Foundation by Samuel
Foundation by Samuel
Foundation by Samuel
FOOTING
3. FOUNDATIONS
3.1 INTRODUCTION
3.2 PURPOSES OF FOUNDATIONS
3.3 TYPES OF FOUNDATIONS
3.3.1 Shallow Foundations
3.3.2 Deep Foundations
References
1. Foundation Engineering
By Alemayehu Teferra
2. Foundation Analysis and Design
By J. E. Bowles
3. Soil Mechanics and Foundations
By Samuel Tadesse
4. Foundation Design and Construction
By M.T. Tomlinson
5. Foundation Design
By W.C. Teng
1. SOIL EXPLORATION
objective of soil exploration for a building, bridge or other civil Engineering works, to
analyze the nature of soil in all respects.
The main purposes of soil exploration are: a. Selection of alternative construction sites or the choice of the most economical
sites.
b. Selection of alternative types or depth of foundation
c. Selection of alternative methods of construction.
d. Evaluation of the safety of existing structure.
e. Location and selection of construction materials.
The soil exploration should provide the following data: 1. Soil parameters and properties of different layers (e.g. for classification, bearing
capacity or settlement calculation)
2. Thickness of soil layers and depth to bedrock (stratification of soil)
3. Location of ground water level
The soil engineer should constantly keep in mind, when planning the exploration
program, the purpose of the program and the relative costs involved. Normally, the cost
involved in the soil exploration is a function of the total cost of the project. It is always
advisable to spend a little more on soil investigation to understand clearly the nature of the
soil so that suitable foundation can be recommended. Often an indication of the extent of
an exploration of program can be estimated from the history of foundations successes and
failures in an area are very helpful. Also, for planning the program, the engineer should be
well acquainted with the current methods of soil boring, sampling and testing and have
some idea of the limitations on both the field and laboratory equipments and methods.
The actual planning of a subsurface exploration program includes some or all of the
following steps: I. Assembly of all available information on type and use of the structure, and also of
the general topographic and geological character of the site.
II. Reconnaissance of the area: - This involves inspection of behavior of adjacent
structures, rock outcrops, cuts, etc.
III. A preliminary site investigation: - This is usually in the form of a few borings or
a test pit to establish the types of materials, Stratification of the soil, and possibly
the location of the ground water level.
Test pits
Field tests
Geophysical methods
Laboratory tests
d) Rotary drilling: - Power operated. Hole is advanced by a rapidly rotating bit which
cuts the material at the bottom of the hole into small particles which are removed by
circulating fluids, which may be water, bentonite slurry or mud slurry. This is the most rapid
method for penetrating highly resistant materials (e.g. bed rock).
In this method
Types of Samplers
It is virtually impossible to obtain totally undisturbed samples, especially from moderate
to deep holes. The process of boring,
driving the
coring
the coring tool and extruding the sample from the coring tool, all conspire to cause some
disturbance. In addition, samples taken from holes may tend
stress relief.
to swell as a result of
Samples should be taken only from a newly- drilled or newly extended hole,
with care being taken to avoid contact with water. As soon as they are brought to the
surface, core tubes should be labeled inside and outside, the ends sealed with wax and
capped, and then stored away from extremes of heat or cold and vibration.
Sample
disturbance may be reduced by using an appropriate type of sample tube. The types of
tube samplers in common use are described below:
a) Split Spoon Sampler: - A standard split spoon sampler has a 2 outside diameter,
1 inside diameter tube, 18 to 24 long. The tube is split longitudinally in the middle.
While the sample is being taken, the two halves of the spoon are held together at the ends
by short pieces of threaded pipe, one of which couples, it to the drill rod and the other
serves as the cutting edge. The sampler is forced or driven into the soil to obtain a sample
and is then removed from the hole. With these sampler-disturbed samples of soft rock,
cohesive and cohesionless soils are obtained. This sampler is used for making standard
penetration test.
b) Thin-Walled Tube Sampler: - It is a thin walled seamless brass or steel tubing, with
common out side diameter of 2 to 3 and length of 30 to 36. The lower end is beveled to
form a cutting edge and it can be slightly tapered to reduce the wall friction and the upper
end fitted for attachment to the drill rod. In order to take sample the sampler is pushed
downward into the soil by static force instead of being driven by a hammer. This sampler is
used to take undisturbed samples from cohesive soils.
c) Piston Samplers: - They are very thin tube samplers with pistons fitted at their
cutting ends. While taking sample, the piston is held in positions and the tube pushed
down.
The piston aids the retention of the soil in the tube during withdrawal. Piston
information on the relative density of soils with little or no cohesion. The tests are based on
the fact that the relative density of a soil stratum is directly proportional to the resistance of
the soil against the penetration of the drive point. From this, correlations between values of
penetration resistance versus angle of internal friction (), bearing pressure, density and
modulus of compressibility have been developed.
25kgs(=100 kg), screw point, driving rod ( 20 to 22 mm), made up of 100cm parts, and a
rotating handle. The depth of penetration is measured for each loading after which the
number of half-turns is counted by 100Kg.load; the penetration depth is then measured
after
25 half-turns.
75 50
25
HT/20cm penetration
Depth
100
10
The correlation between density of frictional soils and consistency of cohesive soils and
ht/m (half-turns per meter) are as given below.
3
Frictional Soils
Density (kN/m )
Very loose
<50ht/m
Loose
50 -150ht/m
11-16
14.5 - 18.5
Medium
150 - 300ht/m
17.5 - 21
Dense
300 - 500ht/m
17.5 - 22.5
Very dense
> 500ht/m
21 - 24
Density (kN/m3)
Cohesive Soils
Soft
0 ht/m
16 19
Firm
0 100 ht/m
17.5 21
Stiff
100-200 ht/m
19 22.5
Very stiff
Hard
>500 ht/m
2) Static Cone Penetration Test (Dutch Cone Penetrometer Test): -This method is
widely used in Europe. The test consists of a cone (apex angle 600, overall diameter
2
35.7mm, end area 10cm , rods ( ), casing pipe ( ). The rod is pushed hydraulically
into the ground at a rate of 10mm/sec. The pressure exerted on the rod is measured with a
proving ring, manometer or a strain gauge. Readings are usually taken every 20cm. From
this test point resistance and skin frictional resistance can be determined separately.
The cone is 1
st
pushed into the ground. The force required to push the cone
11
Table 1.1 Correlations between Cone (Point) Resistance and Relative Density of
Frictional Soils
2
Relative Density
< 2500
Loose soil
2500 5000
Medium dense
5000 10,000
Dense
Very dense
10,000 15,000
> 15,000
Skin friction
Depth
Point resistance
12
According to Meyerhof:
N = (Ckd)
where
(1.1)
For sand, modulus of compressibility (Es) can be estimated from cone resistance from
the following relationship.
ES =3/2( Ckd)
(1.2)
0-4
4 -10
<28
28 -30
Relative
Very loose
Loose
10-30
30 - 50
35 - 40
30-36
Medium
> 50
Dense
>42
Very dense
Density
Table 1.3 Correlation between Number of blows (N), Unconfined Compressive Strength
and Consistency of Cohesive Soils. (Terzaghi and Peck).
N
2
qu(kN/m )
Consistency
0 -2
2-4
4-8
0 -25
25 -50
50 -100
Soft
Medium
Very soft
8 -15
15-30
>30
100 -200
200-400
>400
Stiff
Very stiff
Hard
13
RAM 63.5 kg
ANVIL
MOTOR
89mm
CASING
SAMPLER 2 (STANDARD)
=30+0.15Dr
..
(1.3)
For granular soil, containing more than 5 percent fine sand and silt.
0
=30+0.15Dr
(1.4)
For granular soil, containing less than 5 percent fine sand and silt. In the equations Dr is
expressed in percent.
14
N= corrected value
N= actual value
pressure. This
correction is applied only to cohesionless soils (dry, moist or wet). The correction
suggested by Gibbs and Holtz and widely used is as follows.
N =
345' N
2
2N, for o 276 kN/m
( o '+69)
2
35 N '
2
2N, for o 28kN/m
( o '+7)
2) Dynamic Cone Penetration Test: - This is another useful test, which is normally
used to determine the relative resistance offered by the different soil layers. The cone is
fixed to the bottom of a rod by pushed fit. The cone is driven into the ground in the same
way as a SPT is performed. The number of blows required to penetrate 30 cms depth is
called as Nc value. In the case of dynamic cone penetration test no borehole is used.
Experiments
carried out indicate that beyond about 6m depth, frictional resistance on the
rod increases which gives erroneous results for Nc value. The maximum depth suggested
for this test is about 6 m. If the test has to be conducted beyond 6 m depth, one has to use
drilling mud (bentonite slurry) under pressure forced through the pipe and the cone as
shown in Fig 11.6. The mud solution coming out of the cone rises above along the drill rod
eliminating thereby the frictional resistance offered by the soil for penetration. The former
method is called as dry method and the latter wet method.
rod
Bore-hole
60
15
(1.5)
where
N = blow count for SPT
Nc = blow count for dynamic cone
C = Constant, lies between 0.8 and 1.2 when bentonite is used.
Nc= 1.5N for depths up to 3m
Nc= 1.75N for depths between 3m and 6m
Nc Values need to be corrected for overburden pressure in cohesionless soils like SPT
where
T
2 H D3
+
D
2 12
(1.6)
T = Torque
D = Diameter of Vane
H = Height
Since for quick condition = Cu, one ultimately arrived the in-situ value of cohesion
16
S=
Sp (2 Bf ) 2
(B f + B p ) 2
17
(1.7)
Using the value Sp, computed from the above equation, the loading intensity under the
footing could be read from the load settlement curve.
The settlement of footing in clay is normally determined from principles of consolidation.
However from plate load test, the approximate settlement of footing of width B can be
determined using the following expression
S = Sp
Bt
Bp
Dead Weight
Load
Loaded platform
Pressure gauge
Hydraulic jack
Short block
Settlement dial gauge
Bp
Settlement, Sp (cm)
(1.8)
18
Pressure
bulb
Firm soil
Soft soil
Fig. 1.9 Pressure bulbs for the plate and the actual foundation.
19
The common laboratory tests that concern the foundation engineers are
Atterberg limits
Unit weight
Consolidation test
Compaction test
Chemical analysis
20
Project
Minimum number
Uniform
Average
Erratic
structure
Multi-story building
45
30
15
60
30
15
30
75
Highways
300
150
30
21
22
2.1 INTRODUCTION
The lowest part of a structure is generally called a foundation and its function is to
transfer the load of the structure to the soil on which it is resting. If the soil near the surface
is capable of adequately supporting the structural loads it is possible to use either a footing
or a raft. A footing is a relatively small slab giving separate support to part of the structure.
A footing supporting a single column is referred to as an individual (isolating) footing, one
supporting a group of columns as a combined footing and one supporting a load-bearing
wall as strip footing. A raft is a relatively large single slab, usually stiffened, supporting the
structure as a whole. If the soil near the surface is incapable of adequately supporting the
structural loads, piles or piers are used to transmit the loads to suitable soil at greater
depth.
A foundation must satisfy two fundamental requirements: I. The factor of safety against shear failure of the supporting soil must be adequate,
II. The settlement of the foundation should be tolerable and, in particular, differential
settlement should not cause any unacceptable damage nor interfere with the
function of the structure.
Foundations may be broadly classified into two categories: i) Shallow foundations,
ii) Deep foundations. The distinction between a shallow foundation and a deep foundation
is generally made according to Terzaghis criterion. According to which, a foundation is
termed as shallow if it is laid at a depth (the depth of foundation, D, is the vertical distance
between the base of the foundation and the ground surface) equal to or less than its width.
The bearing capacity of shallow foundation will be presented here.
23
qnult = qult - D
where
(2.1)
located between the zones and are zones of radial shear. One set of lines of the shear
24
patterns in these zones radiates from the outer edges of the base of the footing. The
curved surfaces of sliding de and de1 in Fig.2.1 are logarithmic spirals. The Dotted lines on
the right hand side of the central line indicate the boundaries of the zones and at the
instant of failure and the solid lines represent these boundaries when the foundation sinks
into the soil. The soil in zone spreads in the horizontal direction, while the soil in zone
is compressed laterally.
45+
f
45-
2
2
f1
e1
d
Fig. 2.1 Failure zones below a footing with smooth base
If the base of the footing is rough, which is the usual case in practice, the failure zones
are as sketched in Fig. 2.2. Because of the friction and adhesion between base of the
footing and the soil, the soil in zone I cannot expand laterally and essentially remains in
elastic state and acts as a part of the footing. The inclination of this wedge with the
horizontal is equal to the angle of internal friction of the soil. Zone and are similar to
the corresponding zones in case of a footing with smooth base.
Qult
45-
f1
e1
25
B
Qult
45-
Ca
Ca
c
Pp
Pp
26
The equilibrium of the mass of soil located within the zone of elastic equilibrium
requires that the sum of all vertical forces should be equal to zero.
That is
Qult 2 Pp 2 Ca sin = 0
Qult =2 Pp + 2 Ca sin
ac=bc =
Ca =
where
B
2 cos
C B
2 cos
Ca = Cohesive force
C = Unit cohesion
Qult = 2 Pp + 2
C B
sin
2 cos
= 2 Pp + B.C. tan
In the above equation total passive earth pressure Pp is composed of the following: i. P'p, passive earth pressure because of weights of the wedges acfg and bcde. These
are computed by considering the stability of the wedges and assuming C=0, D = 0,
P'p acts at one-third distance from c along ac and bc.
ii. Pc, passive earth pressure because of cohesive force only. This is computed on the
assumption that = 0, D = 0, It acts at middle of ac and bc.
iii. Pq, passive earth pressure because of surcharge; it is computed by considering
= B 2 P ' P + 2 PC +
+ C tan
B
B
B
Let
2 PC
+ C tan = N C .C
B
27
2P'P
B
= N .
B
2
2 PQ
B
= N q .D
Then
Qult = B (CNc + BN + D Nq)
qult =
For strip footing,
Qult
A
A = Bx1
qult = CNc + BN + D Nq
Where
(2.2)
Friction
(2.3)
Surcharge
Nc, N ,Nq = Non- dimensional bearing capacity factors and they are depend
only on the angle of internal friction of a soil, see Table 2.1
C = Unit Cohesion
28
0
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
34
35
40
45
50
NC
5.7
7.3
9.6
12.9
17.7
25.1
37.2
52.6
57.8
95.7
172.3
347.5
N
0.0
1.0
1.2
2.5
5.0
9.7
19.7
35.0
42.4
100.4
297.5
1153.0
Nq
1.0
1.6
2.7
4.4
7.4
12.5
22.5
36.5
41.4
81.3
173.3
415.1
tan
Nc = (Nq 1) Cot
N = 1.8 ((Nq 1) tan
(2.4)
29
Types of foundation
Shape factor
Continuous (strip)
Sc
1.0
Sq
1.0
1.0
Rectangular
Square
Circular
1.3
1.3
1+0.2B/L
1.2
1.2
1-0.4B/L
0.8
0.6
1+0.2B/L
The first term CNc in the above equation is not affected by the position of the water
table. However, the shear parameter C used in the term should be found out in the
laboratory for the soil under saturated conditions since this state gives the minimum value
for C. The second term BN is not affected if the water table level is at a depth Dw equal
to or greater than B, the width of the footing, from the base of the footing as shown in Fig.
2.4 (a)
30
Since the depth of the shear failure zone below the base of the footing is assumed to be
about equal to the width of the footing the unit weight in the term
BN will not be
affected if Dw B. When the water table level is at the base of the footing, i.e., when Dw=0,
the submerged unit weight b should be used in the term. For all practical purposes the
submerged unit weight, b of the soil may be taken as equal, to half its saturated unit
weight, sat. In such a case the term
table is at the base of the footing. When 0<Dw<B the soil below the base is partly
submerged and partly moist.In such a case, a linear interpolation for the reduction in the
bearing capacity is proposed as follows. The bearing capacity term for the soil below the
base of the footing may be written as
BNRw ..
(2.5)
Where Rw is designated as the correction factor. The unit weight is taken as the
saturated weight. We may write
Rw = 1, when
Dw
1
B
Rw = 0.5, when
When
Dw
=0
B
Rw = 1 +
Dw
D' w
(2.6)
31
Rw = The correction factor for the surcharge soil. The maximum value is one.
Dw = Depth of water table below the ground level limited to the depth equal to D.
Dw '
is shown in Table 2.2
D
The bearing capacity equation, which takes the water table effect, may therefore be
written as,
qult= CNc+ BN Rw+DNq Rw
qult = CNc Scdcic+ q Nq Sqdqiq + B N Sd i RW
(2.7)
(2.8)
The factor Rw in Eqn (2.6) is indirectly accounted for by taking q as the effective
surcharge.
Dw = 0, Dw/D=0, Rw =0.5
D= Dw
Dw/B =0
Rw =0.5
Dw = 0
D=Dw, Dw/D=1,Rw =1
Dw= B
Dw/B =1, Rw =1
32
Table 2.2 Water Table Correction Factors for the Second and Third Terms of Bearing
Capacity Equation.
Dw/B
Rw
Dw/D
Rw
0.5
0.5
0.2
0.6
0.2
0.6
0.4
0.7
0.4
0.7
0.6
0.8
0.6
0.8
0.8
0.9
0.8
0.9
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
a) Cohesionless Soil
If the soil on which the footing is to rest is cohesionless, then the cohesion C is zero.
Substituting this in Eqn. 2.3, the ultimate bearing capacity equation for cohesionless soils
reduce to
qult = k2 1 N B + Nq 2 D
(2.9)
From the above equation it can be seen that ultimate bearing capacity of sands
depends upon: i. Unit weight: - As it was explained in the previous section, if the water table is close
to the ground surface, the effective unit weight is reduced and hence the ultimate
bearing capacity is affected.
ii. Width of footing: - Ultimate bearing capacity increases with width of footing.
iii. Depth of footing: - Ultimate bearing capacity increase with depth of footing.
iv. Relative density: - a sand with greater relative density exhibits larger angle of
internal friction. It will be observed from Table 2.1 that the bearing capacity factors
N and Nq increase with . Hence dense sands have greater bearing capacity.
33
b) Cohesive Soil
If the soil on which the footing is to rest is cohesive and = 0,
(2.10)
The ultimate bearing capacity of clays depends on the value of cohesion, and depth of
footing. The former is considerably more important than the later.
tan = tan
Where C and are the actual values. The ultimate bearing capacity is such a case is
given by
qult = K1NcC +K2 1 N B + Nq 2D
where
Nc, N and Nq are the bearing capacity factors for local shear failure.
(2.11)
34
Example 2.1
0
What will be the gross and net safe bearing capacity of sand having = 36 and
3
Solution
0
For = 36 , N= 43 and Nq = 47
a) Strip footing
qult = k2BN + D Nq
qall =
1
(K2 BN + DNq)
F.S
= (0.5x18x1x43+18x1x47)
2
= 411 kN/m
= 385.2 kN/m
c) Circular footing
qall = (0.6x18x0.5x43+18x1x47)
= 359.4 kN/m
35
Example 2.2
For the soil of example 2.1 and a strip footing having width and depth of 1m, what will
be the net allowable bearing capacity under the following conditions of ground water table?
a. Water table touching the base of the foundation
b. Water table touching the ground surface
3
Saturated unit weight of the soil is 21.3 kN/m . The soil is assumed to remain saturated
below ground surface.
Solution
qall =
1
(0.51 BN + 2DNq)
F.S
= 414.68 kN/m
Example 2.3
A square column rests 1.5m below the ground surface. The total load transmitted by the
footing is 2000 kN. The water table is located at the base of the footing. Assuming a
3
saturated unit weight of sand as 22 kN/m and angle of internal friction of 33 , find a
suitable size of the footing for the above condition. Take F.S = 3
Solution
qall =
For square footing,
0
For = 33 ,
1
(k2 BN + DNq)
F.S
k2 = 0.4
N = 32, Nq = 32
2 = 22 kN/m
qall = [ 0.4x11x32xB+22x1.5x32]
qall = [ 140.8B+1056]
Q
qall
B2
2000
B
1
[140.8B+ 1056]
3
3
B = 2.15 m
36
37
3. FOUNDATION
3.1 INTRODUCTION
The lowest artificially built part of a structure which transmits the load of the structure to
the ground is called foundation.
The foundation of a structure is always constructed below ground level so as to
increase the lateral stability of the structure. It includes the portion of the structure below
ground level and other artificial arrangements in the form of concrete block, grillage, raft,
piles etc. at its base so as to provide a firm and level surface for transmitting the load of the
structure on a large area of the soil lying underneath.
38
A
Plan
C
a
Column
Footing
Column
Column
Footing
Pedestal
Footing
D
b
Section A-A
Single spread footing
Plan
Plan
D
b
Section C-C
Stepped spread footing
b
Section D-D
Sloped spread footing
39
A
C
A
b
b1
b2
a
Plan
a
Plan
Columns
Columns
Footing
Footing
D
D
a
Section A.A
Combined footing (rectangular)
Section C.C
Combined footing (trapezoidal)
40
A
a2
a1
b1
b2
Strap beam
D2
D1
b1
b2
Section A-A
Property line
A
C
Wall
Plan
Plan
Footing
Wall
Column
Footing
D
b
b
Section A.A
Wall on footing
Section C-C
Columns on footing
Fig. 3. 4 Continuous or wall footing
41
Raft Foundation:- A raft or mat is a combined footing that covers the entire area
beneath a structure and supports all the columns. When the allowable soil pressure is low
or the structure loads are heavy, the use of spread footings would cover more than one-half
of the area, and it may prove more economical to use raft foundation. It is also used where
the soil mass contains compressible layers so that the differential settlement would be
difficult to control the raft tends to bridge over the erratic deposits and eliminates the
differential settlement.
42
Pile Foundations
A foundation supported on piles is called a pile foundation
Soft
material
Rock
Fig. 3.6 Pile foundation.
Pile foundation is suitable under the following situations
a) When the soil is very soft and solid base is not available at a reasonable depth to
keep the bearing power within safe limits.
b) When shallow foundations are very expensive
c) When the building is a very high and carrying heavy concentrated load.
Classification of Piles
Piles are generally classified into the following categories according to
1. the mode of transfer of load
2. the use
3. composition or material of construction.
4. the method of construction
Frictional soil
Soft soil
Hard
strata
End -bearing pile
43
Relatively
soft material
Frictional pile
Relatively hard
stratum
Combined end- bearing and
friction pile
44
Straight bored
Single bulb
construction of pile
ii. The piles can not be constructed under water, and
iii. It is not possible to have a proper control over the composition and design of
these piles.
45
c. Sand Piles: - The piles consisting of sand filled in boreholes are called sand
piles. These piles are formed by digging holes. The holes are then filled sand and
compacted. Top of the sand pile is covered with concrete to prevent the sand to come
upwards due to lateral pressure. Sand piles are used occasionally for taking light
loads. They are not suitable in regions subjected to frequent earthquakes.
d. Steel Piles: - The piles consisting of a steel section are called steel piles. These
piles are useful where driving conditions are difficult and other types of piles are not
suitable. Steel piles are usually H shapes or pipe piles. H-piles are proportioned to
withstand large impact stresses during hard driving. Pipe piles fitted with conical cost
iron shoes are driven in the ground and then hollow space is filled with concrete.
e. Composite Piles: - A composite pile is formed when it is a combination either of
a bored pile and a drive pile or of driven piles of two different materials. They are
suitable where the upper part of a pile to project above the water table. They are
economical and easy to construct.
Choice of pile
Driven pile
or cast in situ pile
46
Remarks
Develops point
bearing and friction
resistance
Improves bearing
capacity
Embed pile about 1m
inside hard stratum
Friction pile
Short cast
in-situ pile with
enlarged base
Choice of piles
Cast in-situ pile
Driven pile
Remarks
Cause less damage to
existing building
Easier to install and
also cheaper
Pile Cap
The main function of pile cap is to transfer loads from a column or wall to an underlying
group of piles. To ensure stability against lateral forces, a pile cap must include at least
three piles; otherwise it should be connected by the beams to adjacent caps.
In general, pile caps should be arranged in such a manner that the centroid of pile
group coincides with the line of action of load, to ensure that all piles carry an equal load
and avoid tilting of group in compressible bearing stratum.
50cm
15cm
(Embedded length)
30cm
47
- Weight of structure
- All material permanently attached to structure
- Static earth pressure acting permanently against the
structure below ground surface.
- Water pressure acting laterally against basement walls and
vertically against slab.
b) Live load:- temporary loads expected to superimpose on the structure during its
useful life.
c) Wind load:- lateral load coming from the action of wind. Local building
provide magnitude of design wind pressure.
codes
48
d) Earth-quake load:- lateral load coming from earth quake motion. The
total
lateral force (base shear) at the base of a structure is evaluated in accordance with
local building code.
e) Dynamic load:- load coming from a vibrating object (machinery). In such case,
separate foundation should be provided. The impact effect of such loads should be
considered in design.
b.
c.
49
4.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter deals with the economical and safe design of the common types of shallow
foundations. The main foundation types that are considered here are: isolated or spread
footings, combined footings, strap or cantilever footings and mat or raft foundations.
Shallow foundations are structural members that are used to transfer safely to the
ground the dead load of the superstructure and all external forces acting upon it. The type
and magnitude of the loading will usually be furnished by the engineer design the
superstructure. It is up to the foundation engineer to collect all the information regarding the
purpose of the superstructure, the material that will be used in its construction, its sensitivity
to settlements in general and to differential settlement in particular and all other pertinent
information that may influence the successful selection and execution of the foundation
design. The foundation engineer should also select the soil stratum that most suitable for
the support of the superstructure.
The design of shallow foundations is based on the assumption that they are rigid so that
the variation of pressure under the foundations will be linear. The distribution of pressure
will be uniform if the centroid of the foundation coincides with the resultant of the applied
loads. The requirements in design of foundations are:
1. The pressure on the soil should not exceed the bearing capacity of the soil.
2. The settlement of the structure should be within the permissible limits. Further
there should be no differential settlement.
In order to proportion shallow foundations one should either know the presumptive
allowable soil pressure as dictated by prevalent code or know the appropriate strength
parameters of the soil, i.e., the angle of internal friction, , and cohesion, C.
50
Description
Compactness**
Presumed
Ground
or
Design Bearing
Type
Consistency***
Resistance
Remarks
(kPa)
Massively crystalline igneous and
metamorphic
rock
Hard
and
granite, sound
basalt, gneiss)
5600
Foliated metamorphic rock (slate, Medium
and sound
schist)
hard
hard 2800
These
values
and sound
are
based on the
Weathered or broken-rock (soft Soft
2800
assumptions
that
limestone)
the
foundations
Soft
Soft shale
1400
are
carried
down
Decomposed
rock
to
to
unweathered
be
850
rock
Dense
560
Width
cohesive
Medium dense
420
foundation
soils
Loose
280
Non-
than 1m
of
51
Dense
420
Medium dense
280
Ground
Loose
140
water
level
assumed to
be depth not
less than B
below
the
base of the
foundation.
Cohesive
Silt
soils
Clay
Hard
280
Stiff
200
Medium stiff
140
Soft
70
Hard
420
Stiff
280
Medium stiff
140
Soft
70
Very soft
Not applicable
* The given design bearing values do not include the effect of the depth of embedment
of the foundation.
** Compactness: dense: N> 30
medium dense: N is 10 to 30
loose: N< 10, where N is standard penetration value
*** Consistency: hard: qu > 400kPa
stiff: qu = 100 to 200kPa
medium stiff qu = 50 to 100kPa
soft: qu = 25 to 50 kPa, where qu is unconfined compressive strength
52
Vf = Af
-----------------------------------------------------------
(4.1)
53
The actual sustained load on the footing may be related to the ultimate load
Vf =p -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- -
(4.2)
b
b
a
ea
eb
p = Af
--------------------------------------------------------------------------
(4.3)
-------------------------------------------------------------------------
(4.4)
P
A =
f
From Eqn. (4.4) one easily determines the required area since all the quantities on the
right hand side of the equation are known.
The ultimate bearing capacity, f , may be determined from the following equation
= CNc Scdcic+ b
N Sd i + q Nq Sqdqiq
--------------------- (4.5)
54
Where
qult = Ultimate bearing capacity of footing,
C = Cohesion,
q = Effective surcharge at the base level of the footing.
(4.6)
Vp = 0.5fctd ( 1+50e)
(MPa)
ex . ey 0.008
e =
(MN)
Ii . Diagonal Tension
as
0.02
bwd
(MN)
ld =
f yd
(cm)
4 f bd
f yd =
f yk
f ctd =
0.35 f ck
; f bd = f ctd
55
56
for footings on sloping sites, minimum depth of footing should be 60cm and
90cm below ground surface on rocky and soil formations, respectively.
57
b +d
b
a +d
a
Critical
section
P
d/2
d/2
Critical
section
d
Average soil
pressure,
b
Section A-A
Fig. 4.2 Critical section for punching shear
From the figure it is apparent the concrete shear resistance along the perimeter would
be
2( a +d + b+ d) dVup
(4.7)
From equilibrium consideration, Eqn. (4.7) and Eqn. (4.8) should be equal
2( a +d + b+ d) dVup =
(4.8)
COTM442-
58
Foundation
2a' dVup + 2b' dVup + 4d 2Vup + d 2 + a' d + b' d = (ab a' b')
d (2a'Vup + 2b'Vup + a' + b' ) + d 2 (4Vup + ) = (ab a' b')
d 2 (4Vup + ) + d (2Vup (a'+b' ) + (a'+b' )) = (ab a' b')
(4.10)
In the above equations, all quantities with the exception of d are known. By solving one
of the equations the effective depth necessary to sustain the punching shear may be
determined.
ii)
The selected depth using the punching shear criterion may not be adequate to
withstand the diagonal tension developed. Hence one should also check the safety against
diagonal tension. The critical sections that should be considered are given in Fig. 4.3 .
COTM442-
59
Foundation
b
C
D
a
d
Critical
section
C
Critical
section
Average soil
pressure,
Section B-B
(4.11)
(4.12)
VC C
ad
VD D
v D-D =
.
bd
v C-C =
(4.13)
(4.14)
These calculated actual shear stresses should be compared with allowable stress.
COTM 442-Foundations
60
Critical sections
varies according
to the type of
column as given
in a,b and c
b
Column
Concrete
Column
a)
Critical
section
d
b
ld
Available
embedment length
COTM 442-Foundations
Masonry
column
b)
Critical
section
d
X x/2
ld
Available
embedment length
Steel
column
Base plate
X
c)
61
x/2
Critical
section
d
ld
b
Available
embedment length
Fig. 4.4 Critical sections for moments
Flexural Reinforcement
1. Distribution: In one-way footings and two-way square footings, reinforcement shall be
distributed uniformly across the entire width of footing.
2. In two-way rectangular footings, reinforcement shall be distributed as follows:
a) Reinforcement in long direction shall be distributed uniformly across the entire width of
footing
b) For reinforcement in the short direction, a portion of the total reinforcement given by
Eqn.(4.15) shall be distributed uniformly over a band width ( centered on center line of
column or pedestal) equal to the length of the short side of footing. The reminder of the
reinforcement required in the short direction shall be distributed uniformly out side the center
band width of the footing.
AAU,Faculty of Technology, Department of COTM
COTM 442-Foundations
62
(4.15)
ld =
f yd
4 f bd
Concrete cast directly against the earth, the minimum cover should be greater than
75mm
Concrete cast against prepared ground (including blinding) the minimum cover should
be greater than 40mm.
Spacing of reinforcement
The clear horizontal and vertical distance between bars shall be at least equal to the largest of
the following values: (EBCS2-1995)
a)
20mm
b)
c)
The spacing between main bars for slabs shall not exceed the smaller of 2h or 350mm
The spacing between secondary bars shall not exceed 400mm
COTM 442-Foundations
63
Examples
4.1 Determine the dimensions of a square footing necessary to sustain an axial column load of
850kN as shown in Fig. below, if
a) an allowable presumptive bearing pressure of 150kN/m2 is used.
b) Cu = 40 kN/m2 ; C = 7.5 kN/m2 ; =22.50
P=850kN
= 19.1kN/m3
2m
GWL
B
Solution
a) Using presumptive value
A=
as
850
= 5.67m 2 = B 2
150
= 5.1Cu Sc dc ic+ q Sq dq iq
Shape factors
Sc = 1.2, Sq = 1
Depth factors
dc = (1+0.4(2/B)) , dq = 1
Load inclination factors
ic = 1
, iq = 1
COTM 442-Foundations
Hence
A=
(850)2
= B2
253 + 195.84 / B
Sq = 1+ tan = 1.41
Depth factors
dc = 1+ 0.4 (2 / B)=1+0.8/B
d = 1
dq = 1+2 tan 22.5(1-sin22.5)2(Df / B) =1+0.63/B
Load inclination factors
ic = 1, i= 1 , iq = 1
Hence
A f = P
2
B =
850 * 2
635.67 + 433.18 + 18.62 B
B
64
COTM 442-Foundations
P
M
l2
b
30
50
l1
65
COTM 442-Foundations
Solution
Size of footing
Let l1 = l2
Then
a 50 b 30
=
a b = 50 30 = 20cm = 0.2m
2
2
Eccentricity, ea =
M 250
=
= 0.25m
P 1000
Contact pressure
P
M
min
max =
400 =
max
P 6ea P 6ea
1 +
= 1 +
A
a ab
a
1000
6 * 0.25
1 +
(0.2 + b )b (0.2 + b )
400(0.20b + b 2 ) = 1000 +
1500
(0.2 + b )
66
COTM 442-Foundations
Then a = b+0.20m = 2.20m
max =
1000 6 * 0.25
2
1 +
= 382.23kN / m < all
(2.2 )(2 )
(2.2 )
ok
min =
1000 6 * 0.25
2
1
= 72.31kN / m > 0
(2.2 )(2 )
(2.2 )
ok
Thickness of footing
i, Wide beam shear
P
M
X = 0.85m
1.35m
72.31kN/m2
382.23kN/m2
1
Contact stress at distance d from the face of the column,
= 72.31 +
(382.23 72.31)(1.35 + d )
2.20
= 262.48 + 140.87d
67
COTM 442-Foundations
1 =
max +
0.85 d )
V
bd
68
(
274 262.49d 70.44d 2 )2
600 =
2*d
= 0.008
COTM 442-Foundations
P
M
1.55m
0.65m d /2
d /2
0.65m
382.23kN/m2
72.31kN/m2
1
1 = 72.31 +
Punching stress,
V
590.92
=
= 461.66kN / m 2 < 700kPa ok
b p d 2(0.90 + 0.7)0.40
69
COTM 442-Foundations
Bending Moment
M
1.35m
0.85m
382.23kN/m2
72.31kN/m2
= 72.31 +
1
2
1
2 = (0.85)(262.49) = 223.12kN / m
2
0.85
2
M = 1 (0.85) + 2 (
) b
2
3
0.85
2
M = 0.32 f cd bd 2
= 0.32 11.33 10 3 1.0 (0.4 ) = 1450 .24 kN m / m
2
Calculation of reinforcement
Long direction
70
COTM 442-Foundations
f cd
f yd
2M
1 1
f cd bd 2
2 123 .69
1
1
= 0 .0031 > min
2
11 .33 10 3 1 .0 (0 .4 )
As = bd = 0 .0031 100 40 = 12 .4 cm 2 / m
11 .33
260 .87
use 16
Short direction
1.15m
0.85m
+ min
avg = max
2
avg =
382.23 + 72.31
= 227.27kN / m2
2
71
COTM 442-Foundations
0 . 85
M = 1 (
) a
2
0 . 85
M = 227 . 27 (
2
72
) 1 = 96 . 59 kN m / m
2M
1 1
f cd bd 2
11.33
2 96.59
1
1
= 0.0026 > min
=
2
260.87
11.33 103 1.0 (0.384 )
As = bd = 0.0026 100 38.4 = 9.98cm 2 / m
f cd
f yd
spacing =
Use 16c/c20cm
Since there is no much difference between a and b, distribute these reinforcement uniformly.
Development length
ld =
f yd =
f yk
f ctd =
f yd
4 f bd
s = 260.87 MPa
0 . 35
f ck
; f bd = f ctd
0 . 35 20
= 1MPa
1 .5
f yd
1.6 260.87
ld =
=
= 104.35cm
4 fbd
4 1
ldavailable = 85cm < ld , bend the bars upward with a length of 30cm
COTM 442-Foundations
4.3
73
Combined Footing
a+d/2
a+d/2
L
COTM 442-Foundations
74
d) Design procedure
i) determine length of footing (L) in such a way that the center of gravity(c.g.)of footing
area coincides that of the c.g. of loads
i.e., L = 2x
ii) determine the width of footing(B) such that the allowable soil pressure is not
exceeded
i.e.,
B=
P
L all
iii) determine and draw shear force and bending moment diagrams along the length of
the footing
iv) calculate depth of footing
v) calculate steel reinforcement for bending moment requirement
B1
c.g
B2
L
L
COTM 442-Foundations
75
A=
all
B + B2
A= 1
L
2
ii) the c.g. of footing are coincides that of column loads. The distance to
the c.g. of trapezoidal footing x is calculated from
X '=
L 2 B2 + B1
3 B2 + B1
2) determine and draw shear force and bending moment diagrams along the length of
the footing. In this case, the shear force and bending moment diagrams are 2nd degree
and 3rd degree curves, respectively.
3) calculate depth of footing
4) calculate steel reinforcement for bending moment requirement
COTM 442-Foundations
76
strap is a pure flexural member and does not take soil reaction. (To confirm with this,
strap is constructed slightly above soil or soil under strap is loosened).
a1
a2
strap
b1
b2
a
XC
P1
WS
XS
a1
P2
a2
a1
a/2 e
a2
XR
R2
R
1. a) Assume1 a1 and establish the eccentricity, e of the soil reaction force R1.
a/2
a1 a '
2
e = XC X R
e=
COTM 442-Foundations
77
b) Determine the magnitude of the soil reaction force by taking moments about R2.
R1 = P1
Xc
X
+ Ws s
XR
XR
In this equation the weight of the strap, Ws, may be neglected if the strap is relatively short.
c) Determine the reaction R2 from equilibrium consideration
R2 = P1 + P2 + Ws R1
2. Determine sizes of footings using known values of R1, R2 and all.
b1 =
R1
a1 * a1
b2 =
R2
a 2 * a2
b2 = a2 =
R2
a2
COTM 442-Foundations
78
7. Design strap as flexural member for the shear and moment obtained above.
b1
b2
P1
XC
WS
XS
a1
P2
a2
a1
a/2
a2
XR
R1
a/2
R2