Foundation Engineering 1

1. SOIL EXPLORATION

1.1 PURPOSE OF EXPLORATION

The purpose of soil exploration is to find out strength characteristics of the sub-soil over which
the structure has to be built. Soil characteristics vary both with respect to depth from the ground
surface and stretch in the horizontal direction. It is, therefore, the prime objective of soil exploration
for a building, bridge or other civil Engineering works, to analyze the nature of soil in all respects.

The main purposes of soil exploration are: -

a. Selection of alternative construction sites or the choice of the most economical sites.
b. Selection of alternative types or depth of foundation
c. Selection of alternative methods of construction.
d. Evaluation of the safety of existing structure.
e. Location and selection of construction materials.

The soil exploration should provide the following data: -

1. Soil parameters and properties of different layers (e.g. for classification, bearing capacity
or settlement calculation)
2. Thickness of soil layers and depth to bedrock (stratification of soil)
3. Location of ground water level

1.2 PLANNING AN EXPLORATION PROGRAM

The planning of a program for soil exploration depends upon

i. The nature of sub-soil
ii. The type of structure
iii. The importance of structure

The soil engineer should constantly keep in mind, when planning the exploration program, the
purpose of the program and the relative costs involved. Normally, the cost involved in the soil
exploration is a function of the total cost of the project. It is always advisable to spend a little more
 Foundation Engineering 2
on soil investigation to understand clearly the nature of the soil so that suitable foundation
can be recommended. Often an indication of the extent of an exploration of program can be
estimated from the history of foundations successes and failures in an area are very helpful. Also,
for planning the program, the engineer should be well acquainted with the current methods of soil
boring, sampling and testing and have some idea of the limitations on both the field and laboratory
equipments and methods.

The actual planning of a subsurface exploration program includes some or all of the following
steps: -

I. Assembly of all available information on type and use of the structure, and also of the
general topographic and geological character of the site.
II. Reconnaissance of the area: - This involves inspection of behavior of adjacent
structures, rock outcrops, cuts, etc.
III. A preliminary site investigation: - This is usually in the form of a few borings or a test pit
to establish the types of materials, Stratification of the soil, and possibly the location of the
ground water level. For small projects this step may be sufficient to establish foundation
criteria, in which case the exploration program is finished.
IV. A detailed site investigation: - For complex projects or where the soil is of poor quality
and/or erratic, a more detailed investigation may be undertaken this may involve sinking
several boreholes, taking soil samples for laboratory investigations, conducting sounding
and other field tests.

1.3 METHODS OF EXPLORATION

Methods of determining the stratification and engineering characteristics of sub-surface are

 Test pits
 Boring and sampling
 Field tests
 Geophysical methods
 Laboratory tests
 Foundation Engineering 3
1.3.1 Test Pits

The simplest and cheapest method of shallow soil exploration is to sink test pit to depths of 3 to
4 m. The use of Test pits enables the in-situ soil conditions to be examined visually, thus the
boundaries between strata and the nature of any macro-fabric can be accurately determined. It is
relatively easy to obtain disturbed or undisturbed soil samples: in cohesive soils block samples can
be cut by hand from the bottom of the pit and tube samples can be obtained from the sides of the
pit.

1.3.2 Soil Boring and Sampling

1.3.2.1 Soil Boring

This is the most widely used method. It provides samples from shallow to deeper depths for
visual inspection as well as laboratory tests. The most commonly used methods of boring are: -
 Auger boring
 Wash boring
 Percussion drilling
 Rotary drilling
a) Auger boring: - Operated by hand or by power. Hand operated augers, = 15 to 20cm, are
of two types. Post-hole and helical augers. They are used for shallow borings depth 3 to 7.5m in
soils, which possess sufficient cohesion to sand unsupported. This boring method provides highly
disturbed soil samples. Power operated augers (helical) can be used to great depths, even to 30m,
and used in almost all types of soils above water table.

Fig.1.1 Hand Augers a) helical and b) post hole

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b) Wash boring: - Power operated. Hole is advanced by chopping, twisting action of a
light chopping bit and jetting action of drilling fluid, usually water, under pressure. Loosened soil
particles raise as suspended particles through the annular space between casing and drill rod. This
method best suits in sandy and clayey soils and not in very hard soil strata (i.e. boulders) and rocks.
Depth of boring could be up to 60m or more. Changes in soil strata are indicated by changes in the
rate of progress of boring, examination of out coming slurry and cutting in the slurry. Undisturbed
samples whenever needed can be obtained by use of proper samplers.

Fig.1.2 Wash boring

c) Percussion drilling: - Power operated. Hole is advanced by repeated blows of a heavy

chisel into the bottom of the hole. The resulting slurry formed at bottom of borehole is removed by
bailer or sand pump. Because of the deep disturbance of the soil this method of boring is not
favored. Casing is generally required. Maximum depth of boring is 60m.
 Foundation Engineering 5
d) Rotary drilling: - Power operated. Hole is advanced by a rapidly rotating bit which
cuts the material at the bottom of the hole into small particles which are removed by circulating
fluids, which may be water, bentonite slurry or mud slurry. This is the most rapid method for
penetrating highly resistant materials (e.g. bed rock). In this method undisturbed samples can be
obtained at desired depths by using suitable samplers. Maximum depth of drilling is 80 to 150m.

1.3.2 Soil Sampling

There are two main types of soil samples which can be recovered from bore holes or trial pits.
These are: - Disturbed and Undisturbed samples.

a) Disturbed Samples: - are samples where the structure of the natural soil has been disturbed
to a considerable degree by the action of the boring tolls or excavation equipment. Disturbed
samples, however, need to be truly representative of the stratum. Disturbed samples are
satisfactory for performing classification tests such as, sieve analysis, Atterberg limits etc.

b) Undisturbed Samples: - are samples, which represent as closely as is practicable, the true
in-situ structure and water content of the soil. Undisturbed samples are required for determining
reliable information on the shearing resistance and stress-deformation characteristics of a deposit.
Undisturbed samples in cohesionless deposits are extremely difficult to obtain. Because of this the
above characteristics are provided by field tests.

Types of Samplers

It is virtually impossible to obtain totally undisturbed samples, especially from moderate to deep
holes. The process of boring, driving the coring too, raising and withdrawing the coring tool and
extruding the sample from the coring tool, all conspire to cause some disturbance. In addition,
samples taken from holes may tend to swell as a result of stress relief. Samples should be
taken only from a newly- drilled or newly extended hole, with care being taken to avoid contact with
water. As soon as they are brought to the surface, core tubes should be labeled inside and outside,
the ends sealed with wax and capped, and then stored away from extremes of heat or cold and
vibration. Sample disturbance may be reduced by using an appropriate type of sample tube. The
types of tube samplers in common use are described below:
 Foundation Engineering 6
a) Split Spoon Sampler: - A standard split spoon sampler has a 2“ outside diameter,
1⅜″ inside diameter tube, 18 to 24” long. The tube is split longitudinally in the middle. While the
sample is being taken, the two halves of the spoon are held together at the ends by short pieces of
threaded pipe, one of which couples, it to the drill rod and the other serves as the cutting edge. The
sampler is forced or driven into the soil to obtain a sample and is then removed from the hole. With
these sampler-disturbed samples of soft rock, cohesive and cohesionless soils are obtained. This
sampler is used for making standard penetration test.

b) Thin-Walled Tube Sampler: - It is a thin walled seamless brass or steel tubing, with common
out side diameter of 2 to 3” and length of 30 to 36”. The lower end is beveled to form a cutting edge
and it can be slightly tapered to reduce the wall friction and the upper end fitted for attachment to
the drill rod. In order to take sample the sampler is pushed downward into the soil by static force
instead of being driven by a hammer. This sampler is used to take undisturbed samples from
cohesive soils.

c) Piston Samplers: - They are very thin tube samplers with pistons fitted at their cutting ends.
While taking sample, the piston is held in positions and the tube pushed down. The piston aids the
retention of the soil in the tube during withdrawal. Piston samples provide best-undisturbed samples
of cohesive soils.

1.4 FIELD [IN-SITU] TESTS

These tests are valuable means of determining the relative densities; shear strengths and
bearing capacities of soils directly without disturbing effects of boring and sampling.

The most commonly used field tests are; -

 Penetration or sounding tests
 Vane shear test
 Plate loading test
 Pile loading test
 Foundation Engineering 7
1.4.1 Penetration Tests

Penetration tests are the most useful tests. They are conducted mainly to get information on the
relative density of soils with little or no cohesion. The tests are based on the fact that the relative
density of a soil stratum is directly proportional to the resistance of the soil against the penetration of
the drive point. From this, correlations between values of penetration resistance versus angle of
internal friction (), bearing pressure, density and modulus of compressibility have been developed.
Penetration tests are classified as static and dynamic penetration tests.

a) Static Penetration Tests.

1) Swedish Weight Sounding Test: -This method of testing is widely used in Scandinavia and
here in Ethiopia. The test consists of weights: 5,10,10.25,25, and 25kgs(=100 kg), screw point,
driving rod ( 20 to 22 mm), made up of 100cm parts, and a rotating handle. The depth of
penetration is measured for each loading after which the number of half-turns is counted by
100Kg.load; the penetration depth is then measured after 25 half-turns. If the penetration after 25
half-turns is less than 5cm the rod is unloaded and driven down by a 5 to 6kg hammer.

25
100 75 50 HT/20cm penetration
Depth

Fig. 1.3 Swedish weight sounding equipment, penetration diagram

 Foundation Engineering 8
The correlation between density of frictional soils and consistency of cohesive soils and
ht/m (half-turns per meter) are as given below.
Frictional Soils Density (kN/m3)
Very loose <50ht/m 11-16
Loose 50 -150ht/m 14.5 - 18.5
Medium 150 - 300ht/m 17.5 - 21
Dense 300 - 500ht/m 17.5 - 22.5
Very dense > 500ht/m 21 - 24

Cohesive Soils Density (kN/m3)

Soft 0 ht/m 16 –19
Firm 0 – 100 ht/m 17.5 – 21
Stiff 100-200 ht/m 19 – 22.5
Very stiff 200 - 500 ht/m
Hard >500 ht/m

2) Static Cone Penetration Test (Dutch Cone Penetrometer Test): -This method is widely
used in Europe. The test consists of a cone (apex angle 600, overall diameter 35.7mm, end area
10cm2, rods (⅝” ), casing pipe ( ¾”). The rod is pushed hydraulically into the ground at a rate of
10mm/sec. The pressure exerted on the rod is measured with a proving ring, manometer or a strain
gauge. Readings are usually taken every 20cm. From this test point resistance and skin frictional
resistance can be determined separately.
 The cone is 1st pushed into the ground. The force required to push the cone 20cm into the
soil is recorded.
 The casing pipe is then advanced to join the cone. The force required to push the pipe is
also recorded.
 The readings thus taken are plotted against depth.

The correlation between the cone (point) resistance and relative density of frictional soils are
given in Table 1.1
Foundation Engineering 9
Table 1.1 Correlations between Cone (Point) Resistance and Relative Density of
Frictional Soils
Relative Density Point Resistance (kN/m2)
Very loose soil < 2500
Loose soil 2500 – 5000
Medium dense 5000 – 10,000
Dense 10,000 – 15,000
Very dense > 15,000

Cone resistance (point resistance) in kN/m2

Skin friction
Depth

Point resistance

Casing (skin) resistance in kN/m2

Fig. 1.4 Static cone penetration testing equipment, penetration diagram

 Foundation Engineering 10
- According to Meyerhof:
N = ¼ (Ckd) ……………… (1.1)

where N = Standard penetration number

Ckd = Static Cone resistance (kg/cm2)

For sand, modulus of compressibility (Es) can be estimated from cone resistance from the
following relationship.
ES =3/2( Ckd) ……………………… (1.2)

b) Dynamic Penetration Tests

1) Standard Penetration Test (SPT): -This is the most common of the field tests and measures
the resistance of the soil to dynamic penetration by a 50mm diameter split spoon sampler which is
driven into the soil at the bottom of a borehole (sometimes cased). The sampler is attached to drill
rods and the dynamic driving force is a 63.5kg mass falling through a height of 76cm onto the top of
the rods as shown in Fig.11.5. The sampler is initially driven 15cm below the bottom of the
borehole. It is then further driven 30cm. The number of blows required to drive the last 30cm is
termed as the standard penetration value denoted by N. The standard penetration number has
been correlated to soil characteristics such as: density, angle of shearing resistance, , unconfined
compressive strength, as given in Tables 1.2 and 1.3.

Table 1.2 Correlation between Number of blows (N), Angle of Internal Friction and Relative
Density of Frictional Soils(Terzaghi and Peck).

N 0-4 4 -10 10-30 30 - 50 > 50

 <280 28 -300 30-360 35 - 400 >420
Relative Very loose Loose Medium Dense Very dense
Density
 Foundation Engineering 11
Table 1.3 Correlation between Number of blows (N), Unconfined Compressive Strength
and Consistency of Cohesive Soils. (Terzaghi and Peck).

N 0 -2 2-4 4-8 8 -15 15-30 >30

qu(kN/m2) 0 -25 25 -50 50 -100 100 -200 200-400 >400
Consistency Very soft Soft Medium Stiff Very stiff Hard

RAM 63.5 kg

ANVIL

MOTOR

89mm
CASING

SAMPLER 2 “ (STANDARD)

Fig. 1.5 Standard penetration test (SPT) equipment.

The relationship between  and Dr may be expressed approximately by the following equation
(Meyerhof).
0=30+0.15Dr …………………….. (1.3)
For granular soil, containing more than 5 percent fine sand and silt.

0=30+0.15Dr …………………… (1.4)

For granular soil, containing less than 5 percent fine sand and silt. In the equations D r is
expressed in percent.
 Foundation Engineering 12
Correction to be applied to measured values of SPT

The N. values of SPT as measured in the field may need to be corrected.

i. When SPT is made in fine saturated sands, saturated silty sands, or saturated silts, correction is
usually made for possible build up of pore water pressure. The SPT values, greater than 15 are
modified as follows

N = 15 + ½ (N’ –15) Suggested by Terzaghi and peck

where N= corrected value

N’= actual value

ii. The other type of correction is known as correction for overburden pressure. This correction
is applied only to cohesionless soils (dry, moist or wet). The correction suggested by Gibbs
and Holtz and widely used is as follows.

345' N
N =  2N’, for o’  276 kN/m2
( o '69)
35 N '
o’ = effective overburden pressure in kN/m2 N =  2N’, for o’  28kN/m2
( o '7)

2) Dynamic Cone Penetration Test: - This is another useful test, which is normally used to
determine the relative resistance offered by the different soil layers. The cone is fixed to the bottom
of a rod by pushed fit. The cone is driven into the ground in the same way as a SPT is performed.
The number of blows required to penetrate 30 cms depth is called as Nc value. In the case of
dynamic cone penetration test no borehole is used. Experiments carried out indicate that beyond
about 6m depth, frictional resistance on the rod increases which gives erroneous results for N c
value. The maximum depth suggested for this test is about 6 m. If the test has to be conducted
beyond 6 m depth, one has to use drilling mud (bentonite slurry) under pressure forced through the
pipe and the cone as shown in Fig 11.6. The mud solution coming out of the cone rises above along
the drill rod eliminating thereby the frictional resistance offered by the soil for penetration. The
former method is called as dry method and the latter wet method.
 Foundation Engineering 13

rod

Bore-hole

0
60

Fig. 1.6 Dynamic cone penetration testing equipment.

To judge the consistency of soil from Nc values, the general practice is to convert Nc to N values
of SPT

Nc = N/C …………………………… (1.5)

where
N = blow count for SPT
Nc = blow count for dynamic cone
C = Constant, lies between 0.8 and 1.2 when bentonite is used.
Nc= 1.5N for depths up to 3m
Nc= 1.75N for depths between 3m and 6m

Nc Values need to be corrected for overburden pressure in cohesionless soils like SPT

1.4.2 Vane Shear Test

This test is useful in determining the in-place shear strength of very soft and sensitive clays,
which lose a large part of their strength when even slightly disturbed by the sampling operation. The
strength parameter obtained is consolidated- undrained shear strength, Cu.

In most cases a hole is drilled to the desired depth, where the vane shear test is planned to be
performed and the vane is carefully pushed into the soil. A torque necessary to shear the cylinder
of soil defined by the blades of the vane is applied by rotating the arm of the apparatus with a
constant speed of 0.5 degree/sec. The maximum torque is then measured from which the shearing
strength is determined.
 Foundation Engineering 14
From the measured maximum torque one may estimate the shearing resistance of the
tested clay from the following formula

T
= …………………… (1.6)
 H D3 
 D 2  
 2 12 

where T = Torque
D = Diameter of Vane
H = Height

Since for quick condition  = Cu, one ultimately arrived the in-situ value of cohesion

Fig.1.7 Vane shear test

 Foundation Engineering 15

1.4.3 Plate Loading Test

In this test a gradually increasing static load is applied to the soil through a steel plate, and
readings of the settlement and applied load are recorded, from which a relationship between
bearing pressure and settlement for the soil can be obtained.

Fig. 1.8 shows the arrangement and typical load settlement curve for a plate load test. The test
procedure used for performing the test is as follows:

1. Pit for the test must be at least 5 times the size of the plate.
2. The plate should be properly placed in the soil. In the case of cohesionless soil (to prevent
early displacement of soil under the edges of the plate), the plate must be positioned in cast
in-situ concrete.
3. Loading platform should be properly erected.
4. Loading of the soil is conducted in steps (loading increment is kept constant).
5. Once completion of the test, the plate is unloaded in the same incremental steps (to draw
the expansion curve).

Bearing capacity of non-cohesive soil is determined from settlement consideration. If the

maximum permissible settlement, S, of a footing of width Bf is given, the settlement, Sp, of a plate of

width Bp under the same intensity of loading is given by

Sp (2 Bf ) 2
S …………………… (1.7)
(B f  B p ) 2

Using the value Sp, computed from the above equation, the loading intensity under the footing
could be read from the load settlement curve.

The settlement of footing in clay is normally determined from principles of consolidation.

However from plate load test, the approximate settlement of footing of width B can be determined
using the following expression

Bt
S = Sp …………………………… (1.8)
Bp
Foundation Engineering 16

Dead Weight Load

Loaded platform
Pressure gauge

Hydraulic jack
Short block

Settlement dial gauge

Bp

Bearing pressure (kPa)

Settlement, Sp (cm)

Fig. 1.8 Plate loading test, test result

Limitation of Plate Loading Test

 Plate loading test is of short duration. Hence consolidation settlement does not fully occur
during the test.
 For settlement consideration, its use is restricted to sandy soils, and to partially saturated
or rather unsaturated clayey soils.
 Plate loading test can give very misleading information of the soil is not homogeneous
within the effective depth (depth of stress influence) of the prototype foundation.
 Plate loading test should not recommended in soils which are not homogeneous at least to

depth of 1½ to 2 times the width of the prototype foundation

 Foundation Engineering 17

Pressure
bulb Firm soil

Soft soil

Fig. 1.9 Pressure bulbs for the plate and the actual foundation.

1.4.4 Pile Loading Test

This is the most reliable means for determining the load carrying capacity of a pile. The load
arrangement and testing procedure are more or less similar to the plate-loading test. From the
results of this test the allowable bearing capacity and load- settlement relationship of a group of
friction piles can be estimated.

1.5 GEOPHYSICAL METHODS

These comprise the seismic and resistivity methods. These methods are usually limited to
establishing location of bedrock underlying softer material (by seismic method) or locating gravel or
sand deposits (by resistivity method). The seismic method is based on the fact that sound waves
travel faster through rocks than through soils. The resistivity method makes use of the fact some
soils (e.g. soft clays) have low electrical resistivity than others (e.g. sand or gravel). These methods
are normally employed as preliminary or supplementary to other methods of exploration.

1.6 LABORATORY TESTS

Laboratory tests are useful in providing reliable data for calculating ultimate bearing capacity of
soils, stability and settlement behavior of foundation, and for determining physical characteristics of
soils. Results of laboratory tests should be used in conjunction with borehole records and results of
field test.
The common laboratory tests that concern the foundation engineers are
 Grain size analysis
 Atterberg limits
 Natural moisture content
 Unit weight
 Unconfined compression test
 Direct shear test
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 Triaxial compression test
 Consolidation test
 Compaction test
 Chemical analysis

1.7 GROUND WATER MEASUREMENT

Ground water affects many elements of foundation design and construction. Because of this its
location should be determined in each job with reasonable accuracy.

Water table level can be determined by measuring the depth to the water surface in a borehole.
Water levels in bore holes may take a considerable time to stabilize, this time, known as the
response time, depending on the permeability of the soil. Measurements, therefore, should be taken
at regular intervals until the water level becomes constant.

The depth of water table is measured by lowering a chalk-coated steel tape in the borehole. The
depth can also be measured by lowering the leads of an electrical circuit. As soon as the open ends
of the leads touch the water in the borehole, the circuit is completed. It is indicated by glow of the
indicator lamp.

1.8 DEPTH AND NUMBER OF BORINGS.

1.8.1 Depth of Boring

The depth to which boreholes should be sunk is governed by the depth of soil affected by
foundation bearing pressures. According to Tomlinson the following depths of boreholes for various
foundation conditions may be used.

i. For widely spaced strip of pad foundations, boring depth should be deeper than 1.5 times the
width of the foundation.
ii. For raft foundations, boring depth deeper than 1.5 times width of raft should be used.
iii. For closely spaced strip or pad foundations where there is overlapping of the zones of
pressure, boring depth deeper than 1.5 times width of building should be used.
iv. For group of piled foundation on soil, boring depth should be deeper than 1.5 times width of
pile group, the depth being measured from a depth of two- thirds of the length of the piles.
v. For piled foundation on rock, boring depth should be deeper than 3.0m inside bedrock.
 Foundation Engineering 19
According to Teng, for high ways and airfields minimum depth of boring is 1.5m, but
should be extended below organic soil, fill or compressible layers such as soft clays and silts.

1.8.2 Number of Borings

Boring is an expensive undertaking. One should therefore minimize the number of borings for a
construction in a given site. From experience Teng has suggested the following guideline for
preliminary exploration.

Distance between boring (m) Minimum number

Project Horizontal stratification of soil of boring for each
Uniform Average Erratic structure
Multi-story building 45 30 15 4
One or two story building 60 30 15 3
Bridge piers, abutments, - 30 75 1-2 for each
television towers, etc foundation unit
Highways 300 150 30

1.9 DATA PRESENTATION

The results of borings, samplings, penetration tests and laboratory tests of a site are usually
plotted graphically on a sheet of drawing paper. The graphical presentation should include.

a. A plot plan, showing the location of all boreholes, test pits, etc and their identification
number.
b. A separate plot, showing the soil profile as established from the drillings or test pits
records.
c. Soil profiles along given lines in the ground surface, showing the boundaries between
identifiable soil layers, variation of thickness of firm bottom layer, thickness of soft clay
layers etc.
d. The penetration number, the unconfined compression strength, Atterberg limits, natural
moisture content, and other appropriate laboratory data may be shown on each boring on
the soil profile.
e. The location of ground water table should also be shown on the soil profile.
 Foundation Engineering 20

1.10 SOIL EXPLORATION REPORT

A soil exploration report should contain all available data from bore holes, test pits, field and
laboratory tests and site observation. Most reports have the following contents.

1. Introduction: - Purpose of investigation, type of investigation carried out.

2. General description of the site: - general configuration and surface features of the site.
3. General geology of the area.
4. Description of soil conditions found in bore holes (and test pits)
5. Laboratory test results.
6. Discussion of results of investigation in relation to foundation design and constructions.
7. Conclusion: - recommendations on the type and depth of foundations, allowable bearing
pressure and methods of construction.