator.
3.1.5What Ails Girls Education In India?
Girls education in India is still in a dismal state. Infrastructural deficiencies,
deficit of teachers, non-yielding curriculum, poverty stricken households, cultural
barriers, gender role stereotypes, social stigmas and practices, growing
insecurities are some of the principal reasons that ail girls education in the
country.
Till the date, there are many inaccessible areas which lack a primary school in
the vicinity. So, parents hesitate to send their daughters to schools taking into
consideration the far off nature of the school which causes security concerns,
concerns about physical exertion. There are areas where physical barriers like
streams, forests and hills also prevent parents to enrol their daughters in schools.
There many schools in the country which lack adequate number of class rooms
and special toilet for girls. 72.16 percent of all schools in India have girls toilet
according to DISE 2011-12 which causes inconvenience for the girls to spend

lingering hours in the schools. Lack of required number of class rooms makes
school education irregular and messy. Lack of fences creates the apprehension of
attack of wild animals and girls are withdrawn on that pretext. Many schools lack
provisions for safe drinking water. All these infrastructural deficiencies
discourage parents to enrol and continue their daughters in schools.

Many schools in the country run without adequate number of teachers. There is
a short fall of female teachers which disappoints the parents who expect female
teachers presence in the schools as the custodian of their daughters. According
to DISE 2011-12, at the elementary level, only 46.27 percent of all schools have
female teachers as on 2011-12. Also, at all India level, at the higher education
level, there are merely 59 female teachers per 100 male teachers according to
AISHE (2010-11). Teachers absenteeism is a common feature due to other
preoccupation of the teachers and sometimes it is self propelled. Lack of
monitoring encourages this. But teachers absenteeism is a potential cause that
plagues girls education.
In many countries the language of instruction in primary schools is a national or
regional language, even though large shares of the population speak a different
mother

tongue.

Rule

regarding

the

language

of

instruction

often

disproportionately affect girls particularly in communities that seclude women. In

the Indian context, particularly in the tribal areas the impact of an alien language
as the medium of instruction in the schools discourages the school attendance of
the girls. The girls who are hardly exposed to the outside environment and who
are mostly confined to their domestic surrounding fail to comprehend this
foreign language. They themselves become apathetic to schools when they fail to
comprehend the class room transactions. This leads to drop out among them.

The uniform curriculum introduced by the Government often has no link with
the culture of the community and fails to guarantee adequate livelihood to the
girls.

Parents expect a different way of socialization of their daughter in

productive and community management traits which is not fulfilled by the

curriculum. So, they prefer to withdraw the girls from the schools.
Poverty is the biggest hurdle for girls education in India. Girls productive
abilities are potent resources for poor households. Girls shoulder the domestic
responsibilities of cooking, fetching water, collecting fire wood and undertake
sibling care responsibilities in the absence of their mothers who are engaged in
outdoor economic activities to supplement to the family economy. Girls are also
engaged in semi productive activities and in subsistence wage labour. So, in poor
households their physical contributions are highly valued which undermine their
schooling and getting formal education.

India has a patriarchal culture. Gender bias and son preference grapple the minds
of parents. Boys are always preferred over girls if a choice for an opportunity has
to be made. Educating a daughter, especially in a poor family, is perceived not
only as an unnecessary luxury but also as a liability. As dowry is still a widely
practised cultural norm, the birth of a daughter in the family is, in the first place,
a huge financial burden. Secondly, a girl by virtue of her female status is expected
to marry a man who should be in a better social position and level of education
than her. This phenomenon is lucidly explained by Dreze and Sen (1995): If an
educated girl can only marry a more educated boy, and if dowry payments
increase with the education of the groom, then, given other things, an educated
girl is likely to be more expensive to marry off. For a poverty-stricken family, it is
unthinkable to meet the dowry demand of an educated groom. This
phenomenon of poverty contributing to non-participation of girls in education is

more prominent in north Indian states, where there is a strong feudal agrarian
culture, subordination and oppression of girls and women. Again the girls are
disallowed to attend schools after they attain puberty. This is a common cultural
practice throughout rural India which prevents thousands of girls from attending
educational institutions.
India has long witnessed the dominant Brahminical tradition. This tradition
carries the hidden value of male chauvinism. Male chauvinism is reflected mainly
in the attitudes and behaviours of male social elites belonging to the so-called
upper caste. The so called Dalits and particularly girls belonging to Dalit groups
are systematically excluded from the institution of education. In India the
institution of education is rationed by male chauvinism and upper caste
dominance which segregate the girls from the ambit of education. The practice
of child marriage in still in continuation in the country. This negates education to
the girls.

Unconscious discrimination, stereotypes, and expectations affect opportunities,

motivation and interpersonal behaviour. These factors have particularly strong
effects on student performance in heterogeneous schools and classrooms. To be
a Dalit girl is to remain doubly deprived. As Rampal (2005) has aptly portrayed:
Dalit girls suffer the multiple burdens of poverty, caste and gender. Caste
discrimination from peers and teachers continue to obstruct their social access to
education. Their dignity and self worth are often hurt. The Dalit girls are
systematically harassed, dehumanized and pushed to submit to the culture of
silence. This de motivates them from attending schools.
In India child marriages are still in continuation. According to the UNICEF
Information Sheet there has been a decline in the incidence of child marriage
nationally and in nearly all states from 54% in 1992-3 to 43% in 2007-8, but the

pace of change remains slow .Investing in girls education is perceived as a waste

of resources by families. Since families believe that a girls education will only
benefit her husbands household, and not the family of origin. As a consequence
they drop out of school. In urban areas of India, only half of girls between 15-17
years of age attend school. The situation is even more acute in rural areas, where
less than a third of the girls in the same age group attend school.

5.8 % of girls in the age group 6-17 years in rural areas dropped out of school as
they got married (NFHS 2005-2006). Insecurities loom large for girls in the
schools. The growing abuses of girls and sexual harassments in schools prevent
parents to send their daughters to schools. Thus multiple factors play a role to
deny girls school attendance.

3.1.6 Interventions Needed to Improve Education among Girls in India

No doubt India has a wide range of Constitutional provisions, legal frame-works

and a plethora of polices and plans to provide primary/basic education to both
boys and girls as well as to promote gender equality in education. However, the
gap in translating these policy initiatives and plans into actual implementation
retards education of girls in the country. So there is an urgent need of
developing the vision, articulating a firm commitment to demonstrate concrete
results on the ground. A strong sensitization, supervision and monitoring are the
need of the hour to improve gender parity in education.
Poverty and socio-cultural barriers impede girls education. Serious attention is
to be focussed to change the traditional practices, mind sets. Social
communication programmes and awareness-raising campaigns are likely to break

down barriers in the longer term. Policy initiatives, programmes and scheme are
to address the issue of opportunity cost of sending the girls to school.

Innovative gender-focused initiatives and programmes, even those which include

positive gender discrimination, are needed to be implemented to combat the
issue of gender disparity in access and quality of education and address the low
gender equality perceived in the sector of education. Public-private sector
collaboration as well as involvement of NGOs and non state agencies working in
the education sector can prove effective in addressing a variety of socioeconomic and cultural barriers.

The fear among girls and parents/families of potential molestation, harassment

and discrimination both on their way to and from school and within school is
widespread in country. It acts as a barrier to school access, sustained attendance
and learning and achievement for girls. Strong measures are to be undertaken at
the policy and management/administration level to address these issues to
remove these major hindrances to girls education.

The idea of setting up satellite campuses, feeder schools and recruitment of local
female teachers can prove effective in arresting the problem of non enrolment,
drop out, non attendance of school problems for girls to a great extent.

The country needs to initiate reforms in the curriculum. The curriculum should
address the issues of gender parity, gender equality and gender equity leading to
womens empowerment in the social, economic and political spheres. In this
way, issues of social discrimination and social status, participation in the labour
market and playing effective roles by women in policy-making, planning,

management and decision-making at various levels of authority and institutional

mechanism may be addressed. This will solicit more girls participation in
education.
Visionary infrastructure planning can be made for the schools to address the
issues overcoming the lack of essential facilities in the school such as classrooms,
latrines, facilities for managing menstruation, drinking water and school wall
boundaries also act as barriers to girls education.
The laws like ban on child marriage, Child labour abolition law and right to
education should be stringently implemented to bring the girls into the fold of
education. Gender sensitization among the teachers, bringing gender neutral
approach in class room transactions will create a positive environment for girls
education.

3.2 WOMEN AND HEALTH

Health is both an indicator of and an instrument for womens
development and progress. So, investment in promoting health of women is a major
input for providing a good quality of life to the women and to ensure better
productivity to the women. In this context, the International Conference on
Population and Development (ICPD) insisted to prioritise the improvement of the
health status of women. According to the ICDP, improved health status can ensure
empowerment of women. However, womens health is globally impeded by poverty,
limited access to educational and economic opportunities, gender bias and
discrimination, unjust laws, and insufficient state accountability. The lack of
enjoyment of the right to health has deprived women from having a good quality of
life.
The World Health Organization defines health as a state of complete
physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or
infirmity. Health includes prevention of illness, development of individual potential.
Health is a life opportunity that determines the quality of life and life chance. So, it
should be affordable, accessible, effective, efficient and convenient to all individuals
including the women. Health depends on the availability to all people of basic
essentials: Food, safe water, housing, education, productive employment, protection
from pollution and prevention of social alienation. Health depends on protection

from exploitation without distinction of race, religion and political belief, economic or
social condition. However, all these basic requirements of health are not available to
the majority of women and therefore womens health is always challenged.
3.2.1International Declarations on Ensuring Good Health to Women:
The concern of the International agencies for the protection and
promotion of the health status of women has been reflected in various international
declarations. A few important declarations are mentioned below.
The first International Declaration is the The International
Declaration of Human Rights, 1948. Article 25(1) of The Universal Declaration of
Human Rights propounds that
Everyone has the right to a standard of living adequate for the health
and well-being of himself and of his family, including food, clothing, and
housing and medical care and necessary social services, and the right to
security in the event of unemployment, sickness, disability, widowhood,
old age or other lack of livelihood in circumstances beyond his control.
The Universal Declaration makes additional accommodations for
security in case of physical debilitation or disability, and makes special
mention of care given to those in motherhood or childhood.
It clearly indicates that the declaration also gives coverage to the
women whose health and well being is a matter of concern for the
world community.
Health is briefly addressed in the United Nations' International Convention on
the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination , which was adopted in 1965 and
entered into effect in 1969.The Convention calls upon States to
"Prohibit and to eliminate racial discrimination in all its forms and to
guarantee the right of everyone, without distinction as to race, colour,
or national or ethnic origin, to equality before the law," and references
under this provision is made to "The right to public health, medical
care, social security and social services." Thus, the International
Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination
makes public health and medical care available to all world citizens
without any bias and discrimination. This is applicable for women of all
racial groups, colour, nationality and ethnic origin.
The United Nations further defines the right to health in Article 12 of
the 1966 International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, which states:
The States parties to the present Covenant recognize the right of
everyone to the enjoyment of the highest attainable standard of
physical and mental health. This cannot exempt the women.

In September 1978, the International Conference on Primary Health

Care was held in Alma-Ata, USSR (now Almaty, Kazakhstan). The
Declaration of Alma-Ata, co-sponsored by the World Health
Organization (WHO), is a brief document that expresses "the need for
urgent action by all governments, all health and development workers,
and the world community to protect and promote the health of all the
people of the world." It was the first international declaration stating
the importance of primary health care and the role of world
governments in catering to the health needs of the world citizens.It
goes on to call for all governments, regardless of politics and conflicts,
to work together toward global health. These fundamental tenets guide
the work of the WHO today. Those who ratified the Declaration of
Alma-Ata hoped that it would be the first step toward achieving health
for all by the year 2000. Although that goal was not achieved, the
Declaration of Alma-Ata still stands as an outline for the future of
international healthcare. Health for All no doubt clarifies that health
programmes and care services should reach all people including the
women.
The next important declaration is the declaration of the CEDAW made
in 1979. CEDAW stands for Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination
against Women. CEDAW seeks to end discrimination against women in
health care, and to ensure that prenatal and obstetrical care is made
available to all women who need it(Art.12).Through these broad
provisions, CEDAW seeks to improve womens health throughout their
life spans, from birth to old age. Improving womens health requires
not only access to good medical care, but also access to education,
good nutrition, and the elimination of violence against women, both in
the home and in armed conflict areas, The assumption being these
serve as the means to secure better health status for women. In making
recommendations to ratifying countries, the CEDAW Committee has
accordingly expressed concern about the barriers to good health
ranging from a general lack of adequate health care for women and
girls, to the increasing number of women HIV/AIDs, and to high
maternal mortality rates.
Womens health also got reflection in the discussions of the World
Conferences on Women. The first World Conference on women
organised by the United Nations in Mexico City in 1975 gave a call to

the signatory nations to look into the reproductive health of women on

the eve of the International decade for women. This was a historic
effort to sensitize the nations to protect the reproductive health of the
women which though vital for the lives of millions of women was in a
deplorable state.
The Second World Conference on women organised by the United Nations in
Copenhagen in1980 stated that special actions needed to be taken in
areas such as employment opportunities, adequate health care services
and education. Though it singled out health of women as an area of
concern, its recommendations were more generic than being specific.
The Fourth World Conference on women organised by the United Nations
in Beijing, 1995 adopted the Beijing Platform for Action which made
explicit recommendations to secure the health status of women. The
strategies suggested are:
To increase women's access throughout the life cycle to
appropriate, affordable and quality health care, information and
related services.
To strengthen preventive programmes that promotes women's
health.
To undertake gender-sensitive initiatives that address sexually
transmitted diseases, HIV/AIDS, and sexual and reproductive
health issues.
To promote research and disseminate information on women's
health.
To increase resources and monitor follow-up for women's health.
Promoting health, one of the fundamental aspects of primary health
care, has been addressed independently by successive conferences, the
first in Ottawa, Canada, in 1986 and in Jakarta, Indonesia, in 1997. The
Declaration of Jakarta includes an updated conceptualization of health
and identifies the requirements for its attainment as we head into the
next century. These include "peace, housing, education, social security,
social relations, food, income, womens empowerment, a stable
ecosystem, the sustainable use of resources, social justice, respect for
human rights, and equity. Above all else, poverty is the greatest threat
to health."

Other relevant international initiatives in recent years related to health

are the Program of Action of the International Conference on
Population and Development (Cairo, 1994), which insists upon
reducing infant and maternal mortality, and guaranteeing universal
access to reproductive health and family planning services.
The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) are eight international
development goals that were established following the Millennium Summit of the
United Nations in 2000, following the adoption of the United Nations Millennium
Declaration. Goal 3, 4 and 5 are committed to the health of the world
population and goal 4 specifically talks about womens health. These
three goals read as follows
To reduce child mortality
To improve maternal health
To combat HIV/AIDS, malaria, and other diseases
The outcome of the twenty-third special session of the General
Assembly entitled Women 2000: gender equality, development and
peace for the twenty-first century called for, inter alia, policies and
measures to address, on a prioritized basis, the gender aspects of
emerging and continued health challenges, such as malaria,
tuberculosis, HIV/AIDS and other diseases having a disproportionate
impact on womens health, including those resulting in the highest
mortality and morbidity rates. It also called for the allocation of the
necessary budgetary resources to ensure the highest attainable
standard of physical and mental health, so that all women have full and
equal access to comprehensive, high-quality and affordable health care,
information, education and services throughout their life cycle.
In 2004, the World Health Assembly adopted its first strategy on
reproductive health, intended to sensitize the countries about the
serious repercussions of reproductive and sexual ill-health. It also
formulated strategies targeting at five priority aspects of reproductive
and sexual health. These are improving antenatal, delivery, postpartum
and newborn care; providing high-quality services for family planning,
including infertility services; eliminating unsafe abortion; combating
sexually transmitted infections, including HIV, reproductive tract
infections, cervical cancer and other gynaecological illness and disease;
and promoting sexual health.

During the 2005 World Summit, heads of states and governments

committed themselves to achieving universal access to reproductive
health by 2015, as set out at the International Conference on
Population and Development. It also tried to integrate some avowed
aims like reducing maternal mortality, improving maternal health,
reducing child mortality, promoting gender equality, combating
HIV/AIDS and eradicating poverty.
3.2.2 Womens Health: the World Scenario
Irrespective of the International Declarations on womens health, the
general health scenario of the women throughout the world is in a very
deplorable state. Women face greater health risks in comparison to the
men in different age groups. The following fact sheet supplements the
observation.
In 2011, about 820, 000 women and men aged 15-24 were newly
infected with HIV in low- and middle-income countries out of which
more than 60% of were women. Globally, adolescent girls and young
women (15-24 years) are twice as likely to be at risk of HIV infection
compared to boys and young men in the same age group. In subSaharan Africa, more women than men are living with HIV, and young
women aged1524 years are as much as eight times more likely than
men to be HIV positive.
Although progress has been made in reducing the birth rate among
adolescents, more than 15 million of the 135 million live births
worldwide are among girls aged between 15-19 years.
An estimated three million unsafe abortions occur globally every year
among girls aged 15-19 years. Unsafe abortions contribute substantially
to lasting health problems and maternal deaths. Complications from
pregnancy and childbirth are an important cause of death among girls
aged 1519 in low- and middle-income countries.
Women and girls are most vulnerable to anaemia.
Maternal deaths are the second biggest killer of women of reproductive
age. Every year, approximately 287 000 women die due to
complications in pregnancy and childbirth, 99% of them are in
developing countries.

Disability which affects 15% of the worlds population is more common

among women than men. A disabled woman is at more danger than a
disabled man. Older women experience more disability than men.
Cardiovascular diseases account for 46% of older womens deaths
globally, while a further 14% of deaths are caused by cancers.

3.2.3 Indias Commitment to Improve the Health Status of Women:

Protecting and promoting the health status of women is an avowed
goal of the Government of India. It is reflected through the
Constitutional provisions, policies and programmes of the Government.
Article 47 of the Constitution of India directs the State to raise the level
of nutrition and the standard of living of its people and the
improvement of public health which includes the women. The
Constitutional mandate gets reflected through the policies. Some of the
important policies of the Government of India pertaining to womens
health are mentioned below.
The National Population Policy 2000 recognised the poor health
situation of women and made suggestions to resolve these concerns.
Womens risk of premature death and disability is highest during
their reproductive years. Maternal mortality is not merely a
health disadvantage; it is a matter of social injustice. Low social
and economic status of girls and women, limited access to
education, good nutrition, as well as money to pay for health
care and family planning services contribute significantly to their
poor health status.
Under-nutrition and micronutrient deficiency paralyse womans
well-being. Interventions for improving womens health and
nutrition are critical for poverty reduction.
India's National Health Policy 2002 focuses throughout on the health
of the poor, and dedicates a section to the health of women and
related it to socioeconomic and cultural issues. The document
acknowledges the importance of women's health as a major
determinant of the health of entire community. The National Health
Policy (2002) pointed out social, cultural and economic factors
continue to inhibit women from gaining adequate access even to the

existing public health facilities. The policy endorses the need to expand
the primary health care infrastructure to increase women's access to
care. The policy also recognizes a need to review staffing in the public
health service, so that it may become more responsive to specific needs
of women.
Indias National policy for the empowerment of women, 2001 makes
some important recommendations for ensuring a better health status
to the women. The most important of them include:
A holistic approach to womens health which includes both
nutrition and health services will be adopted and special
attention will be given to the needs of women and the girl at
all stages of the life cycle. The reduction of infant mortality
and maternal mortality, which are sensitive indicators of
human development, is a priority concern. This policy
reiterates women should have access to comprehensive,
affordable and quality health care. Measures will be adopted
that take into account the reproductive rights of women to
enable them to exercise informed choices, their vulnerability
to sexual and health problems together with endemic,
infectious and communicable diseases such as malaria, TB,
and water borne diseases as well as hypertension and cardiopulmonary diseases. The social, developmental and health
consequences of HIV/AIDS and other sexually transmitted
diseases will be tackled from a gender perspective.
The policy desires the women to have access to safe,
effective and affordable methods of family planning of their
choice and the need to suitably address the issues of early
marriages and spacing of children. Interventions such as
spread of education, compulsory registration of marriage and
delaying the age of marriage are to be put into operation
vigorously to save women from maternal mortality problems.
Womens traditional knowledge about health care and
nutrition will be recognized through proper documentation
and its use will be encouraged. The use of Indian and
alternative systems of medicine will be enhanced within the
framework of overall health infrastructure available for
women.
In view of the high risk of malnutrition and disease that
women face at all the three critical stages viz., infancy and

childhood, adolescent and reproductive phase, focussed

attention would be paid to meeting the nutritional needs of
women at all stages of the life cycle. Special efforts will be
made to tackle the problem of macro and micro nutrient
deficiencies especially amongst pregnant and lactating women
as it leads to various diseases and disabilities.
Intra-household discrimination in nutritional matters for girls and
women will be sought to be ended through appropriate
strategies. Widespread use of nutrition education would be made
to address the issues of intra-household imbalances in nutrition
and the special needs of pregnant and lactating women.
So far as the programmes of the Government are concerned, the
Special Nutrition Programme (SNP) was launched in the country in
1970-71 to improve the health and nutritional status of children in the
age group of 0-6 years, along with that of pregnant women and
lactating mothers.
The Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) scheme was
initiated in 1975.It aims at providing supplementary nutrition,
immunisation, health check-ups, and referral services to children below
six years of age which gives coverage to the girls in the early years of
their lives as well as expecting and nursing mothers.
The Reproductive and Child Health Programme (RCH) Phase -I was
launched in October 1997. The RCH program incorporated the earlier
existing programs i.e. National Family Welfare Program and Child
Survival and Survival & Safe Motherhood Program ( CSSM) and added
two more components one relating to sexually transmitted disease and
the other relating to reproductive tract infections. The broad objectives
of the programme which impact upon the women include:
Promotion of MCH to ensure safe mother hood and child
survival.
Reduction of maternal and child morbidity and mortality.
Attainment of population stabilization.

The National Rural Health Mission launched in 2005 is a promising

programme aiming at improving the health status of the women. The
goals of the NRHM that have a bearing on the health of the women
include:
Reduction in Infant Mortality Rate (IMR) and Maternal
Mortality Ratio (MMR).
Universal access to public health services such as womens
health, child health, water, sanitation & hygiene,
immunization, and nutrition.
Prevention and control of communicable and noncommunicable diseases, including locallyendemic diseases.
Access to integrated comprehensive primary healthcare.
3.2.4 Situation of Womens Health in India
Irrespective of the promising prescription of the Indian Constitution and
the visionary policies, the health situation of the women is not very
appealing. The alarming health condition of the women in the country
is reflected in the declining sex ratio. With some improvements, the sex
ratio of the country is noted to be 940 in 2011 which is indicative of the
high death rate among them.
Starvations are more common to the women. Gender disparities in
nutrition are evident from infancy to adulthood. In fact, gender has
been the most statistically significant determinant of malnutrition
among young children and malnutrition is a frequent direct or
underlying cause of death among girls below age 5.
Food insecurities loom large around the women because of their
economic impoverishment and gender practices of the society. This is
becoming more acute in the new millennium when agricultural
productivity is getting sharply affected.
The increasing rates of migration, desertion, divorce has brought new
burdens on the women and has created health hazards of a high
magnitude. Migration limits their access to the health care system in
the area of destination. Desertion burdens them economically and
being single, they fail to venture to access health services.
Infant mortality rates are higher for the females. The female Infant
Mortality Rate (IMR) was 49 while the IMR among the males was 46 in
2010.
Women in India suffer from malnourishment and under nourishment.
Nutritional deprivation and deficiency have two major consequences

for women: they never reach their full growth potential and suffer from
anaemia. Both are risk factors. 57.4% women in rural areas and 50.9%
women in urban areas suffered from anaemia during 200506. The
share of anaemic women across the agegroups 2029 years centred on
55% during the same period.52% of married women suffer
from anaemia. Mal nutrition is common among women belonging to
households which are below poverty line. The average nutritional
intake of women is 1400 calories daily. The necessary requirement is
approximately 2200 calories. Gender inequality significantly contributes
for malnutrition and under nutrition of girls.
Indian women have high mortality rates, particularly during childhood and in
their reproductive years. Indias maternal mortality rates in rural areas are
among the worlds highest. From a global perspective, India accounts for
19% of all live births and 27% of all maternal deaths. The current Maternal

Mortality Rate (MMR) of India is 212 per one lakh live births. In its 2009
report, UNICEF came up with shocking figures on the status of new
mothers in India. The maternal mortality rate of India stands at 301 per
1000, with as many as 78,000 women in India dying of childbirth
complications in that year according to the UNICEF Report. It is
estimated that 23.9 lakh people are infected with HIV in India, of whom
39% are females.
3.2.5 What Prevents Better Health Status to Women in India?
The right to good health is of paramount importance. But the health
care in India is inequitable. Gender considerations constrain womens
access to quality health care in India. Within the overall institutional
setting, social institutions and cultural practices i.e. laws, norms,
traditions and codes of conduct often are the main sources of
persisting discrimination against women. Examples include unequal
inheritance rights, unequal power relations in the family between the
man and the women obstacles to free movement and early, familyimposed marriages of teenage girls. All these prevent education of girls
and serve as impediments for developing health consciousness among
them.
The health of Indian women is intrinsically linked to their status in
society. Women are considered as economic burdens. Their
contribution to the family economy is over looked as they are mostly

unpaid. This impacts their access to health care system. There is a heavy
son preference in the country. Families take the health of the males and
sons seriously paying least attention to that of the mothers and daughters.
High levels of infant mortality combined with the strong son preference
motivate women to bear high numbers of children in an attempt to have a

son. Numerous pregnancies and closely spaced births increase the health
risk for mothers. Thus, women's low socioeconomic status and
reproductive role expose them to the risks of poor health and
premature death.
Many of the health problems of Indian women are related to or
exacerbated by high levels of fertility. Blind adherence to customs,
traditions, non institutional deliveries bring enormous risks to women.
The low level of education and low formal labour force participation of
the women restrict their health consciousness and access to health care
services. It also determines their nutritional status. Because they are
not economically self sufficient they fail to spend money for their
health and nutrition. Lack of control on economic resources is a major
reason of their health neglect.
Indian families are patriarchal. Violence is common in Indian families.
So the woman is always powerless and voiceless. Indian women are
secluded, shy and de-valued which restrict them from asserting for
their right to good nutrition and health care. Women's lack of
autonomy in decision making or movement is also an important
constraint on women's health seeking behaviour.
Child marriages are still in vogue in the country. Early motherhood
impairs the health of women and contributes significantly for an
upward stride of Maternal Mortality rate.
3.2.6 Interventions Needed to Improve Health among Women in India
Womens health is a key means to her empowerment. So, a time has
come to look into womens health issues in a careful manner. For this
innovative interventions are to be introduced.
As deeply rooted social institutions societal norms, codes of conduct,
laws and tradition cause gender discrimination, they are to be
changed with a change in the attitude of the individuals. For this people

are to be sensitized. Overexploitation of the womens reproductive

ability is to be put an end through regular sensitization and campaign.
The Government often opts for quick fixes or blueprints of reforms
which become redundant without follow up actions. So, strategies need
rigorous implementation. For this dedication,commitments are needed
which should not only include motivating women or consciousness
building among women, but concurrently on lowering mens resistance
against reforms and changing mens attitude towards women.
The flagship programmes for promoting womens health should not
remain confined to records, but should be translated into action.
Rigorous and vigorous implementation of the programmes designed to
cater to the needs of women can prevent many health hazards for
women and protect them from health risks. Anganwadi workers and
Asha Karmis are to become more active and responsive to the needs of
the women.
Improving females access to education is a bare necessity to improve
the health status of women. Increasing female education, especially
literacy rates and basic education, is the key to consciousness and
awareness building among women. Without education, women have no
access to paid employment Once women are educated are entitled for
paid employment, there will be a betterment in their status and
improved health care can come within their reach. So, women should
be given formal education which should have life skill education as a
component.
Family planning and sexual counselling can empower women and give
them more control over their lives. Education of girls, access to
microfinance, training, and employment opportunities for women can
empower them to take independent decisions and transform them into
actions. Particularly, women can assert their choice with regard to
deciding child birth, child spacing and child care which will protect their
health and reduce the rate of maternal and child mortality rates.
Consciousness about nutritional intake for women has to be developed
both among the women and the men to protect the women from
preventable diseases. In this regard the culture of neglecting womens
food intake needs a change.

Better access to the factors of production: land, credit, technology and

information can tailor to the needs of women better. They will not only
improve womens access to resources, but to knowledge and
information to health opportunities.
Efforts are needed by the government and nongovernmental
organizations to expand health services to the poorest women,
especially reproductive health services. The industrial corporate social
responsibility should take up health as an area of concern and can gear
investments and efforts to promote it. Communication programs are
also needed to inform poor women and their families about women's
health problems and the importance of seeking care.
User fee free health services, mobile health care services, free medical
checkups can make health care reach the common and the poorest of
the poor women where their monetary investment will be zero. Zero
cost, door step medical services can bring some changes in the health
status of women. Promoting effective client-provider interaction is the
key to improving quality of health services for women. This requires
skilled staff, an adequate supply of drugs, and sensitivity to cultural
factors. Appointment of lady doctors can address to the cultural taboos
that prevent women to access health care services.

3.3WOMEN AND WORK

The concern for women economic empowerment and ensuring equality
has been a priority in the agenda of many national, nongovernmental
as well as international agencies. Empowerment and equality can be
achieved when womens productive role gets due recognition through
their integration into paid employments. But the over emphasis on the
reproductive roles of women has undermined their role in the labour
market. No doubt, women contribute significantly to the economy. But
their contributions often go undervalued and unrecognized. The
common notion that goes is the Bread winner man and the Home
maker woman. This becomes the foundation of the public private
dichotomy and sexual division of labour and the preventing force for
recognising the productive role of woman .The sexual division of labour

and undermining of the productive role of women have stunted

women participation in the work force.
Womens work participation is beneficial for the woman as well as the
society. Womens full integration into the economy is a desirable goal
for equity and efficiency considerations. The equity aspect implies that
labour market participation of women will improve their relative
economic position. It will also tap the productive power of women who
constitute almost half of the worlds population and by that increase
overall economic efficiency and improve development potentials of the
country. Apart from that, womens participation in the labour force can
be seen as a signal of declining discrimination and increasing
empowerment of women. It necessarily has a yield for the overall well
being of the women. According to the ILO, womens work, both paid
and unpaid, may be accepted as the single most important povertyreducing factor in developing economies.
Women make up a little over half the worlds population, but their
contribution to measured economic activity, growth, and well-being is
far below its potential.
Women are often estimated as the
unproductive members of the society and their labour input goes
undervalued. Despite significant progress in recent decades, labour
markets across the world remain divided along gender lines, and
progress toward gender equality seems to have stalled. Female labour
force participation (FLFP) has remained lower than male participation,
women account for most unpaid work, and when women are employed
in paid work, they are overrepresented in the informal sector and
become the most vulnerable to poverty. They also face significant wage
discrepancies. In many countries, distortions and discrimination in the
labour market restrict womens options for paid work, and female
representation in senior positions and entrepreneurship remains low.
Thus, women remain the excluded ones in the labour market.
3.3.1International Declarations on Womens Integration into the
Work force
Keeping in view the long segregation of women from the workforce and
its bearings on the status of women, the feminist activists have always
demanded to end discrimination against women in work force. In
response to such demands, the international community and

organisations have made sincere efforts from time to time to

mainstream the women in the employment market.
Promoting decent and productive employment and income
opportunities equally for women and men is one of the key priorities of
the ILOs (International Labour Organisation) Decent Work Agenda.
The ILO has geared massive efforts for integrating gender concerns into
employment promotion. The ultimate end is to boost productivity and
economic growth; human resources development; sustainable
development; and reduce poverty. International laws protecting
women's rights as workers exist through the efforts of various
international bodies.
The International Labour Organization ratified the Equal Remuneration
Convention in 1951, which came into force in 1953, and the Discrimination
(Employment and Occupation) Convention , which came into force in
1960.Both these conventions recognized the productive power of
women and were vociferous to provide space to the women in the
labour market and to treat them equally with their male counterparts.
In 1966, the United Nations General Assembly adopted the International
Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, which went into force in
1976.This covenant recognised the right to work as an economic right
of the women as human beings.
The Home Work Convention, adopted by the ILO, came into force in
2000.The Convention protects the rights of persons doing paid work
out of their home, which is frequently women workers. It offers equal
protection regarding working conditions, safety, remuneration, social
security protection, access to training, minimum age of employment,
and maternity protection. The International Convention on the Protection of
the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families , adopted by
the United Nations General Assembly, came into force in 2003. Human
trafficking often targets young women who are abducted and sent
outside their own country to work as domestic workers, often in
conditions of extreme exploitation. A number of international laws
have been ratified to address human trafficking of women and children.
The ILO implements a gender mainstreaming strategy in employment
promotion in line with the relevant International Labour Standards and
Global Employment Agenda (GEA), and as called for by 2008 Social Justice
Declaration, 2009.All these strategies are of vital significance for
integrating women in work in a descent manner.

On June 16, 2011, the International Labour Organization (ILO) passed C189
Domestic Workers Convention, 2011, binding signatories to regulations
intended to end abuses of migrant domestic workers. It was anticipated
that the Convention would put pressure on non-ratifying countries to
support changes to their own laws to meet the change in international
standards protecting domestic workers. Domestic workers basically
comprise a large majority of women and as such the Convention has an
important bearing on reducing risks and vulnerabilities for the women
in work.
3.3.2 Gap between Prophecy and Practice
Despite some progress made over the last few decades in
increasing womens labour force participation and narrowing
gender gaps in wages, gender equality in the world of work still
remains an elusive goal. While millions of women have become
successful
entrepreneurs,
women
are
still
grossly
underrepresented in the worlds board rooms. In particular, in
the developing world, women continue to form a large majority
of the worlds working poor, earn less income, and are more
often affected by long-term unemployment than men. There is a
deficit of descent work condition for the women.
All these situations arise due to womens socio-economic disadvantages
caused by gender-based discrimination, cultural norms and
expectations and their double roles of being a worker and a care taker
for the family as well as the society. Women often have less access to
productive resources, education, and skills and labour market
opportunities than men. Largely, this is because of persistent social
norms ascribing gender roles, which are often, slow to change.
Furthermore, women continue to undertake most of unpaid care work,
which has become an increasing challenge in their efforts to engage in
productive work, both in subsistence agriculture and market economy.
The incidence of poverty increases on the women due to their nature of
employment. Women are mainly engaged in the unorganised sector
where the vulnerability rate is very high and degree of uncertainty is
spectacular. According to the Global Trends in Employment Report
prepared by the ILO among women, 50.5% are in vulnerable
employment, a rate that exceeds the corresponding share for men

(48.2%). The World Bank estimates about 90% percent of women work
force are engaged in the informal sector. Women are in many
instances out of the ambit of Governmental records due to the invisible
character of their work. They are basically engaged in subsistence
agriculture where jobs are limited and securities are totally absent. The
demise of state welfare in the post-globalisation period has put the
women in more precarious state. Women suffer from wage
discrepancies. Wall notes even in the most advanced countries there is
about 62% wage discrepancy, which indicate that women are still not
empowered. The low paid, unpaid, underpaid and sometimes deferred
paid and never paid syndromes become frequent with the women due
to their low educational attainment, lack of skill, low bargaining
capacity, limited propensity for migration and due to the gender bias
that permeates the employment market. This leads to the flexibilization
of the female work force. To quote President Bill Clintons address to
the annual meeting of the Clinton Global initiative (September 2009)
women perform 66 percent of the worlds work, and produce 50
percent of the food, yet earn only 10 percent of the income and own 1
percent of the property. All these situations arise due to the lack of
recognition given to the womens work.
Globally, womens participation in the labour market remained steady
in the two decades from 1990 to 2010, hovering around 52 per cent. In
2010, womens labour force participation rates remained below 30 per
cent in Northern Africa and Western Asia; below 40 per cent in
Southern Asia; and below 50 per cent in the Caribbean and Central
America. The gap between participation rates of women and men
though has narrowed slightly in the last 20 years but remains
considerable.
Employment levels in the services sector continue to be female
dominated. This sector accounts for at least three quarters of womens
employment in most of the more developed regions and in Latin
America and the Caribbean. In contrast, agriculture still accounts for
more than half of the employment of women and men in sub-Saharan
Africa (excluding Southern Africa) and of women in Southern Asia. In
those regions, the majority of workers women to a greater extent
than men are in vulnerable employment, being either own-account

workers or contributing family workers. In Southern Asia, Western Asia,

and Africa, only 20% of women work at paid non-agricultural jobs.
Worldwide, women's rate of paid employment outside of agriculture
grew to 41% by 2008.
Over the years, women have entered various traditionally maledominated occupations. However, they are still rarely employed in jobs
with status, power and authority or in traditionally male blue-collar
occupations. Relative to their overall share of total employment,
women are significantly underrepresented among legislators, senior
officials and managers, craft and related trade workers, and plant and
machine operators and assemblers; they are heavily overrepresented
among clerks, professionals, and service and sales workers. Horizontal
and vertical job segregation has resulted in a persistent gender pay gap
everywhere. Gender pay gaps, glass ceiling and encountering role
conflicts are common features in womens employment scenario.
Gender pay gap implies the discrepancy in wages received by men and
women due to their gender affiliations. Glass ceiling refers to the
unseen, yet unbreakable barrier that keeps women from rising to the
upper rungs of the corporate ladder, regardless of their qualifications or
achievements. Role conflicts refer to the counter role expectations for
the women from the home front and the work front which often
mismatch with each other.
In spite of the changes that have occurred in womens participation in
the labour market, women continue to bear most of the responsibilities
for the home: caring for children and other dependent household
members, preparing meals and doing other housework. In all regions,
women spend at least twice as much time as men on unpaid domestic
work. When unpaid work is taken into account, womens total work
hours are longer than mens in all regions.
Like their adult counterparts, girls are more likely than boys to perform
unpaid work within their own household. In the less developed regions,
many young girls aged 5-14 take on a large amount of household
chores, including care-giving, cooking and cleaning, and older girls do so
to an even greater extent.
3.3.3Womens Work in India: a Situational Analysis

According to the ILOs Global Employment Trends 2013 report, Indias

labour force participation rate for women fell from just over 37 per cent
in 2004-05 to 29 per cent in 2009-10. Out of 131 countries, India ranks
11th from the bottom in terms of female labour force participation.
Only, 22.5 percent women are in labour force. In 2009-2010, women
were 26.1% of all rural workers, and 13.8% of all urban workers.
Women are an estimated 30% of all economically active individuals.
Women earn 62% of mens salary for equal work.
As per the 2011 census, when there are 343.8 million male workers,
there are only129.1 females in the work force. This is indicative of the
gender gap in work force participation. Further the sectoral
participation of women clearly projects their low share in different
sectors of employment. Table no.3.1 exhibits the share of women in
different sectors in India.
Table No. 3:1
Sectoral Distribution and Status of Women in Workforce
Sector
Agricultural
Industrial
Service

Percentage
62.8
20.0
17.2

Status
Self employed
Regular wage
Casual
workers

Percentage
56.1
12.7
31.2

Source: Census, 2011, Government of India.

Thus the women mainly dominate the agricultural sector. Their share is
perceptibly low in the industrial and the service sector. Similarly, a
major chunk of the working women are self employed. As regular wage
earners their share is low. They are mainly casual workers. These
scenarios clearly spell out the poor work status of women in India.
In 2009-2010, the rural sector, 55.7% females were selfemployed, 4.4%
females had regular wage/salaried employment and 39.9% females
were casual labourers. A total of 20.4% women were employed in the
organized sector in 2010 with 17.9% working in the public sector and
24.5% in the private. In 200910, the average wage/salary received by
regular wage/salaried employees of age 1559 years was Rs. 155.87 per
day for females compared with Rs. 249.15 per day for males in rural

areas. For urban areas, it was Rs. 308.79 and Rs. 377.16 per day for
females and males respectively.
Women are just 3% of management, and senior official positions. In
2010, Women held only 5.3% of board directorships of 100 companies.
22.6% of women are employed in business and they make up 14% of
senior management roles. 54% of companies on the Bombay Stock
Exchange have no women board directors. According to Gender
Diversity Benchmark, 2011, India has the lowest national female labour
force. 28.71% of those at the junior level of the workplace14.9% of
those at the middle level, 9.32% of those at the senior level.
3.3.4 Challenges to Womens Workforce Participation in India
Women in India face enormous challenges for their participation in the
economy. A few important of them can be discussed below.
A woman is said to be having three roles. They are the reproductive
role, productive role and the community management role.
Reproductive role includes bearing and rearing of children, productive
role includes extending her support services to her husband working at
agricultural fields or in household productions like cottage industries
and community management role includes managing the community
resources like forest, land, water resources. But, all these activities of
the woman go uncounted as economic activity, and do not get reported
in the national income statistics. This is unlike the case of services by a
paid domestic help, which is considered an economic activity and is
counted in the national income. However, society undervalues these
immense contributions made by women. And, to some extent, official
statistics reproduces the prejudices in the society.
In rural areas, women periodically enter and exit from agricultural
work. Quite often, womens participation in agricultural activities is selfemployed in nature. They perform agricultural activities in their own
fields as a routine activity to ease the burden of their husbands. When
they act as wage earners in others fields in rural areas, they are not
paid equal wage with the men. Because there are a surplus of women
agricultural labourers their bargaining power is restricted. This leads to
the marginalization of women.

In India, social factors play a significant role in reducing wowomens

labour participation. Husbands and in-laws often discourage women
from working, while, in many parts of the country, restrictions are
imposed even on their movements outside the household. In this
context, it is notable that labour participation is particularly low in India
among urban, educated women. Social variables play a significant role
in this direction. It is noted that labour force participation is more
among the middle aged, lower caste and low educated women from
low income families. Thus, social norms and atriarchal values restrict
women entry into the labour market.
Amartya Sen has written about the missing women in India,
highlighting the low female-male ratio in the countrys population. The
issue of the missing women in Indias population has a parallel in the
problem relating to the missing women in Indias workforce. That is, the
staggering numbers of women who have withdrawn from the labour
force and attend to domestic duties.
The labour market itself is gender ridden in India. It is hostile to the
women. It denies equal wage for equal work to the women and
positions of prominence for the women. This discourages womens
participation. Womens share in the organised sector is distinctly low
and in the unorganised sector they become vulnerable to various types
of exploitations. This becomes a preventive factor for their entry into
the labour market.
Lack of propensity to migrate due to family and household burdens
womens participation in the labour market becomes feeble.
Lack of education, training and skill formation also become the
preventing forces for womens entry into the job market which value
these factors a lot.
High fertility rates among women in India affect their joining in the
employment market. Due to recurrent child births and due to the lack
of spacing women in India not only become physically weak but also
over burdened with child care responsibilities which disallow them to
enter into the work force.
The gradual decline of the agricultural and the handicraft sectors, have
closed down the employment opportunities for women in rural India.

Low level of access and control over resources among women also keep
them disempowered and they fail to join the labour force.

3.3.5How can the women be better integrated into the

labour market?
Creating more jobs and ensuring better working conditions for women
will encourage greater female participation in the economy. But for this
the supply side should be strengthened. Womens education can have
spectacular effect on their employment. Education can bring for them a
new wave of consciousness, by which they can be enlightened and
empowered to take some vital decisions. They can avoid child marriage
and adhere to small family norms that can liberate them from domestic
burdens to participate in labour market.
Women are in need of skill and training. Arrangements of training
programmes can enable them to equip themselves with occupational
knowledge and techniques to get skilled positions.
The advent of technology and the transfer of technology to the women
can reduce their household drudgery and the time devoted for it. They
can free themselves for outdoor economic pursuit.
The social norms, general attitude of the people needs a reformation to
bring the women into the ambit of paid employment. The patriarchal
values are to be replaced by a gender neutral value and the productive
and the community management role of the women should get due
attention to integrate them in greater numbers in the job markets. This
requires the community to give due recognition to the productive role
of the women and to value and price their labour input and use of skill.
Making provisions for flexi time work and allowing home based work
for women will allure more and more women to blend their domestic
roles with their productive roles.
Strengthening anti-discrimination legislation in employment across all
occupations will be essential for expanding employment opportunities
for women. In addition, reducing the large gaps in wages and working
conditions, often observed between women and men, could help
provide a boost to the number of women seeking employment.

Finally, sound labour market information is essential for developing

well-informed policies. Further work is needed to sharpen the
measurement tools used to analyse womens participation in the labour
market.

3.4WOMEN AND DOMESTIC VIOLENCE

Domestic violence is a common issue affecting the lives of millions of
women across the countries and cultures. Domestic violence occurs in
every country, in every neighbourhood, among people of all races,
cultures, religions, and income levels. It is noted in all economic, ethnic,
and social backgrounds. It happens irrespective of age, gender, or
sexual orientation.
3.4.1Defining Domestic Violence
Domestic violence is a crime. It is a pattern of abusive behaviour that
occurs between family members and/or intimate partners to gain
power and control. It can be described as a pattern of abusive and
threatening behaviour that may include physical, emotional, economic
and sexual violence as well as intimidation, isolation and coercion.
Domestic violence is also known as domestic abuse, spousal abuse,
battering, family violence, dating abuse, and intimate partner violence
(IPV).It is a pattern of behaviour which involves the abuse by one
person against another in an intimate relationship such as marriage,
cohabitation, dating or within the family. It can be experienced by
persons in heterosexual or same-sex relationships.
Domestic Violence is defined differently in the different state
constitutions. According to Washington State Law, domestic violence is
physical harm, bodily injury, assault, the infliction of fear of imminent
physical harm, sexual assault, or stalking. The UK Law defines Domestic
Violence as Any incident of threatening behavior, violence, or abuse
(psychological, physical, sexual, financial, or emotional) between adults
who are or have been intimate partners or family members, regardless
of gender or sexuality The UNICEF accepts Domestic Violence as
violence perpetrated by intimate partners and other family members
and manifested through physical, sexual, psychological, and economic
abuse.

3.4.2Forms of Domestic Violence

Violence against women can be physical, sexual, and psychological.
Physical violence includes acts of physical aggression such as slapping,
hitting, kicking and beating. The common sexual abuses women endure
are forced intercourse, and other forms of sexual coercion.
Psychological abuse includes acts like intimidation, constant belittling,
humiliating, nagging and various controlling behaviours such as
isolating a person from their family and friends, monitoring their
movements, and restricting their access to information or assistance.
When abuse occurs repeatedly in the same relationship, it reduces into
an act of battering.
3.4.3 Impacts of Domestic Violence on Women
Domestic violence brings multiple damages for women. It has a
significant impact on the health and well-being of women both in the
immediate and longer term. Its psychological effects are far reaching.
Mental health is affected by the trauma received through domestic
violence. Depressions, stress, chronic stress, low self esteem are some
of the outcomes of domestic violence on women. The social
consequences of domestic violence are equally devastating. It affects
the human rights of the women. It prevents equal treatment and
empowerment of women. Domestic violence increases women's
vulnerability to trafficking; women who experienced violence at home
become more willing to look for and accept an uncertain and
potentially risky job abroad. Losses of opportunity, isolation from
family/ friends, loss of income or work, homelessness become the
common manifestations for the women who experience domestic
violence. Children become the worst sufferers in case of domestic
violence. Physical impacts of domestic violence can be noted through
death, disability and illness. Domestic violence often proves to be fatal
for the victims.
Thus, violence against women can have a myriad of devastating
consequences on women's short and long-term health and wellbeing.
Along with the immediate physical and emotional impacts of violence,
women's overall quality of life, security can be adversely affected over
an entire lifetime, which can, in turn, impact their participation and
engagement in various aspects of life and society. These consequences
to the individual women, along with the violent act itself, can have
ripple effects on society as a whole.

3.4.4 Domestic Violence in the International Legal Framework

The United Nations has developed legal frameworks to arrest domestic
violence. Some regional organisations like the European Union and the
Council of Europe have also framed various legal measures to combat
domestic violence. Today the international laws recognise that
domestic violence against women grossly violates the human rights of
women. So, the international legal instruments and policy statements
make clear that states have a duty under international law to prevent
domestic violence and punish domestic violence offenders.
The declarations against domestic violence are included in all the major
United Nations Treaties and Conventions and are reflected in the United
Nations Conference Documents. Added to them specific mentions are
noted in The Declaration on the Elimination of Violence Against Women , The
Special Rapporteur on Violence Against Women and the State Responsibility for
Private Acts of Violence.
The International Bill of Human Rights consists of The Universal Declaration
of Human Rights, adopted by the United Nations General Assembly in
1948, and its implementing covenants, the International Covenant on
Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) and the International Covenant on
Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR), which entered into force
in 1976. While these documents do not explicitly address domestic
violence, they, along with the Optional Protocol to the ICCPR, articulate
a states duty to protect fundamental human rights that are commonly
violated in domestic violence cases. Those rights include the right to
life, the right to physical and mental integrity, the right to equal
protection of the laws and the right to be free from discrimination. All
these rights make it obligatory for the state to provide protection to
women against all forms of violence which also gives coverage to
domestic violence.
The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women,
which came into force in 1981, does not explicitly include language on
violence against women or domestic violence but guarantees the
human rights to women. In 1992, the Committee on the Elimination of
All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) adopted General
Recommendation Number 19. This recommendation addresses the
Womens Conventions silence on violence and states that genderbased violence is a form of discrimination which seriously inhibits

womens ability to enjoy rights and freedoms on a basis of equality with

men. This recommendation became the first human rights treaty or
convention to prohibit violence against women. The recommendation
included domestic violence within its purview.
The issue of domestic violence has got a frequent reflection in the
United Nations Conference documents. The Report of the World
Conference of the United Nations Decade for Women: Equality,
Development and Peace, Copenhagen, July 1980, U.N. was the first
document to explicitly mention domestic violence in an official
document of the United Nations. Domestic violence is referred to
several times in the document. The Legislative measures section states
Legislation should also be enacted and implemented in order to
prevent domestic and sexual violence against women. All appropriate
measures, including legislative ones, should be taken to allow victims to
be fairly treated in all criminal procedures.
At the 1985 Third World Conference on Women in Nairobi, Kenya,
domestic violence received significant attention. The final conference
report called on governments to undertake effective measures,
including mobilizing community resources to identify, prevent and
eliminate all violence, including family violence, against women and to
provide shelter, support and reorientation services for abused women
and children.
The final conference document from Second World Conference on
Human Rights, held in Vienna in June 1993, was the Vienna Declaration
and Programme of Action 1993. The Vienna Declaration stated: In
particular, the World Conference on Human Rights stresses the
importance of working towards the elimination of violence against
women in the public and private life . . . the elimination of gender bias
in the administration of justice and the eradication of any conflicts
which may arise between the rights of women and the harmful effects
of certain traditional or customary practices.
Violence against women, including domestic violence, was a major
focus at the Fourth World Conference on Women 1995 in Beijing,
China. The conference document, the Beijing Platform for Action, identifies
domestic violence as a human rights violation. The Platform states:
Violence against women both violates and impairs or nullifies the
enjoyment by women of their human rights and fundamental

freedoms. It addresses violence against women as a separate Critical

Area of Concern and includes it under the Human Rights section. The
Beijing Platform outlines many specific actions governments,
nongovernmental groups and others should take to confront and
combat violence against women, including strengthening legal systems
response to domestic violence.
Five years later, at the United Nations conference, Beijing plus 5: A
Special Session on Women 2000: Gender Equality, Development and
Peace for the Twenty-First Century, the final document detailed
obstacles for women and included domestic violence. The document
mentions a lack of comprehensive programs dealing with the
perpetrators, discriminatory socio cultural attitudes towards women,
their subordinate position in the society make them vulnerable to many
forms of violence, such as physical, sexual and psychological violence
occurring in the family. In many countries, a coordinated
multidisciplinary approach to responding to violence which includes the
health system, workplaces, the media, the education system, as well as
the justice system, is still limited. Domestic violence, including sexual
violence in marriage, is still treated as a private matter in some
countries. Insufficient awareness of the consequences of domestic
violence, how to prevent it and the rights of victims still exists.
The Programme of Action from the 1994 International Conference on
Population and Development (ICPD) in Cairo, Egypt, articulates the
need for government attention to all forms of violence against women.
This need was emphasized again in the Cairo plus 5 document, the
Programme for Action, from the second International Conference on
Population and Development (ICPD) in 1999. The Copenhagen Declaration
on Social Development 1995 calls on governments to take effective
measures to combat and eliminate all forms of violence against women.
The Durban Declaration and Program of Action from the 2001 World
Conference against Racism, Racial Discrimination, Xenophobia and
Related Intolerance in Durban, recognizes that the intersection of
gender and race, ethnicity or other status can make women particularly
vulnerable to certain kinds of violence and calls on governments to
consider adopting and implementing immigration policies and
programs that would enable immigrants, in particular women and
children who are victims of spousal or domestic violence, to free
themselves from abusive relationships.

In 1993, the United Nations General Assembly adopted the Declaration

on the Elimination of Violence against Women (DEVAW). The DEVAW states,
Violence against women is a manifestation of historically unequal
power relations between men and women, which have led to
domination over and discrimination against women by men. DEVAW
condemns the crucial social mechanisms by which women are forced
into a subordinate position as compared with men and defines
violence as that occurring both in private or public life. Importantly,
DEVAW provides specific steps member states should take to combat
domestic violence, including legal system reform. DEVAW provides that
states should investigate and punish acts of domestic violence, develop
comprehensive legal, political, administrative and cultural programs to
prevent violence against women, provide training to law enforcement
officials and promote research and collect statistics relating to the
prevalence of domestic violence.
The United Nations General Assembly has designated November 25 as the
International Day for the Elimination of Violence against Women.
3.4.5 Domestic Violence: Global Fact sheet
The plethora of International legislative efforts to end domestic
violence against women seems to be quite promising. But their
performance seems to be poor because of the wide spread practice of
domestic violence prevalent in the globe even today.The U.N. Report
mentions according to a 2013 global review of available data, 35 per
cent of women worldwide have experienced either physical and/or
sexual intimate partner violence or non-partner sexual violence.
However, some national violence studies show that up to 70 per cent of
women have experienced physical and/or sexual violence in their
lifetime from an intimate partner. More than 64 million girls worldwide
are child brides. Approximately 140 million girls and women in the
world have suffered female genital mutilation/cutting. Worldwide,
almost one third (30%) of all women who have been in a relationship
have experienced physical and/or sexual violence by their intimate
partner. Globally 38% of all murders of women are committed by
intimate partners. Women who have been physically or sexually abused
by their partners report higher rates of health problems. For example,
they are 16% more likely to have a low-birth-weight baby. They are
more than twice as likely to have an abortion, almost twice as likely to
experience depression, and, in some regions, are 1.5 times more likely
to acquire HIV, as compared to women who have not gained such

experience. Globally, 7% of women have been sexually assaulted by

someone other than a partner.
Studies suggest that up to 10 million children witness some form of
domestic violence annually.
3.4.6Domestic Violence Measures Undertaken by Government of
India
In 1983, domestic violence was recognised as a specific criminal offence
by the introduction of section 498-A into the Indian Penal Code. This
section deals with cruelty by a husband or his family towards a married
woman.
India has also ratified various international conventions and human
rights instruments committing to secure equal rights of women. Key
among them is the ratification of the Convention on Elimination of All
Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) in 1993.
The National Policy for the Empowerment of Women (2001) spells out
to make maximum efforts to eliminate discriminations and all forms of
violence against women and the girl child As the policy states All forms
of violence against women, physical and mental, whether at domestic
or societal levels, including those arising from customs, traditions or
accepted practices shall be dealt with effectively with a view to
eliminate its incidence. Institutions and mechanisms/schemes for
assistance will be created and strengthened for prevention of such
violence, including sexual harassment at work place and customs like
dowry; for the rehabilitation of the victims of violence and for taking
effective action against the perpetrators of such violence. A special
emphasis will also be laid on programmes and measures to deal with
trafficking in women and girls.
The Government of India passed the, Domestic Violence Bill in 2001,
To protect the rights of women who are victims of violence of any kind
occurring within the family and to provide for matters connected
therewith or incidental thereto.
However the most promising legislative measure formulated in the
country to end domestic violence is the Protection of Women from
Domestic Violence Act 2005. The act aims at protecting the women

from domestic violence. The Act was passed by the Parliament in August
2005 and assented to by the President on 13 September 2005. It was
brought into force by the Indian government from October 26, 2006. As of
November 2007, it has been ratified by four of twenty-eight state
governments in India; namely Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh
and Odisha. But by now it is being enforced by all the states and union
territories of India.
The salient features of the Protection from Domestic Violence Act, 2005
are as follows:

The Act seeks to cover those women who are or have been in a
relationship with the abuser where both parties have lived
together in a shared household and are related by consanguinity,
marriage or a relationship in the nature of marriage, or adoption;
in addition relationship with family members living together as a
joint family are also included. Even those women who are sisters,
widows, mothers, single women, or living with are entitled to get
legal protection under the proposed Act.

"Domestic violence" includes actual abuse or the threat of abuse

that is physical, sexual, verbal, emotional and economic.
Harassment by way of unlawful dowry demands to the woman or
her relatives would also be covered under this definition.

One of the most important features of the Act is the womans

right to secure housing. The Act provides for the womans right
to reside in the matrimonial or shared household, whether or not
she has any title or rights in the household. This right is secured
by a residence order, which is passed by a court. These residence
orders cannot be passed against anyone who is a woman.

The other relief envisaged under the Act is that of the power of
the court to pass protection orders that prevent the abuser from
aiding or committing an act of domestic violence or any other
specified act, entering a workplace or any other place frequented
by the abused, attempting to communicate with the abused,
isolating any assets used by both the parties and causing violence
to the abused, her relatives and others who provide her
assistance from the domestic violence.

The Act provides for appointment of Protection Officers and NGOs

to provide assistance to the woman for medical examination,
legal aid, safe shelter, etc.

The Act provides for breach of protection order or interim

protection order by the respondent as a cognizable and non-bail
able offence punishable with imprisonment for a term which may
extend to one year or with fine which may extend to twenty
thousand rupees or with both. Similarly, non-compliance or
discharge of duties by the Protection Officer is also sought to be
made an offence under the Act with similar punishment.

Thus the provisions made by the Protection of Women from

Domestic Violence Act 2005 are quite stringent in their letter and
spirit.
3.4.7 Domestic Violence: The Indian Situation
Domestic violence in India is endemic. Around 70% of women in India
are victims of domestic violence, according to the statement of the
Ministry for Women and Child development.
National Crime Records Bureau reveal that a crime against a woman is

committed every three minutes, a woman is raped every 29 minutes, a

dowry death occurs every 77 minutes, and one case of cruelty
committed by either the husband or relative of the husband occurs
every nine minutes. This all occurs despite the fact that women in India
are legally protected from domestic abuse under the Protection of Women
from Domestic Violence Act.
A recent G20 survey ranked India as the worst place for a woman.
Female foeticide, domestic violence, sexual harassment, and other
forms of gender-based violence constitute the reality of most girls and
womens lives in India. However, domestic violence in India and
globally goes grossly underreported. Nationally, 8% of married women
have been subject to sexual violence, such as forced sex, 31% of
married women have been physically abused in a way defined as less
severe, such as slapping or punching, while 10% have suffered severe
domestic violence, such as burning or attack with a weapon. Also, 12%
of those who report being physically abused also report at least one of

the following injuries as a result of the violence: bruises, injury, sprains,

dislocation or burns, wounds, broken bones or broken teeth and/or
severe burns. 14 percent Indian women are victimized by emotional
abuse.
According to the National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB) of India;
89,546 cases of cruelty by husband and relatives; 21,397 cases of rape;
11,009 cases of sexual harassment and 5,650 cases of dowry
harassment were reported in India during the year 2009.
India's National Family Health Survey-III, carried out in 29 states during
2005-06, has found that a substantial proportion of married women
have been physically or sexually abused by their husbands at some time
in their lives. The survey indicated that, nationwide, 37.2% of women
experienced violence after marriage. Bihar was found to be the most
violent, with the abuse rate against married women being as high as
59%. Strangely, 63% of these incidents were reported from urban
families rather than the state's most backward villages. It was followed
by Madhya Pradesh (45.8%), Rajasthan (46.3%), Manipur (43.9%), Uttar
Pradesh (42.4%), Tamil Nadu (41.9%) and West Bengal (40.3%).
The trend of violence against women highlighted by the India's National
Crime Records Bureau (NCRB) stated that while in 2000, an average of
125 women faced domestic violence every day, the figure stood at 160
in 2005.
A recent United Nation Population Fund report also revealed that
around two-thirds of married women in India were victims of domestic
violence. Violence in India kills and disables as many women between
the ages of 15 and 44 years as cancer and its toll on women's health
surpasses that of traffic accidents or any other health hazard.
The National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB) Report for the year 2011
further highlights some staggering statistics about the domestic
violence against women. The percentage share of domestic violence
against women in the cognizable crime has grown from 3.8% in 2007 to
4.3% in 2011.
3.4.8Factors Perpetuating Domestic Violence

The above factors substantiate the fact that domestic violence is an

ongoing phenomenon. Instead of getting a declining trend it exhibits an
increasing trend which violates the human rights of the women in the
country and makes their plight deplorable. There is no one single factor
to account for violence perpetrated against women. Recent research
has focused on the inter-relatedness of various factors that contribute
toward the perpetuation of domestic violence in the country. These
factors are presented in Table No.3.2
Table No.3.2
Factors Perpetuating Domestic Violence

Cultural
Political
Gender
specific
socialization
Under-representation
of women in power,
Cultural specification
politics, the media and
of appropriate sex
in the legalprofessions
roles
Domestic violence not
Expectations of roles
taken seriously
within relationships
Notions of family being
Belief in the inherent
private and beyond
superiority of males
control of the state
Values that give men
Risk of challenge to
proprietary rights over
status
quo/religious
women and girls
laws
Notion of the family as
Limited organization of
the private sphere
women as a political
and
under
male
force
control
Limited participation of
Customs of marriage
women in organized
(bride price/dowry)
political system
Acceptability
of
violence as a means
to resolve conflict
Economic
Legal
Womens
economic
dependence on men
Lesser legal status of

 Limited access to cash

and credit
Discriminatory
laws
regarding inheritance,
property rights, Use of
Communal lands
Maintenance
after
divorce or widowhood
Limited
access
to
employment in formal
and informal sectors
Limited
access
to
education and training
for women

women
either
by
written law and/or by
practice
Laws
regarding
divorce, child custody,
maintenance
and
inheritance
Legal definitions of
domestic abuse and
rape
Low levels of legal
literacy among women
Insensitive treatment
of women and girls by
police and judiciary

The foundations for stereotypes in gender roles are laid through early
gender socialization. Gender socialization is the process by which
people learn to behave in a certain way, as dictated by societal beliefs,
values, attitudes and examples. Children start facing norms that define
masculine and feminine from an early age. Boys are told not to cry,
not to fear, not to be forgiving and instead to be assertive, and strong.
Girls on the other hand are asked not to be demanding, to be forgiving
and accommodating and ladylike. These gender roles and
expectations have large scale ramifications on inflicting and accepting
domestic violence. The concept of ownership legitimizes control over
womens sexuality, which in many law codes has been deemed
essential to ensure patrilineal inheritance. Womens sexuality is also
tied to the concept of family honour in many societies. Violence is
learnt as a means of resolving conflict and asserting man-hood by
children who have witnessed such patterns of conflict resolution. The
practice of dowry as well as bride price proves male ascendancy over
the females. The males think themselves to be economically more
powerful which lead them to establish their authority over the females
through domestic violence. Excessive consumption of alcohol and other

drugs has also been noted as a factor in provoking aggressive and

violent male behaviour towards women.
Lack of economic resources underpins womens vulnerability to
violence. Womens limited access to cash and credit, discriminatory
laws regarding inheritance, property rights, use of communal lands,
maintenance after divorce or widowhood, limited access to
employment in formal and informal sectors, limited access to education
and training for women increase womens economic dependence on
men. The unequal access to economic privileges and resources keep her
at the mercy of her male partner and without any means of
independent economic livelihood she accepts domestic violence
without protest.
The isolation of women in their families and communities is known to
contribute to increased violence. The unequal power equation between
the male and female is an accepted norm of the society. Lack of legal
protection, particularly within the sanctity of the home, is a strong
factor in perpetuating violence against women. Until recently, the
public/private distinction that has ruled most legal systems has been a
major obstacle to womens rights. Even though several countries now
have laws that condemn domestic violence, when committed against a
woman in an intimate relationship, these attacks are more often
tolerated as the norm than prosecuted as laws. Alienation of women
from organized institutions like community organizations, womens
self-help groups, or affiliated to political parties render them helpless
and compel them to tolerate domestic violence without raising their
voice.
The legal system is not highly supportive to the women. Though inspirit
it is proactive for women in practice it remains under the carpet of a
patriarchal culture. Lesser legal status of women either by written law
and/or by practice, laws regarding divorce, child custody, maintenance
and inheritance still give precedence to the men. Legal definitions of
domestic abuse and rape is quite fluid. Low levels of legal literacy
among women do not empower them to report against the domestic
violence encountered by them. Further, insensitive treatment of

women and girls by police and judiciary discourage them to take the
help of such institutions meant to fight against domestic violence and
to give protection to the women.
3.4.9Interventions Needed To End Domestic Violence
Domestic violence should be taken seriously as a national issue needing
urgent attention of the state, law enforcement agencies, social service
agencies, the courts and the correction agencies. These agencies are to
be given specialised training and coordination has to be secured among
them to deal with the issues of domestic violence and the post
management of the victims and the perpetrators. There should be the
stringent implementation of laws with follow up monitoring.
Accountability has to be fixed for any omission and commission.
NGOs are to spread awareness amongst women regarding the legal
rights they have in hand for fighting against the atrocities they are
subjected to. They are to encourage the women to report any case of
domestic violence so that proper action may be taken against the
culprits. Police is needed to be sensitized to treat domestic violence
cases as seriously as any other crime. Special training to handle
domestic violence cases should be imparted to police force. Further
women should be provided with information regarding support
network of judiciary, government agencies/departments. Engagement
of the civil society and the private sector in ending violence against
women and girls, working with survivors to empower them can do
wonders in raising resistance against violence and in the rehabilitation
of the vulnerable women.
Domestic violence can be reduced when womens rights are well
protected. When it comes to protecting rights of the women, the
Government is to review national legislations, practices and customs
and abolish those that discriminate against women. Laws, policies and
programmes that explicitly prohibit and punish violence must be put
into place, in line with international agreements. Further womens
accesses to organisations are to be promoted and they should be given
better political representation. This will change the power equation
among the females and their male counterparts and contribute
significantly for putting an end to domestic violence.

Responses to domestic violence complaints lodged should be timely

and efficient to end a culture of hopelessness and impunity and foster a
culture of justice and support. This will encourage women to report
cases to get justice and reduce the rate of domestic violence. Provisions
are to be made to improve access of women to services like police,
courts regardless of their location, race, age or income.
Promotion of a culture of equality between men and women through
institutional and legal reform, education, and awareness-raising are the
need of the day to end the practice of domestic violence.
Educational programs both for women and men can sensitize the
society against domestic violence and create an environment of
equality.
Thus these interventions if introduced and implemented can translate
the aims of the Domestic Violence Act into a programme of action and
improve
the
situation
of
women
in
India.
3.5Key Words: Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan, Gross Enrolment Ratio, the
World Health Organization, Millennium Development Goals, Labour
market, the missing women, CEDAW

3.6 References:
1.Srivastava Gouri(2005) Women Education in India Issues and
Dimensions, Academic Excellence Publishers & Distributors
2. Agarwal, S.P.(2001) Women's Education in India, Concept Publishing
Company
3. Satia, J, Misra, M, Arora, R, Neogi, S, edt. Innovations in Maternal
Health - Case studies from India. New Delhi, India: SAGE Publications
Pvt. Ltd
4. World Bank(1996) Improving women's health in India, Volume 1
5. Dube Leela(1990) Structures and Strategies Women, Work and
Family, SAGE Publications, New Delhi

6. Kalia,Anil (1998) Women Workers: Invisible and Unprotected,

Social Welfare, Vol.45, No.1, April, pp.9-13
7. Olsen, Wendy and Mehta, Smita (2006) A Pluralist Account of Labour
Participation in India, Global Poverty Research Group Working Paper
Series, 042, Economic and Social Research Council
8.Kant, Anjani(2003) Women and the Law, APH Publishing
9. Cahwala, Monioca(2006) Gender Justice: Women and Law in India,
Deep and Deep Publications
10. Gupta, Shakuntala(2005) Women Development In India (A
Comparative Study), Anmol Publications Pvt. Limited

UNIT-III
Review Exercise
Essay Type Questions
1. Explain the major issues faced by the women in India.
2. Delineate the educational scenario of women in India.
Mention the causes of their educational neglect.
3. Critically evaluate the health status of women in India.
4.Womens workforce participation in India is perceptibly
low.Do you agree with the statement? Substantiate your
argument with suitable facts.
5. Define domestic violence. Explain the causes of domestic
violence victimizing the women in India.
Short answer type answers
1. Write the provisions made by the Government of
India to improve the educational scenario among
women in the country.
2. Examine the causes of poor health status of
women in India.
3. Write a note on the scenario of womens work in
the country.
4. Mention briefly the International Protocols to end
domestic violence.

5. Write down the cultural explanations of domestic

violence.

UNIT-4

4.0 OBJECTIVES
4.1 Introduction
4.1.1History of Womens Rights Movement
4.1.2International Protocols on Rights of Women
4.1.3 Rights of Women: A Reality Check
4.1.4Women Rights in India
4.1.5 Constitutional Safeguards for Women in India
4.1.6 Legal Provisions
4.1.7 Institutional Supports for Women in India
4.1.8 Schemes for Women in India
4.2 SOCIAL MOVEMENTS AMONG WOMEN IN INDIA
4.2.1 Womens Organizations Started by Men
4.2.2 Womens Organizations Started by Women
4.2.3 Votes for Women
4.2.4 Reform of Personal Laws
4.2.5Women in the National Movement
4.2.6 Women in the labour movement
4.2.7 Womens Liberation Movement of the Seventies
4.2.8 Women Social Movements in the Eighties
4.2.9 Women Social Movements in the Nineties

4.3 Key Words

4.4 References
The present unit delineates on women rights, laws and women
movements in the country. In the context of women rights,
attempt has been made to trace its root, to reflect on womens
rights movement in the world context which had profound
impact on the consideration about womens rights in all nations
both large and small. It tries to bring into the discussion all the
international protocols on womens rights which have influenced
the Indian Government to made adequate provisions to ensure
rights to the women. In this context, the unit puts the thrust on
the rights ensured to the women in India. To bring clarity, the
Constitutional safeguards, the legislative protections, the
institutional

support created

by

the

Government, the

programmes designed and the schemes introduced and the

reflection of women issues that can play a catalyst role to ensure
rights to the women in different plans are elaborately described.
Further, attempt has been made to provide a historical
description of the social movements among women in India and
its impact on womens status.
4.0 OBJECTIVES: After studying this unit, you can
Get an impression about the roots of women rights movement in
the world.
Have a clear picture about the important International Protocols
that spell about womens rights.

 Assess Government of Indias commitments and efforts to ensure

rights to the women of the country.
Have knowledge about the Constitutional safeguards, legislative
protections, institutional supports created to protect womens
rights, schemes and programmes that try to make womens rights
enjoyed by them.
Develop knowledge about the genesis, growth and trends in
womens social movements.

UNIT-IV
4.1WOMEN RIGHTS,
MOVEMENTS

LAWS

AND

WOMEN

4.1Womens right around the world is an important indicator for estimating

womens equality with men, their emancipation from taboos and the degree of their
empowerment. Women's rights are the

entitlements

claimed for women and girls to

have a descent life worldwide. In some places, these rights are institutionalized or
supported by law, local custom, and behaviour, whereas in others they are under
estimated and ignored. Tradition, prejudice, social, economic and political interests
have combined to exclude women from prevailing definitions of general human
rights and to relegate women to secondary positions. However, it has to be
remembered that women have achieved their rights through a long drawn out
struggle and through a lot of protest through movements.
4.1.1History of Womens Rights Movement
The Women's Rights Movement has a long history back in time. It started in the
1800s when women weren't able to exercise their right to vote. It started with the

demand for the right to suffrage. In 1848, in Seneca Falls, New York, the first
convention on the theme of women's rights took place. Those were the beginnings of
the Women's Rights Movement. Back in 1848 the Declaration of Sentiments was
signed, in which some women and men asked for equal rights. A group of women
and men drafted and approved the Declaration of Sentiments, an impassioned
demand for equal rights for women, including the right to vote. The declaration was
modelled after the language and structure of the Declaration of Independence of
1776. Many of those gathered at Seneca Falls, including early women's rights leaders
Susan B. Anthony and

Elizabeth Cady Stanton,

had been active in the abolitionist

movement, seeking an end to Slavery. However, these women realized that they were
second-class citizens, unable to vote and possessing few legal rights, especially if they
were married. Some leaders, like Lucy Stone, saw parallels between women and slaves:
both were expected to be passive, cooperative, and obedient. In addition, the legal
status of both slaves and women was unequal to that of white men.
After the Civil War ended in 1865, many of these reformers fully committed their
energies to gaining women's suffrage. Stanton and Anthony established the National
Woman Suffrage Association (NWSA) that sought an amendment to the U.S.
Constitution similar to the Fifteenth Amendment, which gave non-white men the right to
vote. In 1872, Anthony was prosecuted for attempting to vote in the presidential
election. Stone, on the other hand, helped form the American Woman Suffrage
Association (AWSA). AWSA worked for women's suffrage on a state by state basis,
seeking amendments to state constitutions. The Women's Rights Movement went
from asking the right to vote for women to supporting them in problems like birth
control, abortion, rape, divorce, discrimination at work or even at school and
homophobia.
The modern women's rights movement began in the 1960s and gained momentum
with the development of the scholarly field of

Feminist Jurisprudence

in the 1970s. The

quest for women's rights has led to legal challenges in the areas of employment,
domestic relations, reproductive rights, education, and Criminal Law.
4.1.2International Protocols on Rights of Women
Some landmarks in the recent history of womens rights, at the global level, include:
UN Organization's founding Charter.

Article 1

of its Charter declare To achieve

international co-operation in promoting and encouraging respect for human rights

and for fundamental freedoms for all without distinction as to race, sex, language, or
religion.This clearly reflects the UNs commitment to ensure equal rights to women
without any distinction on the basis of gender.
In 1946, the UN Commission on the Status of Women established with mandate to
set standards of womens rights, encouraged governments to bring their laws into
line with international conventions and to encourage global awareness of womens
rights. This was a landmark attempt to sensitize Governments to make laws proactive
to secure equal rights for the women.

The landmark Declaration, adopted by the General Assembly on 10 December 1948,

reaffirms that All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights and
that everyone is entitled to all the rights and freedoms set forth in this Declaration,
without distinction of any kind, such as race, colour, sex, language, religion, birth
or other status. This had enormous contribution towards securing equal rights for
women.

As the international feminist movement began to gain momentum during the 1970s,
the General Assembly declared 1975 as the International Womens Year and
organized the first World Conference on Women, held in Mexico City. At the urging
of the Conference, it subsequently declared the years 1976-1985 as the UN Decade
for Women, and established a Voluntary Fund for Decade. This decade created a

worldwide campaign for womens rights and pressure was built up for all nations to
safeguard the rights of women.
In 1979, the General Assembly adopted the
Discrimination against Women

Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of

(CEDAW), which is often described as an International Bill of

Rights for Women. In its 30 articles, the Convention explicitly defines discrimination
against women and sets up an agenda for national action to end such discrimination.
The Convention targets culture and tradition as influential forces shaping gender
roles and family relations, and it is the first human rights treaty to affirm the
reproductive rights of women. CEDAW is often referred to as the Womens
Convention because, unlike conference declarations, it sets legally-binding principles
and standards for realizing womens rights.

Five years after the Mexico City conference, a Second World Conference on Women
was held in Copenhagen in 1980. The resulting Programme of Action called for
stronger national measures to ensure women's ownership and control of property,
as well as improvements in women's rights with respect to inheritance, child custody
and loss of nationality.
In 1985, the World Conference was convened in Nairobi to review and appraise the
achievements of the United Nations Decade for Women: Equality, Development and
Peace. It was convened at a time when the movement for gender equality had finally
gained true global recognition. It realized that the goals of the Mexico City
Conference had not been adequately met. The 157 participating governments
adopted the Nairobi Forward-looking Strategies to the Year 2000. It broke ground in
declaring all issues to be womens issues and womens right was put in the priority of
the agenda.

In 1993 with the adoption of the Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against
Women; women successfully promoted the message that womens rights are human
rights at the World Conference on Human Rights in Vienna.
In 1994 another major step forward for womens and girls right to control their own
lives and bodies were adopted at International Conference on Population &
Development in Cairo.
The Fourth World Conference on Women, held in Beijing in 1995, went a step
farther than the Nairobi Conference. The

Beijing Platform for Action

asserted womens

rights as human rights and committed to specific actions to ensure respect for those
rights. According to the UN Division for Women in its review of the four World Conferences:
"The fundamental transformation that took place in Beijing was the
recognition of the need to shift the focus from women to the concept
of gender, recognizing that the entire structure of society, and all
relations between men and women within it, had to be re-evaluated.
Only by such a fundamental restructuring of society and its institutions
could women be fully empowered to take their rightful place as equal
partners with men in all aspects of life. This change represented a
strong reaffirmation that women's rights were human rights and that
gender equality was an issue of universal concern, benefiting all."
In 2009 the UN commits to completely overhauling the systems and
structures through which it supports womens rights.
Thus, the United Nations has taken enough attempts to ensure equal
rights to the women as members of the world community and to end
discriminations against them.
4.1.3 Rights of Women: A Reality Check
However, there exists a gap between governments commitments and
the reality when the question of enjoying rights comes to the forefront.
Till the date women are not in a position to enjoy their full rights as
citizens in many parts of the world. Womens rights are violated right
across the world. Regardless of nationality, culture, religion and social
standing, women are discriminated against and are subjected to

violence of myriad forms. Violence against women knows no

boundaries. Women are traded across the world as cheap labour,
catalogue brides and forced prostitutes. Socially speaking, the
consumerist culture and era of advertisement have put the women in
new types of bondages. Every year, 60 million girls are sexually
assaulted at, or on their way to school. Women and girls 80% (640.000)
of the estimated 800,000 people are trafficked across national borders
annually with the majority (505.600) trafficked for sexual exploitation.
At least 60 million girls are 'missing' from various populations - mostly
in Asia - as a result of infanticide, neglect or sex-selected abortions.
Between 100 and 140 million women and girls alive today have been
subjected to Female Genital Mutilation. In six African countries over
80% of women have been subject to this practice. Over 60 million girls
worldwide are child brides: 31.3 million in South Asia, 14.1 million in
Sub-Sahara Africa.
Womens right to education is grossly violated. This becomes evident
when the UNESCO Report clearly portrays that the proportion of
illiterate women is increasing in the world in the new millennium.
Today, the world houses about 900 million illiterates and 2/3 rd among
them are the women.
The reproductive rights of women are very limited. In many countries,
women are refused the right to contraception. The genitals of 150
million women and girls have been mutilated. Each year, this number
increases by two million. Tens of millions of girls have been aborted,
killed, undernourished, or terribly neglected due to their gender.
Women and girls are refused the right to take part in public life by
law, be it legal or religious. In career terms, women and girls are at a
disadvantage in every nation on earth. Women are discriminated in
the employment market.
Nutritional deficiencies still continue to take lives of thousands of
women in African, Asian and Sub-Saharan countries.
The World Bank estimates about 90% percent of women work
force are engaged in the informal sector. Even in the most
advanced countries there is about 62% wage discrepancy, which
indicates that women are still not enjoying equal rights with
their male counterparts. Women account for 70% of the

population living in absolute poverty (on less than $1.00 a day).

Approximately 600 million women 53% of the worlds working
women are in vulnerable or informal employment, as ownaccount workers or as unpaid-workers in family businesses or
forms, jobs that are insecure and typically not protected by labor
laws. 311 million working age women continue to live and work
in countries without legal protection.
The political rights of women remain confined to suffrage only.
Women have a low share in the leadership roles and decision making
processes. A 130 country survey by the IPU suggests that only15.4% of
women occupy elected seats.
This is largely due to the backlash against womens human rights that
is taking place in many different forms today, including:

religious or cultural fundamentalisms of different kinds

power of ultra-conservative forces within governments and their
influence on foreign and domestic policies
an increase in violence, conflict and war
The current global economic crisis and climate change are also
responsible for current erosions of womens rights.
4.1.4Women Rights in India

The share of women is more than 48 percent in the countrys

population. But in the development parameters women rank lower in
comparison to their male counterparts and in comparison to women of
other advanced nations. India ranks 132 out of 148 countries in Gender
Inequality Index that captures "the loss of achievement due to
gender inequality in dimensions of reproductive health, empowerment
and labour market participation". This is quite indicative of the fact that
women are still under developed in India and still fail to avail equal
opportunities and enjoy their rights in the society. This makes women
development a myth in the country. However, India stands at the front
line in making adequate provisions in its Constitution and making
women specific legislations to protect and promote the interests of
women and to allow women to enjoy their basic rights. A thorough
discussion of the attempts of the government to ensure rights to the
women in the country can be made in the following lines.

4.1.5CONSTITUTIONAL SAFEGUARDS FOR WOMEN IN INDIA:

The principle of gender equality which is a pre condition of ensuring rights to the
women is enshrined in the Indian Constitution in its Preamble, Fundamental Rights,
Fundamental Duties and Directive Principles. The Constitution not only grants
equality to women, but also empowers the State to adopt measures of positive
discrimination in favour of women. India has also ratified various international
conventions and human rights instruments committing to secure equal rights of
women. Key among them is the ratification of the Convention on Elimination of All
Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) in 1993.

The Constitution of India through the Fundamental Rights, ensure equality

before the law and equal protection of law; prohibit discrimination against any
citizen on grounds of religion, race, caste, sex or place of birth, and guarantee
equality of opportunity to all citizens in matters relating to employment. Article 14,
15, 15(3), 16, 39(a), 39(b), 39(c) and 42 of the constitution are of specific importance
in this regard. All these are vital instruments to ensure rights to the women in the
country.

Article 14 spells out equality before law for all which also includes the women.
Article 15(i) states, the state not to discriminate against any citizen on grounds
only of religion, race, caste, sex, place of birth or any of them.
Article 15(3) empowers the state to make any special provision in favour of
women and children.
Article 16 lays down equality of opportunity for all citizens in matters relating
to employment or appointment to any office under the state.
Article 39(a) states that, the state to direct its policy towards securing for men
and women equally the right to an adequate means of livelihood.
Article 39(d) spells out equal pay for equal work for both men and women.

 Article 39(A) empowers to promote justice, on a basis of equal opportunity

and to provide free legal aid by suitable legislation or schemes or in any other
way to ensure that opportunities for securing justice are not denied to any
citizen by reason of economic or other disabilities.
Article 42 empowers the state to make provisions for securing just and
humane condition of work and for maternity relief.
Article 46 directs the state to promote with special care the educational and
economic interests of the weaker sections of the people and to protect them
from social injustice and all forms of exploitation.
Article 47 directs the state to raise the level of nutrition and the standard of
living of its people.
Article 51(A)(e) prescribes to promote harmony and the spirit of common
brotherhood amongst all the people of India and to renounce practices
derogatory to the dignity of women.
Article 243 D (3) lays down not less than one-third (including the number of
seats reserved for women belonging to the Scheduled Castes and the
Scheduled Tribes) of the total number of seats to be filled by direct election in
every Panchayat to be reserved for women and such seats to be allotted by
rotation to different constituencies in a Panchayat.
Article 243 T (3) states that not less than one-third (including the number of
seats reserved for women belonging to the Scheduled Castes and the
Scheduled Tribes) of the total number of seats to be filled by direct election in
every Municipality to be reserved for women and such seats to be allotted by
rotation to different constituencies in a Municipality.
Article 243 T (4) states that Reservation of offices of Chairpersons in
Municipalities for the Scheduled Castes, the Scheduled Tribes and women in
such manner as the legislature of a state may by law provide.

Thus, the Constitution of India makes adequate and explicit provisions to

eradicate gender discrimination in the public sphere and to provide equal
opportunities as well as rights to the women for their development.

4.1.6Legal Provisions:
To uphold the constitutional mandate, the Government of India has enacted
various legislative measures to ensure equal rights, to prevent social
discrimination and various forms of violence and atrocities against women which
make the enjoyment of rights by women a myth. The laws that are supportive to
the causes of women can be categorized into two types i.e. The Criminal Laws
under Indian Penal Code and the Special Laws.

The Indian Penal Code (IPC) admits crimes against women are detrimental to
their status, rights and development. The IPC recognizes the following Crimes
against women and lays down for stringent punishment to put a check on them
and make their rights available to the women. The crimes against women
recognized under IPC are:
Homicide for Dowry, Dowry Death or their attempts (Sec.302/304-B IPC).
Molestation (Section. 354 IPC).
Kidnapping and Abduction for different purposes (Sec. 363 373).
Rape (Sec. 376 IPC).
Torture, both mental and physical (Sec.498-AIPC).
Sexual Harassment (Sec.509 IPC).
Importation of girls (up to the age of 21 years).

The acts which have special provisions to safeguard the rights of women and
their interests under special laws include:
The Employees State Insurance Act 1948.
The Plantation Labour Act 1951.
The Family Courts Act, 1954.
The Special Marriage Act 1954.
The Hindu Marriage Act, 1955.
The Hindu Succession Act 1956 with amendment in 2005.
Immoral Traffic (Prevention) Act, 1956.
The Maternity Benefit Act, 1961 Amended in 1995.
Dowry Prohibition Act, 1961.
The Medical Termination of Pregnancy Act, 1971.
The Contract Labour (Regulation and Abolition) Act, 1976.
The Equal Remuneration Act, 1976.
The Criminal Law (Amendment) Act, 1983.
The Factories (Amendment) Act, 1986.
Indecent Representation of women (Prohibition) Act, 1986.
Commission of Sati (Prevention) Act, 1987.
The Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005.
The Prohibition of Child Marriage Act, 2006.

Along with such acts, mention can be made about the73rd Constitutional
Amendment Act, the National Plan of Action for the Girl child and the National
Policy for the Empowerment of Women, 2001 which have significantly
contributed for increasing the visibility and voice of women in the Indian society
and thereby given ample opportunity to the women to enjoy their rights.

 The 73rd Constitutional Amendment Act passed in 1992 by the Indian

Parliament reserves one-third of the total seats for women in all elected
offices in local bodies whether in rural areas or urban areas. This was
introduced to bring the women into the ambit of the decision making
process where their share was almost negligible. This also made provisions
for women to assert their voice in the process of decision making thereby
safeguarding their political rights.
The National Plan of Action (1991-2000) for the Girl Child aims at ensuring
survival, protection and development rights of the girl child who were heavily
neglected due to the gender bias prevalent in the Indian Society.
National Policy for the Empowerment of Women, 2001 was prepared by
the Department of Women and Child Development in the Ministry of
Human Resource Development, Government of India. This policy intended
to empower the women economically, socially and politically by building
capacity and developing their skill, making them economically self
sufficient and politically participating. This policy intended to protect the
rights of women through their empowerment.

4.1.7 Institutional Supports for Women in India:

To facilitate the development of women and to safeguard the rights of

women, the Government created certain institutions.The prominent among such
institutions are :
The National Commission for Women and State Commissions for women.

 The Central Social Welfare Board.

The Mahila Police Stations.
The Mahila Banks

NATIONAL COMMISSION FOR WOMEN:

The National Commission for Women (NCW) is a statutory body for women
established in 1992 by the Government of India. In 1990, the National
Commission for Women Act was passed by the Indian Parliament. The basic
objective of the NCW is to protect the rights of the Indian women and to launch
campaigns to ensure equality to the women right from the labour market to the
Parliament. The NCW has no doubt played a catalyst role in protecting the
interests and rights of the women and echoing their voice in the national forum.
Prototype Commissions have been instituted at the state level to reach the
women and to safeguard their rights.

CENTRAL SOCIAL WELFARE BOARD:

The Central Social Welfare Board was set up by a Resolution of Government
of India on 12th August 1953 to promote social welfare activities and to
implement welfare programmes for women. In 1954, the State Social Welfare
Advisory Boards were set up in the states and union territories to implement the
programmes of the Board and to assist the Central Social Welfare Board in the
expansion and development of welfare services. The Board has the responsibility
to see women enjoy their rights. For the purpose it expedites welfare services to
them, so that they can rise up to enjoy their rights.
MAHILA POLICE STATIONS:

To deal with the crimes against women, Mahila Police Stations are conceived
of. There were about 442 women police stations across India on 1st January,
2011. Tamil Nadu has the maximum number of women police stations, followed
by Uttar Pradesh and Andhra Pradesh. Mahila Police stations put a check on the
crimes against women which substantially prove to be detrimental to the
enjoyment of their rights. They ensure right to safety to the women.
MAHILA BANKS
The government's recent

pledge

of $370 million to start a women's bank is a

welcome and major step forward to promote women rights in the country. There
are recent moves, through the provision of credit and subsidies, to encourage
women to start their own small and medium enterprises. It can ensure economic
rights to the women.
4.1.8 Schemes for Women in India:
Many welfare schemes for women are implemented by Government of India,
State Governments and Union Territory Administrations with a view to allow
women enjoy their basic rights in the society. The details of major schemes under
implementation by Ministry of Women and Child Development for the welfare of
women are as under:

(i)

SUPPORT TO TRAINING AND EMPLOYMENT PROGRAMME FOR WOMEN

(STEP):
RASHTRIYA MAHILA KOSH (RMK) NATIONAL CREDIT FUND FOR
WOMEN
WORKING WOMEN HOSTEL AT JASOLA, NEW DELHI
RAJIV GANDHI NATIONAL CRECH SCHEME: (RGNCS)
RAJIV GANDHI SCHEME FOR EMPOWERMENT OF ADOLSCENT GIRLS
(RGSEAG) SABLA

 INDIRA GANDHI MATRITVA SAHYOG YOJNA (IGMSY) CONDITIONAL

MATERNITY BENEFIT (CMB) SCHEME
NATIONAL MISSION FOR EMPOWERMENT OF WOMEN (NMEW)
SWADHAR SCHEME
UJJAWALA
NATIONAL RURAL HEALTH MISSION
SPECIAL PROVISIONS FOR GIRLS UNDER SARVA SIKSHA ABHIJAN
All these schemes significantly contribute towards protecting and
promoting the rights of women in the country. They aim at generating an
enabling and empowering environment for women through which they can
realize their rights in the best possible manner.
4.2 SOCIAL MOVEMENTS AMONG WOMEN IN INDIA
Women in India have launched movements from time to time. From an
unorganized character womens movement is gradually taking an organized
shape in the country. From an elitist orientation, it is becoming mass based in
character, from localized forms it is becoming extended and the ideologies and
leadership of womens movements in India are becoming better shaped and
sharpened day by day. Indian womens movement can be phased into three time
periods. They are the movements spearheaded during the 19th century, the
freedom movement geared by women in the first part of the 20th century and the
right based movements launched in the last quarter of the 20th century.
The roots of the Indian womens movement dates back to the nineteenth
century. During this period, male social reformers played a significant role in
raising issues concerning women and started womens organizations. This gave
an impetus to the women to start forming their own organization from the end
of the nineteenth century. The formation of such organizations was originally
local in character and gradually they assumed a national character. Two main
issues figured important in the platform for action of these organizations. They
were demanding political rights and to bring a reform in the personal laws.
Womens participation in the freedom struggle broadened the base of the
womens movement and gave it a national character.

In the 19th century, the male social reformers, influenced by western liberal
democratic values initiated the process of fight against certain social evils
grappling the women like female infanticide, widow-burning, child marriage,
segregation of women from the public life, prostitution and destitution of
women. They also launched vigorous campaigns and efforts for widowremarriages to rescue the women suffering from early widowhood and getting
stigmatized in the society. These reformers devoted their time and resources to
interact with the power-structures to bring about legal reforms and establish
educational institutions, shelter homes, training centres for women from where
the first generation of teachers, nurses, skilled workers came out. Reformers like
Ram Mohan Roy (1772-1833), condemned sati, kulin polygamy and spoke in
favour of womens property rights. Ishwarchandra Vidyasagar made an advocacy
for widow remarriage. Thus they laid the foundations of the Indian social reform
movement. The prime objective was to improve the conditions of women in the
country. Womens inferior status, enforced seclusion, early marriage, condition
of widows and lack of education were the common issues taken up by the social
activists of the movement all throughout the country.
During that period, the Indian social reformers produced enormous literature in
Marathi, Hindi, Gujarati, Malayalam, Tamil, Bengali to create mass awakening.
4.2.1 Womens Organizations Started by Men
Men who belonged to the socio religious reform associations began the
first organization for women. In Bengal, Keshab Chandra Sen, a
prominent Brahmo Samaj leader, started a womans journal, held
prayer meetings for women and developed educational programmes
for women. Members of the Brahmo Samaj formed associations for
women of their own families and faith. The Prarthana Samaj in
Maharashtra and Gujarat did similar work. Narayan Ganesh
Chandavarkar, Madhav Govind Ranade and R.G. Bhandarkar in Pune
and Mahipatram Rupram Nilkanth and his associates in Ahmedabad
started organizations for prohibition of child marriage, for widow
remarriage and for womens education. The male-inspired and maleguided organizations for women did valuable work in educating women
and giving a foundation to women social movements. During this
period countable number of women was brought to public life. But
later on these women became the stewardess of organised movements
among women.

4.2.2 Womens Organizations Started by Women

The first generation of English educated empowered women became
pioneers of the womens movement in the pre-independence period.
One of the first to do so was Swarnakumari Devi, daughter of
Devendranath Tagore, a Brahmo leader, and sister of the poet
Rabindranath Tagore. She formed the Ladies Society in Calcutta in 1882
for educating and imparting skills to widows and other poor women to
make them economically self reliant. She edited a women journal,
Bharati, thus earning herself the distinction of being the first Indian
woman editor. In the same year, Ramabai Saraswati formed the Arya
Mahila Samaj in Pune and a few years later started the Sharda Sadan in
Bombay. The National Conference was formed at the third session of
the Indian National Congress in 1887 to provide a forum for the
discussion of social issues. The Bharat Mahila Parishad was the
womens wing of this and was inaugurated in 1905. It focused on child
marriage, condition of widows, dowry and other evil customs. This
became the first organisation of the women, by the women and for the
women. By this time there was a rising consciousness among women
leaders and Indian women were getting drifted to public forums and
were making their issues visible and voices heard.
The early womens organizations had been confined to a locality or city.
In 1910, Sarala Devi Chaudhurani, daughter of Swarnakumari Devi
formed the Bharat Stree Mandal (Great Circle of India Women) with the
object of bringing together women of all castes, creeds, classes and
parties... on the basis of their common interest in the moral and
material progress of the women of India.It planned to open branches
all over India to promote womens education. It started operating in the
cities of Lahore, Amritsar, Allahabad, Hyderabad, Delhi and Karachi.
Purdah was regarded by Sarala Devi as the main obstacle for womens
education. The organization took interest to send teachers to womens
homes to educate them. She noted that male domination was the
preventing force to enable women to organize themselves for their
cause. To her the male domination could be challenged and collapsed
through the spread of education among the women.The Bharat Stree
Mahila Mandal however proved to be a short lived venture.

During this period,pioneering womens organisations such as All India Womens

Conference (AIWC,1927), Young Women Christian Association (YWCA) and
Anjuman-e-Islam took their birth. The political agenda of AIWC was to fight
against child marriage, mobilise public opinion in favour of voting rights for
women, impart basic skills (such as tailoring, embroidery, cookery, hair-style,
childcare, folk and classical music and dance, letter-writing etc) to women to
become efficient home-makers. Cultural ambiance of AIWC suited the needs and
aspirations of the high caste Hindu women. YWCA was multi religious in terms of
its areas of activities and beneficiaries, though its decision-makers happened to
be the Christian wives of politicians, bureaucrats, professionals and managerial
cadre who were in the close proximity of the British rulers. YWCA provided
vocational training courses to groom nurses, typists, secretaries and teachers,
classes in bakery products, flower arrangements, Western and Indian classical
dance and music classes. Anjuman Trust was committed to the cause of womens
education and skill formation, which would enable them to be home-based
workers. They had to work within the matrix of purdah. YWCA women had to
face outside world with nominal male protection. AIWC women had their male
family members as facilitators. Women leaders from Anjuman Trust interacted
only with the Muslim community.
4.2.3 Votes for Women
In the inter war years, between 1917 and 1945, there were two main issues that
the womens movement took up-. They were the political rights for women and
reform of personal laws. In 1917 Annie Besant, Margaret Cousins and Dorothy
Jinarajadasa, all three Irish women Theosophists, who had been suffragettes in
their own country founded the Womens Indian Association (WIA). They were
joined by Malati Patwardhan, Ammu Swaminathan, Mrs. Dadabhoy and Mrs.
Ambujammal. WIA was the first all India womens association with the clear
objective of securing voting rights for women. A Memorandum signed by 23
women from different parts of the country, demanding votes for women on the
same terms as men which would enable them to have a say in political matters
was submitted to Montague and Chelmsford. It also stated other demands such
as for education, training in skills, local self- government, and social welfare.
The Indian National Congress at its session in Calcutta in 1917, over which Annie
Besant presided, supported the demand of votes for women and so did the

Muslim League. A womens delegation led by Sarojini Naidu met the Secretary of
State and the Viceroy to plead their case personally. Womens organizations held
meetings all over India to express support for womens franchise. Behind the
scene, Margaret Cousins and a few other women worked hard to make their
case. Sarojini Naidu and Annie Besant went to England to present evidence
before the joint Parliamentary Committee while local branches of WIA held
meetings, passed resolutions and forwarded them to London. A delegation was
sent to England to plead their case.
The Joint Parliamentary Committee of Parliament finally agreed to remove the
sex disqualification but left it to the provincial legislatures to decide how and
when to do so. Travancore-Cochin, a princely state, was the first to give voting
rights to women in 1920, followed by Madras and Bombay in 1921. The process
was followed by other states. Franchise was of course extremely limited. Ten
years after the Montague-Chelmsford Reforms, the Simon Commission was
appointed in 1927. This led to the second round in the battle for female
enfranchisement. When the Commission visited India, the Indian National
Congress boycotted it on the ground that there were no Indian members on the
Commission. The WIA joined the boycott, while the All India Womens
Conference was divided and some of its members met the Commission. AIWC
prepared a Memorandum to be submitted to the Franchise Committee of the
Second Round Table Conference demanding universal adult franchise, mixed
general electorate and reservation of seats for women. The Government of India
Act of 1935 increased the number of enfranchised women and removed some of
the previous qualifications. All women over 21 could vote provided they fulfilled
the qualification of property and education. Women had to wait till after
independence to get universal adult franchise. Thus, the women movements
during the pre independence period were successful in getting political rights for
women, considered as a pre condition of womens empowerment and equality.
4.2.4 Reform of Personal Laws
The All India Womens Conference was established in 1927 at the initiative of
Margaret Cousins to take up the problem of womens education. Women from
different parts of India belonging to different religions, castes and communities
attended the first session in Pune. It was a great success to bring women from
different regions and diverse groups into an organised forum. The AIWC waged a

vigorous campaign for increasing the age of marriage which led to the passing of
the Sarda Act in 1929. AIWC took up the cause of reform of personal law. As
there was some opposition to a common civil law, it demanded reform of Hindu
laws to prohibit bigamy, provide the right to divorce and for women to inherit
property. These reforms were finally obtained with the passing of the Hindu
Code Bills in the 1950s.
4.2.5Women in the National Movement
The next phase of movements among women in India is noted through their
participation in the National freedom Struggle. Women had been associated with
the freedom struggle by attending sessions of the Indian National Congress and
taking part in the Swadeshi movement in Bengal between 1905-11 and in the
Home Rule Movement. But the involvement of really large number of women in
the national movement began when Gandhi launched the first Non Co-operation
Movement and gave a special role to women. Gandhiji gave a clarion call to the
women to become the political comrades of the males to give a real shape and
direction to the freedom movement. Peasant women played an important role in
the rural satyagrahas of Borsad and Bardoli. Women participated in the Salt
satyagraha in the Civil Disobedience Movement, in the Quit India Movement and
in all the Gandhian satyagrahas. They held meetings, organized processions,
picketed shops selling foreign cloth and liquor and went to jail.
Non-violent means of protest actions under the leadership of Gandhiji, ensured
massive participation of women in the national liberation movement. Women
family members of the Congress leaders gave up purdah participated in public
functions, rallies, demonstrations and experienced prison-life. Families, which
allowed women to take political risks, emerged as powerful politicians. Some of
the highly educated women joined educational institutions, diplomatic crew,
public service boards, and public and private sector industries. The rest became
enlightened home-makers with a strong commitment for their daughters
education.
Women participated in the freedom movement being inspired by patriotism.
They seriously wanted to see the end of foreign rule. Being the political
comrades of men, women picketed shops, marched in processions or went to jail
or threw bombs did not question male leadership or patriarchal values. It did

generate in them a sense of self-confidence and a realization of their own

strength. Many returned to their homes but others continued their activities in
the public arena. It transformed the lives of many young widows such as
Durgabai Deshmukh and Kamaladevi Chattopadhyaya.
Thus, womens movement in India was intensified with the Freedom Struggle.
This movement was more mass based, aroused consciousness among women
about their plights and potentialities. Women transgressed their domestic
boundaries. Women began to become visible in the public and simultaneously,
this movement could break some of the traditional taboos for women and
spearheaded reform demands for women.

4.2.6 Women in the labour movement

In 1917 Anasuya Sarabhai had led the Ahmedabad textile workers
strike and in 1920 under her leadership the Majoor Mahajan, the
Ahmedabad textile mill workers union was established. By the late
1920s, the presence of women in the workers movement was
noticeable. In the Bombay textile mill workers strike of 1928-29,
women played a leading role and they did the same in the Calcutta. But,
a realistic check indicates that most of the labour movements in India
are men led and women seldom have taken a stewardship role.
4.2.7 Womens Liberation Movement of the Seventies
The radicalization of Indian politics in the late sixties laid the
foundations of the new social movements among the women. This was
more or less impacted by the mass movements that were emerging in
the country. Macro political processes were witnessing the rise of
protest movements of the subaltern masses guided by different
political ideologies. The Naxalbari movememt in Kerala and the
prototype movements in West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh, Bihar and
Punjab started reflecting dissatisfactions among the peasants. In the
meantime, women dissatisfied with the status quo joined struggles for
the rural poor and industrial working class such as the Tebhaga
movement in Bengal, the Telangana movement in Andhra Pradesh and

the Naxalite movement. As women's militancy developed, genderbased issues were also raised. Women also became an integral part of
national political parties with all the major political parties establishing
their women's wings.

Middle class mass upheaval in Gujarat (popularly known as Navnirman

movement) against corruption, price rise, unemployment, speculation,
hoarding and black-marketing in 1974 was replicated in Bihar in the
name of Sampoorna Kranti Movement under the leadership of a
Gandhian leader, JayPrakash Narayan. Unprecedented strike of the
railway workers manifested the collective strength of the working class.
Tribal peoples struggles against destructive and affective development
which served the interests of the kulaks, moneylenders, contractors,
bootlegger sand indigenous industrialists was getting intensified in
Chhatisgarh, Singhbhoom, Bhojpur, Srikatulam, Chandrapur, Dhulia and
in the pockets of the North Eastern states .
The Chipko movement got its name from the Hindi word chipko which
means to cling. The movement began in 1973 in the small hilly town of
Gopeshwar in Chamoli district when representatives from a sports
factory came to cut trees. Women joined the movement in 1974 and
with their united strength prevented the contractor from cutting trees.
Women evolved creative method to protect the trees from the axes of
contractors henchmen. This movement was popularly known as Chipko
because women hugged the trees when their adversaries made
ferocious efforts at felling the trees. This movement became a major
indication of the growing consciousness among women to protect the
environment that provide livelihood to thousands of women.
In Ahmedabad, the first attempt at a womens trade union was made
with the formation of the Self Employed Womens Association (SEWA)
at the initiative of Ela Bhat in 1972. Its aim was to improve the
condition of poor women who worked in the unorganized sector by
providing training, technical aids and collective bargaining. Based on
Gandhian ideals, SEWA has become an iconic institution for the women
throughout the country.

In Maharashtra, women activists and women intellectuals got involved

in progressive movements and took initiative in forming a united front
called Anti-price rise Womens Committee in 1973 and organised direct
action against the culprits who created man-made scarcity of essential
goods. Thousands of poor and lower middle class women joined the
struggle under the leadership of seasoned and able women from the
left and socialist background. Mrinal Gore, Ahalya Ranganekar, Manju
Gandhi and Tara Reddy made their special mark in the eyes of the
masses as a result of their unique ability to reach out to the women of
different class backgrounds. The anti price rise agitation grew rapidly
becoming a mass movement for consumer protection. So many
housewives got involved in the movement with a new form of protest
coming out in the streets and beating thalis(metal plates) with rolling
pins. The Nav Nirman movement, originally a students movement in
Gujarat against soaring prices, black marketing and corruption launched
in 1974 was soon joined by thousands of middle class women. Their
method of protest ranged from mass hunger strike, mock funerals and
prabhat pheris.
In Delhi, new leadership among women evolved from the radical
students movement and the democratic rights movement. Individual
women in different political groupings all over India were feeling
discontented about patriarchal biases in their organisations but they
came out openly against it only after the emergency rule got over.
These were independent, self-determining and democratic movements,
which questioned all hierarchical structures. Faced with multiple crises
economic, social and political, along with corruption, drought,
inflation, unemployment, pauperization of the rural poor the
disenchanted youth responded with protest.
The UN Declaration of 1975 as an International Womens Year
coincided with the Emergency Rule in India. By the time the Emergency
was lifted in 1977, several womens groups had developed around
democratic rights issues. The press swung into action after the
imposed silence of nearly two years. Atrocities committed against
women during the Emergency were openly documented and reported

in the press. These atrocities struck a chord in most womens own

experience of life in the family, in the streets, in the workplace and in
political groups.
Widespread, open discontent was expressed in action and
consolidation of the action developed into powerful organisations
throughout the country. These movements raised a number of diverse
issues-land-rights, wages, employment, security at work-place, water
availability, destruction of nature, oppression and exploitation of the
Dalits (the untouchables) and the working masses. Many women
participated in these struggles with enthusiasm, responsibility and
creativity.
The POW in Hyderabad organized new and fresh protests against
dowry. In the late 1970s, Delhi became the focus of the movement
against dowry and the violence inflicted on women in the marital home.
Groups which took up the campaign included Stree Sangharsh and
Mahila Dakshita Samiti. Later, a joint front emerged under the banner
of Dahej Virodhi Chetna Mandal. Womens organizations also
succeeded in getting the dowry law changed.
Between 1977 and 1979 new womens groups emerged in the cities like
Delhi, Banglore, Hyderabad, Bombay, Ahmedabad, Patna, and Madras.
They organised protest actions against dowry murders, beauty
contests, sexist portrayal of women in media, pornographic films and
literature imported from abroad, introduction of virginity tests by the
U.K. immigration authorities, custodial rape and pitiable condition of
women in prison. These groups were multicultural in their composition
and worldview. As a result, their political agenda reflected the
contemporaneous handling of the complex reality of women
constructed by interplay of class, caste, religion, ethnicity and
globalisation. Launching of MANUSHI, the journal in January 1979 was
a qualitative leap in this direction.
4.2.8 Women Social Movements in the Eighties
The decade following 1980s witnessed the growth of numerous
womens groups that took up issues such as dowry deaths, bride
burning, rape, sati and focused on violence against women. They
stressed the sexual oppression of women. They questioned the
patriarchal assumptions underlying womens role in the family and

society. Some of the earliest autonomous womens groups were the

Progressive Organization of Women (POW, Hyderabad), the Forum
against Rape (now redefined as Forum against Oppression of Women),
Stree Sangharsh and Samata (Delhi). Among the first campaigns that
womens groups took up was the struggle against rape in 1980. This
was triggered by the judgment of the Supreme Court to acquit two
policemen who were accused of raping a minor tribal girl, Mathura,
despite the fact that the High Court had indicted them. Several other
rape cases became part of this campaign. They culminated in changing
the existing rape law. The amended law was enacted in 1983 after long
discussions with womens groups. Since then, womens groups have
lobbied to make rape laws more stringent and to implement it
religiously. The recent protests in the Nirvaya case and the subsequent
cases signalise the seriousness of the womens organisations in
launching movements against rape cases.
Womens groups rose in protest at the sati of, Roop Kanwar, a young
widow, who was forcibly put on the funeral pyre of her husband and
burnt to death in a village in Rajasthan in 1987. Women protest groups
declared this to be a cold-blooded murder. They demanded a new Sati
Prevention Bill.
The culmination of this process was reached in 1980 when many
womens groups took to the street to protest. During the 1980s, the
issue of womens oppression was depicted not only in discussion
forums, seminars and `serious articles but also in the popular media.
Women, who had on their own identified the sources of their problems
and indignity, began to acquire a language, an organisational platform,
a collective identity and legitimacy they did not have earlier. There
were several campaigns in the eighties relating to womens rights.
Among them was a campaign, in 1985, in support of the Supreme Court
judgment in the divorce case where Shah Bano, a Muslimwoman, had
petitioned the Court for maintenance from her husband under Section
125 of the Criminal Procedure Act and the Court granted her demand.
The orthodox Muslims, however, protested against interference with
their personal law. In 1986, the government introduced the Muslim
Womens (Protection of Rights in Divorce) Bill denying Muslim women

redress under Section 125.Womens associations protested against this

outside Parliament.
4.2.9 Women Social Movements in the Nineties
From the early nineties economic reforms ushered in India. During this
period, peasant movements, Dalit movements and environmental
movements launched their protests against capitalist based
globalization. Food insecurities, loss of livelihood opportunities, equal
rights and representations, gender based discriminations, became the
main focus of womens social movements of the country. Gender based
violence was heavily protests by women groups. In 2000 at the initiative
of six national level womens organizations, ninety women groups and
organizations became signatories for Global March,2000.The document
Women Speak united voices against Globalization, Poverty and
Violence in the country. Bachao movements against development
induced displacements, dalit womens representation in political bodies
and ending violence against women, providing rights of all kinds to the
women adorned the agenda of the women social movements in the
country. Women became more vigilant, visible and made their voices
heard through organised local and national movements.
Thus, the history of womens movement in India though not very long,
yet is very meaningful for raising the status of women, in bringing policy
changes and in consciousness building. Gradually, social movements
among women in the country are getting strengthened and it has a
decisive role to play to in shaping the future of women in the country.
4.3 Key words: Constitutional safe guards, legislative provisions,
institutional support, Trafficking, Genital mutilation,
Liberation movements, reform movements, food securities,
dalit movements

4.4 References:

1. Kausal, Rachana(2000) Women and Human Rights in India, Kaveri

Books
2. Aswal, Balam Singh(2013) Readings in Women's and Girls' Rights,
Cyber-Tech Publications
3. Mc Neese, Tim, Mountjoy, Shane(2009) The Women Rights
Movement: Moving Toward Equality, Infobase Publishing
4. Chawla , Monica(20006) Gender Justice Women and Law in India,
Deep & Deep Publications Pvt. Ltd.
5. Saikia, Nandita(2008) Indian Women A Socio-Legal Perspective,
Serials Publications
6. Ray ,Raka(2000) Fields of Protest: Women's Movements in India,
Zubaan
7.Ray, Raka, Katzenstein, Mary Fainsod(2005) Social Movements in
India: Poverty, Power, and Politics, Rowman & Littlefield

UNIT-IV
Review Exercise
Essay Type Questions
Mention the International protocols signed to ensure
rights to women.
2. Make a critical estimation of the rights enjoyed by the
women in the contemporary world.
3. Write a note on women rights in India.
4. Examine the efforts made by the Government of India to
ensure rights to the women in the country.
5. Write a short essay on Social Movements among Women
in India.
Short Type Questions
1. Write the history of womens rights movement in the
world.
2. Examine the Constitutional provisions that protect the
rights of women in India.
3. Discuss briefly about the early phase of womens social
movements in India.
4. Assess the trends in women social movements in the
seventies.
5. Evaluate the present state of women social movements in
India.
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