Experimental Elasticity 2ed - Searle

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This book should be returned on or before the date
last
marked below.
EXPERIMENTAL
ELASTICITY
A MANUAL FtR THE LABtRATtRY
G.
F.
C.
SEA.RLE,
Sc.19.,
F.R.S.
UNIVERSITY LECTURER IN EXPERIMENTAL PHYSICS
AND
DEMONSTRATOR
IN EXPERIMENTAL PHYSICS
AT THE CAVENDISH LABORATORY
SECtNB EBITI0N
CAMBRIDGE
at the University Press
1933
First Edition 1908
Reprinted
1920
Second Edition 1933
PRINTED IN GREAT BRITAIN
PREFACE
nPHE
-*-
present volume has
its
origin in the manuscript notes
which I have prepared from time
the
students
attending
my
class
to
time
for the use of
in practical physics at the
Cavendish Laboratory. When, in 1890, I was appointed to my

present post of Demonstrator in Experimental Physics, I found
that the then existing text-books of practical physics did not
meet the needs of the students, partly because they did

as a rule, show how the formulae required in the experi-
entirely
not,
mental work are derived from the principles of the subject. The
students themselves added to the difficulty, for their ideas as to
those principles were often indistinct.
some experiments intended

directly
as possible.
I was thus led to devise
to illustrate principles as simply
I also wrote notes explaining
and
how the
necessary formulae are obtained from the principles involved in

those experiments and describing in detail
is to
be conducted.
how the
practical
The students showed very kind
work
appreciation
of these earlier notes and thus I was encouraged to prepare

others
it,
this
work has proved
as opportunities
so interesting that I have continued
have occurred, with the result that at the
present time the students attending
upon these manuscript notes
Many
my practical
class rely
mainly
for the necessary instructions.
of the students have
made almost complete
copies of
some hundreds of pages of manuscript and have perhaps learned
PREFACE
vi
more in that way than by merely reading a printed book containing the same matter. But the plan of using manuscript notes
has numerous disadvantages.
For instance, the limited number
of copies of any one manuscript
makes
more than two or three students
it difficult to
to do the
arrange for
same experiment
at
one time and often prevents the students from preparing themselves beforehand for the experiments assigned to them. There is,
besides, the risk of the loss or the destruction of the manuscripts
For the safety of the manuscripts I have relied on

the consideration of the students and this has hardly ever failed.
themselves.
To throw together into a
small volume the manuscripts dealing
with one branch of physics would seem an easy task. But the result
would hardly be
satisfactory, for
some of the
earlier manuscripts
require revision in the light of later experience, while
many
of the
manuscripts contain mathematical arguments which are repeated

in others of the series. This repetition was necessary for the
practical
working of the
class
but would be intolerable in a book.
For these and other reasons I decided that
it
would be more
satisfactory to rewrite the whole of the manuscripts,
and to arrange
the material, with additions, in the form of a series of small textbooks, in which a fairly full account of the mathematical treatment
should accompany a detailed description of the experimental

work.
To make a
beginning, the present volume
is published and
in
a
be
followed
will
few
months
I
this,
hope,
by a similar volume
on Experimental Optics. I hope, if life and health be given me,
to complete the scheme by writing volumes on Mechanics, on
Electricity
and Magnetism and on Heat and Sound.
The present volume cannot

pleteness.
lay claim to
any
sort of
com-
Its purpose is simply to give the substance of
my
PREFACE
yii
course of instruction in the subject in a form which

to students at the Cavendish Laboratory
The
first
may be
useful
and elsewhere.
chapter contains an account of the elements of the
mathematical theory of
with one or two necessary

In the second chapter will be
elasticity,
propositions in thermodynamics.
found the mathematical solutions of some problems which
of rods and blades
is
make
The uniform bending
their appearance in several experiments.
discussed rather fully, but I was anxious to
make the arguments apply
to small finite curvatures as distin-
guished from merely infinitesimal curvatures. To the preparation

and revision of this chapter, Dr L. N. Q. Filon has contributed
so
much from
his store of expert
knowledge of the mathematical

is almost more his work
theory of elasticity that the chapter
than mine.
The
third chapter contains descriptions of a
number
of ex-
periments together with such necessary mathematical discussions

as are not given in the first
by a
followed
practical
results taken from
perhaps
two chapters.
is
example giving detailed arithmetical
an actual experiment; these examples may
assist students in recording their
Some
Each description
notes bring the book to a close.
own
The
observations.
last of these con-
on practical work in physics; the rest deal mainly with

a few dynamical theorems which experience suggests may be
tains hints
useful to students
who have not
received a mathematical training.
Most of the -apparatus required for the experiments is of a

Though in some cases accuracy would be
simple description.
gained
if
the apparatus had less of the
"
and more of the engineer s workmanship,
home made
"
character
this roughness of the
appliances is not a serious disadvantage to the students
the apparatus at the Cavendish Laboratory,
who use
Those who
after-
PREFACE
Vlll
wards make physics a part of their work, either as teachers or as

investigators, will probably have to struggle on with a good deal
of
"
home made
"
To the
apparatus.
rest,
human
who
distribute them-
a knowledge of
of greater value than an acquaintance with the
wide
selves over very
principles is
fields of
activity,
details of highly finished instruments.
In the design of the apparatus I have often been aided by

Mr W. G. Pye and by Mr F. Lincoln, the past and present instrument makers at the Cavendish Laboratory, and by their assistants.
To
assist those teachers
who may not be
able to construct the
W.
apparatus for themselves, I have authorised Messrs
G.
Pye
Cambridge, to supply apparatus made to my designs.

have
done
I
this because, in some cases, instrument makers, without
and
Co., of
consulting me, have connected
they have made

I owe
my
source of
much
"
improvements
much
attended
my name
"
to the
with apparatus in which
of doubtful value.
generations of students
many
Their never failing enthusiasm has been a

encouragement to me, and the honest work and the
class.
satisfactory progress of the great majority has
I also owe
me
much
unwearying help which
my
given in
many
many ways
for
This volume owes
his
The
been a real reward.
to the kindness of those
as demonstrators during eighteen years,
friends.
who have
much
oldest colleague,
Mr
assisted
especially to the
T. G. Bedford, has
years.
to the generous help rendered
proofs have been read
knowledge of physical
who have
and
and
principles,
me by
by Mr Bedford
of the work of teaching
criticised
the experimental methods described in this book and of the

difficulties of students makes his aid of great value. Dr Alexander
Kussell,
who has had a long
made many
helpful criticisms
experience of students' work, has
upon the
proofs,
Dr
L.
N. G. Filon
PREFACE
has spent
Mr W.
much
C. D.
labour upon the
first
IX
and second chapters, and
Whetham, F.R.S., a former colleague, has given
editorial assistance.
D. C. Jones of Pembroke College, Mr P. D. Innes of

Trinity College and my wife have assisted in preparing the
manuscript for the press, while Mr A. J. Bamford of Emmanuel
Mr
To
College has helped in the revision of the proofs.

as well as to those
who have
aided in minor ways,
my
all these,
thanks are
given.
The following words, from Psalm cxi (v. 2), which are carved on
the gates of the Cavendish Laboratory, shall end this preface:
Magna
opera Domini: exquisita in omnes voluntates
ejus.
G. F. C. S.
August, 1908.
PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION
INa
this edition
detail of
two Notes have been added. Note XI deals with
EXPERIMENT
6.
Note XII
is
devoted to the theory
of the infinitesimal uniform bending of a rod, and it is shown that

Op tends to the limit El as the curvature l/p tends to zero. The
treatment of the uniform bending of rods and blades given in

27 to 38 is more thorough than that given in Note
Chapter II in
XII, for
it
shows what conditions must be
satisfied if
Gp
is
to be a
good approximation to El when the bending is finite but still

small, and it brings out the important distinction between the finite
bending of a rod and the finite bending of a blade. This distinction
is,
in the nature of things, outside the scope of
Nute XII. The
necessarily lengthy and may be found

difficult by students of small experience and perhaps tedious by
those who arc keen to "cover the ground" as fast as possible. It is
theory of Chapter II
is
hoped that Note XII
will
help the beginners and encourage thorn
to read Chapter II.
A few misprints
have been corrected and a few sentences have
been modified.
G. F. C. S.
CAVENDISH LABORATORY,
CAMBRIDGE.
20 September, 1933.
CONTENTS
CHAPTER
ELEMENTARY THEORY OF ELASTICITY

PAGE
SECTION
1
Introduction
Hooke's
Law
Necessity for a theory of elasticity
Action and reaction between two parts of a body
...
3
5
Stress ,\^-
Measurement of
stresses
Hydrostatic pressure
Strain^
9
10
Expansion and compression

Shear \*^~
11
Maximum
12
Results for infinitesimal shears
13
Bulk modulus or volume
14
Rigidity ^.
15
Stresses
shear in actual experiments
elasticity
V~
10
11
16
on the diagonal planes of a sheared cube

Alternative method of producing a shear
17
Young's modulus
....
.
18
Poisson's ratio
Relations between elastic constants
20
Isothermal and adiabatic
21
Ratio of adiabatic to isothermal elasticity

Difference between reciprocals of isothermal and adiabatic
elasticities
14
15
^--
19
22
13
17
t-r*
elasticities
18
....
20
22
25
CONTENTS
Xll
CHAPTER
II
SOLUTIONS OF SOME SIMPLE ELASTIC PROBLEMS

SECTION
23
24
25
26
Practical applications of the theory of elasticity

Principle of Saint- Venant
Dr
Dr
Filou's results for tension
...
PAOB
30
31
32
36
Filon's results for torsion
UNIFORM BENDING OP A ROD

27
28
29
30
Position of the neutral filament
31
Bonding moment
32
33
34
Removal
Introduction
Strain and stress in a uniformly bent rod
Change of
cross-section
of the
due to bending
....
"body
....
forces"
Case of a rod
Case of a blade
38
39
40
46
47
48
49
50
UNIFORM BENDING OF A BLADE

35
36
37
38
....
Introduction
Position of neutral filaments
Bending moment
Change of type of bending
52
54
56
57
UNIFORM TORSION OF A ROUND ROD

39
40
41
Relation between torsional couple and twist

Rods of non-circular section
Practical approximation
58
60
62
UNIFORM TORSION OF A BLADE

42
43
44
45
Introduction
Geometry of a
helicoid
Stresses in a twisted blade
***T
Determination of the torsional couple
.
....
63
63
06
68
CONTENTS
CHAPTER
Xlll
III
EXPERIMENTAL WORK IN ELASTICITY

SECTION
46
71
Introduction
Experiment
Experimental investigation of Hooke's law

for copper
1.
72
47
Introduction
48
49
50
Apparatus
Experiments on loading and unloading a copper wire
Graphical representation of deviations from Hooke's law
51
Practical example
Êxperiment
52
53
54
74
77
78
79
2.
Determination of Young's modulus by

stretching a vertical wire
80
Apparatus
Determination of Young's modulus
Practical example
Êxperiment
3.
81
85
stretching a horizontal wire
55
57
Apparatus
Notes on the method
58
Practical example
6t5
Êxperiment
87
88
89
Determination of
4.
'86
rigidity.
Statical
method
59
60
Apparatus
Determination of rigidity
91
61
Practical example
94
Experiment
62
90
5.
Determination of
63
Apparatus
Determination of
64
Practical example
rigidity.
Dynamical method
95
rigidity
...
97
99
CONTENTS
XIV

6.
uniform bending of a rod. Statical method
Experiment
PAGE
SECTION
65
66
67
68
100
Apparatus
Mirror method of determining curvature
Practical example
102
104
106

7.
uniform bending of a rod. Dynamical method
Experiment
69
70
71
107
Experimental details
Practical example
Ill
Experiment
110
Comparison of
8.
elastic constants.
Dynamical
method
72
Method
112
73
Practical example
114
Experiment
74
75
76
Determination of Poisson's ratio by the

bending of a rectangular rod
9.
114
Introduction
Determination of Poisson's ratio
118
Practical example
119
Experiment
77
Introduction
78
Approximate

10.
non-uniform bending of a rod
119
.121
79
results for non-uniform bending

Cartesian expression for curvature
80
Apparatus
126
81
Depression at centre of rod

Slope at end of rod
129
83
130
84
Practical example
131
82
Experiment
11.
124
127
Determination of rigidity by the torsion

of a blade
85
Introduction
86
Determination of rigidity
87
Practical example
132
.
132
.
.134
CHAPTER L
ELEMENTARY THEORY OF ELASTICITY.
1.
Introduction.
The
application of a system of forces to
a solid body causes a deformation corresponding to the character of

the system of forces; for example, a pull causes an extension
while a couple causes a twist in a wire. But the simplest observations on the stretching or bending of a piece of copper wire are
sufficient to show that, even though the forces are not so great as
may still be great enough to produce

of
do
not entirely pass away when the forces
which
form,
changes
The effects of forces of this character are of great
are removed.
to break the body, they
importance in many industries. The moulding of clay in pottery

work, and the forging, stamping, wire drawing and cutting of
metals are familiar instances of such effects.
When the forces are less intense, the body may so nearly recover
its original form, on the removal of the forces, that careful observations are required to show that the recovery is imperfect.
It is, therefore, natural to assume that, if the forces
be small
enough, the body will completely recover its original form on their
removal. This is equivalent to saying that the form of a body
depends only on the forces which act on it at the time, and not
upon those which have ceased to act. The assumption that the
forces have no after-effects is of great importance, because it renders
the mathematical treatment of the subject comparatively simple.
The assumption is probably not strictly true for any substance, but
for many substances it is so near the truth that, for practical purposes, it
may be
s. E. E.
regarded as exactly true.

1
THEORY OF ELASTICITY
2
2.
Hooke's law.
[OH.
Though Kobert Hooke was the
first
to
between small forces

publish a definite statement as to the relation
and the changes of form due to them, yet it is probable that most
of the persons who had made any practical use of springs had at
least a working knowledge of that relation.
In 1676 Hooke published the statement :
"
The true Theory of Elasticity or Springiness, and a particular
in which it is to be found
Explication thereof in several Subjects
And the way of computing the velocity of Bodies moved by them,
:
ceiiinosssttuu."
In 1678 he gave the key to this anagram in the words

"About two years since I printed this Theory in an Anagram
at the end of my Book of the Descriptions of Helioscopes, viz.
ceiiinosssttuu, id est, Ut tensio sic vis That is, The Power of any
thereof: That
Spring is in the same proportion with the tension
bend it one space, two will bund it two,
is, if one power stretch or
and three will bend it three, and so forward."
The proportionality between the applied forces and their effects
is known as Hooke's law and forms the basis of the mathematical
:
In this theory it is further assumed that

more sets of small forces act on a body, each set produces the same effect as if the other set or sets wore not acting.
theory of the subject.
when two
or
This assumption
is,
however, only a natural extension of Hooke's
law.
Within the range where Hooke's law holds, we may speak of

the body as being perfectly elastic.
If the forces acting on the body be increased, a more or less
When
definite point is reached where Hooke's law begins to fail.
Hooke's law
fails,
we may
say that the elastic limit of the body
has been passed.
Necessity for a theory of elasticity. In 1 and 2 we

elastic body as a whole and have not considered the
The results which can be obtained in
actions between its parts.
this way are sufficient for some purposes.
Thus, if we make a
helical spring of steel wire, we can use it as a spring balance and
3.
have taken an
by experiments with known masses, graduate a scale so that

the balance shall indicate the mass of anybody suspended from it,
can,
NECESSITY FOB A THEORY OF ELASTICITY
I]
and this can be done without any reference to the complex actions
which occur within the steel itself*
The process here indicated may be considerably extended, for,
if we take a series of bodies of similar form and of the same
material, and subject them to similar sets of forces, we can, from
these experiments, deduce laws which would enable us to predict
the behaviour of another body, if of similar form and of the same
when subjected to a similar set of forces. Thus, we should

that, when a wire of length Zand cross section A
a
to
subjected
pull F, the increase of length X is given by
material,
find
is
by experiment
A
a constant depending upon the material. From this
the
increase of length produced in any given wire of that
equation
material by any given pull could be calculated. Similarly, we
where p
is
could find by experiment that the total twist 0, produced by a

couple G in a circular rod of radius r and length I, is given by
where q
a constant depending on the material.

Though the results obtained in this way would be of great
practical utility, they would fail to provide a means of calculating
is
the effect of any given set of forces on any given body. Thus,
experiments on the torsion of a rod of circular section would give
no information as to the twist which a given couple would produce

in a rod of the same material but of rectangular section.
It thus becomes evident that we need a theory of elasticity,
we can calculate mathematically, if we have sufficient
which
by
skill,
the effect of any given set of forces on any given body, when
material by experi-
we have found the "elastic constants" of the

ments made upon specimens of the material.
We
shall, therefore,
devote this chapter to the elements of such a theory.

The material will be supposed to be isotropic, i.e. to have the
same properties in all directions, and to be homogeneous,

have the same properties at all points.
4.
i.e.
to
Action and reaction between two parts of a body.

A and B by a mathematical
Let the body be divided into two parts
[CH.
Each part will in general exert a set of forces on the

other, and the whole action of A on B and of B on A is due to
These
forces acting between the molecules of A and those of B.
forces may be divided into two classes. In the first class are those
that are sensible at more than molecular distances; this class
In the
includes gravitational, electric, and magnetic actions.
second class are those forces which are sensible only within
molecular distances. We shall speak of these last forces as due
surface.
to molecular actions.
Now,
it is
only those molecules which
lie
on one side of the
8
dividing surface within a distance of about 10~* cm. from the sur-
face, which have any appreciable effect, by molecular action, on

those on the other side. But, in the layer corresponding to one
square centimetre of the surface, there are, in the case of a solid or
u liquid, about 10 16 molecules and thus an element of the layer of

only one millionth of a square millimetre in area contains about
108 molecules. It is evident, therefore, that, if the elements of area,
which we consider, are not very small compared with a millionth
of a square millimetre, the multitude of small forces arising
from molecular actions may be considered as blending together
into a force continuously distributed over the element of area.
In other words, the forces which act on the part of the body on
either side of the surface,
and are due
to molecular action,
may
purposes be replaced by a force continuously

distributed over the surface, the forces on the two parts being
everywhere equal and opposite. What we have done here is
for all practical
equivalent to replacing the molecularly-built body by one of

absolutely continuous structure.
In general, the part A is acted on not only by the molecular

due to B which are included in the second class, but also
by those forces due to B which are included in the first class. In
addition, the part A experiences forces due to the action of other
actions
bodies, as
when
it is
pulled by a string or
is
attracted to the earth
through gravitation.
If we apply Newton's laws of motion, we find that the rate of
increase of the
momentum
of
in
any direction
is
equal to the
same
direction of all the forces acting on

about
that the rate of increase of the angular momentum of
resultant in the
and
any
STRESS
I]
fixed axis is equal to the

forces acting
on
moment about
the same axis of all the
A *.
A
In many cases the part

is at rest and then it follows (1) that
the resultant force arising from the molecular actions of B is in
equilibrium with the resultant of the remaining forces which act
moment about any axis of the

equilibrium with the moment about
on A, and
(2) that the
actions of
is
in
axis of the remaining forces which act on

frequently used in experimental work.
6.
Stress.
The word
A.
molecular
the same
These results are
used in a general sense

but in this book it will
stress is often
in connexion with the action of forces,
be used only in a definite mathematical sense. Thus: If any

elementary area be drawn in the body, the parts of the body on
either side of the area exert equal and opposite forces on each other
arising from molecules in the immediate
of
the
The ratio of either of these forces
area.
neighbourhood
The stress may be normal or
to the area is called the stress.
by molecular actions
may be
tangential to the area, or

line normal to the area.
When
the stress
is
inclined at
normal to the
any angle to a
area, it is called a pressure or
a tension according to its direction, and when it is tangential to

the area, it is called a shearing stress.
7 that, in the case of a hydrostatic pressure,
It is shown in
where for every elementary area containing a given point the stress
normal to the area, the magnitude of the stress at that point is

independent of the direction of the normal to the area, but, in the
general case, the magnitude of the stress and its inclination to the
is
normal
6.
will
both depend upon the direction of that normal.
Measurement of
stresses.
The numerical value
of a
given stress depends upon the units of force and of area which we
employ. To avoid errors, the student should be careful to state
correctly the unit of force employed and to specify the unit adopted
for the measurement of areas. In the c.G.s. system, which is used
in this book, the stresses are
measured in terms of a unit
one dyne per square centimetre.

*
See Note
II.
stress of
As a simple example, suppose
CH
that a vertical wire 1'32 milli-
metres in diameter supports a mass of 3'5 kilogrammes in a

= 981 cm. sec.""2 and that the stress is required
locality where #
,
for a plane cutting the axis of the wire at right angles. The total
force acting across the plane is 3'5 x 1000 x 981 or 3'434 x 10
fl
dynes, while the area of section
Hence the
square cm.
and
its
magnitude
3-434
1-368
stress
is
7r(0'066)
(assumed uniform)
or
1-368 x 10" 2
is
a normal one
is
xlO
xl(F8
_ A X , n _,
ynes pcr Squar
'
If the normal to the plane be inclined at an angle 6 to the axis

But the
is 1'368 x 10-* x sec 0.
of the wire, the area of section
x 10 6 dynes in a vertical direction. Hence,

in this case, the stress makes an angle 6 with the normal to the
8
plane and its magnitude is 2'510 x 10 x cos 6 dynes per square cm.
total force is still 3'434
Hydrostatic pressure. When,
7.
containing a given point, the stress
is
every elementary area

normal to the area, there is
for
be a hydrostatic pressure at the point.

matter contained in an elementary tetrahedron OABC (Fig. 1). Let the edges OA 9
said to
OB,
00
T,
Now
consider the
be mutually perpendicular and let

be the stresses on the faces OBC
9
OCA, OAB. Let 8 be the area of ABO

and a, y8, 7 be the angles between this
plane and the planes OBC, OCA, OAB.
The force required to give the enclosed
matter any acceleration it may have is
proportional to the cube of the linear di-
mensions of the tetrahedron, as is also any

force arising from gravity.
But the forces
1.
Fig.
due to the
stresses on the bounding planes are proportional to the

of
the linear dimensions and hence, by taking the tetrasquare
hedron small enough, the forces due to the stresses may be made
we please compared with the other forces. Thus, in

we need only consider the stresses.
Let P be the stress on ABO. Then, since the only forces
as great as
the limit,
which have components parallel to
OA
are a force
S, acting
STUAIN
I]
normally to ABO, and a force

normally to OBC we have
X.OBC
or
X.S
cos
a,
acting
PS cos
with two similar equations.
a SB JTS cos
a,
Hence
p=z=r=,
so that the stress is independent of the direction of the normal to
the area.
8.
Strain.
Suppose
that, before the forces are applied to an

drawn in the body so as to
elastic body, three series of planes are
divide
it
into infinitesimal cubes.
When
the forces are applied,
the portions of matter originally in these cubes will, in general, be

changed in shape so that they are no longer of cubical form;
they will also be changed in volume. The change of form, includ-
ing the change of volume, which occurs in any elementary cube

may be called, in general terms, the strain at that part of the
body. But it is evident, from this description, that, in the general
no single quantity is sufficient to measure the change of form

which occurs in any elementary cube, and thus we see that, in
general, more than one quantity is required to specify the strain.
For the mathematical treatment of strains in general the reader is
referred to treatises on the mathematical theory of elasticity.
For our purpose it will be sufficient to consider two fundamental strains and some simple strains which can be builfc up from
case,
them.
9.
Expansion and compression.
When
the strain
is
such
that any elementary cubical portion of the body remains cubical,

although changed in volume, the strain is called an expansion or a
compression, according as the volume of the cube is increased or

diminished by the strain. In cither case the strain is measured
by the change of volume per unit volume.
Thus, if the application of pressure to the surface of a piece of

reduce the volume of each cubic cm. by 2 x 10"" 12 cubic cm.
steel
without otherwise changing its form, the strain is a uniform com12

pression amounting to 2 x 10~ c.c. per c.c. It will be noticed that
the numerical value of the compression is independent of the unit
But care must be taken to measure both
of volume employed.
[CH,
the original volume and the diminution of volume in terms of the
same
unit.
Shear. In the case of compression there is a change

10.
volume without any further change of shape. We now go on
examine the simplest case of change of shape without change
oi
to
oi
volume.
Consider two parallel planes A,
drawn
in a
body at the
distance h apart and suppose that all the particles in the plane
remain fixed in position. If, now, every particle in the plane
be moved in that plane through the same distance and in the same
direction, the part of the
body between the planes
is
said to be
and
be
If the displacement of any particle between
to
the
in
and
of
the
that
to
proportional
particles
parallel
distance of the particle from the plane A, the strain is called a
sheared.
uniform shear.
If
we
take a rectangular block having one face

and JB, this block will be strained into a
in each of the planes

parallelepiped of equal volume, since both the area of the base
and the height of the block remain unchanged. Thus a uniform

shear does not change the volume of the body.
A plane through any point P between the planes A and B and
To
them
the plane of the shear at P.

measure the magnitude of the shear, we take a cubical
parallel to
is called
block having one face in each of the planes

edges parallel to the direction of the
and
and four
displacement of the particles in B. Thus

the faces in the planes A, B remain
squares, the faces normal to the direction
of displacement are strained into rectangles, and the remaining faces are distorted into parallelograms. If the angles
of a distorted face
no longer
and %7r
(Fig. 2) are
are TT +
but
to
JTT
equal
radians, as indicated in the
A^JOJO^
all
to
figure, the strain is said
11.
Maximum
be a shear of
Fig. 2.
radians.
shear in actual experiments.
For
all
metals Hooke's law only holds for small shears and ceases to apply
SHEARING STRAINS
I]
radian or one third of a degree,

when the shear exceeds
either because the metal breaks before this shear is reached
hard steel) or because it flows (e.g. lead). In ordinary experiments for finding the elastic constants the shear need never
(e.g.
exceed
radian.
We shall now
Results for infinitesimal shears.
which
are
some
useful
obtain
results,
approximately true for
small shears and accurately true for infinitesimal shears. From
12.
Fig. 2
,0,
But,
an
when
is less
EÂ tan
!
= h tan
than -5-^ radian, we
ft
tan
may put
error of less than one in three millions
with
and thus may write
B&^kO.
A ,0, = (AJ# + Btf - h (1 + tan
Since
we find, on expanding by
tan0 by 0, that
0)*
the binomial theorem and replacing
^Ci-^l + Jfr- ...... ).

Hence the shear docs not alter the length of the edges AJSl9 A aB2
2
by more than |0 cm. per cm. If &**&}$$, the change does not
amount to one part in 2,000,000.
In technical mathematical language we
may
say that
0,
the
2
the
,
shear, is a small quantity of the first order and that
of
the
i.e. the increase of
unit
edges
length,
elongation,
length per
Jit, is a small quantity of the second order.
A&, A
In the mathematical theory the strains are supposed to be

and
In this case the difference between
is to be neglected, and then we may say that the edges of the
cube are unchanged by the strain. We have already seen in 10
that the volume of the cube is unchanged. The two statements
are inconsistent when the shear is finite, but they become consistent when the shear becomes infinitesimal.
If BJf be drawn perpendicular to A-JO*, we may take N02 as
A&
infinitesimal.
the increase in length of the diagonal
NC B
S
is
ultimately equal to ?r/4
and
A^. Now
A&
the angle
thus, in this case,
NC, = jBa (72 cos 7T/4 = A0/V2 =
h V2.
Similarly, the length of the diagonal AJS^ is diminished by

But &V2 is the length of the original diagonals, and
10
thus
we
see that the shear
shortened the other by
[CH,
has lengthened one diagonal and

cm. per cm.
A&>
The lengths
AÂ* only differ by a small quantity of the
second order, and hence the diagonals Aft* and
may be
considered as intersecting at right angles. The strain has therefore not changed the angle between the diagonals, though it has
A&
turned each diagonal through an angle equal to BJfjA^ in the

= A V2,
= . A V2 and since
same direction. Since BJf =
Z
A&
NC
it
follows that this angle

Since the strain is uniform, all lines in the block parallel to
is \9.
A^
2 will be lengthened by \6 cm. per cm., and

lines
the
parallel to AJBl will be shortened by the
similarly
same amount. Each set of lines will intersect the other at right
the diagonal
all
angles after as well as before the straining, though each set will
be turned through iff in the same direction.
Hence, a uniform shear of 6 radians is equivalent to a uniform
contraction of \6 cm. per cm. in a direction inclined at 45 to the
plane of the shear ( 10), superposed on a uniform extension of
$0 cm. per cm. at right angles to the
contraction.
Bulk modulus or volume
13.
elasticity.
Suppose that,
and
of
isotropic matter,
homogeneous
body
a uniform hydrostatic pressure of p dynes per square
at every point within a
the stress
is
compress each elementary cube of the

body in the same proportion, and hence the strain will be a uniform
If we take the triangle ABC (Fig. 1) to be an
compression.
element of the surface of the body, we see that, to secure the equicm.
This
will evidently
librium of the elementary tetrahedron OABC, a uniform pressure p

must be applied to the surface. Conversely, we may conclude that
a uniform pressure p applied to the surface of a body of homogeneous and isotropic matter gives rise to a hydrostatic pressure p
throughout the body and produces a uniform compression.
This result does not apply when the body contains a cavity,
unless a pressure p be applied to the walls of the cavity as well as
to the outer surface of the body.
It is found by experiment that, so long as the pressure is not
too great, the compression is proportional to the pressure, and
thus the ratio of the pressure to the compression may be regarded
as
an
"
elastic constant
"
of the material.
BULK MODULUS
I]
11
The
ratio of the pressure to the compression is called the bulk

modulus or volume elasticity of the substance and is denoted by k.
Since the compression is a pure number, the bulk modulus is

measured in the same units as the pressure, i.e. in dynes per
square cm.
If a pressure
v to v
cause the volume of the body to diminish from

is w/v, and hence the bulk modulus is
w, the compression
given by
,
1C
stress
pv
pressure
~~:
strain
compresssion
f
....... ..... (A)
x
As an example of the use of this formula, suppose that a

8
pressure of 10 dynes per square cm. diminishes the volume of
a piece of steel by 5'55 x 10~ 5 cubic cm. per cubic cm. The
5
compression is therefore 5*55 x 10~ and hence the bulk modulus is
,
k = 10*/(5'55
The only
10- ) = 1'802
5
x 10 12 dynes per square cm.
stress a liquid or a gas can
permanently sustain
is
hydrostatic pressure, which in the case of liquids under certain

conditions may be negative*, and hence the bulk modulus is the
only elastic constant for a liquid or a gas. For this reason it is

often spoken of as the elasticity of the liquid or the gas.
If the compression be not proportional to the pressure, we can
define it as the ratio
speak of the bulk modulus, but we then
from
of
increment
infinitesimal
of an
p to p + dp to
pressure
volume
diminution
of
per unit volume,
dv/v, the corresponding
still
the volume v being that which the body has under the pressure p.
Hence we have, in the general case,
lit
7^
-dv/v
The negative
^^
dv
..............
\
^ .. 'J
sign occurs since dv stands for the increment of
volume corresponding to dp.

14.
To produce a
Rigidity.
shear in a solid substance an
Let ABA'B' (Fig. 3) be a cube

is required.
of edge A, formed of elastic material, and let a uniform tangential
stress ofp dynes per square cm. be applied to the face
in a direction
appropriate stress
perpendicular to the line of intersection of

ph* acting on
and B.
The
force
would cause a longitudinal acceleration of the
* See
Poynting and Thomson, Properties of Matter, Chapter
XL
12
[CH.
block unless resisted by an equal and opposite force.

If the
balancing force were applied to A the block would not be strained.
We therefore suppose that a uniform tangential stress of p dynes
per square cm.
is
applied to the face A' in
a,
direction opposite to
:B
\
-A'
Fig. 3.
The two forces, each equal to ph*, which act on

and A', constitute a couple of moment ph? and would give the
block an angular accleration about an axis parallel to the line of
intersection of A and B, unless opposed by an equal and opposite
the stress on A.
couple.
This couple
supplied by uniform tangential stresses of

and B' in the manner
is
dynes per square cm. applied to the faces
indicated in Fig.
subjected to
any
3.
The remaining
faces of the
The
and
cube are not
forces.
forces applied to the faces A, A' t B,

will cause no longitudinal or angular
acceleration of the block.

will strain the block
and
But the
will
are in eqailibrium
forces
change the
faces perpendicular to both

and
from
squares into parallelograms with equal sides,
shown in Fig. 4. Let the angles of each

of these faces, when the block is strained, be
as
\TT
+ 6 and \7r-6 radians.
When the stress is small enough, it may

be expected to be proportional to the shear
6, and experiment shows that Hooke's law
Fig 4-
does express the relation between the stress and the shear
when
RIGIDITY
I]
13,
they are small. Thus, the ratio of the tangential stress on each
r
of the faces A, 9 A',
to the resulting shear may be regarded
"
"
as an elastic constant of the substance.
The
ratio of the tangential stress to the shear is called the

of
the substance and is denoted by n. Since the shear is
rigidity
a pure number, the rigidity is measured in the same units as the
stress,
i.e.
in dynes per square cm.

...
=
n = rigidity
5
J
.
The
ti
Thus,
stress
=
strain
ox
= p ................ v(3)
'
7,
rigidity is evidently the tangential stress which would produce

i.e. a shear of one radian or 57 18', if Hooke's law
unit shear,
held for so great a strain.

As an example of the use of this formula, suppose that a
8
tangential stress of 10 dynes per square cm. causes a shear of
1*22
x 10~4 radians
n~
Then the
in stoel.
108
iToo
L LL X i7v=4
10
^ 8'2
rigidity is given
by
x 10 11 dynes per square cm.
The quantity n is often called the modulus of torsion*, because

makes its appearance in calculations respecting the torsion of a
wire.
But the term modulus of torsion is sometimes also used to
it
denote the couple required to give a wire a twist of one radian

per cm. of length. To avoid confusion, the term will not be used
in this book.
can
If the shear be not proportional to the shearing stress, we

still speak of the rigidity of the substance, but we then
define it as the ratio of
an
infinitesimal increase of shearing
stress to the corresponding increase of the angle of shear.
Hence
in the general case,
Stresses on the diagonal planes of a sheared cube.

If we take a plane cutting the cube ABA'B' (Fig. 3) and parallel
15.
either to the face

this plane
*
or to the face
and of amount
the stress
is
tangential to
dynes per square cm., since the
This term is used in Kohlrausch's Introduction

Third English Edition, p. 107.
to
Physical Measurements,
THEOBY OF ELASTICITY
14
[CH.
uniformity of the strain demands that the stress on any plane

and that the stress on
should be equal to that on
parallel to
plane parallel to
A
B should be equal to that on B.
any
But now take a diagonal plane passing through the line of
intersection of the faces A and B' and dividing the cube into two
The force on each of the faces A and B is ph* and thus
parts.
the resultant of these two forces is 2p&2 .cos7r/4 orjpA2 \/2 at right
t
angles to the diagonal plane in a direction tending to separate one

part of the cube from the other. The area of the diagonal plane
is AV2, and hence the stress across this plane is a tension at right
angles to the plane amounting to p dynes per square cm. Since
the strain is uniform, there is an equal stress across every plane
parallel to this diagonal plane.
In a similar way it follows that the stress across the diagonal
of the faces
plane, which passes through the line of intersection
at right angles to this plane amounting to
and J9, is a
pressure
dynes per square cm.
Since the strain
is
uniform, there
is
an
equal stress across every plane parallel to this diagonal plane.

The effect of these stresses will be to stretch the cube in the
direction of the tension
and
to compress it
by an equal amount
Since the shear
in
we
the direction of the pressure.

p/n radians,
see, by
12, that the elongation in the direction of the tension
is
and the contraction in the direction of the pressure are each

p/2n cm. per cm.
There will be no change of length in the direction perpendicular to both the pressure and the tension, since, if the pressure
produce an elongation in that direction, the tension will produce
an equal contraction. Since the stretching and compression due
to the stresses on the diagonal planes are equal, it follows that,
for small strains, the volume of the cube is unchanged by the
strain.
Alternative method of producing a shear. It may

be inferred, from the results of 15, that a uniform shear can be
produced in a cubical block by a normal pressure of p dynes per
a normal tension
square cm. applied to one pair of faces a, a! while
16.
the
dynes per square cm. is applied to another pair b, b',
This
distribution
from
force.
free
of
faces
being
remaining pair
of
YOUNG'S MODULUS
15
is shown in Fig. 5, where the arrow through the centre

of any face represents the direction of the forces applied to that
face. If each edge of the cube be h cm., the resultant of the forces
of forces
acting on the faces
a,
6 is 2pA* cos Tr/4, or

.
ph^Z,
parallel to the
of this plane is
diagonal plane indicated in the figure. The area
is
a
on
this
the
stress
hence
and
&V2,
plane
shearing stress of
for the other
result
holds
a
similar
cm.
;
p dynes per square
diagonal plane.
The material
it follows
from
will, therefore, suffer
a shear of p/n radians and
12 that the lines in the cube, which are normal to
receive a contraction ofp/2n cm. per cm., and those

which are normal to b, V receive an elongation of equal amount,
while those which are parallel to the line of intersection of the
the faces
a, a',
6 are unchanged in length.

be noticed that the faces a, b of the cube of Fig. 5
correspond to the diagonal planes of the cube of Fig. 3, the stress
in each case being a normal one. Further the faces A, B of Fig. 3
faces
a and
It will
correspond to the diagonal planes of Fig.
5,
the stresses being
now
tangential.
When an evenly distributed pull

is
cm.
applied to each end of a straight
dynes per square
uniform rod, the stress across any plane perpendicular to the
17.
of
Young's modulus.
axis of the rod
is
a uniform tension of
16
The
[CH.
increase in the length of the rod, caused
by
this stress, is
found by experiment to be proportional to the length of the rod,

and, for small strains, to the tension, as Hooke's law leads us
to expect.
The ratio of the longitudinal stress to the elongation, i.e. the
increase of length per unit length, is called Young's modulus of
the substance and is denoted by E\ the longitudinal stress is to

be calculated by dividing the total pull by the cross-section of the
stretched rod.
Since the elongation is a pure number, Young's
modulus is measured in the same units as the stress, i.e. in dynes
per square cm.

If a longitudinal stress of
length of a rod from
cm. to
T dynes per square cm. increase the

+ X cm., the elongation, e, is \/l cm.
per cm. and hence
E= v
Youngs
& modulus =
r,
stress
-,
--.
elongation
T T = Tl
=-=e
\/l
...(o)
^ '
As an example
of the use of this formula, suppose that a total

steel wire 500 cm. in length
and 5 x 10~~ 8 cm. in radius, increases its length by 0*12 cm. The
pull of
4 x 106 dynes applied to a
x 25 x 10~4 or 7'85 x 10~3 square cm. and thus

the stress is T = 4 x 109/*7'85 or 5'10 x 10 8 dynes per square cm.
The elongation is e = 0*12/500 or 2*4 x 10~4 cm. per cm. Thus,
cross-section is
TT
12
12
E*=T/e = 51 x 10 /2'4 = 212 x 10 dynes per square cm.
If the elongation be not proportional to the longitudinal

we can still speak of Young's modulus, but we then define
stress,
it
as the ratio of an infinitesimal increase of longitudinal stress

to the corresponding elongation dl/l, where I is the length of
dT
the rod under the stress T.
Hence, in the general
case,
is not, in reality, a new elastic constant,

Young's modulus,
the case of an isotropic substance, we can show, as in 19,
is connected with the bulk modulus k and the rigidity n
that
3
since, in
by the equation
POISSON'S BAT10
I]
17
In the case of metals, Hooke's law fails, if the elongation much

"
exceed y^y cm. per cm., because the rod receives a permanent
"
set and does not return to its original length on the removal of
the forces, and hence the greatest strains which can be employed
When the rod is stretched, its

in experiments are very small.
the cross section of
becomes slightly less than
cross section
the unstretched rod, but the difference
so small that for practical
sufficient to calculate the stress
by dividing the
the experimental difficulties are such that
\ is the
would be almost impossible to decide whether A\ or
purposes
it is
pull P by A
it
is
In
fact,
more nearly proportional

18.
to the pull P.
When
Foisson's ratio.
a rod or wire
is
stretched by
forces applied to its ends, while its sides are free from force, it
is found that its cross-section diminishes, and hence the strain is
not a simple elongation but an elongation accompanied by a conFor

traction in every direction perpendicular to the elongation.
small elongations the ratio of the contraction to the elongation
is constant for a given specimen, but the ratio varies from
substance to substance.
Let the elongation of the rod, i.e. the increase of length per
unit length, parallel to its axis be e cm. per cm., and let the lateral
contraction, i.e. the diminution of length per unit length, of lines
Then the ratio off
at right angles to the axis beycm. per cm.
and
to e is called Pvisson's ratio

_,
= roisson
s
.
<7
^.
ratio
denoted by
is
--
= Lateral
^
cr.
Thus
contraction
-r-
Elongation
= J-/
/h
.
. .
.(7)
^
Since both the elongation and the contraction are pure numbers,
Poisson's ratio is a pure number and is independent both of the
unit of length and of the unit of force.
As an example of the use of this formula, suppose that, when a
steel wire 1000 cm. in length and O'l cm. in diameter is stretched
B
by 1*12 x 10" cm. Then the
4
and
the
x
10~
lateral
4
contraction is
elongation is O'4/IOOO or
4
5
Hence
1-12 x 10~ /0-1 or 1-12 x 10~
by
0*4 cm., its diameter diminishes

,
_
= Poisson
s
.
<r
--
Lateral contraction
ratio
^
Elongation
.
T12 x 10~4
TTTT
4 x 10~4
00
18
If a rod of length
I,
having
for its section
[CH.
a square of side
a,
receive the elongation e, each side suffers the contraction /, and

thus after the strain the length is I (1 + e) and the cross-section
a
2
Since
0<r,
2/), because/ is very small.
a*(l /) or a (l
is
e
the
a
diminution
of
that
we see
accompanied by
elongation
/=
is
cross-section of 2<re square cm. per square cm., and by an increase

1 c.c. per c.c. or e (1
of volume of (1 -f e) (1
2<r) c.c. per
20-0)
c.c.,
when
e is neglected.
In an actual experiment on a metal wire it would be difficult,

by any simple means, to make a direct measurement of the contraction, and hence <r is generally found by some indirect method.
Poisson's ratio cr is not an independent elastic constant, since,
in the case of an isotropic substance, we can show, as in
19, that
cr is connected with the bulk modulus k and the
rigidity n by the
equation
19.
Relations between elastic constants.
In the case
of an isotropic substance, two mathematical relations connect the

bulk modulus k, the rigidity nt Young's modulus 3 and Poisson's
and thus only two out of these four quantities are independent. The two relations may be found in the following
ratio
cr,
RELATIONS BETWEEN ELASTIC CONSTANTS
l]
19
Let A A\ B, B', (7, C* (Fig. 6) denote the six faces of

a cube of edge A, and let a uniform normal tension of p dynes per
17, these
square cm. be applied to the faces A and A'. By
of
forces will produce an elongation
pfE cm. per cm. parallel to
the tension, and, by
18, a contraction at right angles to B of
manner
a-p/E cm. per cm. and an equal contraction at right angles to 0.

But the same effect can be produced in another way. Replace
the tension p on the faces A, A' by three superposed tensions
each equal to %p, and apply to each of the faces J5, B' C, G' a
tension of \p and a pressure of \p, as indicated in Fig. 6, whore
each aiTOW head stands for %p. To avoid confusion, the forces
.
acting on the faces C, C' are not shown in Fig. 6. The pressure
then exactly neutralises the tension on each of these four faces.
The
tensions of
static pressure of
%p on the six faces are equivalent to a hydro13, cause a uniform

Jp, and hence, by
expansion of p/3/c c.c. per c.c., increasing the volume of the cube
from h? to h*(l+p/3k) and the edges of the cube from h to
(1
-f
>/3A-)i.
Expanding by the binomial theorem and rejecting
j?l& and higher powers ofp/k, we find that the edges are increased
Hence the tensions of $p on the six faces cause
to /* (1 +p/9&).
an elongation of p/9k in every direction.

We must now take account of the pressures %p on the faces
B, B', (7, C", and we begin by considering the pressures on B and
B in conjunction with one pair of the three partial tensions ^p on
the faces A and A'. By
16, this set of forces will cause an
1
elongation $pf%n or p/Gn cm. per cm. at right angles to A, a

contraction p/Gn cm. per cm. at right angles to B, but no change
of length at right angles to C. In the same way, the pressures %p
on the faces C', (7', taken in conjunction with the remaining pair
of partial tensions on the faces A, A', will cause an elongation
p/6n at right angles to A, a contraction p/6n at right angles to (7,
and no change -of length at right angles to B.
Collecting these results, we find that the resultant elongation

in the direction of the original tension is
P + P + P =
JP
on bn r
,
HT
Qk
fl
But we have seen
in
( 1
(
57
\dk
+ Q,
>
\
I
8nJ
cm. per
r cm.
17 that the elongation,
when expressed in
20
terms of Young's modulus,
is
p/E
crn.
the two expressions for the elongation,
'~
The
any
[CH.
per cm. Thus, by equating

we have
4+
or
resultant contraction at right angles to either
direction at right angles to the original tension is
cm.
f--^T
Qn $k
But, by
18, this contraction,
or in
cm.
per
L
when
expressed in terms of
Poisson's ratio and Young's modulus, is <re or apjE cm. per cm.
Equating the two expressions for the contraction, we have
Hence, by
(8),
By equations (8) and (9), when we know the values of any two of
and o-, we can calculate the values
the four quantities k, n,
of the other two. The two which are usually found by experiment
are Young's modulus and the rigidity.

If we add (8) to (9), we easily find
'-sr
If
we
eliminate
n between
(8)
and
~~
a _1
From
(10)
we
1 .........................
(9),
"""
<">
we have
E
6k'
find
3/J (1
2<r)
2n (1
a) ................ (12)
Hence, if 2<r were greater than 1 or if a- were less than

1, either
k or n would be negative. It therefore follows that, for an isoand cannot be less
tropic solid, Poisson's ratio cannot exceed
than
20.
1.
Isothermal and adiabatic
elasticities.
When
the
form of a body is changed by the application of forces, there

This effect is very
is, as a rule, a rise or fall of temperature.
ISOTHERMAL AND ADIABATIC ELASTICITIES
I]
21
conspicuous in gases it may also be easily observed in the case of

india-rubber. Thus, if an india-rubber band be suddenly stretched,
there will be a rise of temperature which may be easily detected
;
by bringing the stretched band
into contact with the
lips.
If the temperature of each part of the body be maintained

constant while the forces do their work upon the body, there will
be a definite relation between the forces and the changes of form

which they produce. The elastic constants corresponding to this
isothermal condition, will be denoted by kt

the subt and nt
script t denoting that the temperature is constant.
On the other hand, if no heat be allowed to enter or leave any
part of the body, the temperature will change in a definite manner
,
corresponding to the action of the forces, and, since the relation

forces and the changes of form depends upon the
between the
temperature, this relation, though still definite, will differ from

that which holds when the isothermal condition is satisfied. When
no heat enters or leaves any part of the body, the change of form
is said to take place under the adiabatic condition.
Now if dQ
be the heat which enters a perfectly elastic body under any con-
when
ditions
the forces receive any given small increments, an

will be given out under the same conditions
equal amount of heat
when the
Thus the change

one
and
is a reversible
hence, by the principles of thermodynamics*, we can write
forces return to their initial values.
dQ^tdfr
where
of heat
zero.
(13)
the increase of entropy corresponding to the increase

and t is the temperature measured from the absolute
d<f> is
dQ
Hence the
elastic constants corresponding to the adiabatic
condition will be denoted
denoting that the entropy
by
is
/^,
E$ and
constant.
We
n$, the subscript <f>

may also denote the
by k Qi Eg and n Q when it is convenient

the subscript Q denoting that no heat enters or leaves
adiabatic elastic constants

to
do
so,
any part of the body.

In some of the experiments described below, statical effects are
Here we may
observed, as when a wire is stretched by a load.
suppose that any change of temperature, due to the application
* See
Maxwell, Theory of Heat, Chapter VIII, or Pointing
Chapter XVII.
and Thomson, Heat,
THEOEY OF ELASTICITY
22
[CH.
of the load, has disappeared by radiation and by conduction to

the surrounding air before the extension is observed. In other
*
experiments dynamical methods are employed and the vibration
of the system are observed. If the vibrations were infinitely rapid,
adiabatic conditions would prevail, since there would be no time

for radiation or conduction to cause any appreciable transfer of
In practice the time of vibration is finite, and thus there

be some departure from adiabatic conditions. We shall be
able to estimate how close an agreement may be expected between
heat.
will
the results of statical methods and those of dynamical methods,

we know the relation between the isothermal and the adiabatic
if
elasticities, for it is easily
seen that the value of any modulus
found by a dynamical method, when the time of vibration is finite,

will lie between the isothermal and the adiabatic values of that
modulus.
Ratio of adiabatic to isothermal
In
elasticity.
discussing the applications of thermodynamics to elasticity, it
is convenient to express the moduli of elasticity in terms of
21.
differential
coefficients.
have, by equation
(2),
In the case of the bulk modulus we

13,
(D,
The
subscript
denotes that the variations
p and
v are so related
Q does not change, i.e. so that no heat enters or leaves the

substance. Similarly the subscript t denotes that the temperature
that
is
constant.
Now,
we have
if
z be a function of two independent variables
x and
y,
If the variations in x and y cause no resultant change in z, there

must be a definite relation between dx and dy. Putting dz = 0,
we
find the relation to
be
RELATIONS BETWEEN ELASTICITIES
l]
is
Since the state of a perfectly elastic homogeneous body, which

subjected to a uniform hydrostatic pressure p is completely
t
defined
when p and
p and
v,
_/*\
[dj>\
a function of the two

and hence, if p and v be so related
v are known,
independent variables
that t does not vary,
fdp\
^~
kt
'
does not vary,
/rfQ\ /(dQ
\dv)P l \
_(dQ\ (dp\
\dv)p \dQj v
and hence, by (14) and
lfdv\
\dtjj \dt)p
however, p and v be so related that
(dp\ =
\dv) Q
is
_ _/dp\
\dv)p \dtj v
\dvJt
If,
23
(15),
v/ Q
dv/ p \dt/tl
_
~
(dQ\
(dp\
\dt
(dj>\
(1)
If the mass of the
where
CJp
and
(/
body be m,
are the specific heats at constant pressure and at
constant volume respectively.
Hence
k*
kt
= Cp
CV
in mind that the specific heat of a

under
substance,
any given condition, is the amount of heat which
to
is absorbed when one gramme of the substance rises from
(t + 1) under the given condition, and must remember that, in
The reader must bear
estimating the specific heat, we entirely leave out of account any

energy which may be supplied mechanically, as by the action of a
pressure when the volume diminishes.
In the case of Young's modulus, the state of a given wire is
defined when we know its length and the tension, i.e. the force
per unit area acting across a transverse section, and thus a process
similar to that adopted for
will give
24
where
CT is the
specific
heat for constant tension and
heat for constant length.

In the case of the rigidity,
where
Cp
is
[CH.
the specific heat
we have
in like
for constant
the specific
manner
when p, the shearing
stant, and Ce is the specific heat

the shear have the constant value
stress, is
con-
angle of shear.
If
zero, the shearing stress remains
zero in spite of a change of temperature, for no shearing stress is

required to maintain the cubical form of a cubical block when its
Hence the heat absorbed while the

when
the
shearing stress is zero is equal to
temperature
that absorbed during the same rise of temperature when the shear
Thus Cp for zero
is zero, for the two conditions are identical.
Hence for infinitesimal
stress is identical with C for zero shear.
shears we may write
temperature
is
changed.
rises I
H0
= K.
In practical determinations of the

the shear 6
rigidity,
we
take care that
always very small (perhaps not exceeding j^

in
to keep within the limits of Hookc.'s law.
order
We
radian)
therefore
conclude
in
such
the
same
that,
determinations,
may
is
value of the rigidity will be obtained whether n be found by a

method, where the conditions are isothermal, or by a
statical
dynamical method, where the conditions are more or
less nearly
adiabatic.
Returning to the bulk modulus, we may expect that Cp will

from Gv and that, in consequence, k+ will differ from kt
differ
When
the pressure remains constant while the temperature rises

from t to t + dt, the volume will generally change, and then
external work will be done. On the other hand, when the volume
remains constant while the temperature rises from t to t + dt, the
pressure will generally change, but no external work will be done,
and thus the final conditions of the body are different in the two
Hence we cannot say that equal amounts of heat are
cases.
absorbed in the two cases, even though, as may be the case with
an
elastic solid, the initial pressure
be
zero.
Similar considerations apply to Young's modulus, and thus
we
l]
25
may expect that CT the specific heat for constant tension, will
generally differ from GI, the specific heat for constant length.
In the exceptional case where the substance, when subjected
,
to a constant pressure p, has a point of maximum density at the

temperature t, an infinitesimal change of temperature from t to
t + dt will cause no change of volume, provided the pressure
remain constant, and thus the two conditions of constant volume
and constant pressure become indistinguishable, and Cp becomes
identical with
Cv
The experimental comparison of Op with Cv or of CT with C

would probably be more difficult than the direct experimental
comparison of /fy with k or of E$ with E and thus we must look
t ,
some other method of finding a relation between the adiabatic

and the isothermal values for each of these two moduli.
for
22.
Difference between reciprocals of isothermal and
adiabatic elasticities. Though it is impracticable to calculate
the ratio of the adiabatic to the isothermal value of k or of E from
the ratio of the specific heat for constant stress to that for constant
we can find the difference between the reciprocals of
strain, yet
these values in terms of quantities which can be determined.

We shall now find the difference in the case of the bulk
On the p-v diagram for unit

of
a
mass
substance let All (Fig. 7) be an
an adiabatic line
isothermal line and
modulus.
AC
Let the
entropy.
of
mass
and
volume
unit
the
the
pressure
at A be p, v and let the corresponding
temperature be t. Let the line of conor line of
constant
stant pressure p
dp cut the isothermal
and adiabatic lines through A in B and G
and the line of constant volume v in D,
and let the temperature at C be t dt. Now DB is the increase
of volume which occurs when the pressure falls by dp while the
temperature remains constant, and DC corresponds in a similar
way to constant entropy. Hence
DB = - (dv/dp\dp,
Further,
CB
is
Dtf= - (dv/dp)^ dp.
the increase of volume which occurs
when the
26
temperature
thus
rises
by
[CH.
dt while the pressure remains constant,
and
CB = (dv/dt)p dt.
DB-DC=CB,
But
Here
rises
(15),
we have
which occurs when the pressure

while
the
remains
constant, and hence
by dp,
entropy
dt is the rise of temperature
dt
(dt/dp)^ dp.
But, by Maxwell's second thermodynamic relation *,
(dtldph^dvldfo,
..................... (16)
and thus, since

(dv\ _
/<7?A
(dt\
\d<t>)p ~(dt}p (d4>) p
'
we have
JL
f\
- JL - 1
T ~Fi~v (**-}
\dt)p \d$)p
- - I^Y
But, by (13), since
we have
t
and hence,
dt
v \Jt)p \d
unit mass,
(dcf>/df)p
= (dQ/dt)p = Cp
finally,
! _ 1 - J_
^
~~
--
-V
Cp (vdt)p
kt~vUp \dt)p
From this equation we can find the difference k{~ i^"" when we
know the absolute temperature (), the volume (t;) of unit mass,
1
the specific heat at constant pressure (C^), expressed in mechanical

l
units, and (v~ dvjdt\, the coefficient of cubical expansion under
the constant pressure p.
Since the right side of (17) cannot be negative, it follows that
is
greater than kt unless the substance be at a point of maxik$
mum
or minimum density, like water at 4 C., when the coefficient

of cubical expansion under constant pressure, (v~ l dv/dt)p , vanishes.
When this is the case, k^ is equal to kt
.
* See
Maxwell, Theory of Heat, Chapter IX, or Tait, Heat, Chapter XXI, or
Preston, Theory of Heat, Chapter VIII, Section iv.
l]
In the case of copper at

scale, we have approximately
C.,
when
= 273
27
on the absolute
= Oil c.c.,
(v dv/dt)p = 5 x 10~ degreeCp = 0'095 x 4*2 x 10 = 4 x 106 ergs per grm. per deg.
= 1-7 xlO dyne cm.-2
1
12
L-t
Hence, by
(17),
tvkt /I
fr ^_
A*'
273 x Oil x V7 x 1Q
4x10*-
__
CpUctt/p
**
^ X1U
0-032.
Thus k+ is about 3 per cent, greater than k

The process employed for the bulk modulus can be
t
applied,
with slight changes, to give the difference between the reciprocals

of the adiabatic and the isothermal values of Young's modulus.
If the length of a rod of unit mass and of unit cross-secbion be
I cm., the work which the rod does when I increases
by dl cm.,
Tdl ergs, where T dyne cm.-2 is the tensile stress in the rod.
Comparing this with pdv, the work done by a body in expanding
is
dT for dp and dl
against a pressure p, we see that, if we write
for dv, in Maxwell's equation (16), the resulting equation
(dt/dT)t=-(dl/d<l>) T
will apply to the stretching of
by a
(18)
a rod of unit mass and unit section
tensile stress T.
We
can apply Fig. 7 to this case by measuring T in the

DA and I in the direction DB. Using the definition of
direction
Young's modulus given by equation
(6),
17,
we then
obtain,
DB = - (dljdT\ dT= - (l/E ) dT,

t
DC=- (dl/dT)* dT=- (I/E^) dT,

CB = (dl/dt) T dt.
But
DB -DC= CB, and hence
the rise of temperature which occurs when the tension

by dT, while the entropy remains constant. Hence, by (18),
Here dt
rises
is
dt
= (dt/dT)t dT=-
(dl{d<l>) T
dT,
THEOEY OF ELASTICITY
28
and thus, since

/ dl \
f dt
fdl\
we have
1
1 __ 1 fdl\
we have
But, by (13), since
dl\
__
unit mass,
t (d<f)/d);r
= {dQ/dt)y = CT9
the specific heat under constant tension, and hence finally

1
Et
1 __
-^b
fdl^
lUy
\dtjji
tl_
/I dl\*
(Jy\ldt/T
Hence E$ is greater than t unless (l~ l dljdt) T the coefficient of

linear expansion under constant tension, be zero.
When
there
zero stress, the coefficient of linear expansion
is
is
one-third of that of cubical expansion and also C T is equal to Cp

and thus, since I in (19) is numerically equal to v in (17), it follows
that, when the stresses are infinitesimal, the right side of (19) is
,
Thus
one-ninth of the right side of (17).
W ~Ei~9\h'
t
Or
But, by
19,
Et/h
"TnT"
= 3-6<r,
==
i\
"""
7
and thus
,__,_)(!_*)
When,
as in the case of metals,
<r is
about
and thus E jE^ is much more nearly unity than

In the case of copper at
C., when t = 273, we have approxit
mately
= 1-7 x 10- degree"

= 0-11 cm.
(Z~ dl/dt) T
=
=
CT 0*095 x 4*2 x 10 4 x 10 ergs per grm. per deg.
E = 1'2 x 10 dyne cm.l
fl
12
l]
Hence, by
29
(19),
ft^-ffilgV.l-'rcxO.llxMxl^
CT \L dt) T
4 x 10
b
4,
= 1-0-0026.
Thus, E+ is only about three parts in a thousand greater than t

In most cases the experimental difficulties make it impossible
to measure either
to within one per cent., and hence
t or E+
for most purposes we may disregard the distinction between Et
.
and
Jg^.
We
could find the difference between the reciprocals of the

adiabatic and the isothermal values of the rigidity by a process
but it will be more insimilar to that employed for k and
teresting to deduce the result for n from those obtained for k

and
by aid of the relation connecting n with k and E. Thus,
by equation
(8),
19,
i-l-JL
n~ E 3/j'
1
n
__ Stl
_ J_ "
nt
If
n+
we consider only
free
from
strain,
(19),
dl\*
CT \l dt) T
_ Jy_/l dv\*
3CP
U dtjp
infinitesimal strains in a substance initially
we may put
CT = Cp
(v- dv/dt)p
= 3 (Z-
dl/di) T9
since the coefficient of cubical expansion is three times that of

linear expansion.
Since I is the length of a rod of unit mass and
unit cross-section, it is numerically equal to v, the volume of unit

mass. Hence the right side of (20) is zero, and thus
H*
=n
the same result as that found in
t,
21.
CHAPTER
II.
SOLUTIONS OF SOME SIMPLE ELASTIC PROBLEMS.

23.
Practical applications of the theory of elasticity.
In Chapter I tho elementary principles of elasticity have been

explained, and in Chapter III some experimental methods of
determining the elastic constants will be given. Before we pass

on to those applications of the theory of elasticity, it will be
convenient to give, in the present chapter, the mathematical
solutions of some important problems, since these solutions are
required in connexion with several experiments. The remaining
problems will be considered as they arise in the course of the
experimental work.
Theoretical elasticity suffers from the disadvantage that exact
mathematical solutions for finite strains have been obtained in
very few problems, most of the investigations given in text books
on the subject depending upon the assumption that the strains
In most cases it is further assumed that the

which act on the faces of any element of volume, when
are infinitesimal.
stresses
elastic body is strained, produce the same effects as if the

element had continued to occupy its original position.
This
is
in
but
it
sometimes
leads
many instances,
assumption
justifiable
an
which become erroneous when the strains cease to be

though they may remain very small so small, in
that there is no question as to the possible failure of Hooke's
to results
infinitesimal,
fact,
law.
In this chapter we shall endeavour to indicate the points at

which assumptions are made and to consider the difficulties which
The investigations will perhaps appear rather lengthy, but
arise.
is
it
hoped that this will not be thought a serious disadvantage.
CH.
PRINCIPLE OF SAINT-VENANT
II]
In practical work in
elasticity, additional
31
difficulties
make
their appearance.
Thus, it is seldom, if ever, possible to apply to
the surface of the body the distribution of stress corresponding to
the mathematical solutions given in this chapter, and hence it

often becomes necessary to rely more on the light of instinct,
instructed and guided by quantitative experiments, than on strict
mathematical analysis. In addition, there is the practical difficulty
that
we have no means
of ascertaining to
what extent a given rod
In some
cases, indeed, the experimental

that the theory of isotropic elastic solids, which is
or wire
is non-isotropic.
results
show
given in Chapter
I,
entirely fails to account for the experimental
facts*.
Principle of Saint- Venant.
In mmiy practical cases

of stress over
that
distribution
to
it is impossible
produce exactly
the surface of an elastic body, which is assumed for the purpose of
24.
obtaining a problem capable of solution by comparatively simple

mathematics. In these cases we fall back on a* principle stated by
"
Barre de Saint- Vcnant in 1855.
According to this principle, the
strains that arc produced in a body by the application, to a small
part of its surface, of a system of forces statically equivalent to

zero force and zero couple, are of negligible magnitude at distances
which are large compared with the linear dimensions of the partf."
In any given case, much depends upon what is meant by "strains
"
"
of negligible magnitude and by distances which are large compared with the linear dimensions of the part." But, when the
body takes the form of a rod, there is mathematical evidence to
the effect that
if Si
and S2 denote two
different systems of forces,
which, taken together, are statically equivalent to zero force and

zero couple, and if Si and S2 be simultaneously applied to the rod
the resulting strain at any point diminishes

the
distance
of the point from the end increases
as
very rapidly
and is much less than one hundredth of the strain due to either
near one of
its ends,
Si or $3 acting alone, provided the distance of the point from the

end exceeds twice the greatest width of the transverse section of
the rod.
*
See, for example, EXPERIMENT 8, Chapter III.

H. Love, Treatise on the Mathematical TJteory of Elasticity, Second
.
Edition, p. 129.
f A.
MATHEMATICAL SOLUTIONS
32
[CH.
The
distribution of force over the ends of a rod, which the

simple theory demands in any given case, cannot, as a rule, be
produced in an actual experiment. But Saint-Venant's principle
assures us that, if
we apply
to the rod, in the
neighbourhood of an
end, any distribution of force statically equivalent to the system

which the simple theory assigns to the end of the rod, the state
of stress and strain set
up
in the interior of the rod is practically
the same as in the simple theory, except, of course, in the immediate

An example of the application of
neighbourhood of the end.
41.
Saint-Venant's principle is noticed in
In any particular problem, the principle may be tested by

varying the length of the rod and comparing the results obtained
for different lengths.
PERIMENT
4,
Chapter
Thus, in the Practical Example of EXwas found that, within the error of
III, it
experiment, the angle through which the pointer turned, when a

given couple was applied to the rod, was proportional to the
distance of the pointer from the face of the block into which the
In this experiment the rod is
fixed end of the rod is soldered.
held by forces applied to the curved surface of the rod, while in

the theory of 39 the forces are applied to the plane end of the
rod.
We may conclude that, in the experiment, the strains at
distances from the face of the block exceeding one centimetre did
not differ appreciably from those which would have existed if the
rod had ended in a plane at the face of the block and the forces
discussed in
39 had been applied to that plane.
Dr Filon's
25.
results for tension.
Dr L. N.
G. Filon* has
obtained the necessary mathematical formulae and from them has

deduced numerical results which enable us to gain some idea of
the character of the strain in a circular cylinder under tension,

when the pull is not applied evenly over the ends of the cylinder,
but
is
produced by tangential forces acting on the sides of the
These results show that the strain at a point near the

cylinder.
surface of the cylinder is practically independent of the manner in
which the pull is applied, provided that the distance of the point
*
"On
the elastic equilibrium of circular cylinders under certain practical

Phil. Trans. Royal Society, Vol. 198, A, pp. 147233.
systems of load."
DR FILON S RESULTS FOR TENSION
33
from the nearest point of application of the pull exceeds half the
radius of the cylinder.
Dr Filon considers the case of a cylinder A' (Fig. 8) of length
and
radius a. He takes
2c
C'
B'
A'
Fip. 8-
and supposes that tangential stresses parallel to the axis of the

cylinder of amount p dynes per square cm. are applied to the
The total pull is thus 4f Tracp. The rebands EG and B'G
mainder of the surface of the cylinder is free from stress.
'.
On account of symmetry, the molecules in

will
plane through
cylinder
when the
the central transverse
not be displaced parallel to the axis of the
pull
is
applied.
Denoting by w
central plane,
Dr
the increase of distance of a particle from the

Filon has calculated the ratio of w to w , where
the displacement which the end of the cylinder would have

had if the pull iracp had been uniformly distributed over the
plane ends of the cylinder. The original distance of the particle
Q
is
from the central plane is z and its original distance from the axis
The results in the table * have been calculated for the case in
is r.
which Poisson's ratio

is
(<r) is
and the
total length of the cylinder
half its circumference, so that ira = 2c.
All the particles originally at a distance of c/10 or ?ra/20 from

the central plane would have had the displacement w /10 if the
From the
pull had been applied to the ends of the cylinder.
=
is 0'1097w or
table we see that at the surface, where r
a,
Phil.
8. B. B.
Tram.
Vol. 198, A, p. 172.
34
[CH.
about 10 per cent, greater than w /10, and this approximation to

uniform stretching has been reached in a distance as small as
about a/3 from the nearest point of application of the tangential
force. If the distances CO and C'O had been greater in proportion
diameter of the rod than in Dr Filon's calculations, the
displacements of points near the central plane would have differed
to the
still less
by
from those occurring when the rod
is
uniformly stretched
a force | Troop evenly applied to its plane ends.

Values of
w/w
of points on the surface are much more

to
those
in
a uniformly stretched rod than are the
nearly equal
of
near
the axis. Thus, for points on the
displacements
points
r
where
the
axis,
0,
displacement of the point for which z = c/10
The displacements
only about W /18 instead of w /10. This was to be expected,

since the chief part of the longitudinal pull is borne by the outer
is
layers of the cylinder ; the inner core, therefore, is comparatively

But the difference in the extension of the inner
little stretched.
DR
FILON'S RESULTS
FOB TENSION
35
core and the outer layer is not of much consequence in experiments, since our observations are restricted to the surface of the
cylinder.
The student
will find it instructive to plot
w depends
value of z showing
how
infinitely long rod
XX'
a curve
for
each
r.
upon
In another paper*, Dr Filon has considered the case of an
(Fig. 9) of rectangular section with sides
2a and 26 centimetres, the side 26 being either very great or very

a longitudinal
small compared with the side 2a. To the end
force of 4tabF dynes is evenly applied so that the tension at the
X'
26
4a6F
,'D'
Fig. 9.
is F dynes per square centimetre.

At a great distance from X,
a force of 2abF dynes is evenly applied to the surface of the rod
along each of the lines CD and C'D', in which a transverse plane
end
The
bF dynes per
cuts the rod.
thus
force per unit length of each of these lines is

The lines CC' and DD' have no
centimetre.
applied to them and the end X' is free from stress.

Filon has calculated the elongation e at a point
on the face
CD
at
a
x
a;
distance
from
counted
CD, being
containing
positive
forces
Dr
when
P lies
between
CD
and X.
had been stretched

and X', the
elongation would have had the constant value FjE where E is
Young's modulus ( 17, Chapter I). The following table f, which
by two
If the rod
forces each equal to 4tabF evenly applied at
X
9
* "
On an approximate
section under
solution for the bending of a
beam
of rectangular cross,
any system of load." Phil. Trans. Royal Society, Vol. 201, A,

Some changes have been made in Dr Filon's notation.
pp. 63 155.
t Phil Tram. Vol. 201, A, p. 145.
36
LCH.
has been calculated for the case where Poisson's ratio

the ratio of e to F/E for a series of values of of.
It will
value
F/E
is
gives
be seen that the surface elongation reaches its limiting

with great rapidity. At a distance from the lines of
application of the pull equal to TT&, i.e. equal to about one and
a half times the distance between those lines, the elongation differs
from F/E by only three parts in a thousand.
26.
Dr
Filon's results for torsion.
Dr Filon*
considers a
cylinder A A' (Fig. 10) of length 2c and radius a and supposes that
a uniform tangential stress of

the surface over the bands
T dynes
AB
manner indicated by the
per square cm. is applied to

and A'B', each of width Jc, in the
arrows, the total torsional couple being
thus equal to irtfcT dyne-cm.

*
"On
the elastic equilibrium of circular cylinders under certain practical
systems of load."
Phil.
Tram. Royal
Society, Vol. 198, A, pp.
147233.
DB
FILON'S RESULTS
FOB TOBSION
37
the particles in the central transverse plane

through 0, where z = 0, suffer no rotation round the axis.
If couples
ira?cT, were applied to the plane ends of the
By symmetry,
39, they would produce

cylinder in the manner described in
uniform torsion and would cause the point -4, for which z, the
distance of a point from the central plane, is equal to c, and
equal to a, to move round the circumference of the cylinder

through a distance vQt where
is
and n
which
is
the rigidity*. Under this uniform torsion, a point, for

r
qa, would move through a distance pqvQ at
z=pc and
right angles to the plane containing the axis and the radius r. In
the actual case, when the torsion is caused by stresses applied to
AB
and A'B', this particle will move through a distance v at right angles to the plane containing the axis and the
the bands
radius.
Values of v/v
The expression
for v
may
be deduced from oquaUoa
(28),
89.
38
Dr
[CH.
Filon has calculated* the values of V/VQ for the case in which
ira = 2c.
It will be seen from the table that, as long as #or pc is less than
Hence
\c, the value of v at r
qa is very nearly equal to pqv
and B' the particles move round
between the transverse planes
.
the axis in very nearly the same way as if the cylinder were
uniformly twisted by couples applied to the plane ends in the
manner described in 39.
UNIFORM BENDING OF A ROD.

Introduction.
27.
When
a rod
is
bent,
some of the
longi-
tudinal filaments are lengthened and some are shortened, and thus
it may be expected that the resistance, which the rod offers to
bending, will depend upon Young's modulus for the material. In

the following sections we shall show how to calculate approximately,
in terms of Young's modulus, the system of forces required to
bend a
rod,
when
the bending
is
uniform and small. The exact
solution fox finite bending has not yet been found by any mathematician.
solution, valid for infinitesimal uniform bending, is
given in Note XII. An approximate treatment of non-uniform
bending
We
is
given in Chapter III (EXPERIMENT 10).

a straight rod of uniform section
shall consider the case of
shall suppose that the rod has a plane of symmetry parallel

Then this plane intersects every transverse section
to its length.
in a straight line, which is an axis of symmetry for that section.
and
Bars of rectangular or circular section are examples of such rods.

Let the reader take a steel rule about 0*1 cm. in thickness and
two or three cm. in width and
let
him bend
it.
He
will
then
observe that the transverse section does not remain a rectangle.

The long sides of that section become curved, their centres of
curvature and the centres of curvature of the longitudinal filaments
of the rule lying on opposite sides of the rule. Eough observations
made with the aid of a straight-edge will show that the radius of
curvature of a long side of the transverse section is not more than

three or four times as great as the radius of any longitudinal
filament.
Hence, if we take two sections passing through a
normal to the face of the
steel rule,
one transverse and the other
Phil. Trans. Vol. 198, A, p. 229.
UNIFORM BENDING OF A BOD
Il]
39
section is of the
longitudinal, the deformation of the transverse
same order of magnitude as the deformation of the longitudinal

section, and consequently must be taken into account.
But this curvature of the transverse fibres does not occur to
any appreciable extent when the rod takes the form of a thin
radii of curvature of the longitudinal
strip of metal and the
filaments are small compared with a*/b, where 2a is the width of
the strip and 2& is its thickness. This case therefore requires
will be considered in
35 to 37.
special investigation, and
Strain
28.
and
stress in
a uniformly bent
rod.
We
now investigate the system of forces which must be applied

to a uniform rod to bend it so that all the longitudinal filaments
shall
are bent into circular arcs in planes parallel to a plane of symmetry

of the rod. This plane may now be called the plane of bending.
In order that the bending may be uniform along the length
necessary that the centres of curvature of all the

filaments
should lie on a straight line perpendicular
longitudinal
This straight line may be called the
to the plane of bending.
of the rod,
it is
The uniformity of bending also requires that all

the particles, which lay in transverse planes before the rod was
bent, lie, after the bending, in corresponding planes passing through
the axis of bending. These planes therefore cut the filaments at
axis of bending.
right angles.
We
shall
examine the
strains
and the
stresses
which
exist,
when the
conditions are such that the sides of any longitudinal

filament are entirely free from stress. On account of this condition,
each filament will be free to contract or expand in a transverse

direction
when
its
length
is
increased or diminished, exactly as
if
were isolated from the rest of the rod. We shall show later
that the solution obtained in this way is a good approximation to
what occurs when a rod is bent by couples applied at its ends,
it
provided that the radii of curvature of the longitudinal filaments

are great compared with a2/6, where 2a is the width of the rod,
measured in a direction parallel to the axis of bending, and 26 is
its thickness*.
*
The method we
shall
(Lord Kelvin) and Tait.
employ
is
a modification of that used by Thomson

I. Part n.
711, New Edition.)
(Natural Philosophy, Vol.
40
Though we have
[CH.
specified that the sides of the longitudinal
filaments are free from stress,
we do not exclude
the possibility
may be
necessary to apply to each

element of volume of the rod a force like that due to gravity,
that, to produce equilibrium, it
which may be regarded as acting at a distance. Such an action

be called a "body force" and will be measured in dynes per c.c.
Since the rod is uniformly bent, it follows that the stress on a
transverse section of any longitudinal filament is normal to that
section, and thus the stress is a positive or negative tension.
will
If the cross-section of
stress
any filament be a square cm. and
be a positive tension of
if
the
dynes per square cm., the force
acting across the section is To. dynes. If the radius of curvature

of the filament be r cm. and if the angle between the transverse
planes at the ends of a small portion of the filament of length
The resultant of the two
be 6 radians, we have 6 = s/r.
s cm.
which are applied to the ends of this portion is a force

2jPasin-J-0 dynes at right angles to the filament and parallel to
the plane of bending. When 6 is infinitesimal, the force becomes
Ta0 or Tasjr, a force proportional to the volume, as, of the portion
forces
of the filament.
To maintain equilibrium a
radial "body force" of T/r dynes

"
be
therefore,
must,
supplied by some agent acting at a
per
As such a force does not exist in nature, we shall
distance."
c.c.
32 to 34, what effects are produced when

not supplied. For the present it will be supposed to
consider, in
this force
is
act.
Change of
29.
cross-section due to bending.
One
of
the filaments in the plane of bending will be unchanged in length

when the rod is bent. This filament will be called the neutral
Let the radius of curvature of the circular arc into

bent be p. In Fig. 11* is shown a section of the rod,
when bent, made by a plane containing RH> the axis of bending,
is the point where the neutral filament cuts this plane.
and here
Take rectangular axes OX, OT parallel and perpendicular to EH,
= x and
be the coordinates of any point P of the
let
in K. Then MK=p. The
meet
strained section and let
filament.
which
it is
PN
PMy
For the sake of
PM
RH
clearness, the dimensions of the section have been groatly
increased relatively to the distances
OH, 08.
CHANGE OF CROSS-SECTION
n]
41
is unstretched, since it is at the

longitudinal filament through
as the longitudinal filament through 0,
RH
same distance from
Axis OP BENDING
Fig. 11.
and hence
when
the length,
filament through P, is to
s',
s,
its length,
MK
or as p + y is to p.
longitudinal filament through
is
to
= *'-* =
unstretched, as
(P
+ y)-p = y
we
have,
by
j
PK
Q)
p
be the lateral contraction of the filament and
Poisson's ratio,
We
when
Hence, if the elongation of the

P be e, we have
If
any portion of the
stretched, of
18,
v&
~~
t/
Chapter
j i fj
be
<r
I,
*
can obtain a general idea of how the cross-section is

when the rod is bent, if we remember that, since the
distorted
of every longitudinal filament are free from stress, the

geometrical foftn of the cross-section of the filament remains
Thus, if the cross-section be square, it remains
unchanged.
sides
42
[CH.
Hence any two transverse

square, though changed in area.
fibres which intersected at any angle in the unstrained section
same angle in the strained section, and thus the
which were originally parallel to OX and
Y
are changed by the strain into two sets of curves, such that the
intersect at the
two
sets of fibres
curves of one set intersect the curves of the other set at right
and equipotential lines.

those longitudinal filaments, which cut the plane
when the rod is bent, have suffered a lateral
(Fig. 11) above
have suffered a lateral expansion,
contraction and those below
force
angles, like lines of
XOY
Now
OX
OX
fibres in the plane
and hence the transverse
XOY which
were
OF
are no longer parallel to OF.

Further,
originally parallel to
since the angles of intersection remain unchanged, the transverse
fibres
OX
are bent so that they become

parallel to
of
axis
the
RH,
bending.
(2), the lateral contraction of all the longitudinal
which were
curves convex to
Now, by
OX
is the
filaments which are finally at the same height above
same, and thus, if the curved arc P Q N^ represent that fibre in the
straight rod
which
represented by the straight line PiV in the
is
PN =
bent rod, we have, since
,r,
arc
Hence,
all
the points in the section of the straight rod, whose

OF, measured along curves of the same character
distances from
as P<>NQ , were constant and equal to
Z,
now
lie
upon the straight
line
a-1.
fI + p
in the straight rod will have a definite

If we treat
radius of curvature q in the neighbourhood of
Q
#o as part of a circle of radius q and denote by # the per-
Any
fibre
such as
-ZV
pendicular distance of
P
a?
from OF, we have
= q sin (l/q),
1.3
ll]
Thus approximately, when
oc
43
/q is small,
Hence, if .r = q/W, the difference between I and # is approximately

#o/600 and thus, when # does not exceed 5/10, we may neglect
the difference. In this case we may consider that the transverse
fibre in the unbent rod which is straight and has the equation
= constant
transformed by the bending of the rod into the straight fibre

aving the equation
is
This straight line
OX
in Q,
where
is
represented by
OQ = x0t
and
OF in
8,
SQ
in Fig. 11.
where
OS = p/o:
It cuts
Thus,
to our degree of approximation, OQ is equal to the original length

of the fibre which is represented by PjV in the bent rod.
Since
independent of #<,, the point

straight lines which are parallel to
p/a- is
is fixed,
OF in
and hence
all
the
the unstrained section
are changed into straight lines passing through 8.

the distance OS by p' t we have
If
we denote
OS = p' = p/<r ......................... (5)

Since the lines originally parallel to
OX
are strained so as to
cut at right angles the lines which were originally parallel to OF,
it follows that the former are changed by the strain into arcs of
circles
having
as a
common
centre.
and originally
Hence the transverse fibre passing through
is strained into the form of a circle of radius
perpendicular to
OF
p'=pf<r.
When y is small compared with p, the radius of curvature q

which
of any transverse fibre in the straight rod (such as
9
),
in the bent rod, is approximately equal
becomes parallel to
to p, and hence (3) may be written
PN
OX
XQ
2
_ #
a
~^T~67
'
investigation applies with great accuracy so long

as p is not less than 10 times the greatest value of .r
Thus the above
44
[CH.
The
longitudinal filaments which lay in the plane through

perpendicular to OF, when the rod was unstrained, are strained so
upon an anticlastic surface having radii of curvature p

f
and p in the principal sections at 0, the two centres of curvature,
R and S, lying on opposite sides of the surface*.
To complete the investigation of the change of form of the
and
transverse section, we will find how the distance 97 between
on the axis OF in the strained section depends on the
any point
as to lie
y between the corresponding points in the unstrained

Y we take a neighbouring point defined by 77 + drj,
section. If on
its distance from the first point is changed by the strain from
dy to drj, and hence the lateral contraction f is
distance
Hence by
(2)
and
(5)
dy~
~*'
SS
""?
P~
Now, in the case of metals, Hooke's law begins to fail when the
and thus we see from (1) that, in
elongation e exceeds about
y^
practical measurements, p should be so large in comparison with
the thickness of the rod in the plane of bending that the maxivalue of rj/p does not exceed y^. Thus since, by
19,
mum
Chapter
I,
a cannot be
arj/p will not
exceed
in an isotropic elastic solid,

greater than
and
it will suffice to write yQ for rj
thus
^3-
on the right side of (6).

on integration,
The
exact solution
which
is
Then, since
is easily
97
= when
= 0, we
obtain,
found to be
nearly the same as (7)
when y /p
is
small.
We
can now construct a diagram to show the distortion of the

transverse section of a rectangular rod. In Fig. 12,
is the point
*
Fig. 18
may
assist the reader to realise the character of
an
anticlastic surface.
II]
45
where the neutral filament cuts the plane of the paper, and 8 is
the centre of curvature of those transverse filaments which are
The sides AB, CD,

initially parallel to the axis of bending.
which were initially parallel to OS, become straight lines A'B',
C'D' passing through S, the distance 08 being equal to p or p/<r,
while the sides BO, AD become circular arcs with 8 as centre.
Fig. 12.
AB
Two
BC
and to
sets of straight lines parallel to
and dividing
the section into equal infinitesimal squares is transformed by the
strain into a set of radii
and a
set of circular arcs
strained section into infinitesimal squares.

a mesh of the strained net-work increases as
A'D
r
>
which divide the
The area enclosed by

we pass from B'C' to
as appears from (6).

distortion of the cross-section of a rod of any section can
The
46
[CH.
be found by the aid of Fig. 12. On the net-work of straight lines

drawn on the section of the unstrained rod we mark a set of
points lying on the boundary of the unstrained section, and then
mark on the net-work of radii and circular arcs a second set of
points corresponding to the
the second set
30.
is
first set.
The curve drawn through
the boundary of the strained section.
Position of the neutral filament.
The
resultant effect
of the normal stresses across any transverse section may be reduced

which acts at right angles to the section and will
to (a) a force
be taken as acting along the tangent to the neutral filament, and

to the plane of
(6) a couple G, having its axis perpendicular
bending*.
conditions, the sides of a longitudinal
Under the assumed
filament are free from stress and thus, by (5),

if T be the tension in a longitudinal filament.
by
17,
Chapter I,
Hence,
T=Ee.
(1)
T=Eyjp
(8)
If a be an element of the strained section at a distance
y from OX,
we have
JF=:$ra = -2ay.
The
(9)
resultant of the two forces which act at the ends of a
portion of the bent rod comprised between two transverse planes

inclined at an infinitesimal angle 6 is F0, and hence, since this
portion corresponds to a length p6 of the neutral axis, we see that
the resultant of the body forces per unit of length of the neutral
axis is F/p.
Now
any distribution of normal stress over the transverse

T=lSy/p, together with the body force T/r or
unit
volume will bend the rod in such a way that
per
section such that
Tl(y + p)
the sides of the longitudinal filaments are free from stress, but
to different distributions there will correspond different neutral
filaments.
The most important

the force
distribution of stress
is
that for which
F vanishes, for then F/p, the resultant of the body forces

* See Note
I.
BENDING MOMENT
II]
47
per unit length of the neutral axis, vanishes also. In this case
the body forces could be supposed to arise from mutual actions
occurring within the rod and would not require the operation of
any external agent.
The
force
F will
vanish provided that
2y =
But ây = Ah
h
where
is
............................ (10)
the area of the strained section and
the distance of the "centre of gravity" or centroid of the

Hence h = 0, or, in other words, the neutral
section above OX.
filament passes through the centre of gravity of the strained
is
When
section.
the deformation of the transverse section
is
very
we may
consider that the longitudinal filament through the

small,
centre of gravity of the unstrained section remains unchanged in
length and is therefore the neutral filament.

Since the force
vanishes, the stresses acting across any transverse section are equivalent to a couple.
31.
Bending moment.
moments about the
By
4,
Chapter
I,
the
sum
of the
OX
(Fig. 11) of the forces exerted on

the part of the rod on one side of the transverse section by the
tensions in the longitudinal filaments is equal and opposite to the
"
bending moment," i.e. the moment about the same axis of the
axis
forces applied to the same part of the rod.

The force due to the
in a filament of section a. is To, and this force acts at a
tension
distance y from
OX. Hence, by
(8), if
G be
the bending moment,
But Say2
is
the "
section about the
moment of inertia " of the area of the strained

axis OX.
If Say3 be denoted by /, we have*
When the rod is bent by couples applied to its ends, the neutral
filament passes through the centre of gravity of the strained
"
section ( 30) and then / is the
moment of inertia " of the
strained section about
an
axis through its centre of gravity per-
pendicular to the plane of bending.

*
The values
of
I for some simple forms of area are given in Note IV,
12.
48
Since the deformation of the transverse section
[CH.
is
very small
in practical work, we may take I as equal to 7 the "moment of

"
inertia of the unstrained section about an axis through its centre
of gravity at right angles to the plane of bending, unless the rod

takes the form of a blade. In this case (11) no longer gives the
couple when l/p becomes at all large compared with 6/a where
and 2b is its thickness.
2a is the width of the blade parallel to
2
OX
We
shall see in
37 that
we must now
write
Equation (11) is of fundamental importance in the theory

of the bending of rods and is frequently required in practical
work.
Removal of the "body-forces." We must now

32.
examine the effects which would follow the removal of the " body
"
forces which were introduced in
28 to ensure that the sides of
the longitudinal filaments should be free from stress. The removal
may be effected by superposing a second set of body forces equal
in magnitude to those already applied, but with opposite directions.
We may regard the results of
29,
30 and 31 as good approximations
to the results corresponding to the natural case in which a rod is

bent by couples applied to its ends and is not acted on by any
body
in
provided that the form found for the strained section

not perceptibly changed when the second set of body
forces,
29
is
forces is applied.
In Fig.
11, the coordinates of
be the body force at

But, by
(8),
and hence
P are x, y and hence, by
28, if
Y= T/(p + y) dynes per c.c.

T=Ey/p
Ev
F= ,
^
p(p+y)
Now the volume of a portion of a longitudinal filament which

has the cross-section dxdy and is terminated by a pair of transis (p + y)0 dx dy, and hence
verse planes inclined at a small angle
the force acting on this element is
Y(p + y)0d&dy dynes,
or
EOydxdy/p .......................... (12)
REMOVAL OF BODY-FORCES
II]
Thus the
force is proportional to
49
y and acts upwards or downwards
OX. When the rod is bent by

according as
couples, the resultant of the "body forces" on any portion bounded
is a
by a pair of transverse planes is zero, and hence, since
is above or below
OF
line of
symmetry
for this section, the
"
body
forces
"
which act on
OF
the part of the wedge of angle 6 which lies on one side of

must
themselves have a zero resultant and are thus equivalent to a
couple.
If we consider the total force acting on
an elementary wedge of
to
angle 9 and width dx, extending from
(Fig. 11), we see
and that it will nearly vanish
that it vanishes when
MV= MV
when
M V and M V are nearly equal.
When
is
initially symmetrical with respect to
that
in
the neighbourhood of OF,
is
see, by
29,
and hence, since
less than
is the centre of
gravity of the
OX, we
the cross-section
MV
MV
strained section,
MV
definite value*.
Hence the
MV
PN
when
exceeds some
greater than
reversed forces which correspond to the
will give rise to a couple
part of the section to the right of
of
the
curvature
to
the
transverse
fibres which had
destroy
tending
is
OF
been bent into circular arcs, and will cause new stresses in these
transverse fibres. It would be difficult to determine the precise
values of these new stresses, but it is clear that there will be a
positive tension in the transverse fibres near

(Fig. 11)
in
the
tension
transverse
fibres
near
U'.
negative
To make the
discussion as definite as possible
we
and a
shall consider
the case of a bar of rectangular section, having a width 2a

parallel to OX, i.e. parallel to the axis of bending, and a thickness
26 parallel to OF.
Case of a rod. If a straight line be drawn between the

33.
ends of the circular arc passing through the point
(Fig. 12), the
8
arc
the
the
from
distance
of
chord
is
greatest
approximately a /2p' ;
when
MV
MV
and
(Fig. 11) will be nearly equal,
the centre of gravity of the strained section. In this
"
case the bending moment due to the reversed " body forces will
this is small
since
is
be small.
we may
same
2
time, 6 be large compared with a /2//,
expect that the change of section due to the reversed
If,
at the
These statements are
illustrated in Fig. 12.
50
[CH.
"
body forces" will be small, in which case the distortion represented

by Fig. 12 will be a good approximation to that which actually
occurs when a rod is bent by couples and no "body force" is
supplied.
In the Practical Example of EXPERIMENT

rod was such that a
The
= 1*24, b = 0*15
9,
Chapter
cm. and thus a8/2i
III, the
= 5'13
cm.
in the experiments was 485 cm., or nearly

/>'
In such a case the effect of the reversed " body
least value of
100 times a2/26.

"
forces may be safely neglected.
34.
Case of a blade.
bending of the rod
When
a/b is great, a quite moderate

to cause p' to be small compared
be great compared with a as well as
is sufficient
with a?/2b, although p' may

b.
Thus, it is quite easjr to bend a blade or strip of thin
metal, for which b = 0*01 cm., so that p, the radius of curvature of
with
10 cm. The value of p' deduced from

then about 30 or 40 cm. according to the
value of <r. But a need be no greater than 2cm. to make
a2/26 = 200 cm., and then a 2/26 much exceeds p', and a 2 /2p' much
the longitudinal
/
the formula p =
exceeds
fibres, is
p/<r is
b.
2
case in which p is small compared with a /26 is of some
interest, since, under these conditions, the actual distortion of the
The
REMOVAL OF BODY-FORCES
II]
cross-section,
when the blade
discussed in
29 and
51
bent, differs entirely from that

shall therefore
represented in Fig. 12.
is
We
consider this case in some detail.
Let AB (Fig. 13) represent the section of the bent blade and
be the point on OF which is midway between the curved
let
sides of the section.
may
By
we see that, when a/p' is small, we

ACB, which is midway between the
29,
take the dotted curve
sides of the section, to be
We
must
first
an arc of a
circle of radius p.
find the distance of
gravity of the strained section.
If
OC
from 0, the centre of

p, the curve AGE may
be represented approximately by
To
find
with 0.
p we
express the fact that the centre of gravity coincides

if h be the ordiiiate of the centre
Thus approximately,
of gravity of the section
ACB,
=2
But
= 0,
21 d*
and hence
j>
so that the equation to
Let
= 46 fV/2// -/>) dx
/o
M be the
ACB
=
is
moment about an
axis through C, perpendicular to

the plane of Fig. 13, of the "body forces" which act on the half
(corresponding to AC) of a portion of the blade bounded by two
transverse planes inclined at a small angle

26 for dy in (12), we find
,,
j|f^
EOF*
P Jo
The
OJ
xy.$bdx
-H
= 2bE0[
0.
Then
if
we
write
PR Jo
OF
section of this portion of the blade in a plane through

perpendicular to the plane of Fig. 13 is approximately a rectangle
52
with sides
pff
and
[CH
and thus, if J be the moment of inertia ol

an axis through C perpendicular to the plane
26,
this rectangle about
of the figure*,
In finding 1/R, the change of transverse curvature which the

"
"
reversed body forces would produce in the portion of the blade
under consideration, we must remember that the fibres at right
angles to the plane of Fig. 13 are unable to change in length
owing to their connexion with the neighbouring parts of the blade

and we must make allowance for this in the manner described in
We
35, 36, 37.
applying the formula
can then make a rough estimate of

37 to this case and writing
('22) of
by
Hence
EJ
when /o 3 = 15a4/128fc2 or p =
Hence we may expect that, when p is less than a2/36, the
If
cr
12 will
equal p
section
of the blade, instead of being bounded by radii and arcs of concentric circles will be practically a rectangle A' OB' with a slight
distortion at each end as shown by the dotted lines in Fig. 13.
The reader may easily confirm this expectation by bending a thin
strip of metal so that p is less
the anticlastic curvature of Fig.
than aa/36. It will be seen that

12 no longer exists.
UNIFORM BENDING OF A BLADE.

35.
Introduction.
bending of a rod
free
from
stress
In
28 to 33 we have investigated the
when the
and
sides of the longitudinal filaments are

have found that the cross-section will be
But experiment shows that when a blade,

a long and wide strip of thin metal, is uniformly bent, it does nob
differ appreciably from part of a circular cylinder, however
great the
distorted as in Fig. 12.
i.e.
curvature
may
be,
and thus the transverse

* See Note
IV,
12.
fibres originally parallel
n]
53
bending are not appreciably bent. Since, for the

29 entirely fails in this case,
reasons given in 34, the theory of
a fresh investigation is required.
We shall now consider the bending of a blade when the
to the axis of
conditions are such that the transverse fibres originally parallel

and perpendicular to the axis of bending remain parallel and
28, we shall
perpendicular to that axis after bending. As in
introduce a "body force" to counterbalance the radial force due to
the tensions on the ends of any element of a longitudinal filament.

The blade before it is bent is a rectangular block of length 2Z ,
and a is great compared with b

bent, the filaments parallel to the length 2/ lie along
of width 2a and of thickness 26
When
it is
circular arcs.
Let
ABOD
(Fig. 14)
be a section of the blade when bent, the
AD being parallel to RH, the axis of bending. Let AD = 2a

and AB = 26. Since all the transverse fibres perpendicular to RH
side
remain straight and perpendicular to
RH,
the lateral expansion

is the same.
of every part of each of these fibres parallel to
RH
This expansion will be denoted by u cm. per cm.
Axis OF BENDING
Fig. 14.
Let
OX be the
straight line intersected by all the unstretched

filaments
and let the small rectangle
longitudinal
represent an
=
element of area of unit length OQ and width dy, where
y*
PO
54
Since the element
P retains
its
[CH.
rectangular form, the stresses
on the sides of the longitudinal filament of which P is a section

must be normal to those sides. The introduction of the "body
"
force relieves the sides parallel to OX of stress and there only
remains a normal stress on the sides parallel to OF. This we
shall
suppose
is
a tension of S dynes per square cm.
Just as in
through
P be
29, if
The
longitu-
T dynes
per square cm.

the elongation of the longitudinal filament
dinal tension of the filament is
e,
where 012 = p.
= y/P>
is due to the stresses T and S

no pressure or tension in a direction at right
angles to both T and S. The stress T causes an elongation TjE
and the stress S a contraction aS/E, both in the direction of T.
This elongation
alone, since there
is
Thus
T-<T8 = Ee =
(13)
Eij!p
Similarly, the tension 8 causes an elongation 8/E and the tension

a contraction <rT/E parallel to OX, and thus
-<rT + 8 = Eu
From
If
we
(14)
(13) and (14) we obtain

rEtt
(15)
Eu
(16)
could assume that the width of the blade remains un-
changed, so that u
= 0, we
could at once find
and
in terms
of y. But there do not appear to be any grounds for this

The
assumption and hence the value of u must be found.
calculation shows, however, that u
second order of small quantities.
36.
is
negligible, being
Position of neutral filaments.
ABCD
of the
If h be the height
above OX, and

of the centre of gravity of the area
in
and L respectively, we have
cut
and
and
AD
OY
OD = 6
h,
and thus
/h+b
>Jy=*>>
if
BG
OK=b + h
UNIFOBM BENDING OF A BLADE
Il]
Further,
if
/ be the moment
ment
55
of inertia of the section about
OX,
rh+b
I=2a
J
h-b'
bent by couples, the resultant of the stress T

over the area A BCD is zero. Using the first two of the above
When
the blade
integrals,
we
is
by (15) that
find
rh + b
(1
V
a' J
)
Jh-b
T. 2ady
J=
But the
is zero,
(*Ehb
1
integral on the
and hence
h So-Eon,}- 2a.
left side is zero, since
the resultant force
u=-l!ap
When
(17)
bent by couples, the total force across a section

of the blade made by a plane perpendicular to the axis of bending
is zero, and thus, since the area of the curved strip of this section
the blade
is
corresponding to dy
is
proportional to p
rh
rh
+b
J h
+ y, we
have
.(18)
Multiplying (1C) by p
+-
y and
integrating,
we
find
f*+ 6
(l-cr')J
so that
Substituting the value of u given by (17),

equation for h. Thus
we
obtain a quadratic
Hence
Since h is very small in comparison with /o, we select the positive

sign for the square root. Now the second term under the square
root is small compared with unity, and thus, by expanding, we
obtain the approximate value
56
When
the bending
is slight,
is
[CH.
very small.
Thus,
if a-
J,
we have
By
is
(17), the lateral expansion, u,
given by
<rp
When
the
the bending
first order,
is
so slight that b/p is a small quantity of

a small quantity of the second order and may
is
be neglected. Hence, to this order of accuracy, we may say that

the width of the blade parallel to the axis of bending remains
unchanged.
Bending moment. If the bending moment about

be G dyne-cm., we have, since, by (17), oru =
h/p,
37.
axis
OX
This
is
the accurate value of
in terms of 2a
When
by a and
&
of the section of the bent blade.
with
6,
we may
replace a
and
()
and
2?>,
the sides
is
groat compared
the values for the
2
3
may neglect A in comparison with î
s
takes the value / = |a 6
Hence, when b /p is small,
unbent blade, and

jf
the
Then
< 22>
Thus
Cr is greater than the value EI^p given by the theory of

in
the proportion of 1 to 1 - <r 2. The difference is, however,
31
never great, since <r is about J for metals and cannot exceed % in
isotropic solids.
When
the bending
is
so slight that b/p is small,
neglect the effects of the "body force," since this
Tj(p + y)
is
we may
equal to
or approximately to Ey (1
a3)" 1 p~2 and can be made
as small as we please compared with
and 8 by sufficiently
,
increasing p.
CHANGE OF TYPE OF BENDING
II]
57
But when we bend a blade by couples applied to its ends, the

S indicated by the arrows (Fig. 14) are not applied to
the edges AB and CD. We can however correct our solution by
tensions
AB
applying to
and
CD
a set of tensions equal to 8 but with

shown by the dotted arrows. These
their directions reversed, as
reversed tensions will tend to change the section of the blade,

but as soon as the section is changed the changed tension in the
longitudinal filaments near the edge of the blade will give rise
to radial forces tending to counteract the effects of the reversed
Experiment shows that any distortion which the section

AB and CD is exceedingly small and
cannot be made appreciable by increasing the curvature
tensions.
may
suffer near the edges
that
it
of the longitudinal filaments. We therefore conclude, that, when

the width of the blade is great compared with its thickness, a
pair of couples applied to the ends of the blade will bend it so
that its surfaces do not differ appreciably from the cylindrical
form, provided that the radius of curvature be small enough to
the product of the radius and the thickness of the blade

small compared with the square of the width of the blade. In
this case we may regard (22) as giving a nearly accurate value for
make
the bending moment.

38.
Change of type of bending.
When
the bending
is
very slight, so that a?/p is very small compared with 6, the section
of the blade will be changed in the manner described in 29. The
bending moment
will
then be connected with the curvature by
the equation
0-^.
P
But,
when the bending
compared with b,
and the bending moment
is
there will
increased so that a*/p becomes large

be no appreciable change of section,
will
now be
(1-,
The blade
consequently a little less stiff for small curvatures

than for large ones. As the curvature is increased from zero to a
large value, the product Gp will gradually change from JE7 to
is
58
[CH.
It would be interesting to endeavour to detect experimentally

the change in the product Gp as the bending proceeds. If the
method of EXPERIMENT 12, Chapter III, be employed, success will
largely depend upon a proper choice of the section of the blade
and upon the use of a
sensitive
and accurate instrument
for
measuring the displacement of the centre of the blade. The

bending of the blade under its own weight should be made as
small as possible by the use of a short blade and by a proper
choice of the distance between the knife edges.
The blade used

is
in the Practical
Example of EXPERIMENT 12
For
not suitable for the suggested experiment.
= 2-521 cm., b = 0*02406

=
204 cin.
105 and a-'b
a/b
a
and hence
this blade,
cm.
;
thus p must exceod 2000 cm. if it is to be considered great

The unavoidable curvature due to the
compared with a-/b.
weight of the blade

1
1/2000 cm."" and thus
,
is
of
it will
the same order of magnitude as

be understood that an attempt to
A blade
detect the change of type of bending led to no result.

with a larger value of a/b should be used.
UNIFORM TORSION OF A KOUND ROD.

couple and twist.
cm. and radius a cm.,
Consider a round rod or wire of length
having plane ends A, B, at right angles to the axis, and let us
39.
Relation between torsional
enquire if it be possible to apply such a distribution of forces to

the rod that it shall suffer a uniform torsion, in which the distances
of every particle from the axis and from the plane

remain
in
one
normal
and
all
the
section
describe
any
particles
unchanged
be fixed and
equal angles about the axis. If the particles at
those at
describe angles of < radians about the axis, the twist
per unit length is <f>/l radians per cm.
Consider a portion AC (Fig. 15) of the rod in the form of a thin

tube of length h cm. and radii r and r + dr cm., the end A being
fixed.
point Q on the end C describes the angle QOQ' or h<f>/l
radians about the axis and therefore moves through hrfyl cm.
Thus the thin prism PQ, which is cut
relative to the fixed end.
UNIFORM TORSION OF A ROUND ROD
59
out by a pair of radial planes, is strained into the figure PQ'.

Since for strains within the elastic limit the angle QPQ' is very
we may treat its tangent and its

Thus QPQ' = QQ'/QP=*r(l>/l radians.
small,
has suffered a shear
r<f>/l
measure as identical.
In other words, the prism
in the plane QPQ'. There is no change
circular
Fig. 15.
of volume, for the radial width, the width measured round the
circumference of the cylinder and the height all remain unchanged.
There is no shear in a plane containing the axis and no shear in a
plane normal to the axis.

is the whole strain.
By Chapter I,
Hence the shear
14, this strain
r<f>/l
in the plane
QPQ'
can be produced in the prism
PQ
2
by tangential stresses nrfyjl dynes cm." acting on the ends P, Q
parallel to the plane QPQ', together with tangential stresses of
equal amounts parallel to the axis acting on the radial faces.
The
by the action of the neighbouring

Thus, the only stress on the ends of the
the tangential stress nr^fl dynes cm.~ 2
If the cross
latter stresses are provided
prisms in the tube.
prism
is
section of the prism be a square cm., the tangential force is

2
n<f>/l
anr<j>/l dynes, and the moment of this about the axis is ar
.
moment of all the forces which act across

dyne-cm.
the whole section of the rod be (?, we have
If the total
as
(n<f>/l)
Sar2 dyne-cm.
It is important to notice that the

given strain does not
imply the
action of any forces on the cylindrical surface of the rod.
60
The quantity
Sow*2 is the
"
moment
of inertia
cross-section of the rod about the axis.
once by the integral calculus.

element of area, we have, for a
/a
of the area of
Its value can
For, if
circle
[CH.
"
we take
be found at
Zfrrdr as the
of radius a cm,,
cm. 4
A method of
calculus
is
2
calculating the value of Sow without the use of the
given in Note IV, 12. Hence
G=
7rn0 4 <f>
Thus,
if
we can
find
,-_,.
dyne-cm
2l
(23)
by experiment the couple corresponding
the twist <, the value of n can be deduced from (23).

The quantity 2ar 2 is sometimes called the " second
to
moment
"
of the area about the axis.
Since there
is
no
stress
on the cylindrical surfaces of an
elementary tube, such as that shown in Fig. 15, it follows that

the investigation applies to any tube bounded by two circular
and coaxal
cylinders.
If a, b be the radii of the cylinders,
we
have
4 777? (
6 6
n
Cr =
4
ifij
2tl
dyne-cm.
In this calculation it has been assumed that the material is

homogeneous and isotropic, a condition improbable in the case of
a wire, where the material has been made to "flow" in the wiredrawing process.
When
the material
is
not isotropic and homo-
geneous, there is no such thing as the rigidity of the material

and, hence, the application of (23) to the experimental value of
the ratio of the couple to the twist only leads to a sort of average
value of the rigidity, such that an isotropic and homogeneous rod

of length I and radius a, formed of material with this rigidity,
would
offer
the same resistance to torsion as the rod used in the
experiment.
40.
Rods of non-oircular
section.
a rod of circular section, the couple

connected by the equation
for
We have seen
and the twist
that,
are
TORSION OF NON-CIRCULAR RODS
Jl]
61
is the "moment of inertia" of the section of the rod

about the axis of the rod. But it does not follow and it is not
true that, for a rod of any other section, Gl/n<f> is equal to the
Here Sar2
"
moment
"
of inertia
of the section.
It can
be shown
that, in the
general case, the surfaces, which are initially perpendicular to

the axis of the rod, cease to be plane when the rod is twisted,
and thus the investigation of 39 does not apply to the general

case.
Complete solutions have been obtained for several forms of
For
section, and the following values of Gl/n<f) have been found.
"
comparison we give in each case the value of /, the moment of
inertia" of the area of the section about an axis through its centre
of gravity and perpendicular to its plane (see Note IV,

12).
It will be seen that in every case, except that of a circular
section, Gl/n<f> is less than J, the "moment of inertia" of the
section.
Circular area, radius
Gl
a.
= i$7ra
Elliptical area, axes 2a, 26.

3 3
Gl
7ra 6
n<f>
rz
m has the values 0,
For a square,
1, 2,
J = 1-^6 (a2 + 6 )
2
'
Rectangular area, sides 2a,
where
4
1T = i
$7ro-
(24)
26.
...,
this gives
Gl/n<f>
= 2-2492a
7=3a4 = 2'6666...a ....... (26)

4
4
,
series of
greater than 36, the sum of the infinite
is contained within the brackets in
which
hyperbolic tangents,
in 10,000 from
(25), ditiers by less than two parts
When a
its
value
is
when
a/6
Thus, when a >
is infinite.
(?//w<
= a&
36,
we may put
(^-3-3616/a)................ (27)
bee Pale, Five-Figure Tables, p. 92.
62
[CH.
Practical approximation.
In practical cases it is
to
the
to
of
ends
the rod the ideal disimpossible
apply
plane
tribution of tangential force, in which the force per unit area at
41.
each point
axis.
But
is
proportional to the distance of the point from the

easily understood that any distribution of force
it is
over the cylindrical surface of the rod near one end will produce
some distance from that end the same
at
strain as the ideal distribution provided

that the couples due to the two are equal.
Thus, suppose that the ends of the rod
AB
(Fig. 10) are soldered into two stout

blocks, C, D.
Then, if the rod be twisted
by means of these
blocks, forces are apover

the
curved
surface of the rod
plied
and the
between the planes A and
any point P between A and B

will not be quite the same as if the ideal
F
distribution had been applied to the section
Fig. 16.
A, even though the two distributions have
the same moment G.
But, when AP exceeds two or three
diameters, the difference between the strains at P will be
For suppose that a couple G is applied to the
inappreciable.
cylindrical surface of AE by means of the block C and that
- G is applied to the section A, the
simultaneously a couple
strain at
manner. Since these couples

at
are in equilibrium, no couple is required to hold the block
rest, and, without calculation, we may infer that the strain due to
the two opposing couples will be insensible when the distance
force being distributed in the ideal
AP
exceeds a few diameters. In other words, the strain at P, due to a

couple G applied by the block (7, is practically identical with that
produced by an equal couple applied in the ideal manner over the

This result
section A, provided that PA exceed a few diameters.
furnishes an illustration of Saint- Venant's principle ( 24).
In
cases
the
of
rod
is
the
times
its
length
very many
practical
diameter and hence, in these cases, it is sufficiently accurate to
assume that the uniform torsion extends up to the sections A, B.
UNIFORM TORSION OF A BLADE
63
UNIFORM TORSION OF A BLADE.

Introduction. In treatises on the mathematical theory
42.
of elasticity, the couple required to produce a given twist in a rod
of rectangular section is deduced from the general equations of
elasticity
by the aid of Fourier
analysis, the result
being expressed
in the form of an infinite series, as in equation (25) of

40.
The
use of the Fourier mathematics is unavoidable unless one side of
the section is very small compared with an adjacent side. In this

case the couple can be calculated by simple methods.
shall consider a blade of length Z, of width 2a and of very
small thickness 2b cm. and shall find the couple (G dyne-cm.)
We
required to twist one end of the blade through an angle of <f> radians
The twist per centimetre will be denoted
relative to the other end.
by T
thus
T = </Z radians per
Geometry of a
43.
helicoid.
cm
We
(28)
shall first consider the
uniform torsion of a strip of a mathematical

Let ABCDA'D'B' (Fig. 17) be a
plane.
rectangular portion of a plane, and let rectangular axes OX, OF, OZ be drawn through
the centre 0, the axes OX, OZ being perpendicular to the edges of the strip, while
is perpendicular to the paper
the axis
OF
and
is
directed a way
from the
reader.
Let
the strip be now deformed in such a way

that a line on the strip initially parallel to
OA
and at a distance z from
OA
is
turned
about the axis of e through an angle rz,

the positive direction of rotation being connected with the direction
way
as
OZ
in the
same
the rotation and translation of a
right-handed screw working in a fixed nut.

The edges of the strip which were initially
Fig. 17.
OZ thus become uniform right-handed helices making

one turn about the axis in a length of 27T/T cm. The new surface
is called a helicoid.
parallel to
64
If the initial coordinates of a point on the strip are

they will be changed by the twisting to x, y, z, where
*=
coB(T0,
On
= fsin(Tf), *=
CH
f, 0, f,
(29)
and f from these equations, we obtain
eliminating
the equation to the helicoid
2/
= #tan(T5)
for
(30)
When TZ is very small compared with a radian, we may write

TZ instead of tan (TZ), and thus, in the neighbourhood of OA, the
surface
may be
represented by the equation
y^Tocz
We
shall
now
OP
on OX, where
a?'
+p
f r
x in
(31)
find the curvature of the helicoid at
p.
If
we move
any point
P by writing
becomes
the origin to
(31)i the equation to the surface
y = r(x'+p)s
Now
(32)
new
y and cutting the

at an angle
to OX.
if x', y, s be the coordinates of a point on the curve of interjection of the plane and the helicoid at a distance r from the new
take a plane containing the
plane
Then,
OXZ
in a straight line
axis of
PQ inclined
axis of y,
we have
x'
and thus, by
= r cos 0,
r sin
0,
(32),
y=z T (r cos
+p)r sin 0.
For a given value of 0, this equation shows tho form of the

curve of intersection. By 79, Chapter III, the curvature, !//>, of
this curve at the point
Since
we
P is given
by
desire the curvature at P,
result after the differentiations have
we must put r =
been performed.
in this
We
thus
obtain
l/p=2Tsin0cos0tl
is
sin2
0}~*
(33)
negligible in comparison with unity,

and has the
independent of the position of
If rp be so small that
the curvature
+T^
r^p* is
value
(34)
GEOMETRY OF A HELICOID
II]
65
be seen* that the convexity of the curve of intersection

lies between
the reader when
and JTT or
towards
is turned
other
hand
the
the
TT.
between TT and f
On
convexity is turned
It will
away from the reader when 6
lies between ^TT and TT or between

and 277.
For the physical applications we require the curvature of the
section of the helicoid made by a plane which contains the normal
to the helicoid at P and is inclined at an angle 6 to OX.
But,
when rp is very small compared with unity, the angle between this
normal and the new axis of y is very small, and then (34) will give
f?r
an approximate value for the curvature of the section of the;

helicoid made by a plane containing the normal.
By the methods of Solid Geometry we can show, from the exact
equation (30), that the accurate expression for the curvature
is
I_rsin2g
p~l+Ty
which agrees with (34) when rp
is infinitesimal.
From (34) we see that the curvature vanishes when 6 = and

= ^7T and that it has the extreme values r when
when
6 = J TT. Thus, straight lines initially parallel to OA or 00
remain straight, while straight lines initially inclined at JTT to OA
are bent to the radius 1/r, the convexity being towards the reader,
and those initially inclined at
|TT are bent to the same radius
but with their convexity turned away from the reader. Thus the
and at every point the principal

have the constant values
1/r.
If we take any two neighbouring points on the rectangular
strip, the distance between them remains unchanged when the
strip is deformed into a helicoid, provided that the distance of
either point from the axis be small compared with 1/r.
For, if
helicoid has anticlastic curvature,
radii of curvature
the two points
(>
(x
y> z\
+ dx
(0, ( + d|f, 0, -hd?) move

y + dy> z + dz) we have, by (29),
dx = cos (T?) d - rf sin (T?) d
),
>
dy= sin (T
<2f
+ rf cos (r?) d
* See
p. 70.
8.
B.
to the positions
66
Hence,
if da-
and ds be the
initial
and
[CH.
final distances
between the
points,
Thus
,
and
Since (dg/dcr)* is not greater than unity, we see that, if rf be a
small quantity of the first order, (ds do-) /da is a small quantity
of the second order, for it is proportional to T 2 f 2
Thus, when I/T
of the strip, we
as
infinite
in
width
is treated
comparison with the
.
consider that the distance between any two neighbouring

points remains unchanged when the plane strip is twisted into a
may
helicoid.
Let ACA'G' (Fig. 17)

the
central
it is twisted, the
of
before
the
blade
plane
represent
blade
b
of
the
at
a
distance
on
faces
either side of this plane.
being
Stresses in a twisted blade.
44.
When
the blade
is
twisted, the line
AOA'
will,
by symmetry,
remain
straight, and, since the twisting is uniform, every straight

line initially in the plane
will also remain
and parallel to
AOG
straight.
We
OA
Thus the central plane of the blade will become a helicoid.

43 that, when a
have seen in
strip of
a mathematical
twisted into a helicoid, the distance between

plane
two
any
neighbouring points remains unchanged. Hence all the
filaments in the central plane of the untwisted blade remain
is infinitesimally
when the blade
unchanged
Let
in length
either face
was a square before the blade was twisted, and suppose

were initially inclined at
% TT to OA, as is
is
twisted.
HKLM (Fig. 18) be a small portion of the blade such that
that
MH and HK
indicated
by the small square in
Fig. 17.
HKLM
Let / be the particle at the centre of

before it was
and
I
so
that
between
let straight
was
the
twisted,
faces,
midway
lines IU IV be drawn through / parallel to the sides of the initial
squares. Then the filaments which initially coincided with JIT and
IV are bent by the torsion of the blade into arcs of circles of
radius I/T, the centres of curvature lying on opposite sides of the
t
blade.
A TWISTED BLADE
STRESSES IN
n]
By
67
the method employed for obtaining equation (1) of

29,
that, when the blade is twisted, the filaments
we can show
initially parallel to
IETF, measured
IU
and at a distance h cm. from the plane

an elongation
in the positive direction of y, receive
M
Fig. 18.
IV receive an elongation rh cm. per

take an infinitesimal cube of edge q cm. with
centre at a distance h from the plane JJ7F"and with two edges
rh, while those parallel to
cm.
its
Hence,
parallel to
if
IU
we
and IV, these edges
will
become 5(1
+ rh)
and
q (1
rh) respectively.
Since the faces of the blade are free from stress, there will be
no pressure on those faces of the cube
which are
parallel to the plane
IUV.
If the stresses on the other faces be a
tension of It dynes per square cm.

S, as is indicated in
and a pressure
17, 18, Chapter I,

Fig. 19, we see, by
that the elongations are connected
with the stresses by the equations

JR
arS
rhE
Hence
But, by equation (11) of
and thus
Since
19,
Chapter
I,
R = S = 2/irAdyne cm- ................... (35)
H = S, there will
be no change in those edges of the cube
which are perpendicular to the plane IUV.

We shall now determine the stresses which must be applied
to the edges of the blade to maintain the
equilibrium of the
68
[CH,
elements in the immediate neighbourhood of the edges.

PQT (Fig. 20) be a triangular lamina of thickness
Let
dh at a distance + h from the central plane of the

blade and let the side QT lie along the edge BB'
Lot PQ=PT=r and let
(Fig. 17) of the blade.
QPT be a right angle. Then PQ is acted on by a
force R.rdh at right angles to PQ and PT is acted
on by a force S.rdh at right angles to PT, as
shown in Fig. 20. These forces have a resultant
(R+S)rdhW2
parallel to
QT] by
(35) this
is
equal
Since the faces of the lamina are free from
to 2*/2.nrhrdh.
a force 2 \/2 nrhrdh must be applied to the vertical edge

This
of the lamina in the direction QT to maintain equilibrium.
force is distributed over an area r*J2.dh and hence, if F be the
stress,
required tangential stress,
F=2nrhdyne cmr
the
Corresponding results hold good for
(30)
remaining edges
of
the blade.
45.
Determination of the torsional couple.
Let Fig. 21
represent the blade seen in perspective, the thickness (26) being greatly
lines
being
MN
Let KL and
be two
the
lines
on
drawn
edge
straight
BB' perpendicular to the plane of
the blade, the distance between the
magnified.
A.
2T
Then the couple
dz.
exerted on the rectangle

by the tangential stress is
KLMN
r+
Fhdh.
rb
JBut, by (36),
dz[ Fhdh^dzl
J-6
J-6
nrb*dz.
couple equal to this could be
D'
TOESIONAL COUPLE
II]
LK
and
each equal to T, acting along
as shown in Fig. 21, if T be given by
69
NM in
opposite directions
T=$nrb* dynes...................... (37)

Saint- Venant's principle ( 24), this couple would produce
the same effects as the couple arising from the vertical tangential
stress F, except, of course, in the immediate neighbourhood of the
Since the blade is of infinitesimal thickness, the region
edge.
By
where the
effects of
the two couples are appreciably different
is
also infinitesimal.
MN
we take
the next element (of length dz) above

and
shall
have
another
to
we
of
forces
it,
apply the same process
pair
each equal to T. The lower force of this pair will act along
If
MN
in the opposite direction to the upper force of the pair correand will therefore neutralise it. Proceeding
sponding to
in this way, we see that the forces acting on the edge BB' are
KLMN,
in the direction away

equivalent to one force T applied at
from the reader and a second force T applied at B' in the opposite
direction, as is indicated in Fig. 21.
BD
by one
Similarly, we may replace the forces on the edge
in
the same direction as that arising from
force
applied at
the edge BB' and another force
in the opposite
applied at
The total force at B is therefore 221

Thus we see that the forces distributed over the
direction.
four edges of
1
may be replaced by two forces each equal to 22 applied
at B and D' away from the reader, together with two other forces of
equal magnitude applied at B' and D in the opposite direction, as
the blade
shewn in
Fig. 21.
If the couple formed
G dyne-cm., we
have
by the
forces applied at
G = 2T.BD = 2T. 2a,
and
and thus by
be
(37),
If one end of the blade be twisted through <j> radians relative to

the other and if the length of the blade be I cm., we have, by (28),
T = <//,
and thus we
find
-*<* ......................... <38>

This result agrees with that -given by equation (27) in 40, when
bja is so small that 3'3616/a is negligible compared with 1673
70
[CH.
II
In experimental work it will not generally be possible to apply

But a
J8, B', D and D' in the manner shown in Fig. 21.
forces at
second application of Saint- Venant's principle leads to the conclusion that, provided they be equivalent to a couple 0, the
manner
B'D'
is
blade.
in which the forces are distributed along
BD
or along
of no consequence except at points near the ends of the

Any uncertainty due to this cause is small when the
length of the blade is great compared with its width.

model of a helicoid may be made of a strip of paper about
one centimetre in width, which is kept tight while it is twisted.
If the lines in the diagrams be drawn upon the strip the reader
be aided in following the discussion above.
will
CHAPTER
IIL
EXPERIMENTAL WORK IN ELASTICITY.

In this chapter descriptions are given
of experimental methods of studying the elastic
Most of the experiments are directed
properties of solid bodies.
towards obtaining values of Young's modulus or of the rigidity, or
46.
of a
Introduction.
number
the ratio of one of these moduli to the other, and here the strains
are assumed to be so small that Hooke's law is obeyed accurately.
In other experiments, the deviations from Hooke's law and their

effects are studied.
it
Though, in nearly every case, the apparatus is so simple that

may be constructed by any person who is moderately skilled in
the use of tools, yet the experimental methods, when carried

The
out with care, are capable of yielding definite results.
word
definite
is
used
here
to
imply that, when
a determi-
nation of an elastic quantity has been made, a repetition of

the experiment upon the same specimen and under the same
conditions will lead to a result which does not differ
by more
than one or two per cent, from that of the first determination.
The impossibility, in most cases, of securing truly homogeneous
and isotropic material makes it useless to expect that the value
of the elastic quantity deduced from the experiment will be
anything more than a rough sort of average value*. In some
cases the observations are taken on scales divided to millimetres,
and the necessity of keeping within Hooke's law often limits the
measured displacement to one or two centimetres. It is clear
that, in these cases, very careful readings are required if the result
is
to be accurate to within two or three per cent.

* See the last
paragraph of
39.
EXPERIMENTAL WORK
72
[CH.
When
the result depends upon the fourth power of the radius

of a wire, particular attention should be given to measuring the
diameter of the wire with a screw-gauge, since an error of one per
cent, in the radius involves an error of four per cent, in the result
The work will gain considerably in interest if the student is

able to test the same specimen by different methods. Thus, for
a given piece of wire, Young's modulus may be found as in
EXPERIMENT 2 or 3, the rigidity may be found as in EXPERIMENT 4 or 5, while Young's modulus may be found for a portion
of the wire as in EXPERIMENT 7 or even as in EXPERIMENT 6
or 10, if the distance between the knife edges be small and the
loads light. Similarly, the same rod may be used for EXPERIMENTS
6 and 10.
EXPERIMENT
Law
1.
Experimental Investigation of Hooke's
for Copper.
47.
Introduction.
The mathematical theory
of elasticity
is
based upon the assumption that, for a given stress the strain is
independent of the time and that, for small strains, stress and
strain are proportional so that, in Hooke's words, Ut tensio sic vis.
We shall therefore begin the
experimental part of the subject by

of investigating the relation between
method
a
sensitive
describing
in
a
wire subject to small elongations. Young's
stress and strain
modulus,
if it exist, i.e. if
Hooke's law hold, can be found with
in
52. The object
of the present experiments is not so much to obtain a very accurate
value for Young's modulus as to gain a working knowledge of the
sufficient accuracy
by the apparatus described
natural habits of the material under
test.
The simplest method of magnifying the
effects to
be observed
hung from a beam

or other support, the extension being produced by hanging weights
to the lower end of the wire but this method is liable to two
These arise from the yielding of the support and
serious errors.
consists in using a wire of considerable length,
from the change of length of the wire due to

*
rise of
temperature.
Many screw-gauges have the defect that the pitch of the screw, i.e. the
distance it advances for one revolution, is not clearly marked on the instrument.
Tn such oases the student should ascertain the pitch from the teacher, or, in a
practical examination, from the examiner.
INVESTIGATION OF HOOKE'S
Ill]
The
LAW
73
may introduce a comparatively large error, for

2 C. will produce an increase of length of
mm. in a
wire
metres
3
copper
long.
The first error is eliminated if, instead of finding the displacea
latter cause
rise of
ment
of the lower end of the wire relative to a fixed mark,
we
observe the displacement of the end of the wire relative to the

lower end of a second wire of the same material, hanging from the
same support, stretched by a constant weight and serving as a

standard for comparison.
The use of a comparison wire practically eliminates the second
error also, for it is found that the coefficient of linear expansion of
a wire
is
but
the wire.
little affected
Dr
by
variations in the load carried
by
J. T.
Bottomley (Phil Mag. 1889, Vol. 28,

2
p. 94) made experiments on a pair of copper wires 3'8 x 10~* cm.
in section, one being stretched by a load of 375 grammes and the
Thus,
other by a load of 75 grammes. Dr Bottomley measured directly,

by means of a sensitive mirror method, the excess of the extension
over that of the second wire, when they were heated
simultaneously, and found the coefficient of relative expansion to be
of the
first
3'14 x 10~~7 degree"" 1
Since the difference of tension was
300 x 981/(3'8 x 10" 4) or 7-74 x 108 dyne cm.- 2
we
find that, if the coefficient of linear expansion of a copper wire
be a degree" 1 and
da
dT
if
the tension of the wire be
= 3'14xlO~ = 4 Ac
05
r
..
'
7-74 x 10
T dyne
cm."*,
o
,1
~ i
x 1Al
10 16 degree"1 dyne"1 cm.2
then
value of a for copper is about 1*72 x 10~B degree""1, so that the

extra load of 300 grammes increased the coefficient of expansion
The
by one part in 55.

If two copper wires, each one square mm.
in section, carry loads
the difference of tension will be about

differing by one kilogramme,
a
8
if
the wires be 3 metres long, a rise
hence
10 dynes cm.~ and
of 1 C. will cause the wire with the greater load to extend by
,
x 10~ 5 cm. more than the other wire.

of extension is too small to be measurable with the
4'05 x 10~8 x 300 or
This difference
by
apparatus described in
The
value of da/dT
1*22
48.
may
also
be deduced from the temperature
EXPERIMENTAL WORK
74
coefficient of
Young's modulus (E)
for
[CH.
a wire with a constant
tension.
If
and
is
or,
T,
C. and under zero tension,,

the tension
be the length of a wire at
if
be
I/IQ is
and
length when the temperature is
a function of T and 6, and thus we have
its
by Chapter I,
17,
-7
=
-JTJ ( T-T)
~p^~jfi'
Mr
G. A. Shakespear has found (Phil. Mag. 1889, Vol. 47,

1
p. 551) the values of E" dE/dd given in the first column of the
that
had the values given in the second
table.
Assuming
column,
we
obtain,
by the
last equation,
the values of da/dT given
in the third column.
On
account of the difficulty of the experiments, the agreement

between the values of da/dT for copper obtained by the two
methods
is
perhaps as close as could be expected.
48.
Apparatus. By the instrument shown in Fig. 22 very
small extensions of the wire under test can be measured relatively
to the comparison wire*.
The two wires A, A' have

9
their
upper ends secured to a stout
piece of metal bolted to a beam. From the lower ends hang two
brass frames CD, C'D', supporting the two ends of a sensitive
level L.
pivots
of the level is pivoted to the frame CD by the

the other end of the level rests upon the end of a
One end
H;
vertical screw
The two
links
working in a nut attached to the frame C'D'.

f
prevent the frames from twisting relatively to
K> K
G. F. 0. Searle, Proc. Cambridge Phil Soc. Vol.
x, p.
318 (1900;.
m]
INVESTIGATION OF HOOKE'S
LAW
each other about vertical axes, but freely allow vertical relative
When these links are horizontal, the two wires are
motion.
parallel to each other.
From the lower ends
and a pan
C'D', hang a mass
The weights of
in the figure.
of the frames CD,
represented diagrammatically
sufficient to ensure
M and P are
Fig. 22.
that the wires are straight. The connexions between the wires
into which the ends of
and the frames are made by the swivels
the observer to set the
enable
The
swivels
are
soldered.
the wires
wires free from torsion and thus to ensure that the two wires hang
to the
and
in a vertical plane. Two other swivels connect
frames.
EXPERIMENTAL WORK
76
The head
of the screw
is
divided,
and a
[CH.
scale
engraved on
the side of the frame serves to determine the number of complete

made by the screw. In the instrument in use at the
revolutions
Cavendish Laboratory the pitch of the screw is ^ mm., while the

head is divided into 100 parts. Each division on the head thus
mm. A pitch of 1 mm. would be more concorresponds to
venient*.
The instrument
is
used in the following manner.
Suppose that
the screw has been adjusted so that one end of the bubble of the
fine wire passing round the level
level is at its fiducial markf.
and held tight by an indiarubber band may be used as a fiducial

mark. If the wire be arranged to be in the plane of two of the
one of the frames, errors of parallax can be avoided
by taking observations with the eye in this plane. If a mass be
placed in the pan P, the wire A' is stretched and the bubble moves
vertical sides of
The bubble is then brought back to its fiducial mark

screw so as to raise the end of the level resting
the
by turning
distance
The
it.
through which the screw is moved is clearly
upon
towards H.
equal to the increase of length of the wire A' and is determined at

once by the difference of the readings of the screw in the two
In the Cavendish Laboratory instrument, the level is
positions.
enough to enable the screw to be adjusted to \ of a

mm.
on its head, i.e. to
To steady the instrument, it is convenient to allow the two
wires to press lightly against a rod fixed horizontally at a small
sensitive
j^
division
distance above the frames CD, C'D'.
A brief discussion of the
kinematics of the instrument may be

In order to secure that there shall be only one possible
displacement of one frame relative to the other, five out of the six
degrees of relative freedom must be destroyed. Since only relative
motion is in question, we may imagine one frame, say CD, to be
fixed. The other frame C'D' is kept vertical by the tensions of the
added.
CD =11 cm. Length

Diameter of screw head =4 cm.
t If the glass tube of a level be not well secured in the metal tube which
protects it, an attendant, in cleaning the apparatus, may cause a rotation of the
If this cause the ends of the tube to be higher than the
glass tube about its axis.
The
chief dimensions of the apparatus are as follows:
of links 5 cm.
centre, it will be impossible to adjust the supports of the level so as to bring the
bubble to the centre; the bubble will always go to one end or the other.
LOADING AND UNLOADING A WIRE
Ill]
wires above and below

free to
move
it.
77
If the links were absent, it would be

and West, or North and South, or
stretched) and to turn about a vertical
horizontally East
vertically (when the wire is

It would thus possess four degrees of freedom.
axis.
The two links
destroy three degrees of freedom by preventing the frame from

(1) rotating about its own wire A', (2) moving horizontally at right
angles to the links, (3) moving towards or away from the frame
The frame C'D' has thus but one degree
CD.
remaining, viz. that which enables

of the suspending wire.
it
to
follow the
of freedom
stretching
Experiments on loading and unloading a copper

wire. One of the most interesting uses of the instrument is to
find the changes of length of a copper wire, which occur when the
49.
load in the pan
is
increased step
by step from zero
to any value
then diminished to zero again. When the load is changed,

the wire only gradually assumes the length corresponding to the
new load, and thus the readings will gain in regularity if the
and
is
changes of load be made at approximately equal intervals say of

The observations may be made in the following
two minutes.
manner. Starting with the pan empty, a reading of the micrometer is taken and is recorded. A mass is then placed in the pan
and after two minutes (or whatever interval is chosen) the reading
of the micrometer is again recorded, and the process is continued
with equal steps in the load till the maximum load Wis reached;
the load is then reduced step by step to zero. The masses should
be put in and taken out of the pan as gently as possible.

When the initial micrometer reading for zero load is subtracted
from the other readings the differences are the extensions of the
The results are plotted on squared paper, the abscissae
wire.
representing loads and the ordinates extensions.

When the wire has been unloaded for a comparatively long
time before the initial reading for zero load is taken, a curve
similar to that in Fig. 23 will be obtained.
In
this case the wire
has been loaded during the whole cycle of observations and, in

consequence, at the end of the cycle the wire is longer by
a few thousandths of a millimetre than it was at the beginning.
If,
on the other hand, a load
Q,
at least as great as
W be
t
EXPEEIMENTAL WORK
78
[CH.
placed in the pan for a comparatively long time and if the load be
removed only a short time before the initial reading for zero load
is taken, the curve representing the results of loading and unload-
ing will be similar to that in Fig. 24, the wire being slightly shorter
The explanation
at the end than at the beginning of the cycle.
of
later
the
the
second half of
that
fact
the
in
lies
during
stages
the cycle the load is less than TF and thus the wire has had
a little.
opportunity and time to contract
,
EXTENSION
EXTENSION
EXTENSION
W|
Pig. 23.
If,
LOAD
LOAD
LOAD
Fig. 24.
by repeatedly loading and unloading
brought to a thoroughly cyclic state, the curve
Fig. 25.
it,
the wire could be
would be as in Fig.
25,
the final and initial readings being identical. But the establishment of the cyclic state would occupy much time, since each cycle
of loading and unloading would have to be made at the same rate
as the cycle during which the readings are taken. If the preliminary cycles are made comparatively rapidly the curve will be as
in Fig. 24.
50.
law.
Graphical representation of deviations from Hooke's

Hooke's law is so nearly true for stresses, which are small
compared with the breaking stress, that it is impossible to exhibit

in a satisfactory manner both the whole extension and also any
deviation from Hooke's law on the same diagram.
may,
We
however, adopt a device which is useful whenever small deviations

disturb the strict proportionality between cause and effect. If the
maximum load
produce an extension Z, and if z be the extension

due to any smaller load w we subtract wZjW from z and denote
z
wZ/W by d. We then plot the difference d against the load w.
If Hooke's law were exactly fulfilled, the difference would vanish
for every value of w, and thus these differences show the departures from Hooke's law. This method has been adopted in the
9
diagram given in
51.
DEVIATIONS FROM HOOKE'S LAW
Ill]
51.
Practical example. The
observations
may
79
be entered as in the
following record of an experiment by Mr Field upon a copper wire 285 '7 cm.
in length and about 0*0119 cm. 2 in cross section. To save space, only the
extensions are entered below; but the student should record the reading of
the micrometer for every load and then deduce the extensions from those
In the tables the load w and the extension z are given for cycles of
readings.
The maximum load is IF, and the maximum extension

The quantity d=z- wZj W shows the departure from Hooko's law.
loading and unloading.

is Z.
0-004
0-002
0-002
0-004
EXPERIMENTAL WORK
80
[OH.
results for TF=6 and for Tr=4 kilogrammes are shown in Fig. 26.
attempt was made to reduce the wire to a cyclic state, but the curves show
that the attempt failed, the curves resembling that of Fig. 24. Very careful
The
An
work
is
necessary to obtain curves as regular as those obtained by
Mr
Field.
EXPERIMENT 2. Determination of Young's modulus by

stretching a vertical wire.
52. Apparatus. The simplest method of determining Young's
modulus depends upon observations of the increase of length of a
long vertical wire when the load carried by it is increased. Since

Hooke's law begins to fail when the elongation is much more than
j^
cm. per cm., the wire should be of considerable length, so that,

without going beyond the elastic limit, the increase of length may
be large enough for satisfactory observation. When the changes of
length are observed by means of a millimetre scale fitted with a
vernier reading to -^ mm., errors of one per cent, will probably
occur in the measurements unless the changes exceed one cm.
y^
if the elongation is not to exceed

cm. per cm., the
wire should be at least 10 metres long. When a more sensitive
Hence,
appliance, such as that described in 48, is available for measuring

the change of length, satisfactory results can be obtained with
comparatively short wires.
Since the elongation is small, it is necessary to take special

precautions against two sources of error. These arise from the
yielding of the support and the change of length of the wire due
to a change of temperature during the experiment. Both errors are
practically eliminated if, instead of finding the displacement of the
lower end of the wire relative to a fixed mark, we observe its dis-
placement relative to the lower end of a second wire of the same

material, hanging from the same support and carrying a constant
This measurement is easily made if a scale be attached to
load.
the end of one wire and a vernier to the end of the other. Any
of the support affects both wires equally, and any change
yielding
of temperature causes very nearly the same expansion in both
wires in spite of the difference between the loads, since, as is shown
47, the coefficient of expansion depends only very slightly upon
the load carried by the wire.
The two wires are secured to a block of metal attached to
in
DETERMINATION OF YOUNG'S MODULUS
ni]
81
a beam or other firm support in the manner shown in Fig. 27. A

millimetre scale is clamped to the comparison ;wire, which carries
the constant load, and a vernier reading to T^ or fa mm. is clamped
The vernier is kept in the
to the wire which is to be stretched.
proper position against the scale by a V-slide or by simple guides
attached to the vernier.
scale pan, not
shown
in the figure, is
hung from the wire below the vernier and a constant load is hung
from the comparison wiA below the scale. The scale pan and the
constant load must be meavy enough to ensure that the wires are
straight.
Fig. 27.
Determination of Young's modulus.
53.
observations the vernier

scale pan.
The
load
is
is first
In taking the
read with no additional mass in the
then increased by steps of 1 kilogramme
up to, say, 6 or 8 kilogrammes and the vernier is read at each

The load is then diminished step by step and the vernier
stage.
The masses must be put into the
is again read at each stage.
pan
the great increase of stress

carefully, so as to avoid
s.
B.
which
6
EXPERIMENTAL WORK
occurs
when a mass
is
[CH.
allowed to drop into the pan*.
If the read-
ing of the vernier at the end of this cycle of operations differ

appreciably from the reading at the beginning, the wire has been
permanently stretched, and the observations cannot be used for

finding Young's modulus. In this case a new set of observations
must be made with a smaller maximum load, not great enough to
give any appreciable permanent setfTrouble due to overloading the wire will be practically avoided
if the maximum load be not allowed to exceed half the breakIf the cross-section of the wire be
ing load.
grammes be the maximum
load,
then
-Jfmax
cm. 2 and J/ max
may be
calculated
by
the formula
Mm -A. 5/981,
where B dyne cm.values of
is
the breaking stress or the tenacity.
Rough
B are given in the table.
When
a satisfactory set of observations has been obtained, the

mean of the two readings of the vernier for each load is subtracted
from the mean reading for the empty pan, the difference in each
case being the mean extension due to the corresponding load.
* Let the
to L +Z when the load is
length of the wire change from
+M. The effect of suddenly applying
gradually increased from
Q to
may
is suspended by a string so as to
be illustrated by supposing that
just touch the
will then oscillate about a
pan and that the string is cut. The mass Q
M
M
M +M
L
+ l. At the highest point of

position in which the length of the wire is
the oscillation the length is
and, therefore, at the lowest point the length is
Hence the maximum increase of tension is twice that due to a gradual
I/ +2L
mean
to
+ M. If had been allowed to drop into the pan
the effect would have been greater.
t If the wire has been freshly set up, the first addition of a considerable load
may permanently change* the reading of the vernier for the pan alone by
straightening out kinks in the wire.
increase of load from
Ill]
The readings may be recorded
as in
54,
83
and should be expressed
in centimetres.
The mass
of the pan does not cause any difficulty as long as

Hooke's law holds. For suppose that the mass of the pan is
Q grammes and that it produces an extension 1Q cm., and that

an additional load
grammes increases the extension by I cm.
Then we have, by Hooke's law,
Hence
added load to the increase of extension due
same as the ratio of the whole load to the
whole extension, and therefore, in finding Young's modulus, we
may neglect entirely the mass of the pan and the extension due
Thus the
ratio of the
to that load is the
to
it.
loads, the
mean
l/M prove to be nearly constant for different

value of l/M may be used in finding Young's
modulus.
When
the irregularities are serious, the results should
If the values of
be shown graphically on squared paper, the ordinate representing

the mean extension due to each added load, while the abscissa
represents the added load. Since Hooke's law is assumed to hold,
a straight line should be drawn, by the aid of a stretched thread,
so as to lie as evenly as possible among the points plotted on the
diagram. When the best position of the thread has been found,
recorded by two marks made on the paper, one near each end
it is
line drawn by
wooden
scales
are far from
many
difference
of
The
between
the
ordinates
two
straight.
points on
= and to some definite mass (say
this line corresponding to
5 kilogrammes) is taken as the value of I for that mass. The
of the thread.
These marks are then joined by a
the aid of a straight ruler;
corresponding value of M/l is used in calculating Young's modulus.

The length of the wire from the point of support to the clamp,
which fixes the vernier to the wire, may be determined by a tape

measure or by the aid of a long rod which is afterwards measured
by one or more metre scales. This length should be expressed in
centimetres. During these measurements the wire should be kept
fi
_9
EXPERIMENTAL WORK
84
[CH.
straight by the weight of the pan.

Strictly speaking, the initial
length should be measured when the wire carries no load, but,
since the increase in the length of the wire due to the
pan
alone will perhaps not exceed one part in 10,000, the length of
the wire
when
carrying the pan alone may be taken as equal to

the
initial length of the wire.
centimetres,
It should be noted that L and I are obtained
by two distinct
measurements. In finding the length by the tape measure

are not concerned with the extension, and in finding the extension by the vernier we are not concerned with the
length of the
sets of
we
would be
measure a length of, say, 5 metres

a tape measure, but, in view of other uncertainties, an error of 2 mm. in the length of the wire may fairly
be neglected. Yet an error of 2 mm. in the determination of the
extension would render the results worthless.
wire.
It
to within 2
difficult to
mm. by
To complete the measurements, the
cross section of the wire
must be obtained. If the wire be permanently fixed to the support,

the diameter is found by a screw-gauge. Eeadings are taken at
4 or 5 points on the wire between the support and the vernier,
and two diameters at right angles are measured at each point,
care being taken not to compress the wire in
taking the readings.
The zero reading of the screw-gauge is observed, and the corresponding correction is applied to the readings, which should be
expressed in centimetres. The mean radius*, a, is found by halving

the mean diameter and then the cross section
is calculated in
2
square cm. from the expression A = 7ra t.
If the wire can be removed from the
support, the volume of
the part between the support and the vernier can be found
by the hydrostatic balance. If this be
c.c., then A =
square cm.
When the load
grammes, the longitudinal stress T is

If this load correspond to an increase of
cm. in a total length of L cm. the elongation e, i.e. the
Mg/A dyne
length of
VJL
cm.~ 2
is
The quantity we are really concerned with is not the mean radius but the
square root of the reciprocal of the mean value of (radius)" 2
The appropriate
correction is calculated in Note VI,
1.
.
is
t The neglect of the distinction between the radius and the diameter of a wire
a frequent cause of disaster in students' work.
DETERMINATION OF YOUNG S MODULUS
Ill]
increase of length per unit length,
Chapter
I,
17,
Young's modulus
is
is
l/L cm. per cm.
Hence, by
given by
= T = MglA
= JUtjL
-,/r
-y~r- dynes
J
I L
IA
e
elongation
E_, = -i stress
-.
54.
85
Practical example. The
observations
cm.
per
r square
^
may
following record of an experiment made on a brass wire.

745 cm.
Length of wire from support to clamp of vernier
=Z=
Readings of screw-gauge on wire

0-0944
0-0943
0*0947
0'0945
0-0943
0-0943
0'0945
0'0945
mean reading
0*0944 cm.
OO002 cm., to be added.

Hence diameter =-2a= 0*0946 cm.
Correction for zero
Cross section
=^ = n-a2 =7rx(0-0473) = 0-00703 square cm.

2
Readings of vernier for increasing and diminishing loads
Mean
l-079xlO-
"When the extension was plotted against the load, it was found that the
points lay very nearly on the straight line cutting the line Jf=0 at 0*006 cm.
and the line J/=5000 at 0-533 cm. Hence, for J/=5000 grm., J=0'527 cm.
The corresponding value of l/M, viz. 0-527/5000 or 1 -054x10-* differs by
The zero
2'5 per cent, from the mean value of IjM derived from the table.
reading 1-513 cm. in the table is clearly abnormal ; possibly the weight of
the empty pan is insufficient to ensure that the wire is straight. If we treat
the reading 1*733 cm., which was found for a load of 2000 grammes, as the
zero reading, we find the following values of l/M
:
1-050,
1-060,
1-050,
1-050,
1'054,
1-042,
1-046x10-*.
EXPERIMENTAL WORK
86
[CH.
1-050 x 10~ 4, now agrees closely with the value derived from the
~4
for l/M9 we have, by
53,
Using the value T054x 10
The mean,
diagram.
TT
~,
Young's
981x745
M<?
j
ZT
modulus-^-T4xlO-*x(HX)708
i
=9'86 x 10 11 dynes per square cm.
EXPERIMENT
3.
Determination of Young'8 modulus by
stretching a horizontal wire.
Apparatus.
55.
is
One end
of a wire, 1 to 2 metres in length,
soldered or otherwise secured to a block of metal
(Fig. 28)
Pig. 28.
which
firmly clamped to a table. The wire passes over a

This pan
is stretched by weights placed in a pan.
be made heavy enough, by the use of permanent weights,
is
pulley A
must
and
to prevent the wire from sagging appreciably when

Two scratches,
57).
weights are in the pan (see
no additional
and D, are
made on the wire near the pulloy A and the block B, and the
movements of these scratches are observed by means of two
travelling microscopes, which are focussed on the wire.
If travelling microscopes are not available, microscopes with
micrometer scales in their eyepieces must be used. The value
of one division of the micrometer scale of each microscope is
deduced from the number of micrometer divisions covered by the
image of one division of a millimetre scale. The dividing lines of
must be fine ; if they are coarse, it will be

to
obtain
an
accurate value for the micrometer divisions.
impossible
It is, however, not necessary to use two microscopes if it is
this millimetre scale
found, on examination by a microscope, that the block B does not

move appreciably when the pan is loaded. In this case we may
regard
D as coinciding with the end of the block B.
Ill]
87
Determination of Young's modulus. The load in

is increased by equal
steps of 500 or 1000 grammes from
maximum
to
some
and is then diminished by equal
value,
up
56.
the pan
zero
and at each stage the readings of the scratches C and D are

If a load of
grammes placed in the
pan cause C and D to move through x cm. and y cm. from their
steps,
taken by the microscopes.
positions for zero load in the pan, the increase in the length of
is x
due to
?/ cm.
CD
If the value of (x
y)jM prove to be nearly constant for
different loads, the mean value may be used in finding Young's
modulus. If there are serious irregularities, the results should be
shown on squared paper, the

ordinate represents the
mean
abscissa representing M, while the

of the corresponding values of x
y
and diminishing loads. A straight line is drawn

aid
a stretched thread, as in
the
of
53, so as to pass as
by
the
on
the
as
evenly
possible among
points
diagram, and from this
=
for
line
the
values
of
x
and for some definite
y
straight
for increasing
y),
(say 5 kilogrammes) are read off. The value of M/(x
corrected in this way, is used in calculating Young's modulus.
The length of CD for zero load in the pan is denoted by L era.
load
obtained by means of metre scales placed end to end, and

is found with a
screw-gauge, corrected
for zero error, at 4 or 5 points between C and Z), two perpendicular
and
is
the diameter of the wire
diameters being measured at each point.

i.e. half the mean diameter, be a cm. and
stress
square cm.,
of
L cm.;
and
I,
is
(x
Young's modulus
17,
is
MgjA
is
stress
p
elongation
The
T = Mg/A = MrjL
=7
ZL-r-rr
-7-7-*
e
(x
observations
y)/L
may be
A(x
'
See the
first
'
'
cm.
dynes
per square
J
r
^
y)
tabulated as in
the microscopes and the two values of x

each value of M.
*
dynes per
y cm. in a length
cm.
y)/L
per cm. Hence,
given by
'
E=
radius,
the cross-section be
due to a load of
grammes
an increase of x
this produces
thus the elongation e
by Chapter
if
mean
A = TTO?*.
square cm., then
The
If the
Footnote on page 84.
58, the readings of

being recorded for
EXPERIMENTAL WORK
88
[CH.
Notes on the method. In this experiment any error

57.
due to a possible motion of the block B is eliminated by using a
There is,
microscope to observe the motion of the scratch D.
in
EXPERIMENT
as
2, and
however, no temperature compensation,
therefore a
thermometer should be placed near the wire
to give
warning of any serious changes of temperature.

By the microscopes the changes of length can easily be fojind
to within
cm., and thus the wire may be much shorter than
or
cm.
in EXPERIMENT 2, where a vernier, reading to
j^
is
^ ^
used.
It is essential in this experiment that the stretching force

should be always great enough to ensure that 8, the length of the
to D, measured along the wire, should not differ

measured along a
from
Z, the distance from C to
appreciably
L is easily made.
of
S
estimate
An
line.
approximate
straight
U
and
D
wire
at
the
to
Let the tangents
(Fig. 29) make angles 6l
wire from
Fig. 29.
and 62 with the plane of the horizon, and let m be the mass of CD.
If FQ be the stretching force when the pan is empty, we may
take F as constant at all points of CD. Since the weight of CD
is supported by the forces at C and J9, we have
(sin
If
<
be the mean of
ft
and
-f
ft,
small,
2F<><f>
Now, when S
sin ft)
we
= ing.
have, since ft and ft are very
= mg.
small compared with the radius of curvature

of the arc at its lowest point, we may treat the curve as an arc of
a circle subtending an angle 2< at its centre. Then, if p be the
radius of curvature,
is
DETERMINATION OP YOUNG'S MODULUS
mj
89
and thus, approximately,
S-L
the mass of the pan be 2 kilogrammes, so that
2000<7 dynes, and if the mass of CD be 10 grammes,
if
Hence,
(flf-j&)/5
is
1/960,000.
The
elongation due to the stretching of the wire in the determination of Young's modulus may be as
cm. per cm.,
great as
and thus, since the apparent elongation due to changes of
sagging
j^
when
additional masses are placed in the pan does not exceed

*
about
cm. per cm., any error due to sagging
may be
1>00 |000
neglected.
58.
Practical example.
following record of an experiment
The observations may be entered as in the

made by Mr T. O. Bedford upon a brass
wire.
Length of wire between scratches = =124*4 cm.

Readings of screw-gauge for pains of diameters at right angles,
mean
reading 0'0695em.
Correction for zero error 0-0005 cm., to be added.

=2a 0*0700 cm.
Diameter of wire
=A = 7ra2 =7r (0'035) 2 = 3-849 x 10~3 cm. 2.

means
of
By
permanent weights the mass of the pan was made about
kilogrammes, which was sufficient to prevent any appreciable sagging of
Cross section of wire

5 '5
the wire.
EXPERIMENTAL WORK
90
[CH.
Two microscopes were used, each reading to ^foj mm. ; they formed a
"pair" and the scales were numbered in opposite directions. In the above
table the readings have been reduced to centimetres, but Mr Bedford recorded
the actual readings on the micrometer heads in each case. Thus the two
readings, which appear in the table as '07282
as 7-0 H-56'4/200 mm. and 9*5 +46 -3/200 mm.
From
this table
we
and 0-9732 cm., were recorded
obtain the following values of x, the displacement of

left-hand microscope, and of y, the displacement
by the
the scratch observed

of the other scratch.
3-264 x 10 -*
Mean
Hence, by
56, since the
mean
3-264
Young's Modulus
value of (x
x!0~ 6 cm.
M<jL
Bt=
A (x-t
grin."
"
3-841)
1
,
981x124-4
'
X 10 s X 3-264 x 10 s
=9-71 x 10 U dynes per square cm.
EXPERIMENT
method.
Determination of
rigidity.
Statical
In the statical method the couple is

Apparatus.
by means of a mass supported by a tape wound
round a wheel A (Fig. 30). The wheel is fixed to a steel axle J5,
supported by the bearing C. The rod to be tested may be about
0'4 cm. in diameter and 45 cm. in length and should be as straight
as possible.
One end of the rod is attached to the axle and the
other end is fixed to a block D, both the bearing C and the block
59.
applied to the rod
being firmly secured to a stout base board E. One end of a

thin tape is attached to the wheel and the other end to a pan P,
care being taken that the vertical portion of the tape is always
tangential to the wheel.
The rod may be connected with the axle
into which both the rod
and
by a block of
brass,
the axle are soldered, or the rod
may
DETERMINATION OF BIGIDITY
Ill]
91
be gripped by a self-centering three-jawed chuck attached to the

plan being convenient when more than one rod is
to be tested.
axle, the latter
Fig. 80.
The twist of the rod is measured by means of a pointer F,

which can be clamped to the rod at any point. The pointer
should be adjusted so as to be approximately horizontal when half
vertical millimetre scale 8

the greatest load is in the pan.
used for measuring the displacement of the tip of the pointer*.
If the rod be not quite straight, it will bend slightly when it
twisted.
Errors due to this cause
may
is
is
be eliminated by using a
with two pointers of equal length so arranged that

the line joining their tips passes approximately through the axis
clamp
fitted
of the rod.
pointers will
The mean
of the displacements of the tips of the two
be free from any error due to bending of the
Determination of rigidity.
in
the pan, the wheel will revolve
placed
60.
* The twist of the rod
may
also be observed
When
till
a mass
rod.
grins, is
the couple due to the
by means of a mirror attached to
the rod by a small clamp, the angle through which the mirror turns being observed
by means of a vertical scale and a telescope with cross wires. If the distance of
d cm. and if the image of the scale move past the cross
wire through z cm., when the mirror turns through
radians, then 0=*/2<Z. The
results obtained with the mirror are free from any error due to bending.
the scale from the mirror be
EXPERIMENTAL WORK
92
[CH.
M M
+
elasticity of the rod balances the couple due to the mass
where Jf grins, is the mass of the pan. If the radius of the wheel
2
be R cm., this couple is (M +
) Eg dyne-cm., where g cm. sec.~
,
is
the acceleration due to gravity.

Let the pointer be clamped at a distance of
cm. from the
end of the rod, and let

and
+ <<> radians be the angles
are hung
through which it turns when the masses jlf and
from the wheel. Then, if the rigidity of the material be n dynes
per square cm. and the radius of the rod be a cm., we have, by
fixed
<
<
()
M+M
Chapter
or,
by
39, equation (23),
II,
subtraction,
MgR.
Let the length of the pointer, measured from the axis of the
be p cm., and let y cm. be the vertical distance through which
rod,
when a load
is placed in the pan.
Then, if the
between
the
a
and
be
never
horizontal
angle
pointer
plane
greater
than about -fa radian or 6, we may write
the tip moves,
= yip.
n=
Hence,
Ml
2m9tR
"^
dynes per square
cm ............. (1)
The quantity 2gpR/7ra* is a constant for the given system; its

and a have
value can be calculated once for all as soon as p,
been measured*.
The diameter, 2R cm., of that part of the wheel on which the

tape is wound is measured with calipers, and the mean diameter
obtained from the readings of a screw-gauge,
two perpendicular diameters being measured at several points on
the rod. The proper zero correction must be applied to the mean
of the rod, 2a cm.,
is
* The rod is here

supposed to be truly cylindrical. When the radius is not
quite constant, it will generally suffice to treat the rod as a cylinder whose radius is
equal to the mean radius of the rod. The quantity we are really concerned with is
not, however, the
mean radius, but the fourth root of the reciprocal of

The appropriate correction is calculated in Note VI,
value of (radius)" 4 .
the
2.
mean
DETERMINATION OF RIGIDITY
mj
93
of the readings. The diameter of the rod must be measured

carefully since the fourth power of the radius appears in the
formula for
The
n.
deflexion
y depends upon the two
M and
variable quantities
be varied, the observations may be combined in the following manner:

Some value of /, say t l9 is chosen and the pointer is clamped so
and L
If both
that the distance of the centre of the clamp from the nearer face
The mass in the pan is then increased from
is ^ cm.
of the block
some maximum load by equal steps and is then diminished

to zero by equal steps the reading of the tip of the pointer is taken
The greatest mass used should not be sufficient
at each stage.
zero to
to give the rod
All these readings are

any permanent twist.
of
values
the
and
recorded
y are deduced from them
corresponding
of
the
mean
the
two
readings for any load from the
by subtracting
mean of the two readings for zero load. The observations are then
repeated with other lengths
1%, 18 ....
If four values of
are used,
they may be approximately JZ, \L, %L and L, where L is the

whole length of the rod. If, for a given value of I, yfM prove to
be nearly constant for different loads, t.he mean may be taken as
the best value of yjM for that value of L When the irregularities
and y for each value of I should be
are serious, the values of
shown on a
diagram as in Fig. 31.
Since the representative points
M
KB.
81.
a
ideally, on straight lines through the origin 0,
for
thread
line
is
the
aid
of
stretched
drawn
a
(
53)
straight
by
should
lie,
I so that the
corresponding points (including the
are
distributed
as
origin)
fairly as possible about it. The difference
each value of
EXPERIMENTAL WORK
[CH.
between the ordinates of two points on this line corresponding to

and to some definite load
(say 500 grms.) is taken as the
value of y fbr that load. In this way the best value of y/M for
M=
each value of
I is
found.
y/M make IM/y

mean may be taken
If the best values of

different values of
I,
the
nearly constant for

as the best value of
IM/y. If the irregularities be serious, a second diagram should be

made, as in Fig. 32, showing how y/M depends upon I. Here
ffi
Fig. 32.
again the points should lie on a straight line through the origin,
and the best value of IM/y is found from a straight line drawn
in the
IM/y
is
same way as those in the first diagram.

used in calculating n by equation (1).
The
best value of
If the apparatus has been skilfully constructed, the torsion

may be assumed to be truly centred on the axis. The
wheel
of any small error of centering could be eliminated by

twisting the rod in both directions and taking the mean of the
effect
results.
61.
Practical example. The results may be entered as in the

made by Measrs G. F. C. Searle and W. Burton
following record of experiments

upon a brass rod.
Diameter of wheel
= 25 = 12'0 cm.
Hence
6'0 cm.
Readings of screw-gauge for pairs of diameters of rod at right angles,

4085
4079
4038
4040
-4061
4050
4041
-4060
4080
4070
mean
reading 0-4060 cm.
Correction for zero error 0*0009 cm. to be added.
Diameter of rod = 2a = 0*4069 cm.
Hence a - 0-2034 cm.
Length of pointer =.?= 13'92 cm.

In the following table only the mean values of y
for increasing
and
m]
decreasing loads are given, but the student
must
95
record
all
the readings
and deduce the displacements from them.
Means
For each value of
I,
2-576
1-750
'870
3-504
the table shows that y/J/
thus the angle turned through by the pointer
is
is practically constant, and

proportional to the torsional
couple.
Using the reciprocals of y/M, we construct a second table
The
column shows that the angle turned through by the pointer

proportional to the distance between the pointer and the fixed
end of the rod. The differences arc probably due to want of uniformity in
the rod itself and to the bending which occurs when the rod is not quite
As a single pointer was used, the effects of bending were not
straight.
last
is practically
eliminated.
The mean value

T"
ft*
of Ufjy
is
1*150 x 10* grm.
Hence, by
(1)
Ml ---= 2x981x13-92x6-0^
-X 1-150X10*
r^no.A
9i
TT x 0-2034*
y
=3-51 x 1011 dynes per square cm.
EXPERIMENT
method.
62.
5.
Apparatus.
Determination of
In
this
rigidity.
Dynamical
method the specimen
is
a wire,
as straight as possible, about 50 cm. in length and about -^ cm.

in diameter. The two ends of the wire
(Fig. 33) are soldered
AB
EXPEBIMENTAL WORK
96
[OH.
into two pieces of rod C,

about \ cm. in diameter. The rod G
is held in a suitable firm
clamp so that the wire is vertical, and
the rod
passes through an inertia bar E, being secured by a set
screw 8,
R-
Fig. 88.
The ends
of the wire itself are sometimes secured by means

If this inferior plan be
of set screws.
adopted, care should be taken to note the

exact position of each set screw relative
to the corresponding end of the wire, so
that the system can be taken to pieces
and put together again without changing

the effective length of the wire.
The compound stand shown in Fig. 34
forms a convenient support for the brass
rod
soldered
to
the upper end
The stand
of the
with a
moveable block which can be clamped to
torsion wire.
is fitted
the upright in three different positions,

this block can be used to hold a
and
stout rod in a vertical
The
position.
torsion wire may
or a horizontal
small rod soldered to the
in a hole drilled
be secured by a set screw

along the axis of a vertical
DETERMINATION OP RIGIDITY
Ill]
97
rod held in the block as shown at the top of the stand.

is very convenient for many purposes.
The
compound stand
63.
wire
I
Determination of
Let the length of the

the ends of the rods (7, D, be
rigidity.
AB, measured between
cm., let the radius of the wire
be a cm. and
of inertia of the inertia bar about
When
2
grm. cm.
position through
<f>
let
the
moment
the axis of the wire be
displaced from its equilibrium

radians, the twist of the wire per unit length
the bar
is
radians per cm. By Chapter II,

39, equation (23), if
be the couple which the wire exerts upon the bar,
is
<j>/l
G=
s/
dyne-cm.
When
the bar vibrates, the angular acceleration of the bar

towards its equilibrium position at any time is GjK or 7rna4 <f>/2lK
radians per sec. per see. (Note III,
2), and thus the angular
acceleration is proportional to the angular displacement.
Hence
the motion is harmonic, and by Note V, 2, the time of a complete
vibration
is
given by
T_
27T
^/angular acceleration for one radian
mcv
i4*
Deducing the
rigidity, n,
from this equation, we have

/1N
(1)
and
The length of the wire, I cm., is found with a centimetre scale,

its mean diameter, 2a cm., is obtained from the readings of
a screw-gauge, two perpendicular diameters being measured at

on the wire. The proper zero correction must be
several points
applied to the
mean
must be measured
of the readings. The diameter of the wire

carefully since the fourth power of the radius
appears in formula (1)*.
The moment
of inertia of the inertia bar is calculated from its

* See Footnote
on page 92.
EXPERIMENTAL WORK
98
[CH.
mass and its dimensions by the methods of Note IV. If the bar
be rectangular, and if its length be 2L cm., its width 2A cm.
and its mass
be its moment of inertia about an
grins., and if
axis through its centre at right angles to 2L and to 2A,
K= IM(L* + A*) grm. cm.
2
.
If the bar be a solid circular cylinder, of length 2L and radius

its axis at right angles to the axis of the wire,
jR,
with
K M
(J
L*
+ 1 R ) grm.
z
cm. 2.
as the mass of the

For rough purposes it is sufficient to take
system which is detached from the torsion wire when the set
should be the
screw is slackened. For more accurate work,
mass of the bar before any holes are bored in it. (See Note VII.)
If the length of the inertia bar be large compared with its
width or its diameter, the term %ML* is the chief term in the
2
2
expression for J8T, and the terms involving A or jR are comHence it is quite unnecessary to measure A
paratively very small
or
R with a screw-gauge
On
the other hand,
2L
it is sufficient
to use a millimetre scale.
should be measured as accurately as
possible.
The time occupied by a large number of complete vibrations is

found at least twice, the observation in each case extending over
at least three minutes. The meani time of a complete vibration
(T
sec.) is
then deduced.
Unless the time-piece used be known

compared with a good clock
to be keeping good time, it should be

to find the necessary correction.
stop-watch
vibration.
is
generally used in observing the time of
But very good
be obtained by the following

fitted with a seconds
from left to right, of one end of the
results can
method with an ordinary watch or clock

hand.
At every
fifth transit,
bar past a fixed mark, the time indicated by the watch is observed.
After a sufficient number of these times have been recorded, the
time of the Oth transit is subtracted from that of the 50th and the
time of the 5th transit is subtracted from that of the 55th, and
so on. In this way we obtain a number of intervals, each correWith careful work these
sponding to 50 complete vibrations.
intervals will agree closely and their mean will furnish a reliable
METHOD OF TIMING
Ill]
99
The following
value of the time of 50 complete vibrations.
will illustrate the working of the method.
results
experimental
Mean
2 min. 54*65 sec.
The mean time of 50 complete vibrations is 174*65 seconds

and hence the periodic time is 3*493 seconds. In this example
10 independent observations of the time of 50 vibrations have been
made in the time occupied by 95 vibrations. This method has
the advantage that it involves no interference with the regular
working of the watch such as occurs when a stop-watch is started
or stopped.
64.
Practical example.
The
observations
may
be entered as in
the following record of an experiment on a brass wire.

Length of wire under torsion ==52*2 cm.
Readings of screw-gauge on
wire, for pairs of diameters at right angles,
0-1218
0-1219
0-1222
0-1219
0-1220
0-1222
Mean
reading 01220 cm.
Correction for zero error, 0-0003 cm., to be added.
Hence diameter ~2a=0-1223 cm. Radius =a=0'06115 cm.

Mass of cylindrical bar =Jlf= 649*1 grins.
Length =2Z=37'82 cm. Hence Z=18'91 cm.
Diameter = 222 = 1 -60 cm. Hence R = 0-80 cm.
2
2
Hence
(JZ +i22 )=649'l (119-2 +0-2) = 7*75 x 10* grm. cm.*.
Time of 40 complete vibrations 183'0, 182-4, 182-4. Moan 182*6 sec.
Hence ^=4-565 sec.
K=M
Thus, by
Riguhty =
r,.
.,.,
(1)
SirKl
Sir
X 7-75 X 10* X 52'2
cm
'
EXPERIMENTAL WORK
100
The value
[CH.
of the diameter of the wire is subject to an uncertainty of
about 2 parts in 1000. Due to this cause, there is an uncertainty in the

value of n of about 8 parts in 1000, since n is inversely proportional to the
fourth power of the radius.
amount
The number
3*49 is therefore uncertain to the
0*03.

uniform bending of a rod. Statical method.
65.
Apparatus.
In order to produce uniform bending in a

"
rod it is necessary that the "bending moment (Chapter II, 31)

should have a constant value at every point of the rod. This
condition
is
easily secured if the rod
be bent in the manner
AB
rests symmetrically on two

indicated in Fig. 35. The rod
knife edges C, 1), which are fixed to a stout bed XY.
M
Fig. 35.
The most suitable bed for this and for other experiments on
the bending of rods is a small lathe bed, but a good substitute
may be constructed of two wooden beams about 120 cm. long,
5 cm. wide, and 15 cm. deep. The beams are bolted together at
each end, a piece of wood about 2 cm. thick being placed between
them at each end so that there is a gap of 2 cm. between the
beams
may
to allow of the passage of vertical strings. The knife

edges
be short pieces of angle iron firmly screwed to two boards
which are secured to the bed by bolts passing through the gap in
the bed, as shown in the figure. The bed rests on two blocks of
a convenient height.
The rod is bent by means of two equal masses placed in light
on the rod, the
scale-pans suspended from the two points H,
YOUNG'S MODULUS BY BENDING
Ill]
distance
HO being
equal to
KD.
101
To determine the
vertical dis-
placement of the middle point 0, a pin is fixed by wax to the

rod at 0, the pin being bent so that the part near the tip is
in such a posihorizontal, and a vertical scale 8 is set up near
tion that the tip of the pin is close to the scale.
Errors of parallax may be avoided and the accuracy of the
readings may be increased by taking the scale readings of the
pin by means of a fixed telescope. The distance of the telescope

from the scale should be as small as the focussing of the telescope
will allow, in order that the magnification may be as great as
possible.
When
a circular rod
is
used, a cross-bar about
4 cm. long and
wide should be soldered or otherwise fixed to the rod. If

it prevents the rod
1 cm.
the cross-bar rest on one of the knife edges,
from
rolling.
scale
Fig. 36.
holder convenient for
many
purposes
is
shown in
It consists of a rectangular block of brass about 5 cm.
width and depth. A steel scale, divided in

millimetres*, is secured to the block by a screw passing through a
hole at one end of the scale. The scale can be used in a number
of different positions. The screw may conveniently have a milled
head so that it can be tightened by hand.
in length,
and
2*5 cm. in
* Steel scales
divided to half millimetres should be avoided, unless the dividing
lines are verv firm.
EXPERIMENTAL WORK
102
[CH.
Determination of Young's modulus. Let the mass

be
each pan be
Q grammes and let the mass in each pan
66.
of
M grammes.
KD
Let each of the distances HO and

(Fig. 35),
when measured horizontally, be p cm. Since the system is
symmetrical about 0, the middle point of the rod, the force on
each knife edge is the same and thus the part of this force which
is due to the pans and the loads is (J/ 4- M)g dynes.
If P be any point of the rod between C and D, and if Q be the
part of the bending moment at P which is due to the pans and
the loads,
G = (M + M)(PK-PD)ff = (M + M)pff dyne-cm.

Hence the bending moment due to the pans and the
same value at all points of the rod between
and D.
In addition to
6r,
there
is
the bending
...(1)
loads has the
moment due to the weight
of the part of the rod between

and
acting at a point midbetween
well
as
and
as
the
J3,
way
bending moment due to a
half
vertical force at
to
the
weight of the rod. When
equal
the effects due to these moments are small, it follows from Hooke's
law, Chapter I, 2, that, at each point of the rod, any small change
of curvature of the axis of the rod due to the pans and the loads
the same as if the rod were without weight. The curvature
is
is
measured by 1/p, the reciprocal of the radius of curvature of the

Since G is constant at
axis, and is zero when the axis is straight.
all points between G and D, this change of curvature is constant.
Hence, when the rod does not bend appreciably under its own
weight, we may treat it as if it were weightless, when we discuss
the effects of small loads applied to it. In what follows, we shall
neglect the weight of the rod.
"
moment of inertia " of the transverse section of the
If the
about an axis passing through the centre of gravity of that

section and at right angles to the plane of bending, be / cm.4 we
rod,
have,
by Chapter
II,
31,
#=
where p cm.
the rod.
is
dyne-cm.,
(2)
the radius of curvature of the neutral filament of
Inserting the value of
Q given by
(1),
we have
dynes per square
cm
(3)
m]
103
The curvature Ifp is easily deduced from the vertical displacedue to the two loads. Suppose that
ment of the middle point
moves through the
the point of the pin fixed to the rod at
vertical distance h cm., when the pans alone are hung from the
rod, and that it rises through a further distance h when a mass of
M grammes
is
placed in each pan.
between the knife edges be

the
we
have,
the distance
CD
by the geometry of
circle,
In most cases h
then we
may
From
(3)
+ k will
be negligible in comparison with 2p and
write
and
(4)
we
find
^ (M + M ) pfig
2f (h
Since,
by
(5),
K\
the elevation
E = -&TL
and thus
When
"
21 cm.,
if
Then,
moment
is
^y1198 Per
S(
uare
proportional to the load,
dynes per square cm.*.
(6)
is of circular section, with diameter 2a cm., the

of inertia," /, of the area of the section about the axis
the rod
in the plane of the section which passes the centre, is given
7 = i7ra
Hence, by
/(
cm .......... (5)
(6), for
cm.
by f
(7)
a circular rod
,
^~
dynes per square
/ox
cm ............. (8)
When
the rod is of rectangular section with sides 2a and

side 26 being vertical when the rod is in position for
the
26 cm.,
bending, the "moment of inertia" of the area about an axis
through
its
centre parallel to the side 2a

4
.
See Note
XL
is
given by
......................... (9)
f See Note IV,
12.
EXPERIMENTAL WORK
104
Hence, by (6)
for
a rectangular rod
E=
A
[CH.
o-/5;
dynes per square
series of observations for
is
cm
made.
(10)
The masses
in the
by four or five equal steps from zero to some

value which does not strain the rod beyond the elastic
pans are increased
maximum
limit,
and the masses are then diminished to zero by the same
a reading of the pin being taken at each stage. The masses

should be placed gently in the pans to avoid the extra stresses
which occur when the masses are dropped into the pans*. The
steps,
between the mean of the two readings for given masses

and the mean of the two readings, when the pans are empty, is
taken as the elevation due to these masses.
Care must be taken not to load one pan so much more than
difference
the other that the greater overbalances the smaller load.

If h/M prove to be nearly constant for different loads, the
mean
value
may be
taken as the best value of
h/M
to use in
calculating E. When there are serious irregularities, the values of

and of h should be shown on squared paper, and a straight line
should be drawn by aid of a stretched thread, as in 53, so as to

pass as evenly as possible among the plotted points. The difference between the values of h as shown by this line for If =0 and
for some definite mass
is taken as the value of h for that mass.
These values of
M
M and h are used in (8) or
(10).
we
are to keep within the elastic limit, the maximum

elongation of the most highly strained longitudinal filaments
should not exceed about y^^- cm. per cm. It follows, by Chapter II,
If
p must not be less than lOOOd, where 2d stands either

the diameter of a circular rod or for the vertical thickness of a
| 30, that
for
Hence, by (4), we see that A

Thus, if 2d = 1 cm. and if 21
/(2000cZ).
should not exceed 1*6 cm.
rectangular one.
exceed
67.
a
Z
+ A should not
= 80 cm., hQ + h
Mirror method of determining curvature.
We
have
just seen that the elevation of the middle point of the rod must
be comparatively small, if the strains are not to pass the elastic
* See the
first
1'ootnote on page 82.
MIRROR METHOD
Ill]
105
and thus, if a millimetre scale, read by eye, is the only

means of measuring the elevation, it is clear that no
great accuracy is possible. The distance to be measured is, however, easily increased by using a mirror. A plane mirror JR (Fig. 37)
limit,
available
Fig. 37.
is
attached to the rod with
and
wax immediately over the
knife edge
adjusted so that the normal to the mirror is approximately

vertical scale S
parallel to the rod when the rod is not loaded.
is
placed over the other knife edge C and a telescope T, fitted

with cross wires, is placed so that the observer can view a point Q
on the scale by reflexion at the mirror. In this method we rely
is
on the axis of the telescope remaining in a fixed direction. Care

should, therefore, be taken that the telescope is firmly mounted.
It will be difficult to obtain satisfactory readings if the apparatus
be much disturbed by vibration.
Since the tangent to the rod at the middle point remains
horizontal and since CD = 21, it follows that, if the tangent at
turn through an angle

end,
when the
6=
load
jflf
+M
is
hung
at each
11 p.
the scale appear to move past the cross wire of the telescope
But,
cm., when the scale-pans are hung on, and through an
through
is placed in each pan, we have,
additional z cm., when a mass
for small angles,
if
01
since the angle turned through

through by the mirror. Hence,
=s "V>
by JRQ
is
twice the angle turned
EXPERIMENTAL WORK
106
Comparing
this result with (4),
or, since this
holds for
all
[CH.
we have
corresponding values of h and
Thus the apparent movement of the
scale past the cross wire is

of the middle point of
the
motion
times
eight
corresponding
the rod.
Substituting for h in (8) and (10)
2j,
and
for
g
=c-*i
= l6Mpl
we have
dynes per square
a round rod
for
cm
/11v
(11)
a rectangular rod
SMpPg
(12)
The readings obtained by aid of the mirror may be treated as

those obtained by aid of the pin are treated in 66.
68.
Practical example.
The
the following record of an experiment

a circular rod of steeL
observations may be entered as in

made by Mr D. L. H. Baynes upon
Readings of screw-gauge for pairs of diameters at right angles,
Mean
9562
reading -9590 cm.
9620
Correction for zero error 0*0006 cm.
to be added.
2='9596cm. Radius =a
Distance between knife edges =2^ =80 cm.
Mean diameter
-4798cm.
Distance between knife edge and point of suspension of load
p=35 cm.
in]
When
the
mean
107
elevation A. was plotted against the load
M the straight
y
M=0
at 0-02 cm. and

line lying most evenly among the points cut the line
the line -=4000 at 1*30 cm., the difference being 1*28 cm. Hence, for
4 cm.
1
A/Jbf= 1-28/4000 =3 '20 x 10
grm." . The values of
the
If
in
table
somewhat
the
value
3*60 xlO" 4 be
are
irregular.
h/M given
4
excluded, the mean of the remainder is 3*27xlO~ , slightly higher than the
calculation,
we use
number obtained from the diagram.

for
Using
hjM= 3'20 x 10~4 we

,
find,
by
(8),
Young's modulus

uniform bending of a rod. Dynamical method.
69.
Determination of Young's modulus.
The ends
of
the wire or rod are soldered into two clamping-screws which are
secured to two equal inertia bars AB, CD (Fig. 38). Two light
hooks about 4 cm. long are screwed into the bars at G, G', so that
the hooks are perpendicular to the wire, as in Fig. 39, which
shows a section of the arrangement by a plane through G perpendicular to the axis of the bar AB. The cylindrical recess in
the inertia bar allows the end of the clamping-screw to lie on the
axis of the bar.
by two
By means
of the hooks, the system
parallel strings at least 50 cm. long.
is
suspended
Since the centres of
EXPERIMENTAL WORK
108
[CH.
gravity of the bars are below the hooks, the system can rest in
stable equilibrium with the plane
BCD horizontal
Fig. 39.
If the two bars be
now turned through
equal angles
<f>
in
and be then set free, the system will vibrate,

each bar executing harmonic vibrations in a horizontal plane.
opposite directions
When
the vibrations are small, the rod or wire
is
only slightly
and hence the distance GG', measured along the straight

If P, P'
line, differs very little from the length of the wire itself.
be two neighbouring points on the wire and Q, Q' be their pro= PP' cos-^r, where
jections on the straight line (?(?', we have QQ'
is the angle between GG' and the tangent at P.
Thus, since
bent,
^r is small,
PP' - QQ' = PP' (1 - COS i|r) m PP' ^.

maximum value of ^ occurs at the ends of the
.
Now, the
there
^ = 0.
so that,
Hence,
when
is
if
the length of the wire be
of the
wire,
and
cm.,
order of small quantities, the
first
displacements of Q and G' towards each other are of the second

For small vibrations we may, therefore, treat the distance
order.
GG
as invariable.
When
the mass of the wire
the bars, the motion of
is
and
negligible compared with that of

f
at right angles to GG' may be
neglected.
Since the horizontal displacements of G and G are very small

compared with the length of the supporting strings, the vertical
f
motion of
G and
G'
is negligible.
in]
Now, whatever be the

Note I, be reduced to a
the force is Mf, where
109
forces acting on either bar, they may, by

force and a couple.
By Note III, 1,
is
the mass of the bar and
/ is
the
acceleration of the centre of gravity of the bar.

But, to our
order of accuracy, the centres of gravity of the bars are at rest, and
hence the action of the wire on either bar is simply a couple

which, by symmetry, must have a vertical axis. Conversely, each
"
"
bar exerts a couple on the wire. Hence, the bending moment
(Chapter II, 31) is the same at every point of the wire, and thus
the neutral filament of the wire is bent into a circular arc.
shown in Chapter II,

31, that the bending moment is
radius
of
cm.
is
the
the arc, E is Young's modulus,
where p
It is
Eljp,
and I cm.4
is
the
"
moment
of inertia
"
of the area of cross section

"
"
of the wire about an axis through the centre of gravity of that

area perpendicular to the plane of bending. This axis is perpendicular to the plane of Fig. 38. If < be the angle turned
through by either bar from its equilibrium position, we see from

= Z/2<, since the length of the wire is I cm.
Fig. 38 that p
Let the moment of inertia of either bar about a vertical axis
8
centre of gravity be
gramme cm. and let the
angular acceleration of the bar towards its equilibrium position be
a radian sec.""2 when the displacement is <f> radians. Then, since
through
its
the couple on the bar
is
'
EIjp, we have, by Note III,
2EI
couple
= El _
"~
~"
moment of inertia Kp
Kl
2,
***'
The angular
acceleration per radian of displacement is 2EI/KI

towards
the equilibrium position, and thus, if 2\ be
radian see."
the periodic time, we have, by Note V, 2,
2
Z\=
2?r (angular acceleration for
one radian) "i
If the radius of the circular section of the wire be
by Note IV,
Hence, by
(1),
cm.,
we
have,
12,
E=
dynes per square
cm ............. (2)
EXPERIMENTAL WORK
110
[CH.
In (2) the mass of the wire has been entirely neglected. It

may be shown* that, when m, the mass of the wire, is small
compared with the mass of either bar,
Experimental
70.
details.
In order that the most highly
strained portions of the wire should not be strained beyond the

elastic limit, it is necessary that the amplitude of the vibrations of
As it is impossible to observe the time

bars
of
the
of vibration
satisfactorily unless the motion we are
considering is undisturbed by any other motion of the system, the
the bars should be small.
must be started without giving the bars any motion of

The two ends JB, D (Fig. 38) are drawn slightly together
a
of
cotton thread, and the system, thus constrained, is
by
loop
brought carefully to rest. The desired vibration is then started by
burning the thread. A pointer should be set up close to the end of
one of the bars, and the transits past the pointer of a mark on the
vibration
translation.
bar should be observed in finding the time of vibration. Some care

is necessary in this part of the work, for it is found that with large
arcs of vibration the periodic time is appreciably greater than for
small arcs.
If the arcs are large the result
may be
considerably in
error.
The
relation
maximum
For,
between the amplitude of the vibration and the
elongation of the material of the wire is easily found.

30 and equation (1) of
29, if e be the
II,
by Chapter
= a/p cm. per cm. But p Z/20 and hence

elongation, e
Errors will be avoided if e never exceeds -g^. If
^>
eJ/2a.
the wire be 25 cm. long and O'l cm. in diameter, e will not exceed
maximum
g^ju, if
(j>
does not exceed
^ radian
or about 3.
The time of vibration may be found by a stop-watch or in other

ways (see 63), but unless the time-piece is known to be keeping
correct time, it should be
compared with a standard
clock.
diameter of the wire should be made by a

four
five places equally spaced along the wire,
at
or
screw-gauge
two perpendicular diameters being measured at each place. The
Readings
for the
* G. F. 0.
Searle, Philosophical Mayaxine, .Feb. 1900, p. 197.
in]
mean
reading,
when
ill
corrected for the zero error of the gauge,
is
taken as the diameter, 2a, of the wire*.

If the readings show that the diameter of the wire is sensibly
made on one of the clamping-screws,
elliptical, a mark should be
periodic time should be observed when the clampingscrews are adjusted so that the mark is vertical. The screws should
then be loosened and the wire turned about its axis until the mark
and the
is horizontal,
the screws being then tightened and the periodic time

The mean of the two periodic times is used in (2).
again observed.
The mass of each bar is found before the hole is bored in it

and before the hook is fixed to it, and the value of this mass is
grins., if its
stamped on the barf. If the mass of the bar be
of
the
and
if
sides
section
be 2A cm.,
be
2L
the
cm.
square
length
Note
we have, by
IV, 6,
K=
M(L + A ) gramme
2
The simple theory supposes that

AB, CD (Fig. 38),
inertia of the bars
cm.9.
KA and K
C9
the
moments
are exactly equal.
not generally be the case in practice, but
it
of
This will
follows from the
A and
principles employed in obtaining equation (3) that, when
are nearly equal, the observed time of vibration will not differ
appreciably from that which would be found if the moment of

We may therefore take
inertia of each bar were ^ (KA +
c).
in equation (2) as equal to the
mean
of the
moments of
inertia of
the two bars.

71.
Practical example.

German-silver.
The observations may be entered as in the

made by Mr D. L. H. Baynes on a wire of
Length of bars=2Z=32-10 cm. Breadth of bars =24 = 1-29 cm.

Mass of each bar=J!f=441 grammes.
Moment of inertia of each bar = A'= J (Z2 + A z ) - J 441 (16-05 2 + -642)
2
=3793xlO*grm. cm.
Length of wire =?=31*15 cm.

Headings of screw-gauge for pairs of diameters at right angles,
1189
1189
-1187
1187
1188
-1190
1191
1189
mean
mean
*1188 cm.
*1190 cm.
mean -1189cm.
* See
Footnote on page 92.
t The reasons for this procedure are similar to those explained in Note VII.
EXPERIMENTAL WORK
112
Correction for zero error '0005cm.
[CH.
to be added.
Mean diameter =2a= -1189-f '0005 = '11 94 cm. Radius =a=-0597 cm.
The mean readings for the two diameters, viz. -1188 and '1190 cm. were
so nearly equal that it was considered unnecessary to change the positions of
the clamping-screws in the bars.
Time of 50 complete vibrations 71 '0, 70*8. Mean 70-9 sees.
Periodic time 2^
1*418 sees.
Hence, by
(2),
we
find for Young's
modulus
--
8x3-142x3-793 xlO*x3M5
1-418* x 0-0597"*
EXPERIMENT
mical method.
8.
n 1C
, nis
1-16x1012
,
Comparison of
elastic constants.
Dyna-
Method. By the apparatus used for EXPERIMENT 7 we

72.
can compare Young's modulus
and the rigidity n of the material
of the wire by simply observing two times of vibration. The
inertia bars are unhooked from the strings and one bar is clamped
to a shelf or other suitable support so that the wire is vertical.

The other bar is then caused to vibrate about a vertical axis,
exactly as in
EXPERIMENT 5
for finding the rigidity.
Since the
vibrating bar is of square section, its moment of inertia about the

wire is equal to J5T, its moment of inertia about the axis of the hook,
provided that the effects of the hook, the clamping screw, and the
recess,
be negligible.
vibrations,
we
have,
If
be the periodic time of the torsional
by equation
(1),
63,
The periodic time, It of the vibrations discussed in

observed. By equation (2), 69,
and hence, by Q),
F*
G9
is
then
............................ (3)
Thus we can compare

and n without knowing the length or
diameter of the wire or the dimensions of the inertia bars.
If
KA and K
Ct
the
moments of
inertia of the
two
bars,
be not
exactly equal, each bar should be caused to vibrate in turn. The

mean 'of the two periodic times will bo very nearly equal to that
COMPARISON OF ELASTIC CONSTANTS
Ill]
which would be found
if
the
moment
113
of inertia of each bar were
We may therefore take T
J (KA + KC)*
3 in equation (1) as equal

the
two periodic times. On page 111 it is shown
to the mean of
as equal to J (KA +
that in equation (2) we may take
).
When E/n has been found, Poisson's ratio, <r, is easily calculated
by formula (11) of
19,
Chapter
=The
method
I, viz.
(4)
following table* gives some values of E/n obtained by this

when applied to wires about 0*1 cm. in diameter. To make
the results more complete, the values of

and n were calculated
(2) and (1), the unit for each modulus being one dyne per
by
has been corrected for

square cm. In each case the value of
the mass of the wire, the correction being about $ per cent.
last five substances E/n is greater than 3, and hence,

greater than J. For an isotropic material we have, by
formula (12) of 19, Chapter I,
For the
by
(4),
is
were greater than
, either the bulk modulus k or the

In the first case, a hydrostatic pressure applied to the material would cause it to increase in volume,
and in the second case, a positive shearing stress would give rise to
a negative shear. We infer that the wires of the last five substances are so far from being isotropic that the theory of isotropic
Thus,
if
rigidity
<r
n would be negative.
G.
8.
E. E.
Jb\
C.
fctearle,
Philosophical Magazine, tfeb. 1900, p. 199.
EXPERIMENTAL WORK
114
solids does
violent is
[CH.
not furnish a working approximation. Considering how

the process of wire-drawing, this result is hardly
surprising.
The results may be entered as in the

an experiment by Mr D. L. H. Baynes on the wire of
Practical example.
73.
following record of
German-silver used in the experiment of 71.

Time of 50 complete vibrations (Young's modulus) 71
0, 70'8.
Mean
70-9 sees.
Hence 7\= 1-41 8 sees.

Time of 50 complete vibrations
Hence ^=3*068 sees.
-n
(Rigidity) 153*4, 153*4
Mean
153*4 sees.
E T?
/ox
By (3)
Hence, by (4), Poisson's ratio =flr=( &72w)-l=l'31

Since the maximum value of a- for an isotropic solid is
J
shows that the German -silver wire
is far
from being
this result
isotropic.
EXPERIMENT 9. Determination of Poisson's ratio by the

bending of a rectangular rod.
74.
Introduction.
when a rod
shown in Chapter
of rectangular section
transverse section
section,
It is
which are
is distorted*.
is
The
II,
29, that,
bent into a circular
sides BG,
arc,
the
AD (Fig. 12) of the
the axis of bending, become

centre 8, while the sides AB, CD
initially parallel to
circular arcs having
common
initially perpendicular to the axis of bending become

lines
A'ff, C'D' passing through S. If the distance of
straight
which are
from 0, the point where the neutral filament cuts the plane of the
diagram, be p' cm. and if the radius of curvature of the neutral
filament be p cm., then
we
have,
by formula
(5) of
29,
a>
Hence we can
dinal curvature
find Poisson's ratio a, if

viz.
l//o,
determine the point

pass,
if
continued.
wo measure
the longitu-
the curvature of the neutral filament, and

through which the sides A'B', C'D would
Instead of finding S,
we may deduce
* See
S3, 34, for the difference between a rod
Chapter II,
respect to the distortion of the section.
!//>'
from
and a blade with
Ill]
DETERMINATION OP POISSON'S RATIO
115
the angle between the sides A'B' and C'D' when the rod
For, if the width (-3(7) of the bar be 2a cm., we have
We
is
bent.
shall call 1/p' the transverse curvature.

is arranged as in Fig. 40.
The rod rests upon
means
can
be
bent
of
two equal masses
N'
and
JV,
by
The apparatus
two knife edges
near the ends

placed in the pans which hang from the stirrups L,
rod should
and
N'
The
the
distances
of the rod,
being equal.
2
4
in
to
cm.
The
width.
be 0'2 to 0'3 cm. in thickness and
general
LN
Fig. 40.
arrangement of the apparatus is the same as that in EXPERIMENT 6, to which the reader should refer. At U, V, midway
between the knife edges, are fixed two steel needles about 3 mm.
The needle fixed at U
in diameter and 40 to 50 cm. in length.
82
EXPERIMENTAL WORK
116
[CH.
carries a horizontal scale T and the point P of the other needle

moves along this scale when the rod is bent, the relative motion
indicating the extent of the distortion of the transverse section.

should be ground to a fine point so that
The tip of the needle
VP
the readings
in
may be taken with certainty to -^
mm.
An efficient method of attaching the needles to the rod is shown

Fig. 41. Two connectors, each fitted with two set screws, such
d]
HJ
Fig. 41.
as are used for electrical connexions, are soldered to the sides of

the rod at U and
and the needles are secured in the connectors
by the set screws.

without some special device, to solder the
connectors to the rod one at a time, for the act of soldering the
second connector to the rod would probably cause the solder holding
It
would be
difficult,
the first one to melt. To avoid this trouble, the connectors may
be fixed to the two needles as in Fig. 41, and the needles may
then be secured in a suitable clamp so as to hold the connectors in
position against the sides of the rod. The soldering may then be
accomplished by aid of a soldering bit or blowpipe.

Since the motion of the pointer VP along the scale
small,
T is
only
a telescope should be used to magnify the scale and to avoid
errors of parallax.
The two long needles

up
are very sensitive to vibration,
and thus
impossible to obtain accurate readings if the apparatus be set

in a part of the laboratory which is subject to much vibration.
it is
DETERMINATION OF POISSON*S RATIO
Ill]
117
LN
L'N' (Fig. 40) are equal, and since the

Since the distances
are equal, it follows, as in
masses suspended from L and
66,
that the bending moment is constant for all points of the rod
and N'. Hence the neutral filament is bent into a
between
9
circular arc.
The value of I///, the

(Fig. 42) take
transverse curvature,
VP
motion of the pointer
is
deduced from the
relative to the scale T.
P, P' such that
FP = UP'=p,
where
On VS, US
p cm. is the
Fig. 42.
length of the steel pointer measured from the tip to the centre of
the edge of the rod, and let the straight line PP' cut the vertical
and K'. Then, since the angle V8U
in
lines through Fand
or is the sum of the very small angles PVK, P'UK', we may take
If the displacement of the tip of the pointer along the scale

be ac cm., we may write
Hence, by
(2),
we
find for the transverse curvature
cmr
,--.
Za 2ap
.
..................... (3)
^ '
We have here supposed the axes of the steel needles to coincide

with the faces of the rod, but it is easily seen that the result is
the same when the axes of the needles are at small distances from
the edges of the rod, as in Fig. 41. Further, there
the needles to be absolutely straight.
is
no need
for
EXPERIMENTAL WORK
118
The curvature
1/p of the neutral filament
[CH.
is
deduced from the
motion of Q, the point midway between U and V. A pin

attached by wax to the rod at Q and a vertical scale (not shown
vertical
is
in Fig. 40)
is
placed so that the tip of the pin moves along
it
when
the rod is bent (see Fig. 35). If preferred, the mirror method
67 may be used for finding p.
described in
If the distance between the knife edges be 21 cm. and if h cm.
is placed in
be the distance through which Q rises when a mass
each pan,
we have
= h (2p
h), or
approximately, since h
is
small
compared with p
1
2A
..
Determination of Poisson's ratio. A series of obsermade. The masses in the pans are varied by equal steps
vations
from zero to some maximum value which does not strain the
rod too much. In putting the masses into the pans care must be
75.
is
taken that one pan
is
not so heavily loaded that the heavier

To avoid this disaster, equal masses
load overbalances the other.
two pans simultaneously, using both hands.

into the pans as gently as possible so as
of
chance
to avoid any
disturbing the clamping of the long steel
may be put
into the
The masses must be put

needles.
For each value of the
load,
beginning with the pans empty,
VP
on the scale T is taken as well as

the reading of the needle
the reading on the vertical scale of the pin attached to the centre
of the rod. If the pans be light, we may take the readings when
the pans are empty as the zero readings.
To determine Poisson's ratio from the observed quantities
use the values of !//>' and 1/p given by (3) and (4), and thus
we
we
find
&
-
(T=z*-,=zp'
4*ap
X
...................... fK\
T
(5)
^ '
h
The results of the observations may be shown graphically,

h being taken as abscissa and x as ordinate ; a straight line is then
drawn by the aid of a thread (page 83) so as to pass as evenly as
possible
among the
plotted points.
The
difference in the values
DETERMINATION OF POISSON'S RATIO
in]
119
of a?, as shown by this line, for & = and for some definite elevation
h is taken as the best value of x for that value of A. These values
of h and
76.
x are used in
calculating
Practical example.
cr
The
by the formula
observations
(5).
may be
entered as in
the following record of an experiment made by G. F. C. Searle upon a steel

rod about 0*3 cm. (\ inch) in thickness.
Width
of bar at centre
=2a=2*48 cm.
Hence
=1'24 cm.
Thickness of bar = 26 = 0*3 cm. Hence 6=0*15 cm.

Distance between knife edges =2=40 cm. Hence =20 cm.
Distance from knife edge to point of support of corresponding pan =30 cm.
Distance from tip of pointer to centre of edge of rod =jo=43-0 cm.
To give a clear idea of the magnitudes of the two radii of curvature, the
r
values of p and p have been calculated by (4) and (3). Thus,
?2
202
200
'-STaTiT'
2 '48x43
2ap
'-^T*
106 '6
'"IT
When the values of x and h were plotted, the best value of xjh was found
to be 0*152, which is identical with the mean of the values of scjh given
in the table.
Hence, by
(5),
- xO-1 52 =0-285.
=0-=,? = T -^
4ap h 4xl'24x43'0
2
2
The least value of p' is
/26 is l-24 /0'3 or 5' 13 cm.
2
Thus the condition*
/26.
nearly 100 times the value of
Poisson's ratio
The value of
485 cm. and this
laid
down
is
in Chapter II,
33 are
fully satisfied.

non-uniform bending of a rod.
Introduction. In EXPERIMENT 6 the rod is loaded in
77.
such a way that the bending is uniform for tho part of the rod
between the knife edges. We now consider the case of non-
EXPERIMENTAL WORK
120
[OH.
uniform bending presented by a rod supported at its ends and

The general mathematical theory of this
its centre.
loaded at
is beyond the scope of the present book, but it so

happens,
that the conditions under which it is easy to make experiments
with a rod loaded at its centre are those which must be satisfied
case
in order that the results of the partial mathematical treatment,

is
given below, may be good approximations to the truth.
which
To
obtain a working knowledge of these conditions,
consider a weightless rod of length
we
shall
fixed horizontally at one

vertical force
applied to the
Z,
end B, and bent by a downward

other end C in the manner indicated in Fig. 43.
Let
be a
l-x
F
Fig. 43.
point on the rod at a distance x from the end 5, let a transverse

and let us consider the equilibrium
be drawn through
plane
of the portion PC. If we apply equal and opposite vertical forces,
PO
PC
each equal to F, to the end of
downward
force
nearest to B,
we
see that the
F applied at C is equivalent to a downward force F
P together with
a clockwise couple. Since the equilimaintained, the action of BP on PC is equivalent

to an upward vertical force
together with a couple 6? in a
direction tending to turn PC in a counter-clockwise direction,
applied at
brium of
PC
is
where
G = F(l-sc)
The
(1)
F is
supplied by the tangential stresses over the

and
if
Fftv be the average vertical tangential stress,
section,
hence,
force
AVm = F,
where
is
(2)
the area of the section.
The resultant of the normal
stresses across the section vanishes,
PC
is
since the only force applied to
in the section
there is some point
and F is vertical. Hence

where the normal stress (T)
9
YOUNG'S MODULUS BY NON-UNIFORM BENDING
in]
121
take rectangular axes OZ, perpendichanges sign.

Through
cular to the plane of the paper, and OF, perpendicular to the
length of the rod, and take moments about OZ. Then, if (2fy)av be
the average value of Ty,
we have
A(Ty\v =G = F(l-a;)................... (3)

From
(2)
and
We may
(3)
we have
conclude from this result that, when the greatest

#, the average value of
T at the top and bottom
value of y is small compared with I

is small compared with the values of
of the rod, where the normal stress is greatest. Thus, we may

expect the effects of the vertical shearing stress F, as shown in
the deflexion of the end C, to be small compared with those of the
normal
with
stress T, provided the length of the rod
its
78.
be great compared
depth*.
Approximate results for non-uniform bending.
When
the vertical shearing stresses are neglected, we may neglect

any changes in the angles of a square with horizontal and vertical
sides in a plane parallel to that of the paper in Fig. 43, and hence
a transverse section of the straight rod
is
strained into a surface
the longitudinal filaments at right angles. If G be the

"
in
the
strained section which corresponds with the centre
point
of gravity" or centroid of the unstrained section, the plane touching
cutting
all
the strained section at
the strained section
itself,
nowhere deviate appreciably from

provided the rod be thin, and conse-
will
quently the assumption that the strained section

plane will not lead to any appreciable error.
is
accurately
We
suppose that the bending takes place parallel to a plane

of symmetry of the rod, and, as in Chapter II,
28, we call that
to
of
the
any transverse
bending.
Corresponding
plane
plane
in
the
filament
there
one
is
section,
plane of bending
longitudinal
which, in the neighbourhood of that section, remains unchanged
*
Horizontal shearing stresses will act across the section through
(Fig. 43) as
well as vertical shearing stresses. The effects of the former on the deflexion of C
will be much leas than that of the latter and are neglected in the investigation.
EXPERIMENTAL WORK
122
in length,
and
[CH.
this filament is called the neutral filament cor-
responding to that section, while the straight line, which passes

through the centre of curvature of the neutral filament at any
point and is perpendicular to the plane of bending,
axis of bending for that point.
is
called the
From the
investigation of the uniform bending of a rod given

28 to 33, we may expect that, when the radius of
in Chapter II,
curvature of the neutral filament is large enough compared with a
quantity depending upon the form and magnitude of the transverse

section, the tension of any longitudinal filament, at a point where
the elongation is e cm. per cm., will not differ appreciably from
that which would give the elongation e in a* tilament of equal
unstrained section if the sides of this filament were free from
stress.
We
shall therefore calculate the tension
Young's modulus
in terms of
by the formula
.(4)
which, by Chapter I,
17, applies to the case where the sides of
the filament are free from stress.
where the neutral filament cuts

the plane of the transverse section, and if, in that plane, we take
rectangular axes* OX, OY, parallel and perpendicular to the axis
If
(Fig. 44) be the point
Axis OF BENDING
Fig. 44.
The
,
axis of
is
81, 82 the axis of
now taken
2
is
at right angles to the plane of Fig. 43.

in the same direction as in Fig. 43.
In
YOUNG'S MODULUS BY NON-UNIFORM BENDING
in]
123
be the
elongation of the longitudinal filament through the point P, which
has the coordinates act y, then
RH,
of bending
it follows,
as in Chapter II,
29, that, if e
- y/p.
where p is the radius of curvature OR of the neutral filament.

T dyne cm.""2 be the tension of the longitudinal filament, we
have, by (4),
If
We
if
N be
now
find the position of the neutral filament.

For,
the total force acting across the transverse section and at
can
right angles to
it,
and
if
a be an element of area, we have
N = 2ToL = EZ*y/p
...................... (5)
"
where h is the ordinate of the centre of gravity
and A is the area of the section ; thus
But Say = A h,
of the section,
Hence, when
is
"
h = 2onj/A=pN/AE. .................. (6)

known, the position of the neutral filament
relative to the "centre of gravity" of the transverse section is
known.
In many cases the forces are applied to the rod in such a way
In these cases A vanishes, and then the neutral
is zero.
that
"
"
filament passes through the centre of gravity of the section.
In the EXPERIMENT now under discussion the rod slides slightly
over the knife-edges (Fig. 46)
motion
is
when the
load
is
changed, and this
opposed by friction which therefore gives rise to a

Since the depression of the centre of the rod
horizontal force.
due to a given load is found in practice to be nearly the same

whether this load be reached by increasing a smaller load or
68, 84), we may conclude that the
decreasing a larger one (see
force
due to friction are small ; in the
effects of the horizontal
EXPERIMENT these effects will be neglected.

The sum of the moments, about the axis OX (Fig.
present
44), of the
tensions in the longitudinal filaments is equal to the "bending

moment," i.e. the moment about the same axis of the forces applied to the rod on either side of the transverse section. Hence,
if
the bending
moment be
dyne-cm.,
,
............... (7)
EXPERIMENTAL WORK
124
where
axis
is
"moment
the
[CH.
of inertia" of the section about the
OX.
zero or negligible,
may be taken to coincide with
the centre of gravity of the strained section and when, in addition,
/ may be taken as equal to 1 the moment
is
the
When
bending
is
slight,
of inertia of the unstrained section about an axis through its

centre of gravity parallel to the axis of bending.
From
(6)
and (7) we have
IN
and thus the distance of the neutral filament from the
"
centre
"
of the section will vary as we pass along the rod,

of gravity
be constant. This condition is not generally
or
unless N/G
pN
and hence,
satisfied,
in general, there is
in the straight rod which suffers

its length, when the rod is bent,
When
the force
end with
a horizontal rod
is negligible,
its axis slightly
no one longitudinal filament
no elongation
at every point of
bent by vertical forces, as in Fig. 46,

but when a rod which is fixed at one
is
inclined to the vertical is loaded at the
will be large at all points of the rod, while G will be

other end,
zero at the loaded end and will increase as the fixed end is
approached. In this case h may be so large near the loaded end

that the neutral filament does not lie within the rod; in other
words, every longitudinal filament is cither extended or shortened
according to the direction of N.
The moment of inertia J can

J but must be found from
then no longer be taken as equal to

the expression
i~i.+Ah; ........................... (9)

which
is
79.
obtained in Note IV,
12.
Cartesian expression for curvature.
When
a rod
is
bent by the application of known forces, the bending moment Gr

known at every point of the rod. When the effects of the force
is
N are negligible, / may be taken as equal to 7
and then equation

from
and
the
curvature
this
we have to
information
(7) gives
!//>,
determine the form of the rod. When, as in practical cases, the
bending
is slight,
we
can obtain a simple differential equation from
CARTESIAN EXPRESSION FOB CURVATURE
Ill]
which the form of the rod can be found,
if
we
125
express 1/p in terms
of Cartesian coordinates.
x, y be the coordinates of any point P (Fig.
AB. Let the radius of curvature at P be
tangent at P make an angle ^r with the axis of
Let
curve
the
tan
-t|r
45) on the
p,
x.
and
let
Then
- dy/cfo.
(10)
Q make
an angle
and Q,
the
normals
at
the angle between
with OX, then dty
and hence, if the length of the element of arc PQ be ds, we find
If the tangent at the neighbouring point
is
By
ddr
andthus
differentiating (10),
we
d^lr
d-\!r dx
:--. -,- = 008^-7.
/10X
(12)
obtain
*2f
da?
and hence, by
(12),
= cos
But
sec2
yfr
= 1 4- tan
^, and hence
.(14)
'p~da?
EXPERIMENTAL WORK
126
When
the curve
very small,
we may
is
nearly parallel to
3
replace cos ty
OX,
Apparatus. The rod,

upon two knife edges A,
80.
bed
XY such
as
so that
is
always
by unity and write

.(15)
da?
rests
[OH.
of circular or rectangular section,

(Fig. 46) carried by a stout
described in
G5.
light pan is suspended
from 0, the point of the rod midway between A and B. A pin
is fixed to the rod by wax at C and a vertical scale is set up close
is
Fig. 46.
To
secure symmetrical loading, a stirrup, as in Fig. 47,

may be used for suspending the pan from a rectangular rod.
plate perforated by a circular hole (Fig. 48) may be used with
to the pin.
circular rod may be prevented from rolling on

the knife edges by the device mentioned in G5.
a round rod.
Pig. 47.
Pig. 48.
DEPRESSION AT CENTRE OF ROD
Ill]
127
Instead of observing the depression of the central point (7, we

is
observe the slope of the rod at B.
plane mirror
and a
attached to the rod immediately over the knife edge
may
up over the knife edge A. By a telescope T

with cross-wires and held in a firm stand ( 67), the scale
can be viewed by reflexion at -B the slope of the rod at B
vertical scale S' is set

fitted
can be deduced from the apparent motion of the
scale past the
horizontal cross-wire of the telescope.
Depression at centre of rod. Let P (Fig. 49) be any

on
the rod and let the coordinates of P relative to the
point
axes OX, OY through the central point C be x, y cm. Let
81.
M
R. 49.
the distance between the knife edges A, B be 21 cm. For the

sake of clearness, the curvature of the rod is greatly exaggerated
in the figure. Let a load of
grammes be suspended at C. If
the rod be so stiff that it is only slightly bent by its own weight,
the additional depression due to

may be taken to be equal
to the depression which
would cause if the rod were without
weight.
In the case of a weightless rod, the upward force due to each
knife edge is \Mg dynes.
Hence, if G be the bending moment
at P,
wo have
Thus, by (7)
=
and
%(
-a?) dyne-cm ................ (16)
(16),
(17)
or,
by (15),
.(18)
EXPERIMENTAL WORK
128
[CH.
the differential equation from which the form of the rod
is
to
be
deduced.
Integrating (18) with respect to x,
where
K
s
is
a constant.
when x = 0.
0,
At
we have
the rod
K=
Thus
we
Integrating a second time,
is horizontal,
and hence
0.
find
where
is another constant whose value is zero, since the axes
when a; = 0. Hence the form of
have been chosen so that y =
the rod
is
given by
<
20>
It shoufd be noticed that this equation holds good only over the
part OB of the rod. For points on AC, the bending moment is
not J Mg (I
Mg (I + x), which
x) but
leads to
For values of x which are numerically equal but of opposite signs,

equations (20) and (21) give identical values of y.
If the depression of the mid-point be h cm., we see that h
is
equal to the elevation of

Z and hence, by (20),
above the axis CX.
But at B,
#=
A-^
71
6-E7'
E = -^jr*- dynes per square cm ............. (23)
and
When
we
.
........................
(22)'
^
have,
the rod
is
circular with diameter
by Note IV,
2a cm. or radius a cm.,
12,
/= J7ra
cm. 4,
a rectangular rod of width 2 a and thickness 26 cm., the

side whose length is 26 being vertical in the experiment,
and
for
SLOPE AT END OF BOD
Ill]
129
If p be the radius of curvature at the mid-point, where
we
have,
by
x=
0,
(18),
2J3T
Comparing (22) with
(24),
we
find
P.-P/3A ......................... (25)

If the rod
had been uniformly bent into an arc of radius p, the
geometry of the circle would lead to the approximate result
Slope at end of rod. Since

if tyB be tho slope at B, where x = I,
82.
that,
K=Q
in (19),
we
find
<
If z be the distance through which the scale

to move past the cross-wire of the telescope
placed in the pan, we have, as in 67,
fi>'
(Fig. 46) appears
when the
load
is
2^,-*/2J.
Thus, by (26),
E=
and
We
see from (22)
y- dynes per square
cm ............. (28)
and (27) that the distance through which
the scale appears to move past the cross-wire is six times the
distance through which the mid-point descends.
Equation (28) has been obtained on the usual assumption that
the slope of the rod

replaced by
easily found.
is
everywhere so small that cos

may be
But an exact expression for sin ty is
unity in (13).
Since,
by
(12)
.
COS T/r
r
we
have,
by
(17),
<ty
--
= _1
dx
EXPERIMENTAL WORK
130
On
integrating this equation from
sin^ =
when # =
0,
we
x=
[OH
x = x and noting
to
thai
find
(29)
and thus
When
tyB is
small, the
value given by (26) does not differ
appreciably from that given by (30).
Determination of Young's modulus. Young's modudeduced cither from the depression of the mid-point or
be
may
from the apparent motion of the scale past the cross- wire of the
In either case a series of observations is made. The
telescope.
mass in the pan is increased by equal steps from zero to some
83.
lus
value which does not strain the rod beyond the elastic
zero by the same steps.
limit, and the mass is then diminished to
If the elongation of the most highly strained filament is not to
29, that />
cm. per cm., it follows, by Chapter II,
exceed -^
of the rod
diameter
the
is
2a
where
than
less
must not be
lOOOa,
maximum
or its thickness (measured vertically) if rectangular.

2
Hence, by (25), h should not exceed l /(3QQOa).
At each stage of the loading and unloading a reading of the pin
is taken. The difference between the mean of
of the
if circular,
(or
cross-wire)
and the mean reading when

the two readings for a given mass
of h (or of z) which
value
the
as
taken
is
is
the pan
empty
we may leave the mass of the
in
As
M.
66,
to
corresponds
pan out of account.
constant for
If the values of h/Mor of zjM prove to be nearly
of
or
z/M may be used for
different loads, the mean value of h/M
modulus. When the irregularities are serious, the
finding Young's
should be used. In this case, the values of

graphical method
and of h or of z are plotted and a straight line is drawn as evenly
difference between the
as possible among the plotted points. The
= and for some
for
this
shown
line,
as
of
by
values of h (or
z),
h
of
value
best
as
the
z) for that mass.
taken
(or
is
mass
,
definite
M,
These values of
M and of h or z are used in (23) or in
(28).
Ill]
131
81 Practical example. The observations may be entered as in

the following record of an experiment made by Messrs G. F. C. Searle and
D. L. H. Baynes upon the circular rod of steel which was used in
68, where
the bending was uniform.
Readings of screw-gauge for pairs of diameters at right angles,
Mean
9614
-9580
-9592
'9610
-9612
-9637
96 J 3
'9623
'9565
9595
'9623
-9625
reading 0*9(ilO
cm.
Correction for zero error 0-0006 cm.
to be
added.
Mean diameter =2a=0 -961 6 cm. Radius =a=0'4S08 cm.

4
Hence, moment of inertia of section =/=j7ra*= 0*04197 cm.
Distance between knife edges =2=90 cm.

Observations were taken both for the depression
for the apparent displacement
telescope, using the mirror
Mean
Mean
(z)
(h) at
the mid-point and
of the scalo past the cross-wire of the
method.
value of A/Jf= 1*826 x 10~ 4 cm. grra.- 1.

value of s/Jf=10-89x10-** cm. grm.- 1
.
Dividing the mean value of z\M by six,

agrees fairly with the mean value of h/M.
Using the direct method, we have, by (23),
we have
1-815
10"*, which
981 x 45 s
*- Mai*
Using the mirror method, we have, by
981X45
'
l-OSîO-axo^^^^
These values of
(28)
3
'
1 96
^ ^^
012
1>er
Sqimre
Cm
"
E are about 5 per cent, lower than that obtained in
68.
EXPERIMENTAL WORK
132
EXPERIMENT
of a blade.
85.
11.
[CH.
Determination of rigidity by the torsion
The uniform
Introduction.
torsion of a blade,
i.e.
&
strip of metal whose thickness is very small compared with its

42 to 45, Chapter II. In
45 it is
width, is considered in
that, if GI be the torsional couple required to twist one end

of a blade of length I cm. through <j> radians relative to the other
end, and if n be the rigidity,
shown
n =
where 2a cm.
From
is
~^
16nab*d>
dyne-cm.,
(1)
the width and 2& cm. the thickness of the blade.
this equation
n can be
calculated,
when the
relation of Q^ to
In the following experiment the determination is made by a dynamical method.

Polished strips of tempered steel form suitable specimens for
Since they are fairly
this experiment and for EXPERIMENT 12.
<f>
has been determined.
uniform in thickness, reasonably good measurements can be made

upon them. They have the further great advantage that they
may be subjected to considerable strains without sustaining any
set.
permanent
Steel strips can be obtained from the
facturers in a great variety of widths
manu-
and thicknesses, down
to a
-^ inch (0*00508 cm.). When not in use they should

vaseline to prevent rusting.
with
be coated
thickness of
Determination of rigidity. The dynamical method of

86.
EXPERIMENT 5 may be employed with a slight alteration in the
form of the inertia bar. The blade is clamped between two inertia
bars of rectangular section
manner indicated in Fig. 50.
by the aid of three screws in the

The central screw passes through
a hole in the blade but the other screws are sufficiently far apart
A similar method of
to allow the blade to pass between them.
be
for
the
end
of the bar; in this
employed
clamping may
upper
case the bars between which the upper end of the blade is clamped
must be secured to a firm support. The edges of the blade must
be
vertical
and the axes of the
inertia bars
and of the clamping
bars must be horizontal.
For the reasons given in Note VII, the mass of each
inertia bar
TORSION OF A BLADE
Ill]
133
should be determined before the screw holes are bored in it ; for

convenience the masses should be stamped or engraved on the bars.
The length
of the blade, I cm., between the clamping bars at

and
the inertia bars at its lower end is measured by
end
upper
aid of a centimetre scale, and the average width, 2a cm., of the
its
Fig. 50.
found from a number of readings taken with a pair of

In measuring the thickness, 26 cm., at least 10
sliding calipers.
at
points fairly distributed over the blade, are taken with
readings,
blade
is
a screw-gauge and the correction for the zero error of the gauge
applied, with its proper sign, to the mean of the readings.
is
The lengths 2i x and 2L Z cm. of the two inertia bars are then
found; their widths 2A l and 2A 2 cm., measured at right angles to
the plane of the blade, are also determined. Let the masses of the
bars be
and
-4,
2 grammes.
Then, if
lt L : and A l be nearly
A
and
we
treat
the
inertia
2
2
may
system as if it
of
two
each
the
constants
L
up
equal bars,
having
where
M^ and
equal to
were built
2,
The moment
through
its
of inertia of one of these bars about an axis
centre of gravity parallel to the axis of the blade is,

by
6, J
(L* + A*). The distance between these two axes
Note IV,
is A + b and hence, by the theorem of
parallel axes (Note IV,
the
moment
of inertia of each bar about the axis of the blade
3),
is
EXPERIMENTAL WORK
134
Taking account of both
bars,
we
[CH.
see that, if the
moment
of inertia
of the inertia system be Ifgrm. cm. 2
In practice the last two terms in the bracket will be negligible

in comparison with \ L* and thus we may write
A"=f7l/(L
+ 4^1
)gnn.cm.
............... (2)
To complete the observations, the periodic time of the vibrations

of the inertia system about the vertical axis of the blade must be
determined ; the arc of vibration should be small, since the theory
42 to 45, is only applicable to very small values
of Chapter II,
At least two observations of the periodic
of the twist per cm.
time are made exactly as in EXPERIMENT 5, to which the reader is
Let the periodic time be
referred.
is'
T seconds.
By Note III, 2, the angular acceleration of the inertia system

equal to G l /K and hence, by (1), has the value
lQnab 3 d>
r
^~
Hence, by Note V,
,.
radians per sec. per sec.
2,
the periodic time
is
given by
2w
vangular acceleration
= 2-rr V/TTJ
v
j~z
IQnab*
for
one radian
seconds.
Hence we obtain
^=
From
5^^ dynes per square cm
(3)
this equation the rigidity is determined.
87.
The
Practical example.
observations
may
following record of an experiment on a blade of tempered steel.

58-07 cm.
Length of blade under torsion
==
The
thickness was measured by a screw-gauge at 11 equidistant points

each
of two lines parallel to the edges of the blade, the distance
along
between each line and the nearer edge being about one-third the width of
the blade.
in
The
following pairs of readings were obtained ; they are expressed
hundredths of a centimetre.
4-66
4-80
4-70
4-81
4-70
4-68
4-78
4-79
4-71
4-66
4-77
4-80
4-67
4-66
4-75
4-74
4-68
4'66
4'81
4'80
470
478
mean 4-680 xlO~* cm.
mean 4784x10 2 cm.
Ill]
The mean
0'08 x 10
~2
of the two
cm.
is to
means
is
x 10 ~ 2 cm.
4-*732
135
the zero correction
be added.
Hence thickness =2&= 4-81 2 x 10 ~ 2 cm.
Thus 6=2-406 x 10~ 2 cm.
Headings of sliding calipers on blade

5-06,
5-05,
5-06,
5'05,
5'02,
5'02
5O1,
5-02,
5-05,
5-06,
5'06.
Mean
Zero eiror negligible.

Hence width =2a== 5-042 cm.
5 '042 cm.
Thus a =2-521 cm.
MI = 796, J/2 = 796. Hence = 796 grammes.

Lengths of inertia bars 2Z1 =60'00, 2Z2 =60'00. Hence 7>=30*00 cm.
Widths of inertia bars 2^=1 -2f>, 24 2 =1'26. Hence ZA = 1 '20 cm.
Moment of inertia of system = /T= pf (Z*+4d 2)
Masses of inertia bars
Time
x796(900+l-6)=4-784xl0 grm. cm.

Mean 1287 sees.
of 50 complete vibrations: 128-6, 128-8, 128-7.
Hence 2^=2 -574

Thus, by
sees.
(3)
* 8*839
4 x "2-521 x 6'02406 y x~2'574 2

x 1011 dynes per square centimetre.
On account of the uncertainty as to the thickness of the blade, this result

uncertain to the extent of 4 or 5 per cent. The figures yielded by the
logarithmic computation are, however, retained for use in connexion with
is
EXPERIMENT
12.
EXPERIMENT 12. Determination of E/(l - a') by the uniform bending of a blade.

88. Introduction.
The uniform bending of a blade has been
37 of that chapter it is shown

discussed in Chapter II and in
be
that, unless the bending
very slight, the bending moment, G*,
required to bend the blade so that the longitudinal filaments have
a radius p cm.,
where 2a cm,
Further,
is
is
given by
the width and 26 cm.
E is Young's modulus and
or
is
is
the thickness of the blade.

Poisson's ratio.
not sufficient by itself to determine either

Equation
or <r, but if we use it in connexion with the equation (1) of
(1) is
85, via.
^ =
<?!
I6nab--s 6
r
dyne-cm.,
BXPEBIMENTAL WORK
136
refers to the torsion of the blade
which
of
19,
Chapter
[CH.
and with the equation (11)
I, viz.
#=2n(l + <r),
(2)
which expresses the relation between Poisson's ratio and the two
and n, we have sufficient equations to deterelastic constants
mine the three quantities E, n and
cr.
The relation between G2 the bending

Apparatus.
of curvature of the longitudinal filaradius
and
the
moment,
p,
be
ments, may
investigated by the method of EXPERIMENT 6, if we
89.
introduce slight modifications rendered necessary by the flexibility

of the blade.
Fig. 51.
AB (Fig. 51) rests symmetrically upon the knifewhich

are set at right angles to the length of the bed
D,
edges
XT. The distance between the knife-edges should be adjusted so
The blade
(7,
that the part of the blade between them is as nearly as possible

When this adjustment is
straight when the blade is unloaded.
secured, it will be found that the distance between the knife-edges
is
approximately half the whole length of the blade*.
* It
seen that the bending moment at the centre of the unloaded blade
distance between the knife-edges is half the whole length of the
blade. It can be shown that the centre of the blade is then raised above the level
of the knife-edges by ft/80, where h is the depression at the centre when the blade is
is
zero
is easily
when the
supported at
its ends.
If the adjustment be such that the centre of the unloaded
Ill]
The
137
deflexions of the central point

are observed
a
of
bent needle serving as an* index.
scale S, the point
by aid of the
A telescope
used to magnify the scale and to avoid parallax.

The curvature may also be determined by the mirror method
(EXPERIMENT 6, 67), In this case the curvatures employed may
may be
be smaller than when a needle-point and scale are used.

The pans for carrying the weights may be hung from threads
and K, through the holes drilled in the blade to
which pass, at
accommodate the central clamping screws (Fig. 50) used in EXPERIMENT 11. The threads may be secured to the blade by small
(Fig. 51) and should be provided with light
pieces of wax W,
hooks to carry the pans. It is convenient to adjust the mass of
each pan to some definite value, say 10 grammes.
The length
should not bend
AB
is
limited
much under
must be considerable
its
by the condition that the blade

own weight and hence the curva-
the deflexion of the central point

is
to be large enough for accurate observation with simple apparatus.
But, when the blade is bent, the horizontal distance between the
ture
threads
is less
than when the blade
becomes necessary.
scales T,
if
T are
To determine
straight and thus a correction

this correction, two horizontal
is
placed close to the threads and the scale-readings

The zero readings should,
of the threads are taken for each load.
be taken when the threads carry no loads, but the threads

would not be straight under those conditions, and thus the readings
obtained when only the pans hang from the threads are treated as
the zero readings the horizontal displacements of the threads due
strictly,
to the pans alone are negligible.
On account of the bending, the blade must slide slightly on

the knife-edges, and small differences in the friction between the
blade and the knife-edges will be sufficient to cause the horizontal
movement
of one thread to differ from the horizontal
The difference may be reduced,

the blade through a small distance parallel to
the other.
movement
if necessary,
of
by moving
its length.
blade is at the same level as the knife-edges, the theory shows that the distance
between the knife-edges is 6-^/30 or -5228 times the whole length of the blade.
The radius
of curvature at the centre of the blade
where
ends.
It is impossible to secure entire
is
the radius of curvature at the centre
is
then JJR/(0-5228- ) or 21-9Z*,

is supported at its
when the blade
freedom from bending.
EXPERIMENTAL WORK
138
Determination of JF/(] - <ra).

tion (1) (EXPERIMENT 6), that, when the
90.
thread from the nearer knife-edge
OK due
to equal loads of
given by
(?a
On
is
[CH.
It follows from
66, equa-
horizontal distance of each
p cm., the bending moment,

hung from the threads is
M grammes
= Mpg dyne-cm ......................... (3)
account of the unequal sliding of the blade on the knife-edges,
the horizontal distances of the threads from the corresponding

But, since the difference of
knife-edges are not quite equal.
be sufficient to treat the system as

to
for
and
use
p in equation (3) the average distance
symmetrical
of a thread from the corresponding knife-edge.
If the distance,
measured on the straight blade, between the points from which the
threads are hung, be 2q cm., and if the displacements of the threads
distance
is
small, it will
from their zero positions towards the knife-edges, as measured by

the scales T, T, be ^ and ta cm., the value of p is given by
j>
= g-J-i(t + fc),
..................... (4)
21 is the distance between the knife-edges. It is supposed, of

course, that the system is symmetrical when the pans are unloaded.
The zero reading on the scale 8 is taken when only the threads
where
and hooks hang from the blade. The pans are then hung on and
a reading is again taken. The observations are continued for a
series of loads in the pan, and readings are taken and recorded
The difference
increasing and for decreasing loads.
for
a
two
between the mean of the
readings
given load and the
mean reading when only the threads and hooks hang from the
both
for
blade
is
load.
taken as the elevation of the central point due to that

of the threads on the horizontal scales are
The readings
for each load, and the value of ^ for a given load is calculated
from the mean of the two readings of the corresponding thread for
taken
that load, and similarly for t*
The equation connecting />, the radius of curvature, with h, the

elevation of the central point, is
^+
or
where
21 is the distance
between the knife-edges.
DETERMINATION OF ELASTIC CONSTANTS
Ill]
139
In EXPERIMENT 6, we could neglect %h in comparison with

but in the present experiment the student should examine
the relative magnitudes of the quantities so as to be able to decide
whether the term ^h may be neglected or whether it must be
2
Z /2A,
retained.
The thickness and the width of the blade are measured exactly
EXPERIMENT 11. If that experiment has been already per-
as in
formed upon the same blade,
it will
not be necessary to re-measure
the blade.
From
(1)
and
-
(3)
we have
E = SMpnq
,.
r
(f dynes per square cm., ............ (G)
,
and thus the values of Mpp found by experiment may be expected

The mean of the values obtained for the
to be nearly constant.
a3) is
series of loads is calculated and from it the value of E/(l
If there be serious irregularities, the
found by equation (6).
in
described
66 (EXPERIMENT 6) should be
method
graphical
employed.
and of <r. Let the value of E/(l

Calculation of
obtained from (6) be denoted by J, so that
91.
- <r2)
-j
r^"*
7-
Substituting for
E from (2), we have

2"
l-<r
ff=sl
or
Using
this value of
a-
in (2),
we
-^
............................ ( 7 >
obtain
(8)
On
comparing equation (3) of 86 with equation (6) of 90, it

be seen that n/J and, therefore also, a- are independent of the
values adopted for the width and thickness of the blade.
will
92.
Practical example.
The

used in the experiment of 87.
observations
may
made upon the
blade of tempered steel
EXPERIMENTAL WORK
140
[CH.
Mean width of blade=2a=5-042 cm. Thus a=2-521 cm.

Mean thickness of blade= 26 = 4-812 x 10-* cm. Thus b =2-406 x 1Q-* cm.
These values are those used in
87.
2=
33'0 cm.
Thus 1= 16*5 cm.
Distance between knife-edges =
Distance between the points of support of the threads when the blade
Hence g=29-7 cm.
straight =2$ =59-40 cm.
Hence, by (4),
The readings
were taken on
(10
jo
is
=29-7 -16-5- i(^ + <,) = 13-2- J(^ + ^).
for the elevation, A, for increasing and decreasing loads

a scale divided to half-millimetres. The masses of the pans
grammes each)
The student must
are included in the loads.
record the
two readings for each load and also the readings of the threads on the
horizontal scales.
Mean
= 1005
value
Hence, by
grin,
cm. 2 Thus
Mpp = 1 -005 x 1CK' grin,
(6),
3(^)3
3x3 -Q05xlQ6 x981

4x2'521xO-024063
the experiment of
By
2106 x 1012 dynes per square cm.

87 upon the same blade
n= 8-839 x 1011 dynes per square

But
J= Ej(l -o- )= 2-106 x 1012 dyne cm.- 2
Hence, by
(7),
we
8-839 xlO11
2-106
x!0 ia
cm.
and thus
0-4197.
find ibr Poisson's ratio,
= 1-0-8394=01606.
cm. 2
RAYLEIGH'S BECIPROCAL RELATIONS
in]
Finally,
by
(8),
we
find for Young's
JB=4n (l -
~W x
2'052xl0
The value of
12
modulus
8-839 x 10"(1 -0-4197)
E depends on the thickness of the
the extent of 4 or 5 per cent, (see
EXPERIMENT
13.
141
blade and
is
uncertain to
87).
Test of Lord Rayleigh's reciprocal
relations.
Introduction. Let forces be applied to any number of

93.
points of a system formed of one or more rigid or elastic or fluid
bodies.
The change of form of the system will, as a rule, be
accompanied by changes of temperature, according to the principles of thermodynamics, and hence the work done by the forces
will be represented partly by potential energy due to the change of
height of the centre of gravity of the system, partly by the energy
of elastic strain and partly by the thermal energy corresponding to
the changes of temperature. Since the elastic constants depend
to some extent upon the temperature, the final change of form will
depend upon the manner in which the thermal energy is dealt with.
But there will be a definite relation between the forces and the
change of form in two cases, which we shall call adiabatic and
isothermal.
heat which appears in each part of

the system is supposed to remain there and not to escape to other
parts of the system or to the surrounding bodies by conduction or
In the adiabatic
radiation.
case, the
It is obvious that it is impossible to secure these con-
ditions in practice when we wish to study the change of form of

the system due to the steady application of the forces.
In the isothermal
case, the
temperature
is
supposed to be main-
tained constant at every part of the system while the form of the
system is changing. This condition can be approximately secured
in practice by applying the forces so gradually that conduction and
radiation prevent any appreciable changes of temperature.
In the adiabatic
case, the
changes of form will depend upon the
adiabatic values of the elastic constants, but in the isothermal case
upon the isothermal

that, for
values.
The
results of
Chapter
I,
22,
show
given forces, the changes of form will be nearly the same
EXPERIMENTAL WORK
142
in
the two cases,
if
we
[CH.
metals, but in the

between the two cases will
are dealing with
theoretical discussion the distinction
be maintained.
We
We
now
pass on to consider the action of two sets of forces.

one set is first applied and that the other
shall suppose that
afterwards superposed.
In the adiabatic case, the changes of form which the second set
produces, and also the accompanying changes of temperature, will
set
is
effects already produced by the first set of

latter
effects be small enough.
Hence we
these
provided
the
form
resultant
of
is
of
those due
final
that
the
change
say
be independent of the
forces,
may
to the two sets of forces acting separately, and that the change of
temperature at any point of the system is the resultant of the
changes which occur there when each set of forces acts separately.
In the isothermal case, the change of form, which the second
set of forces produces, will be independent of the change already
produced by the first

enough, and thus the
set,
provided that the latter change be small

change of form is the resultant of those
final
due to each set of forces acting separately. Further, the heat

which must be given to any elementary volume of the system to
keep the temperature constant, while the strain is changed, is
proportional to the change of strain and is independent of any
small strain already existing. Hence, the total amount of heat
given to the system to keep the temperature constant, while both
sets of forces are brought into operation, is the resultant of the
amounts required when each set acts separately.
Similarly, if the forces of the first and second sets are very
small, the effects due to a third set of small forces are independent
first and second sets.
In the following investigation the system is supposed to be
supported at a definite number of points by fixed supports, and
of the
shall study the effects due to a force

applied at a point A of
the system and a force
applied at a point B. In addition
The
to these forces, gravity will act upon the whole system.
we
forces
and
and
also the earth's attraction will call into play
at the points of support.

When the
corresponding
due
to
are
small
and
the
forces
of
form
and
gravity
changes
will be proportional to
are small, the change of form due to
reactions
RAYLEIGH'S RECIPROCAL RELATIONS
in]
143
acted.
will be the same as if neither gravity nor
Similarly,
and the
will be proportional to
the change of form due to
acted.
same as if neither gravity nor
and
Work done by
94.
forces.
Let the
forces
X and
F, which
A and JB, have definite directions, and let x and y be the displacements of A and B measured in the directions of X and Ffrom
the positions of those points when X and F are both zero and
act at
gravity continues to act. Then, by the generalised form of Hooke's

law, by which the effects of each force are proportional to the force
nnd independent of the other
force
and of gravity,
........................ (1)
........................ (2)
Here
are four constants which have one set of values in
a, I, clt c
the adiabatic case and another set in the isothermal case.
We
and
now
shall
consider two methods of applying the forces
F and shall calculate the work done by them in each method.
In the first method, the force at A is applied gradually, starting

from zero and reaching its full value X, while the force at B is
zero.
At the end
and that of
A is aX
A during
of this operation, the displacement of

The work done by the force at
is c2 X.
the product of the average force and the final

and thus is %aX* ; no work is done at
of
for
displacement
is now
the force there is zero. The force at
gradually applied,
this stage
is
starting
from zero and reaching
constant
force
its
full
continues to act at A.
value
F, while the
The displacement
A now increases from aX to aX + c^T and that of B from

The additional work done in this stage by the
c X to c*X+bY.
of
z
is CiYX, and the work done

by the increasing force
the product of the average value of that force and
the displacement bY, and is, therefore, J6Fa
If the application of
and F causes the centre of gravity of the
the forces
to
constant force
applied at
B is
system
descend through a distance Aj, the work done by gravity is
Mghl9
is the mass of the system.
where
Hence, if l be the total work
done by the forces and by gravity, we have
(3)
EXPERIMENTAL WORK
144
In the second method of applying the
[CH.
forces,
is simply reversed.
application of the forces
manner
similar
a
in
find
we
Fa,
the order of the
If the
work done be
(4)
where A2
is
the distance through which the centre of gravity has
descended.
These relations hold good in both the adiabatic and the isocases, though the four constants a, 6, clf cs have different
thermal
values in the two cases.
When
the adiabatic condition prevails, no heat enters or leaves

any part of the system, and therefore Wi and TT2 arc the amounts
and
are
of energy gained by the system when the forces
93, the strain and the

applied in the two methods. But, by
of
the
are independent of the
at
system
point
every
temperature
order of application of the forces, and thus the final state, arid therefore the final energy, of the system,
must be the same in the two
the same, the centre of gravity descends

the
same
distance, and thus A 2 = /, and then, since the
through
= GZ.
energy is the same, it follows, from (8) and (4), that ct
When the isothermal condition prevails and every part of the
cases.
Since the strain
is
system is always at a constant temperature, heat must enter or

leave the system in order to keep the temperature constant, and
hence we cannot now say that Wi and TF2 are the amounts of energy
and
are applied in the
gained by the system when the forces
of heat given to
be
the
amounts
if
and
two methods. But,
Q2
Ql
the
the system and
2 be
1 and
energy gained by the system,
when the forces are applied in the two methods, we have
E,
= F, + ft = iZ" + c,XY+ iiP + Mgh, + Q
ly
Q2
. .
.(5)
...(6)
93, the final strain at every point of the
system is independent of the order of application of the forces, and thus the
order of application does not affect either the energy of elastic
strain or the motion of the centre of gravity. Hence hi
h*. Again,
Now, by
by
93, the heat given to the
system to keep the temperature
constant
independent of the order of application of the forces,
Since both the energy of elastic strain and
and thus Ql = Q 2
is
145
RAYLEIGH'S RECIPBOCAL RELATIONS
in]
the heat given to the system are independent of the order of

Hence l = 9
application, so is also the total gain of energy.
= Ca.
z and thus, by (5) and (6) Ci
7*2
l
and
isothermal
the
adiabatic
the
in
both
cases,
Since,
^=
But
we may
and
Q =Q
Ci
(fe,
write
Ci
= c2 = c,
and thus the work done by the
........................... (7)
forces (not including gravity) is
(8)
and
independent of the order of the application of the forces.

We can now write the relations connecting the forces with
is
the displacements in the forms

(9)
........................ (10)
If
we
solve these equations for
X and
F,
we
find
the equations connecting

and T with x and y
Lord Kayleigh* has deduced three reciprocal relations.
From
95.
Lord Rayleigh's reciprocal relations. The displacement of B produced by a force
applied at A is, by (10),
cX,
the suffix F
indicating that no force
Similarly, the displacement of
at
is,
by
applied at
J5.
F applied
(9),
Hence, when
result
is
produced by a force
jr-o-cF.
The
........................... (13)
X in (13)
may
is
equal to
........................... (14)
Fin
we have xx^
(14),
be stated in words as follows
Philosophical Magazine, XLTIII, p. 452 (1874), OP Scientific Papers, Vol.
Art. 32.
i,
EXPERIMENTAL WORK
146
[CH.
The displacement
First reciprocal relation.
of
is equal to the displacement of

force applied at
force
applied at B.
equal
due to a
due to an
second relation follows from (11) and (12). If a displaceforce required to hold B at rest, so that
ment x be given to A, the

y = 0,is,by(12),
similarly, if a displacement
at rest, so that
to hold
0,
and
y be given
to 5, the force required
#= is, by (11),
Xx = = -cy!(db-c*)
(16)
y in (1C), we have
Thus, when x in (15)
The result may be stated in words as follows
is
equal to
Xx_
= Fy .
Second reciprocal relation. If the point A be held fixed, while

B receives a displacement, the force required at A is equal to that
fixed when A receives an equal displacement.
required to hold B
A third relation may be deduced from (9) and (10). Let Fy

be the force which must be applied to B to keep it at rest, so that
Ty^ be the reaction at B when
y = 0, or, in other words, let
is applied at
A.
Then,
=
putting y
in (10),
we have
^--l
Ay
(17)
*>
X be
removed and let a force F act at B. Then, putting

and (10), we see that the displacements of A and B
are connected by the relation
Now
let
X=
in (9)
and thus, by
(17),
e.s=5
-^y-o
The
result
may be
( 1 9)
yx=o
expressed in words as follows
Third reciprocal relation. When a force is applied at A and

B is held fixed, the ratio which the reaction at B bears to the force
at A is equal to the ratio which the displacement of A bears to
the displacement of B, when a force acts at B while A is free from
y
force.
KAYLEIGH'S RECIPROCAL RELATIONS
Ill]
must be remembered that, as was

displacements of and y are measured in the
It
respectively.
They do not
specified in
directions of
147
94, the
X and Y
necessarily represent the total displace-
ments of A and B.
Apparatus. The first and third reciprocal relations may

be tested by experiments made on a long steel rod. It is im96.
portant that the rod should be long, in order that fairly large
displacements may be obtained without straining the rod beyond
the elastic limit.
The rod
rests
(Fig. 52) fastened to a stout bed.
E c
on two knife-edges
If the rod be round,
and
it
may be
.EL
M
Fig. 52.
described in 65. To make

prevented from rolling by the device
the arrangement available for testing the third reciprocal relation,
and N, each of two or three kilogrammes, are suspended
masses
on the rod close to the knife-edges.
and
from two points
at A and B by hooks and strings.
to
the
rod
are
attached
Pans
For testing the
first
relation both pans
hang below the
rod.
For
one pan passes over

testing the third relation, the string carrying
of
the string between
the
a pulley, care being taken that
part
due to friction,
avoid
errors
the hook and the pulley is vertical. To
the pulley should be fitted with ball bearings, and the string
should be flexible; plaited silk fishing line is suitable for the
and B,
wax to the hooks at
purpose. Pins are attached by
and the displacements of these pins are found by means of two
EXPERIMENTAL WORK
148
[CH.
which may conveniently be read by the aid

of telescopes arranged to magnify them.
The apparatus is not well adapted for testing the second
finely divided scales,
When
the J?-pan is empty, a load of (say) a kilogramme

will give that point a displacement large enough to be
at
measured with some accuracy. But, if B be now brought back to
its zero position by loads placed in the 5-pan, the string passing
relation.
is
over the pulley, it will be found that the displacement of
the
in
described
99
the
In
diminished.
experiments
greatly
was too small for accurate measurement.

Each pan produces a small displacement of A and J5, but,
residual displacement
if
the pans remain in position during the experiment, these displacements are constant and the displacements due to the loads placed
in the pans are simply added to these constant displacements.
Hence we may neglect entirely the weights of the pans, provided
due to the added loads be reckoned relatively to
the
displacements
zero positions found when both the empty pans

and
The positive directions of the forces
hang from the
be vertically downwards by 94 the positive directions of

y are also vertically downwards.
a?
97.
Test of
reciprocal relation.
first
relation is to be tested, both pans
hang
rod.
F will be taken to
When
the
and
first
directly from the rod.
A -pan is increased
from zero by equal steps, the

the scale readings of A and
and
JS-pan being empty throughout,
B are taken at each stage. The S-pan is then loaded by equal
the -4 -pan remains empty and the scale readings of
steps, while
A and B are again taken.
It will be found that the displacement of JS due to any load at
A is very nearly equal to the displacement of A due to an equal
The mass
in the
load at B, and thus the
From
the
first
reciprocal relation is verified.

we obtain a? r. , and
of observations
first set
y F=0
at A, and from
due to the force
and
the displacements of
and
ai
we
obtain
the second set of observations
Xsc0
y^^, the dis-
placements of
quantities
we can
and
find a,
due to the force F at B. From these

For, by (1) and (2),
6, d and c2
.
(20)
RAYLEIGH'S RECIPROCAL RELATIONS
in]
Each value of
rss0
in the first set of observations
the corresponding force

for finding a.
mean
149
is
divided by
and the mean value of (# F=s0)/X
mean
Similarly the
value of (yx^jY gives
is
6.
used
The
Cj and the mean value of (y YstQ)/X

The
between
c
GI and c2 furnishes a test of the
agreement
gives a
of
in
94. The mean of d and ca may
energy employed
principles
value of (XX=Q)/Y gives

.
be taken as the value of c.
Test of third reciprocal relation.
98.
relation is to
be tested, the
When
the third
A -pan hangs directly from A
but the
string supporting the JS-pan passes over the pulley. The mass in
the
-pan is increased by equal steps and at each stage the load
in the If-pan is adjusted until the scale reading of B is identical
with the zero reading obtained when both pans are empty. Instead
of attempting to make an exact adjustment of the load, we may
take readings for two loads, one a little too great and the other a
too small, find may obtain the required load by interpolation.
little
The
due to the load in the
-pan is
y ^\ since the
the
the
rod
J3-pan pulls
upwards, the weight of
string supporting
The
value
of
the load in that pan is
yas0
y ^/Xyaf0 is found for
force
each load in the ul-pan and the

c2/b by the equation
c2 /6
which
is
derived from
mean
value
is
used for calculating
= ~F^ /ô,
(21)
(2).
of 97 give corresponding values of #i=0 and

these the value of &XssQ/yXsi0 is found for each load in
The experiments
y.r=o
From
the .B-pan and the
mean
value
is
used
for calculating
cjb by the
equation
Pi/&-*Wyx-o,
which
is
derived from (1) and
(2).
The agreement between the

test of the principles
(22)
values of c2/6 and cx/6 furnishes a
employed in
94.
The pulley is now moved and the string supporting the A -pan
is made to pass over it, while the J5-pan is hung directly from B.
A second set of observations is then made in which A is kept at
rest.
The mean value of XX . /YX ^ derived from these observations is used to find cx /a
by the equation
c1/a
= -AVo/ra .o,
(23)
EXPERIMENTAL WORK
150
[CH.
this value is compared with the mean value of ca/a derived

from the experiments of
97 by the equation
and
(24)
Practical example.
99.
The
observations
may be
entered as in
the following record of experiments made by G. F. C. Searle upon a steel rod

0'96 cm. in diameter and 160 cm. in length.
The rod was supported on two
knife-edges 140 cm. apart,
and a mass
of
two kilogrammes was hung from
each end of the rod as in Fig. 52. The point A was midway between the
Scales divided to J$ cm., on the
knife-edges, while B was 23'3 cm. from A.
sliders of two slide rules, were used in measuring the displacements and the
cm. by aid of two telescopes. To avoid unnecessary
readings were taken to
complication, the forces were not measured in dynes but in terms of the weight
^j
of a kilogramme.
Test of first reciprocal relation.
In the following tables, only the displacements, expressed in centimetres, are given, but the student must record
all the readings and deduce the displacements from them.
Table
Means
Table
1.
Means
0*6660 0*5620
The agreement between # FS=O and #Xas0 is

difference being 0*01 cm.
By (20;, we find for the
a=0*6660,
Hence
cv
and
ct
6=0-5173,
^=0-5598,
0*5598
satisfactory,
0*5173
the greatest
coefficients
<fc=0'5620 cm. per kilo, weight.
do not differ by as much as one part

we have
Taking the mean,
2.
in
two hundred and
fifty.
BAYLEIGH'S RECIPROCAL RELATIONS
Ill]
of the ratios #y_o/y*-o ^d #r-o/-r ro can ^

and 4 which are derived from tables 2 and 1.
The constancy
in tables 3
Ta&fe
Mean
From
the
mean
3.
2,
we
Cl/6=0-5598/0-5173=
Table
From
the
mean
examined
value 1*0823.
values given by table
Mean
151
find
1-0822.
4.
value 0-8440.
values given by table
1,
c2/a=0-5620/0'6660
we
find
= 0*8439.
In the ideal case the mean value ofxXa:0 lyXftQ would be identical with
mean value
mean value
of
of (yx
and similarly for ^yô/^r-o- The very small differences found in practice
is the mean of the n quantities pi ...pH and Q
are due to the fact that, if
is the mean of qi ... #tt the mean of the quantities Pilqi*..pn l<ln ** not neces-
sarily identical
with
P/Q
unless pij ft... pn /qn are
all
equal.
The load in the ^1-pan was varied and

Test of third reciprocal relation.
the load in the 2?-pan was adjusted to make y=0, a variation of 10 grammes
being just perceptible; then the load in the B-pB.ii was varied and the
load in the ,4 -pan was adjusted to make #=0. The results are given in the
following tables.
EXPERIMENTAL WORK
152
Table
Table
5.
Mean
Thus, by (21) and
[CH.
6.
Mean
1-0786
0-8506
(23),
tf
=
o
From
the
mean
*.-?
-Ijô
values given in tables 3 and
4,
= 0-S006.
we
find,
by
(22)
and
(24),
^=-" =0-8440.
The
difference
between
difference between Ci/a
and
02/6
Ci/b is about one part in 300 and the

about one part in 130.
and
c2/a is
EXPERIMENT 14. Measurement of the energy dissipated

through torsional hysteresis.
100.
Introduction.
When
a copper wire
is
subjected to
gradually increasing torsion, the torsional couple is at first proportional to the twist, according to Hooke's law, but, as the twist
is increased, the torsional couple fails to keep pace with the twist,
and the
If at any
ratio of the couple to the twist diminishes.
this
the
in
later
we
to
the
reverse
torsional
twist,
stage,
begin
point
couple for a given angle is less during the untwisting than during
the twisting, and hence less work is given out by the wire during
the untwisting than was spent upon it during the twisting. If,
an untwisted
we
first twist one end through

then reverse the motion till
and again reverse the motion till the twist is
the twist is
+ we shall find that the torsional couple when -f Q is reached
starting with
an angle
,
wire,
relative to the other,
TOBSIONAL HYSTERESIS
Ill]
for the
153
second time, differs from the couple when +

But if we subject the wire to
for the first time.
twisting and untwisting between the

find that it settles
down
limits
to a condition in
and
was reached
many
and
>
cycles of
we shall
which the couples called
have definite values, and that

the couple called into play by any intermediate twist 0, has two
definite values, one corresponding to the passage from +
to
and the other to the passage from
to HWhen this con.
into play
by the twists
ff
we say that the wire is in a cyclic state.

the angle of torsion is large, there is a viscous yielding
of the wire. Thus, if one end of the wire be suddenly twisted
through a large angle relative to the other end, the torsional
dition
is
reached
When
couple will not retain the value it has on the completion of the
twist, but will diminish, at first rapidly and then more slowly, until,
after some minutes, it has reached a steady value.
viscous yielding of the wire makes it impossible to reach
a steady state with cycles of torsion unless each cycle is performed
The
in exactly the same manner, so that the time of passage from one
angle to any other is the same for every cycle. Further, the work
spent in taking the wire through a cycle with the given limits
+ and 0Q will depend upon the speed at which cycles are
performed.
When
the cyclic state has been established, the twist will be
related to the couple in the
manner indicated
in Fig. 53, where
it
Couple
INN'
Twist
Fig. 53.
be seen that the twist lags behind the couple. Thus, as we

pass from B to B' the couple vanishes at (7, but the twist does not
vanish till we reach D. This lagging of the effect (the twist)
behind the cause (the couple) has been called hysteresis by Ewing.
will
EXPERIMENTAL WORK
154
The phenomenon
of hysteresis occurs in
[CH.
many
other instances, one
of the most important being the cyclical magnetisation of the

magnetic metals. In the case of soft iron the resemblance is
made
by the
specially close
existence of magnetic viscosity.
cycle. We shall now show

work spent in taking the wire through a
cycle of torsion. At any time, when the twist is 6 radians, let the
couple be G dyne-cm. Then, when the twist increases by dO, the
couple does Gdff ergs of work*. If P, P' (Fig. 53) be two points
on B'D'B coiresponding to 6 and to 6 + d0, this work is represented
101.
how
Energy dissipated per
to calculate the
by the number
of units of area in the strip
PP'N'N, provided
OX
represents one radian and that unit

represents a couple of one dyne-cm. If Q, Q' be
length along
the points on BDB' corresponding to the same angles, the angle
that unit length along
OF
diminishes by dO as we pass from Q' to Q, arid hence the wire gives

out work represented by QQ'N'N.
The resultant quantity of
work spent upon the wire during the two changes is therefore
represented by the area of the strip PP'Q'Q, and hence, if the
work spent upon the wire during the complete cycle be
ergs,
is represented by the whole area BDB'D'.
In practice it would be inconvenient to plot the couple
(measured in dyne-cm.) and the angle (measured in radians) upon
the same scale. We shall therefore suppose that the scales are so
chosen that one cm. (or one inch,
if
the squared paper be ruled in
inches) along OX represents p radians, and that one cm. (or one
inch) along OF represents q dyne-cm. Then the angle dff is
represented by d0/p cm. (or inches) and hence the distance
NN'
is
d0jp cm. (or inches). Similarly, a couple G dyne-cm, is represented

is G/q cm. (or
by G/q cm. (or inches) and thus the distance
the
area
of
The
PP'N'N
is
strip
GdO/pq square cm.
inches).
the
and
hence
work
Gdff
is
pq times the area of
(or square inches)
PN
the
strip.
Thus the work done during the
the area of the whole curve
cycle is
W^pqAergs,
where A square cm.
drawn on the paper.
(or square inches)

*
now pq times
or, in symbols,
See Note
VIIl',
is
(1)
the area of the curve as
equation
(2).
TORSIONAL HYSTERESIS
Ill]
102.
Apparatus.
A diagram
155
of the apparatus is
shown in
The copper wire J., about 0*1 cm. in diameter and 30 to

Fig. 54.
40 cm. in length, is soldered into a vertical rod B, which carries a
torsion
wire
of
is
is
head
moving past an index P. The lower end of the
soldered into one end of a short rod C. Into the other end
soldered a steel or brass wire
D about 0'2 cm. in diameter
o
E
ft
fct-
Fig. 54.
and about 10 cm. in length. The lower end of D is soldered into

a rod E, which is secured in the block F by a clamping-screw E.
The block F and the bearing of the torsion head are fixed to an
is pulled downupright T attached to a solid base. The rod
so
that the wire may be in a
wards while the screw R is tightened
state of tension.
EXPERIMENTAL WORK
156
[CH.
The resistance to torsion of the wire

is so much
greater than
that of the copper wire that the couple exerted by the copper wire
is unable to twist
beyond the elastic limit, and hence the angle
turned through by the rod C is proportional to the torsional couple.
Thus,
if
we measure
the angle turned through by
a twist of one radian,

couple required to give
calculate the torsional couple.
and know the

we can at once
The angle turned through by C is negligible compared with

that turned through by the torsion head, and thus we may regard
the latter angle as measuring the twist for the copper wire.
The angles turned through by C may be observed by aid of a

attached to G and of a lamp and scale, or of a telescope
and scale. If the distance of the scale from the mirror be d cm.
and if the spot of light or the cross-wire of the telescope move
over x cm. along the scale, when Q turns through
radians from
mirror
<f>
the position corresponding to zero couple, then, for small angles,
= #/2d radians
<
(2)
may be more convenient to measure the

a
of
means
long pointer attached to C and moving over
angles by
a horizontal scale. If the length of the pointer, measured from
the axis of the wire, be h cm. and if the angle
correspond to a
In some cases
it
<f>
displacement of x cm. along the scale, then, for small angles,
$ = x\U
radians.
a twist of one radian is easily

The couple required to give
found by a dynamical method. An auxiliary wire 40 to 50 cm. in
and its ends are soldered
length is cut from the same specimen as
into
two short
rods.
One
of these rods
is
held in a suitable firm
clamp so that the wire is vertical and the other rod is secured to
an inertia bar, exactly as in Fig. 33. The periodic time, seconds,
observed, and the moment

of the inertia bar is calculated from
of the torsional vibrations of the bar
of inertia,
K gramme cm.
2
,
is
mass and its dimensions exactly as in EXPERIMENT 5, 63.

Let the free length of the auxiliary wire be I cm. and let that
of the wire D be a cm., and suppose that the couple required to
its
give
is ft dyne-cm.
Then the couple
of
a
twist
one radian is
wire
the
auxiliary
give
the
Note
and
2,
III,
hence, by
angular acceleradyne-cm,
a twist of one radian
required to
Ill]
when its displacement

Hence, by Note V, 2,
tion of the inertia bar

8
pa/lK radian sec.- .
T=
2-7T
if (?
deflexion of
and
is
(angular acceleration for one radian) ~~i =
Thus
Hence,
157
one radian
2-rr
(pa/lK) ~t
is
............................ (3)
dyne-cm. be the torsional couple corresponding to a

cm., when a lamp and scale is used, we find, by (2)
(3),
^"
.
ux
27r*lK
,
5 "* dy116
JV
............. ( 4 )
103. Experimental details.

Since simultaneous readings
of the torsion head and of the spot of light are required, two
observers are necessary. The torsion head is first turned into its
zero position
and the clamping screw
It is slackened to free the
wire from any torsional couple, and the screw is then tightened.
The mirror, the lamp and scale and the focussing lens are then
adjusted so that a sharp image of a cross-wire is formed on the
One observer, who may conveniently sit on
scale near its centre.
a stool placed on the table, manipulates the torsion head while

the other observes and records the scale reading of one edge of the
image of the cross-wire. If a cycle with the limits + 200 and

200 is to be studied, the torsion head is turned to + 200 and the
The head is then turned
scale reading of the cross-wire is taken.
and
scale
is
the
back to + 160
again taken, and this
reading
200 is reached. The
process is continued by steps of 40 till
motion is then reversed and readings are taken at intervals of 40
This constitutes the first cycle. But, to
till + 200 is reached.
eliminate initial effects, a second and a third cycle are performed
without any break in the process of observing. The cyclic state
be more quickly reached if the wire be put through a few
200 before the obsercycles of twisting between + 200 and
will
vations are taken.
To avoid confusion during the observations, the observers

should prepare beforehand a blank table in which the readings
may be entered. The table, when completed, should be similar
104.
to the table given in
When the wire is strained beyond the elastic limit, the couple
EXPERIMENTAL WORK
158
it
exerts is easily changed
by
vibration.
[CH.
The apparatus should
therefore be kept as free as possible from vibration while the

observations are in progress.
When
the torsion of the wire
is
being increased in either
direction, viscous effects will be observed, and hence the observations should be made at roughly equal intervals of time, and the
readings should be taken immediately after the torsion head has
been moved.
It will probably be found that the readings obtained in the
third cycle are practically identical with those obtained in the
second cycle. If this be the case, we may consider that the cyclic
been established, and may use the readings in the third

Since the area of a
cycle to determine the work spent per cycle.
hysteresis loop, such as is shown in Fig. 55, does not depend upon
state has
the position of the origin, it will be sufficient to plot the scale

readings of the cross-wire against the readings of the torsion head,
without working out the actual deflexion for each reading.
Smooth curves are drawn through the points corresponding

the two sides of the hysteresis loop and the area of the loop
square cm. (or in square inches, if the squared paper be ruled
inches) is then determined by the trapezoidal rule explained
to
in
in
in
Note IX.
Since the scale readings of the cross- wire are taken at equal
intervals of angle, they
may be employed
directly in calculating
the area by the trapezoidal rule. The distance on the squared

paper corresponding to the difference of the two scale readings for
each reading of the head is found, and these distances are added
sum
multiplied by the distance on the

squared paper corresponding to the step in angle. The result is
104.
the area of the loop.
practical illustration is given in
together and their
is
If one cm. (or one inch) along the axis of angle correspond to
degrees, it corresponds also to p radians, where
P = 7717T/180,
(5)
and if one cm. (or one inch) along the axis of couple correspond to
a motion of the spot of light through n cm., it also corresponds to
a couple j dyne-cm, where, by
(4),
(6)
159
TOBSIONAL HYSTERESIS
Hi]
Hence, by
(1),
the work spent per cycle
is
given by
ergs.
(7)
account of the twisting of the stout wire by which the

twist of the copper wire is not
couples are measured, the angle of
the torsion head. The work
on
shown
the
to
angle
quite equal
is correctly given by the area of the
wires
two
the
spent upon
But since the
wire.
loop if Hooke's law holds good for the stout
On
the work spent

upon it during a complete cycle is zero, and thus the area
wire in each cycle.
represents the work spent on the copper
The student who wishes to pursue the subject should obtain
stout wire
is
not strained beyond
its elastic limit,
the hysteresis loops for a series of values for

and should then draw a curve showing how
104.
Practical example.
The
such as 50, 100...
W depends upon
observations
may
be entered as in
the following record of an experiment made by Messrs G. F. C. Searle and

W. Burton upon a copper wire about 0*09 cm. in diameter and 36'5 cm.
in length. The wire, by which the couple was measured, was of brass and
about 0*18 cm. in diameter.
EXPERIMENTAL WORK
160
Mass
of inertia bar
[CH.
= Jf=820 grammes.
Length of inertia bar s=2Z=37-92 cm.

Width of inertia bar =24=1-6 cm.
r
Moment
of inertia of
bar=A'=JJ/ (Z
+4 2)=^820 (18'96 2 +0'8
2
)
=9'84xlO* grm. cm. 2.
Time
of 50 complete vibrations 126*2,
Periodic time
126U
Mean
126-1 sees.
=T- 126-1/50= 2-522 sees.
Length of auxiliary wire =?=51 cm.
Length of wire measuring couple =a=9-8 cm.

Distance of scale from mirror =c?=65-5 cm.
The
torsional couple (?
is,
by
(4),
connected with the deflexion
x by the
equation
0=
2*r 2
x 51x9-84x1 04
9-8 x 65-5 x2-522 2
adT*
#=2'43 x 104 x# dyne-cm.
...(8)
After the torsion head had been turned through two or three cycles with
+200 and -200, the readings in the above table were taken.
The readings for the third cycle agreed so closely with those for the second
the limits
as closely representing the cyclic state of

cycle that the third cycle was taken
the wire. In the third cycle there was a slight discrepancy between the two
Scale readings (cm.)
28-5i
26-0
23-5
21-0
18-5
16-0
-200
+100
-100
Readings of torsion head.

fig. 55.
H-200 3
Ill]
readings for
+200.
The reading 27 '3 was used
The differences corresponding to the

loop.
the last column ; thus 26'9-25'2=r7.
161
in plotting the hysteresis
two sides of the loop are given in
The loop shown in Fig. 55 was plotted on paper ruled in inches, and 2 cm.
of deflexion and 80 of angle were each represented by one inch. The distances
shown in the last column were
being 16*0 inches. The step of 40 is
inch and hence A, the area, is xl6'0=8'0 square inches.
represented by
Since one inch corresponds to 80, ^=807r/180= 1-396 by (5), and since one inch
corresponds to 2 cm. of deflexion, it also corresponds, by (8), to 2x2-43x10*
on the paper corresponding to the
differences
therefore 0, 0*85, 1*5... inches, the
sum
dyne-cm, and thus q, the couple corresponding to one inch on the diagram,
4-86 x 10* dyne-cm. Hence, by (7), we find for the work spent per cycle
W=pqA =1 -396 x 4'86 x 10* x 8'0=5'43 x lOêrgs.
is
NOTE L
REDUCTION OP A GROUP OF FORCES TO A SINGLE FORCE
AND A COUPLE.
Let any point
a force -Fact at P.
in the
same
be taken as origin,
Then apply
direction,
and
(ii)
to
(i)
let P be any other point, and let

a force equal in magnitude to jând
an equal force in the opposite direction. The

have no resultant
forces of this pah- are themselves in equilibrium and so

The three forces can be replaced by a single force
effect.
two
in
acting at
together with a couple formed by the
and the remaining force at 0. Treating all the other forces of the
force at
the
same way, we see that the whole group is equivalent to a
in
group
The forces may
arid to a number of couples.
number of forces acting at
the same direction as the force at
and the couples into a

the same as if all the
force
is
resultant
The
resultant
clearly
couple.
single
in the first instance, but the magnitude of the couple
forces had acted at
will in general depend upon the position chosen for 0.
be combined into a single resultant force acting at
NOTE
II.
D'ALEMBERT'S PRINCIPLE.
Suppose that any particle of a
solid or fluid
body has an acceleration
of /cm. sec.~ 2 and that the mass of the particle is

grammes. Then the
resultant of all the forces which act on the particle is the single force
in the direction of
This force is called the " effective
mf dynes
/.
force."
The
forces acting on the particle may be divided into two classes.

The
first class comprises the forces due to external bodies, whether they be trans-
mitted by gravitational or electromagnetic action or are caused by the direct

contact of some external body. The second class contains all those forces
which act on the particle and are due to other particles of the body itself.
These forces
may arise from
gravitational or electromagnetic action or from
the direct contact with neighbouring particles. The resultant of these internal
forces is a single force
dynes acting on the particle m.
NOTES
163
But, by Newton's third law, the forces on any two particles due to their
mutual action form a system in equilibrium*, and thus, when taken together,
they have no component in any direction and no moment about any axis.
Hence, for any given body, the whole group of internal forces forms a
system in equilibrium and gives rise to no force in any direction and no
couple about any axis.

due to external bodies be P dynes, the
Now, if the force on the particle
and It is the "effective force" mf. Hence the system of
resultant of
applied forces and the system of internal forces are together exactly
But the internal forces form
equivalent to the system of effective forces.
in equilibrium and therefore may be left out of
thus arrive at the result known as D'Alembert's Principle,
by themselves a system
account.
We
which may be stated as follows

The system of " effective forces"
is exactly equivalent to the system of applied

of the two systems having equal components in any
direction and equal moments about any axis.
(See Note I.)
Since the force mf dynes generates momentum in the direction of f at
the rate of mf dyne-sec, per second, it follows that the rate at which the
momentum of the whole body in any direction is increased is equal to the
component in that direction of the system of applied forces. The c.G.s.
forces,
the resultants
momentum is
momentum in one
unit of
called
of
second.
a dyne-second because a dyne generates a unit
is
Again, since the rate of generation of momentum in the particle
exactly represented by the force mf, the rate of increase of the moment of
momentum or of the angular momentum of the particle about any fixed axis
exactly represented by the moment of the force mf about the same axis.
Since the whole group of internal forces has no moment about any axis,
it follows that the rate of increase of the angular momentum of the whole
is
body about any fixed axis

system of applied forces.
is
equal to the
NOTE
moment about
the same axis of the
III
MOTION OP A KiGiD BODY.

1.
ACCELERATION OF THE CENTRE OP GRAVITY.
Let us take a set of
rectangular axes fixed anywhere in space and let #1, #1, z\ cm., x^y^ z2 cm. ...
be the coordinates at time t of particles of masses m^ m% ... grammes. Then,
be the coordinates of the centre of gravity and

17,
system of particles,
M^Vmx, Jfij=2wy, Jff2in*.
if
* This statement
is
no longer
source of electromagnetic radiation.

on the ether itself.
M be the mass of the
when one or both of the particles

In this case we have to consider forces
true
(1)
is
the
acting
NOTES
164
If we denote by Xi the rate at which $i increases with the time, then x\ is the
velocity of the particle mi in the positive direction of the axis of #. And if
#1 stand for the rate of increase of #1, then %i is the acceleration of m\ in the
same
cm. sec." 1 and the acceleration
velocity is $1
measured in seconds, the

2
We shall
$i cm. sec."
Since, in the c.G.s. system, time is
direction.
is
extend this notation to the other coordinates.
We
then have, at once, for
the velocities
J/=2w#,
and
JfiJ=2wiy,
Jff=2?ni,
(2)
J/9=2w$,
M=2mz
(3)
for the accelerations
J/=2m,
II, wi^ is the ^-component of the effective force acting on

Since the whole group of internal forces has no component
in any direction, it follows that 2ww? is equal to the ^-component of the whole
group of applied forces. If the three components of the resultant of this
Now, by Note
the particle
group be
by
wij.
2T,
Z,
we have 2m
and similarly
for
Y and
Z.
Hence,
(3),
J^'=A',
J/5/-F,
M'{=Z.
(4)
( have exactly the same values as if the resultant of the applied

forces acted on the whole mass collected into a single particle at the centre of
Thus
f/,
gravity of the system.
In other words
The acceleration of the
resultant of the applied forces acted

particle at the centre of gravity.
If
F dynes
centre of gravity of
on
any system is the same as

mass collected into a
the whole
if the
single
be the resultant force, / cm. sec." 2 the acceleration of the

and
grammes the mass of the system,
centre of gravity,
F=Mf.
This result
is
true for all systems of particles and
is
therefore true in the
case of a rigid body.
ANGULAR ACCELERATION OF A
RIGID BODY TURNING ABOUT A FIXED

rate
of
increase
of the angular momentum of any
the
Note
II,
By
is equal to the moment about the same axis of the
a
fixed
axis
about
system
applied forces. When the system is a rigid body, the angular momentum
2.
AXIS.
2
grm. cm. is the moment of inertia of the
13) is Ka>9 where
(Note IV,
the
axis
and
o> radians per sec. is its angular velocity.
If the
about
body
rate of increase of
w be a
radians per sec. per sec., then a is called the angular

moment of the applied forces about the axis
acceleration of the body. If the

it follows that
be
dyne-cm.,
J
a=Ka,
since the quantity on the right
momentum
side is the rate of increase of the angular
NOTES
165
NOTE IV
MOMENTS OF
As a knowledge
DEFINITION.
1.
some simple forms
INERTIA.
of the
is essential in practical
moments
work
of inertia of bodies of
in elasticity,
we
give a sketch
of the necessary propositions.
Let mi, m$
let
...
grammes be the masses
of the particles of a rigid body and
centimetres be their perpendicular distances from a straight line

Then the sum
r lf r2
...
or axis.
. . .
is
called the
moment
= 2wr2
of inertia of the body about the axis.
We shall denote
2wir2 by K.
A system with unit moment of inertia is formed by a particle one gramme

mass placed at a distance of one centimetre from the axis, and the moment
of inertia of this unit system is said to be one gramme-centimetre2 or one
in
cm2
grm.
units or
If the
moment
K grm. cm
2
.,
it
of inertia of a body about any axis be

c.G.s.
moment of inertia times as groat as that of
has a
the unit system.

2.
axes
SOME PROPERTIES OP MOMENTS OP INERTIA. Take a set of rectangular

E%, K$ be the moments of inertia of the body
OX OY OZ and let /LI,

9
about the three axes. If x, y, z be the coordinates of a particle of mass m,

the square of its distance from OX is # 2 -M 2 and similarly for the other axes.
,
Hence, by
1,
we have
Ei^mtf+z*),
If the distance of
m from
By adding together
2
j5T3 =:Sm(ff
JT2 =2m(;s2 +#2 ),
be R, and
if
) .......... (l)
H denote the sum 2iJ2
the three equations (1)
+A +
+y2
we
2
,
find
3 =2#:
.............................. (2)
In some cases, such as that of a sphere with the origin at

moments of inertia are equal ; then
its centre,
the
three
KÊ^K^H.
If the
body be an
infinitely thin plane
ticle
lamina lying in the plane
OXY
then
K^Vm^+yÊÊz
tf ,
If the lamina be such that
.............................. (3)
KI and
are equal,
.......... (4)
NOTES
166
THEOREM OF PARALLEL
3.
Let an axis passing through the
AXES.
centre of gravity of the body cut the plane of the

paper at right angles at G (Fig. 56) and let any
be
other parallel axis cut the paper at 0. Let
the projection of any particle (of mass m) on the

be the perpendiplane of the paper and let
on OG. Let the mass of the body
cular from
PN
be
and let the
moment
of inertia of the body
about the axis through G be

be K.
about the axis through
Q,
and
let
Fig0
that
Then
l.GN)
i.GN,
and
are on opposite sides of G.
where GN is counted positive when
and hence
Since G is the projection of the centre of gravity, 2m.
A'=/IO+
GNQ
0<?2
(6)
moment of inertia, K about any axis through the centre of

known, the moment of inertia, JT, about any parallel axis can be
Thus, when the

gravity is
M
,
the product of
found at once by adding to
perpendicular distance between the two axes.
M and
the square of the
4.
MOMENTS OF INERTIA OF A THIN UNIFORM ROD ABOUT
SYMMETRY. Let the mass of the rod AB
Y
(Fig. 57) be
grammes and its length
Let
be its middle
21 centimetres.
x
axis
of
coincide with
let
the
and
point
ITS
AXES OF
OA.
Since the rod
is infinitely thin,
yj
y = and z=*Q for every particle and thus,

by (1), ^1=0. The moment of inertia
about
OF is
proportional to
Z2
when
Firy
57
given, for, if we uniformly stretch the rod to n times its original length,
as it was originally, and thereeach particle will be n times as far from
2
fore the new moment of inertia of each particle will be n times its original
is
OY
value.
Further, for a given length,
2 is
proportional to
M. Thus we may put

(7)
where q
is
a numerical constant to be determined.
Now, by
its
through
Hence, by
and
(7),
the
this is equal to
that of
AB
moment
of inertia of the half rod
OA
about an axis
OT is q$M)$lp
OA about OY is
centre of gravity C parallel to

3, the moment of inertia of the part
\K^
since the
about the same
axis.
moment
of inertia of
Hence, since
OA
about
or
OT is half
OC=%1,
or
Thus, by
(7),
r-JTi-J Jfl".
(8)
NOTES
167
MOMENTS OP INERTIA OF A UNIFORM RECTANGULAR LAMINA ABOUT

AXES OF SYMMETRY. Let the sides of the lamina be 2a and 26, and let
T be
Let
its mass be M.
(Fig. 58) be its centre and let the axes OX,
when
Since
is
26
and
sides
2a
the
to
KI
unchanged
respectively.
parallel
5.
ITS
the lamina
is
compressed into a uniform rod
BE lying
along 0JT,
we
have,
Fig. 58.
(9)
Similarly
(10)
By
(11)
(4)
6.
MOMENTS OF INERTIA OF A UNIFORM RECTANGULAR BLOCK ABOUT ITS
at the centre of the block and let
AXES OF SYMMETRY. Take the origin
is unchanged when
OX, OY, OZ be parallel to the edges 2a, 26, 2c. Then
the block is compressed into a uniform lamina in the plane OYZ and similarly for the other axes, and hence, by (11),
(12)
MOMENTS OF INERTIA OF A UNIFORM CIRCULAR LAMINA ABOUT

7.
AXES OF SYMMETRY. Let the radius be a
and the mass M, and let the axes OX, OY
69) be in the plane of tho lamina.
1
parallel to OX,
strip
(Fig.
PQP
Take a narrow
the points P, P' being on the circumference

of the lamina and the point Q on OY, and
The moment
let the mass of the strip be m.
of inertia of the strip about
hence,
By
OX is m
2
.
and
by summation,
(8),
the
PQP
moment
about
strip
by addition.
of inertia of the same
OY is
^m. QP* and
hence,
3^2 = 27/i.
QP*.
Fig. 69.
ITS
NOTES
168
K^Kz and hence
But, by symmetry,
Ki-Er*MA
Thus
Then, by
................................. (13)
K^K^K^Ma*
(4),
............................... (14)
MOMENTS OP INERTIA OP A UNIFORM ELLIPTICAL LAMINA ABOUT ITS

8.
AXES OP SYMMETRY. Let the diameters of the ellipse, parallel to OX, OF be
7 be uniformly
2a, 26.
If, without change of mass, the circular lamina of
strained so that the point x, y is brought to the position
where =#,
17
will
with
be
an
diameters
the
26.
2a,
ellipse
boundary
Further,
7?=6y/a,
if m be the mass of an clement of the lamina,
,
But 2w#2 and

by
hence,
By
(13),
each
is
2
equal to JJ/a .
and KI
MOMENT OP INERTIA OP A UNIFORM
Let
M be
and
at a distance
for the circular lamina,
Thus, for the
elliptical
and
lamina
K*=lMa?......................... (15)
2
2
A'j+JTji.Jjr (a +6 ) ......................... (16)
JT3
(4),
9.
same as
are the
2w?^/
SOLID SPHERE ABOUT A DIAMETER.
the mass and a the radius, and let the axes OX> OY, OZ pass
through the centre 0. Consider an element of the sphere in the form of a
with its plane parallel to the plane OXZ
thin disk of radius r and of mass
y from
by the plane OXY.
By
it.
Fig. 59 shows the section of the sphere and disk

7, the moment of inertia of the disk about that
diameter of the disk which is parallel to OX is Jmr2 and hence, by the

theorem of parallel axes ( 3), its moment of inertia about OX is
Thus, by summation,
Since
=a2 - r3 we have
,
jK^SwrH 2ia2 - Vmi**= Ma* - f Swr2

By 7, the moment of inertia of the same disk about OY is $mr2 and hence
.
and thus
Since,
by symmetry,
KiK^Ki, we find that
K^K^K^\Ma*............................ (17)
Hence
10.
MOMENTS OP INERTIA OP A UNIFORM SOLID ELLIPSOID ABOUT
OP SYMMETRY.
ITS
AXES
Let the diameters parallel to OX, OY, OZb& 2a, 26, 2c. If,
without change of mass, the sphere of 9 be uniformly strained so that the
point x, y, z is brought to , i;, f, where =#, i;6y/a, f =o?/a, the sphere
NOTES
become the
will
ellipsoid
169
under consideration.
If
be the mass of an
element of volume,
2m#2 Sw#2 =2w02 and, by 2, each is equal to half the

2.
Hence 2wM?2
of inertia of the sphere about a diameter.
But, by symmetry,
=Jfa
moment
Thus
(18)
(19)
(20)
ITS
MOMENTS OP INERTIA OF A UNIFORM SOLID CIRCULAR CYLINDER ABOUT

its length 2 and
AXES OF SYMMETRY. Let the mass of the cylinder be
its
radius a.
11.
and
Take the
OX
to coincide with the axis of the cylinder,

be the centre of the cylinder. Then the value of KI remains the
let
axis
same
if the cylinder be compressed into a uniform circular lamina of radius

in the plane OTZ. Hence, by (14),
K^lMa?.................................. (21)
Now
divide the cylinder into a series of infinitely thin disks by planes

be the mass of the disk which is at a distance
and let
perpendicular to
OX
x from the plane OTZ. The moment of inertia of this disk about a diameter
is Jwa2 by (13), and hence, by the theorem of parallel axes ( 3), its moment
,
of inertia about
But 2i#2
is
the
along the axis of

cylinder
hence,
Y is %ma?+ma*.
Thus, by summation,
moment of inertia about OF of a thin uniform rod lying

x and having the same mass and the same length as the
2
Thus
by 4, 2moP= J Ml
tf2 =A-3 =^(ia2 +jZ2 ) ............................ (22)
.
12.
"MOMENTS OF INERTIA" OF AREAS. If a be an element of any area
and r be the perpendicular distance of a from a given axis, the quantity Ear2
is called
the "
the axis
we
moment
of inertia " or the second
shall denote it
by
/.
The
"
moment of the area about

moment of inertia " of the area
is clearly equal to the moment of inertia of a uniform lamina of the same

dimensions and of unit mass per unit area. The moment of inertia of the area
may therefore be found by substituting A, the magnitude of the area, for
the mass of the lamina.
In the c.G.s. system, / will be expressed as a
4
multiple of one cni
Theorem, of parallel axes.

see that if
its
"centre
where h
we apply
3 to an area, we
about an axis through
the moment of inertia about a parallel axis,
If
moment of
of gravity," and / be
be the
inertia of
the result of
an area
the perpendicular distance between the two axes.

the results proved for laminas we obtain the following expressions
is
From
NOTES
170
Rectangular area of sides 2a,
Here A = 46.
26.
About a diameter
parallel to the side 2a,
71
About a diameter
parallel to the side 26,
I^^
About the normal through the

Circular area of radius a.
Here
Hence, by
/3 = /i + 72 =
centre,
A = ?ra 2 and thus, by

7 = /a = A a* =
About a diameter,
wo
find
a b (a 2 + 6 2 ).
7,
we have
centre,
Elliptical area of diameters 2a, 26.
we have:
About the diameter 2a,
About the diameter 26,
5,
/3
Here
A = irab
and thus, by
8,
7a = J J 6 2 = | ?ra6 3
centre,
72 =JJa2 =j7ra3 6
73 = /j + /2 = J 7ra6 (a 2 + 6 2
).
ANGULAR MOMENTUM OF A
RIGID BODY TURNING ABOUT A FIXED

a rigid body turns about a fixed axis, the velocity, and therefore also the momentum, of any particle is at right angles to the perpendicular,
of length r cm., drawn from the particle to the axis. If the mass of the
grammes and if the angular velocity of the body be o> radians
particle be
per second, the velocity of the particle is ra> cm. sec.- and its momentum is
mr<*> grm. cm. sec." 1 or
dyne-sec., a dyne-sec, being the amount of
momentum which a dyne generates in one second. The moment of this
momentum about the axis, i.e. the product of the momentum and the
distance r, is mr2 ^ grm. cm. 2 sec." 1 or mr2 <a dyne cm. sec. This is also
about the axis. The angular
called the angular momentum of the particle
momentum of the whole body is thus 2wr2 o> or o>2m/-, since o> is the same
The quantity 2m r2 is JT, the
for every particle because the body is rigid.
moment of inertia of the body about the .axis. Hence
13.
AXIS.
When
mm
The angular momentum of a rigid body rotating with angular velocity

2
radians per sec. about a fixed axis is Ka> grm. cm. 2 sec~\ where
grm. cm.
the moment of inertia of the body about the oasis.
14.
The
and
o>
is
KINETIC ENERGY OF A RIGID BODY TURNING ABOUT A FIXED AXIS.
13 is Jm (velocity) 2 or %mi*uP ergs,

kinetic energy of the particle in
thus, since o> is the same for every particle, the kinetic energy of the
whole body is faaPEmr* or \KvP

inertia about the axis.
ergs,
where
K grm. cm.
is
the
moment
of
NOTES
NOTE
171
V.
HARMONIC MOTION.
RECTILINEAR MOTION.
I.
On
with
circle
(Fig.
60) for its centre
PM
and draw a perpendicular

take a point
upon any diameter AOA'. Then, if P move
round the
circle
with uniform speed, the point
The length OA
moves along AOA'.
is called
the amplitude of the oscillation and the time

in going from A to A' and back
occupied by
to
is called
the time of a complete vibration
or the periodic time.

Let the radius of the circle be r cm. and let
Fig. GO.
the speed of
along the arc of the circle be
v cm. sec." 1. If the angular velocity of OP be
described in one second is
<>
radians per second, the arc
Hence
r cm. in length.
v=a)r
Let the abscissa

instant
when
(1)
ON be x cm. and let the time
P passes
through A.
sees,
Then the angle
be counted from the
AGP
is
<*>t
radians,
and
hence
#=7-cosatf
(2)
1
If the velocity of
along AOA' in the direction OA be u cm. sec."" , u is
equal to the component, parallel to the same direction, of the velocity of P.
Since the latter is at right angles to OP, we have
u~ ~vsmPOA= -ort'sinotf.
Since u
is
the rate at which
of increase of r cos at
and multiplying by
-G> 2rsin(fi>$-f ^TT).
is
r sin
(3)
x increases
with the time, we see that the rate

Writing at +TT for <*t in these expressions
<ot.
we see that the rate of increase of rcos(o><+j7r) is

But cos(tf+7r)= -sinotf and sm(a>t+kir)*=cosa>t, and
o>,
thus the rate of increase of -corsinw*
is
the rate of increase of the velocity of

~
/ cm. sec. 2, we have
-caVcosorf or -o> 2o7.
J/,
i.e.
Hence,
/--A.
When x is positive, /is
if
the acceleration of M, be
(4)
negative and vice versa, and
thus/ is always
directed
towards 0.
As
goes round the circle, the point
oscillates along
AOA', and the
is equal to that of a complete revolution

time of a complete vibration of
of P.
Thus, if the periodic time be T seconds, the radius OP describes
2w radians in T seconds, and hence a>%nlT, or
T-*
to
x '
(5)
NOTES
172
Since o>* is equal to the acceleration which Jfhas towards

unit displacement, i.e. when #=1, this result can be written
when
M han
ff
,
^/acceleration for unit displacement
................ (6)
If the acceleration of a given point moving along a straight line be

proportional to its displacement from a fixed point on that line and be
always directed towards that point, we can always find an auxiliary circle
and an angular velocity such that the displacement, velocity and acceleration
are equal to those of the given point, and hence the periodic time of the
of
given point has the value stated in (6).

The motion of a point which vibrates so that its acceleration is proportional to its displacement from its mean position, is called harmonic. The
radius of the auxiliary circle does not appear in the formula for the periodic
is independent of the amplitude of the vibration.
The
time, and hence
vibrations are therefore called isochronous.
MOTION ABOUT A FIXED
2.
AXIS.
In
many
cases of oscillation, the
body, instead of moving along a straight line, turns about a fixed axis in such
a way that its angular acceleration a is equal to pO radians per sec. per sec.,
where 6 radians is its angular displacement from its mean position and ft is a
constant. If we now take a point

moving along A OA' 9 as in Fig. 60, in such
a way that OMis equal to c0 where c is a constant length, the acceleration
of
will be equal to ca or to cp,0, i.e. to p c0, and thus the acceleration of
is harmonic, and T, the periodic
is ft OM. Hence, by
1, the motion of
time of its vibrations, is given by
The angular motion of the body is said to be harmonic. Since vV is

equal to the angular acceleration of the body towards its mean position when
its angular displacement is one radian, the last result can be written
27T
'
^/angular acceleration for one radian
NOTE
VI.
CORRECTIONS FOR VARIATIONS IN THE RADIUS OF A WIRE.

1.
YOUNG'S MODULUS. In finding Young's modulus by experiments on
a wire of circular section it is usual to treat the wire as a circular cylinder
with a radius equal to the mean radius of the wire, the latter being deter-
mined by observations at a number of points equally spaced along the

It may be useful to show how a closer approximation may be reached.
wire.
NOTES
173
equal portions
Suppose that the length L is divided up into
the radii measured at the centres of the first, second... portions are
Let OQ be the mean radius and
and that
al9 a2 ...
.
let
Then, by the definition of mean radius,
To a
of
close approximation
we may
m cylinders of length L\m and
treat the actual wire as if
of radii a t , a2
...
length of the whole due to a longitudinal force
modulus, we have, by equation
(5),
Chapter
17,
it
were made up
If I be the increase of
and
if
E be
Young's
I,
FL\m + FL\m
.
Expanding the
m denominators by the binomial theorem, we have

FL
FLim
" 86,
,3V
32ft2
The second term within the brackets vanishes

the
first
"
since
26=0.
Hence, as far as
correcting term,
FL L
3262
|
woo2/
Thus the value of
^ obtained by treating the
wire as a cylinder of radius
OQ is slightly too small.

2.
If
RIGIDITY.
we apply to equation
(23),
39,
Chapter
II,
an argument
similar to that employed in

1, we see that if $ be the angle turned through
wire
under
the
action of a couple (7, and if n be the rigidity,
one
of
the
end
by
irna
The method of
then leads to the equation
The student who desires to obtain an intimate knowledge of all the

circumstances of the experimental work may profitably determine from his
observations the values of the correcting factors in (1) and (2).
NOTES
174
NOTE
ON
VII.
INERTIA BARS.
The simplest way of attaching an inertia bar to a wire is to solder the

wire into a small hole drilled in the bar, but it is generally more convenient
to employ some method which allows the wire to be easily detached from the
good plan is to solder each end of the wire into a hole drilled along
the axis of a metal cylinder 2 or 3 cm. in length and 0-4 or 0*5 cm. in
diameter. One of these cylinders fits easily into a hole drilled at the centre
bar.
of the inertia bar at right angles to its length, and the cylinder is secured
there by a small set screw, while the other cylinder is secured in the same
a piece of metal held in a fixed support. The

in
62.
Fig. 33, Chapter III,
arrangement
Since both ends of the wire are soldered into cylinders, the length of wire
manner
in a hole drilled in
is illustrated
quite definite, and since the torsional stiffness of the cylinders

very great compared with that of the wire, the couple due to a givon
angular displacement of the bar is practically independent of the positions of
under torsion
is
is
the cylinders in the bar and in the support, and thus no exact adjustment of
the cylinders in the two holes is necessary.
The mass of the inertia bar should be determined before the hole is bored
in it and, for convenience, the mass should be stamped or engraved on the
For a bar not less than 30 cm. in length the moments of inertia of the
bar before and after the hole has been drilled in it do not differ appreciably
bar.
from each other since the distance from the axis of the hole of every part of
the metal which initially filled the hole was very small, while large parts of
the bar are at considerable distances from that axis.
In the case of a rod of square section, 40 cm. in length and 1 cm. in
breadth and depth, formed of metal of density 8 grammes per c.c., the mass
of the bar is '8 x 1 x 1 x 40 or 320 grammes. If the moment of inertia about
an axis through the centre at right angles to one of the larger faces be
A' grm. cm. 2, we have by
6, Note IV,
AT
= \ x 320 (202 +(J) 2} =42693-33.. .grm.
cm. 2
Suppose, now, a hole 0*4 cm. in diameter is drilled in the bar, the axis of the
hole coinciding with the axis just mentioned. The mass of metal removed is
8x7rxlxO'2 2 a=:l-005 grms. and by 11, Note IV, the moment of inertia of
the metal removed
is
2
2
=4xl'005xO-2 =0-0201 grm. cm.
If the
moment
KKQ-k,
two
and
millions.
of inertia of the bar after the hole has been drilled be

K, then
this, it will
be seen, differs from
by
less
than one part in
NOTES
175
affected the moment of

has changed the mass of the bar from 320 grms. to
If we had taken 320- 1'005 grms.
320-1-005 grms. i.e. by one part in 320.
as the mass of the bar and had treated the bar as a uniform rectangular
block, the moment of inertia would be
Though boring the hole has not appreciably
inertia of the bar,
it
x {320 - 1 -005} {202 + (|) 2},
and this would be less than

by one part in 320.
Sometimes a small stud is screwed into the inertia bar and the wire is
secured by a set screw in a hole drilled in this stud. It will be seen, from
what has been said above, that in this case, also, the mass to be employed
in the calculation of the nioineut of inertia is the mass of the bar before any
holes are drilled in it and before the stud is attached to it
NOTE
WORK DONE
When
a couple
G dyne-cm,
acts
VIII.
BY A COUPLE.
upon a body and the body turns through
an
infinitesimal angle dd radians, an amount

of work
ergs will be done by the couple.
dW
We require to know how d W depends upon

& and upon d6. We may suppose that the
is
couple
A,
radius r cm.
be
by means of two strings

wrapped round a wheel of
applied
(Fig. 61)
If the tension of each string
F dynes, we have
2Fr=G.
............... (1)
If, now, the wheel turn through dB radians, the points A, B will move
through rd& cm. and each force will do FxrdB ergs. The total work done
is ZFrdO, and this is equal todW.
Hence, by (1), we have
dW=Gd6 ergs.................................. (2)

Thus the work done by a couple
in turning a body through an infinitesimal

the product of the couple and the angle.
When the couple is constant, we have
angle
where
is
is
the work done by the couple while the body turns through the
angle 6 radians.
When the couple
the body from an
is
proportional to the angle already turned through by

we may write <?=/z0, and then the work
initial position,
NOTES
176
increases from zero to
done while
average value of the couple.
where
when
dyne-cm,
is
The
radians will be the product of (f> and the

/*<, and thus the work done is
latter is
TTss^xJ/i^î^^x^ ergs,
maximum value of 0, i.e.
the
the value of the couple
6=<f>.
NOTE
IX.
TRAPEZOIDAL RULE FOR THE MEASUREMENT OF AREAS.
When an area is enclosed by a line of some simple geometrical form, such

as a triangle or an ellipse, the area can be calculated with any required degree
of exactness by the integral calculus or other mathematical methods when
the necessary dimensions are accurately known. But in practical work it is
often necessary to determine approximately the area enclosed by a line drawn
on paper, of which the whole or a part passes as evenly as possible among the
points representing a number of observations. In such a case much labour
would be involved in the attempt to determine, even approximately, the
equation to the line, and then the calculation of the area by aid of the
equation would still remain to be made. This method is, therefore, seldom
used.
The area can be measured mechanically by means of a planimeter, but

the accuracy of the result depends upon the correct adjustment of the
instrument and upon the skill with which the tracing point is made to move
along the
line.
measurement of areas is easily applied and

In one respect it has an advantage over the
instrument.
special
observations are properly spaced, it is not
the
when
method,
for,
planimeter
necessary to draw the curve on paper.
The
trapezoidal rule for the
requires no
Mi
M M
3
Fig. 62.
When we
the axis of
A ... A n (Fig. 62),

divide
M Mn into n- 1
we
A
M
AiMl9 n n
Let AiM
a^ cm., A 2^2=^2 cm. and so
wish to find the area enclosed by the curve
x and
the two ordinates
l
equal parts, each of length d cm.
on.
If d be small compared with the least radius of curvature at any point
NOTES
177
on the curve AiA n we may replace the arcs A\A^ A%A$ ... by the corresponding chords, and treat each of the vertical strips as a trapezoid. The area
of the trapezoid A^MiMÂ^ the product of
1
2 and of
(AiMi+A%M,
the mean height of the chord A 1 A 2j and thus the area is Qai+$a2}d square
cm. The area of the next trapezoid is (%a 2 +%a3 )d and so on. On addition,
we find that, if the area AI MI n A n be A square cm.,
,
MM
^=(4i + si+-+*-i+K)*
The
rule implied in (1)
may be
expressed as follows
(1)
of equally spaced ordinates, add half the first and half the
sum of the intermediate ordinates and multiply the whole
by the distance between successive ordinates. The result is the area required.
Draw a
series
last ordinates to the
If
we have a second
BI MI and
61, b2 ...b n
by the curve Bi...Bn the ordinates

and if the n- 1 equidistant ordinates be
area enclosed
Bn Mn and the base MI Mn

cm., the enclosed area
B is given by
J5=(461 +62 +...+&B _ 1 +i6n)rf.

If
we denote
have, by (1) and
a^
bi
by
CA
and so
many
instances
coincides with
if
be the area
(2)
AiBiBn A n9 we
(2),
C=(-ic 1 + c2 +
In
on,
and
An
(e.g.
...
+ Cn-i +
cn)<
Fig. 55) the point
Then 6^=0 and
i.
c=0 and the formula (3)
C=(cz + c3 +
...
+en _ 1 )d
(3)
and
becomes
coincides with AI
Bn
(4)
small enough, the accuracy can be made as great as may be

desired, provided that the values of the a's, the 6's or the c's are exactly
By
taking
known.
If the observations be taken at equal intervals with respect to the variable
quantity represented along the axis OX, it is unnecessary to draw the curve
on paper, for it is only the values of the a's, & s or ds which we require and
these are given by the observations.
7
When the observations are not taken at equal intervals with respect to
the quantity represented along OX, we can either find the sum of the areas
of the separate trapezoids corresponding to successive intervals (if the
intervals be not too great), or
among the
we may draw
the curve as evenly as we can

by the trapezoidal rule.
plotted points and then find its area
178
NOTES
NOTE
HINTS ON PRACTICAL
X.
WORK
IN PHFSICS.
demonstrator in practical physics spends a large part

FAILURES.
1.
of his time in correcting students' mistakes. He has to discover, for instance,
why it is that a student obtains 537-86402 [no units mentioned] for Young's
modulus by an experiment on a brass wire instead of 9'86 x 10 11 dynes per
square centimetre. It is then found, perhaps, that the student has confused
the radius of the wire with its diameter, that, having got hold of a screwgauge in which one turn is equivalent to -g\y inch, he has treated one turn
millimetre
as equivalent to J millimetre either because it looked about
when tested with a millimetre scale or because he did not care to ask those
who knew,
that he has measured the extension in millimetres and has then
treated the millimetres as if they were centimetres and that he has used
32 for "gravity" instead of 981. When the crumpled sheet of paper has
been unearthed from the rubbish box, the arithmetic on it is found to be
The student has omitted (perhaps through caution) all reference to

the units in which the result is expressed. In some cases the student adds
the letters C.G.S. in much the same way as grocers add "ESQ." to customers'
faulty.
If his courage allows him to name the units, he often uses the wrong
names the chances are that he puts down " dynes."
The student may have learned something of the physical principles involved in the experiment and may have gained some practice in manipulation,
but the result of his work, viz. that Young's modulus for brass is 537 '86402,
is worthless, and is entirely useless to any human being.
names.
The
his
following hints
may
perhaps assist the student to avoid errors in
work and may help him to discover where they have occurred when,
in spite of all his care, his result is obviously wrong.
OBSERVATIONS. After the necessary adjustments have been made,

2.
the observer reads off a number from the graduations of the instrument
or in other ways. The result of the experiment cannot possibly be correct
if this number be not correctly read and correctly recorded. After the reading
has been entered, the student should, when possible, look at the instrument
again in order to detect any discrepancy between the written entry and the
instrumental reading. What he actually wrote is not always what he intended
to write.
The work of observing is liable to a great variety of errors. Some of the

most frequent are the following
Wrong values are assigned to the divisions of a scale. Thus the student
sees a 10 and counts on 5 more divisions, and enters the reading as 10*5
instead of 15. Or, when the main divisions are subdivided into 5 sub:
NOTES
divisions,
one of the latter
is
179
taken as a tenth instead of a
fifth
of a main
division.
The numbered divisions are read from left to right, but the tenths are
read from right to left. Thus 25*4 is wrongly read as 25-6, the 6 tenths
"
in the latter number being reckoned from the 26."
The student does not understand the graduation of the instrument, either
because he has not given sufficient attention to the matter or because the
unit of measurement is not marked on the instrument ; in the latter case
he cannot be expected to know the unit of measurement and he should
ascertain it from those who have put the instrument into his hands, be
they instrument makers, teachers, or examiners.

In most cases the determination of a physical quantity involves two observations. Thus, when the diameter of a wire is measured by a screw-gauge, the
reading of the gauge when the jaws are in contact is required as well as the
reading when the gauge is adjusted to the wire. But students frequently omit
"
to take the zero reading. They should remember that every length has two
ends."
The attempt
to measure a length
by a
single reading
sometimes leads
to totally erroneous results, as when a distance of 30 cm. is put down as

70 cm. because the " wrong end " of the scale is used and so the distance
to be measured lies between the "100" and the "70" on the scale, and not
between the "0" and the "30." If, in addition to the reading "70," the
reading "100" had been taken and recorded, the error would not have occurred.
Similar remarks apply to the measurement of many other quantities, e.g.
masses, angles, and resistances.

In finding the periodic time of a vibrating system, a student sometimes
" one " when he starts the
calls
stop-watch ; he stops the watch as he calls
"fifty" and though he imagines that he has found the time of 50%vibrations,
he has really found the time of only 49. He should call " nought " when he
starts the watch.
When
ramble
the periodic time exceeds about two seconds, the mind has time to
between one count and the next, and therefore a
off to other interests
special effort must be made to concentrate the attention on the work in

hand. It is of assistance to count out loud. On account of the difficulty
of counting correctly, the student should make at least two independent
observations of any periodic time.

steady hand, a keen eye, and a good general command of the body are
essential in accurate physical determinations ; mere intellectual power avails
nothing by
itself.
Any
rule of
life
which deviates from temperance in
all
things (including work) may be expected to render the hand less steady and
the eye less keen, and so to lead to inferior work. University students whose
fingers are deeply stained with tobacco do not, as a rule, become skilful
observers, though they
may show
considerable ability in other ways.
3.
THE RECORDING OF OBSERVATIONS. As soon as an observation has
been made, enter the result in a note book, not on a scrap of paper. Do not
122
NOTES
180
wait to sco the result of a second adjustment before recording the result of
the first one. Take the figures as they come without any attempt to force
them into agreement with any preconceived value.
Enter observations and not merely deductions. Thus, if two readings of

a vernier be 15-85 cm. and 17*32 cm., these are observations. The distance
1-47 cm., through which the vernier has been moved, is a deduction from the
two observations. If the student, without entering the numbers 15-85 and
17*32, does the arithmetic in his head and puts down 1-57 through error,
he has no chance of detecting the mistake afterwards. If he had entered
15*85 and 17*32, he might have found the mistake in revising his calculation.
The neglect of the simple rule of always entering observations before

making any deductions from them is a very frequent source of error. No
one, whatever his private opinion as to his own powers, is likely to do reliable
work if he neglects this rule.
Enter the observations in an orderly manner without crowding, and do
not write in three or four different directions on the paper.
Write all the numbers very plainly. The letters in a badly written word
can often be guessed, but the neighbouring figures do not help the reader
to decide whether the mark on the paper is meant to be a 5 or an 8. The
position of the decimal point is the most important feeitiire of any collection
of figures ; be careful, therefore, to mark the decimal point firmly and clearly.
Be careful to state clearly what it is that you have measured, and also
the units in which the measurement is expressed.

If you have reason to reject any of your observations, cancel the entries
by bold
to what
lines
is
drawn through them, so that there may be no mistake as

and what is retained. Neatness is here of secondary
rejected
importance^
beginner naturally believes that he is capable of making a correct copy
of the results of a series of observations ; he will learn by experience that,
It is therefore
in spite of his most strenuous efforts, mistakes will occur.
essential that the student should cultivate the habit of making the original
record of the observations good and clear, and that he should preserve it for
If any practical use is to be made of the results of an experiment,
reference.
it is
obviously important that the chances of error should be as small as

The power of entering observations in a clear manner will be of
possible.
value in a practical examination, for the student will then be able to send in
his original record and will not feel compelled to waste time by copying out
his "rough" notes.
ARITHMETICAL REDUCTION OP OBSERVATIONS. From the observations

is deduced by arithmetical work.
Without this work the result
cannot be obtained, and the accuracy of the result depends upon that of the
arithmetical work. This work should therefore be earned out with quite
as much care as that given to the taking and recording of the observations.
The arithmetic should be done in the book containing the observations, and
4.
the result
NOTES
181
the work should be arranged in an orderly manner so that it will bear

It is wise to verify each step before proceeding to the next.
inspection.
Many students have the bad habit of doing the arithmetic on scraps of paper
which they immediately destroy, as if they were ashamed of the work ; yet
no one expects them to obtain the results without doing the arithmetic.
For most purposes four-figure mathematical tables may be used; Bottomley's
tables are convenient. The student should make himself acquainted with the
contents of the book of tables so that he may know where to look for (say)
the reciprocal of a number; and he will then not waste time in working
out by the aid of logarithms.

The slide rule is so convenient in those cases where moderate accuracy
in its use.
suffices, that the student should endeavour to become proficient
it
it must be recognised that its accuracy is limited.

Care should bo taken to carry the arithmetic to a
But
The
sufficient
number
of
depends, of course, upon the data used

in the calculations, but the arithmetic should be carried so far that no error
is introduced into the result greater than (say) one tenth of that arising from
significant figures.
final result
the errors of observation.
But
if
we
An
example
will
make
this clear.
The value
of
4-62382208, or to 5 significant figures 4'6238.

perform the multiplications, we find that
the product
-6736x2-7628
is
=4-8
1-7
X2-8
1-67
X2-76 =4-61
to 2 figures
to 3 figures
1-674x2-763 =4-625 to 4
figures.
Hence the rough 2 figure arithmetic has introduced an error of about one
in 25.
With 3 figure arithmetic the error is reduced to about one in 330,
and with 4 figures the error is only about one in 4000.
On
the other hand, it is useless to retain many significant figures in the

when the data are only correct to a few significant figures.
arithmetic
When
the
number
of significant figures is to be reduced
by
rejecting the
unchanged when L is less than 5, and is

increased by unity when L is greater than 5. When L is equal to 5, the last
digit but one is left unchanged if it is even, but is increased by unity if it
is odd.
Thus 3-485 is shortened to 3*48, but 6-235 is shortened to 6*24;
last digit L, the last
in each case the
but one
is left
number adopted
"
after the rejection of the " 5 has its last
digit even.
When
the numbers are very great or very small, it is best to write them
xlO7 or 6 -89 x 10 ~ 6, keeping one significant figure only on the
left of the decimal point.
There is less chance of error in copying 5-89 x 10~ 5
than in copying 0-0000589. This plan has the advantage that, when the
logarithms of the numbers are to be found, there is no need to count the
thus:
4-19
number of figures between the decimal point and the first significant
The power to which the 10 is raised is equal to the characteristic
logarithm. Thus
log (4-19
x 10?) =7-6222,
log (5 -89
W )5
57701.
figure.
of the
182
NOTES
The value of n- is 3*14159265.... It is quicker to use log 3*141... than to

use log 22 and log 7, as is necessary when the rough value 22/7 is employed.
Gross errors in aiithmetic can often be detected by the exercise of a little
common
Thus a moment's thought shows that the
sense.
wire one-tenth of a centimetre in diameter
cross-section of
not 2*345 square centimetres.

The student should make a practice of looking at the result of each step
to see if it is reasonable or absurd.
is
When series of observations are plotted on squared paper,

5. DIAGRAMS.
the student should express very clearly upon the diagram the two physical
quantities which are represented along the horizontal and vertical axes.
When
this information is not given, the
diagram
is
generally worthless.
The points plotted on the diagram should be clearly marked by small circles
drawn round them or in other ways.
In every case when a series of observations is made, one quantity
is
varied and the consequent variations of a second quantity

are observed.
The quantity
should be varied over the whole of the available range and
the separate values of JT say JEi, -T2 ...should be fairly distributed over
that range. Many students are inclined to take X\ 9
2 ... so close together
that they are unable, for lack of time, to cover more than a small part of the
whole range. In such cases, it often happens that the errors of observation
cause the points plotted on the
X- Y diagram
than of any regular curve.
to be suggestive rather of a con-
2
X\ X$ X^ etc.,
had been large, the errors of observation would not have completely obscured
the law which the experiment was designed to investigate.
stellation
6.
If the intervals
NOTE BOOKS.
which to write
laboratory.
He
The student should, if possible, keep a note book in

accounts of the experiments than is possible in the
will thus find out how much he has understood of what
fuller
he has done in the laboratory, and
will also gain practice in describing
experimental work in his own words. The note book should have large
pages, and ample space should be left for future notes and additions. But
however great the labour spent upon this book, it can never take the place of
the laboratory note book in which the original records are written.
The student should write his name and address in his note books as
a safeguard against their
loss.
The student should not leave an experiment

anything connected with it which he does not understand.
Every experiment involves many principles, and thus a single experiment
thoroughly grasped in all its details puts the student in possession of much
7.
GENERAL REMARKS.
while there
is
knowledge which will help him in future experiments. Hence, one experiment well understood is of far more educational value than a dozen in
which the student has gained only hazy notions.
There is no such thing as the ANSWER to any experimental investigation,
for no two persons would obtain precisely the same result, however carefully
NOTES
they worked.
discovers
The student should have confidence in his results until he

But he should not pretend to do imIt is easy to make some measurement, such as weighing,
show of precision, but the precision is only apparent and not
an error in his work.
possibilities.
with a great
real unless the proper precautions have been* taken and the proper corrections have been applied.
As the degree of exactness to be reached in any measurement is increased,
the practical difficulties increase enormously. Thus with a household balance
and household weights a cook could weigh a mass of aluminium of about
100 grammes to one gramme. A junior student with a cheap laboratory
balance and common weights could weigh it to
gramme. To be certain
of the mass to jîr gramme, it would be necessary to use double weighing
and to allow for the buoyancy of the air. To reach an accuracy of
y^y gramme, it would be necessary to have a table of corrections for the
weights employed, while to corne within 10 o7ooo gramme would require an
accurate knowledge of the prebsure, the temperature and the hygrometric
state of the air, and would require the refined appliances of a national
physical laboratory and the skill of an expert.
The student should have aii eye to proportion. It is useless to make
some observations (e.g. of mass) to one part in ten thousand when other
observations in the same experiment can only be made to one part in a
hundred (e.g. rise of temperature).
The formula which expresses the result in terms of the quantities to be
observed should bo carefully examined to see which quantities are of primary
and which are of secondary importance. Thus the formula
moment of inertia of a cylindrical rod of mass 9 of length ZL and of

is great compared with J, the quantities
radius A, shows that, when
and L are of primary importance, while A is of only secondary importance.
It is useless to spend time in measuring 2J. accurately by means of a screwfor the
gauge when 2L
is
only measured to the nearest millimetre, for
outside, only the first
two
sequence compared with
significant figures in
JZ2.
it is,
at the
%A which are of any con-
184
NOTES
NOTE XL
MAXIMUM ELEVATION AT CENTRE OF ROD
If
2L be
Then, by
the whole distance betweeu the points
IN EXPERIMENT
C.
HE (Fig. 35), p=L-L
66,
(6),
Hence dh\dl=(Mg\ZEI) (2Z?-3P), and dhjdlÔ when 3l=2L. When 3?=2A

d2h/dl*= MgLjEl, and dPJijdl* is negative. Hence 7*is a maximum when I = 3 Z,
or when p= Z. It is therefore advantageous to make I approximately equal
tofZ.
NOTE
XII.
THEORY OF INFINITESIMAL UNIFORM BENDING OF A ROD.

If a rod of uniform section be uniformly bent, each filament
which was
parallel to the length of the rod when the rod was straight is bent into an
arc of a circle. All these circles are in parallel planes planes of bending
and their centres of curvature lie on a single straight line normal to these
planes ; this line is called the axis of bending. The uniformity of bending also
requires that all the particles, which lay in transverse planes before the rod
was bent, He after the bending in planes through the axis of bending. These
planes therefore cut the curved filaments at right angles. Hence the stress on
any transverse section of any longitudinal filament is normal to that section
is thus a positive or negative tension.
Let the tension of a longitudinal filament be
and
T dyne cm." 2 and let p be the

radius of curvature and a the cross-section of the filament. Then the forces
Ta at the ends of an element of length p'6 of the filament are inclined at the
elementary angle 6 to each other and so give rise to a radial force TaQ, which
towards the centre of curvature when T is a positive tension. Hence the
radial force per unit length of the filament is Ta8/p'0 or Ta/p', and the radial
is
force per unit
volume
is T/p'.
the filament in equilibrium, it is necessary that a radial force

Tip per unit volume should act upon the filament outwards from the centre
of curvature. Except for any small effect of gravity, this force is supplied by
the action on the filament of the contiguous filaments. We cannot treat the
To maintain
sides of the filament as free
from stress unless this radial force
is
either zero
or negligible. The importance of the vanishing of the radial force lies in the
fact that only when the sides of the filament are free from stress can we write
NOTES
T=Ee, where Eia Young's modulus and
i.e.
its
185
e is
the elongation of the filament,
increase of length per unit length.
When
section
the rod
is
uniformly bent, the forces acting across any transverse

to a couple which has the same axis and the same
must be equivalent
magnitude for all such sections, and thus the resultant pull across any transverse
section vanishes. In this case T and the curvature l/p diminish together.
Hence T/p' diminishes on two counts as l/p' diminishes. We may therefore
assume that, as the bending tends to zero, the effects of the stress on the sides
of the filament due to contiguous filaments tend to vanish in comparison with
the effect of the longitudinal tension.
We shall investigate the bending of the
rod on this assumption.

To keep the matter simple,
we suppose that the plane of bending through

the "centre of gravity" of a transverse section cuts that section in a line which
is an axis of symmetry for the section.
Let Fig. 63 be a projection of lines upon a plane of bending and
of bending meet the plane in R.
let
the axis
Those filaments which are farthest from
are shortened. Hence some intermediate

are lengthened and those nearest to
filaments are unchanged in length, and all these have the same projection.
Let 00' be the projection of a filament of unchanged length and let RO, the
radius of curvature of 00', be p. Let PP' be the projection of any other fila-
ment, let RP=RP'=p+y, and let POR, P'O'R be radii. If ORO' =

have O0'=p<t> and PP' = (p+y)<p. Hence, if the elongation of PP be
have
^
e,
we
we
if
the
The
__PP'-00'_(p+y)-l>_y
~
sides of the filament are,
00'
it is
tension of the filament be jPdyne
p
p'
assumed, free from stress and hence,
cm." 2
If the resultant of the pulls of all the filaments across the transverse section
be
F dynes,
Since the forces applied to the rod on either side of the transverse section are
equivalent to a couple and so have no resultant, the force Evanishes. Hence
NOTES
186
is the projection of the "centre of gravity" of that

2oy=0, and therefore
transverse section which cuts the plane ORO' in OR.
The "bending moment" corresponding
to the transverse section through
POR is the moment about any axis parallel to the axis of bending of the forces
which the filaments on the right side of POR exert upon the part of the rod
POR. For convenience we take the axis through 0. The pull
Ta or Eay/p and, since P0y> its moment about the axis is Tag
to the left of
PP'
along
or (E/p)
is
3
a.?/
If the total
moment be G dyne
cm.,
where /=2ay 2 Here /is the "moment of inertia" or the "second moment"
of the area of a transverse section about an axis through the u centre of
.
gravity" of the section parallel to the axis of bending.

Instead of taking the axis through 0, we may take it through any point S.
and if K0=k, the moment is
If
be perpendicular to
PR
SK
But 2a#=0, and thus the moment reduces to El/p and
is
independent of the
position of 8.
The tension
T in a longitudinal filament gives rise to a force Tip per unit

volume, and the reaction to this force necessary for equilibrium is supplied by
the contiguous filaments. Since TÊyjp and p'=p+y, the force is
which tends to become inversely proportional to p 2 asp increases. The tension
proportional to p. The effects of T/p\ the force per unit volume,
as small as we please in comparison with those of the tension
conclude that Gp tends to the
byjmaking the bending sufficiently small.
Ij&it El as the curvature l/p tends to zero.
is inversely
can be
made
We
We have not proved and it is not,

the curvature
2738.
is finite.
The problem
in general, true that Gp equals El when

of small finite bending is considered in
INDEX.
The
references are to pages
and not
to sections.
Absolute zero 21
Action and reaotibn 3
Adiabatio elasticity 20
After-effects 1
Anticlastic curvature 65
surface 44
Copper, elastic constants for 113

Copper wire, experiments on loading
and unloading 77
Area, measurement of by trapezoidal
Curvature, Cartesian expression for

124
mirror method of determining 104
experiments on twisting and untwisting 152

Couple, work done by 175
rule 176
Axis of bending 39, 53, 122
of helicoid
Baynes, D. L. H. 106, Hi, 114, 131

Bedford, T. G. 89
Bending, axis of 39, 53, 122
plane of 39, 121
Bending moment for blade 56, 138
for rod 47, 109, 123
Bending of rod, by couples 47, 109
non-uniform 119
uniform 38
Blade 50, 52, 132
uniform bending of 52, 135
torsion of 63, 132
Body force 40, 53, 56
Body forces, removal of 48
reversed 48, 49, 52
Bottomley, Dr J. T. 73
Brass, elastic constants for 113
Breaking stress 82
Bulk modulus 10
Burton, W. 94, 159
C.G.S. unit stress 5
Centre of gravity, acceleration of 163
Change of
cross section
due to bending
40, 44, 52, 67, 114

of type of bending 57
Coefficient of expansion, effect of tension
Change
on 73
Comparison of
Compression 7
elastic constants
Contraction, lateral 17, 42, 54
112
64
of rod 103, 118, 127

Cycles of loading and unloading 78
of twisting 153
D'Alembert's principle 162

Depression at centre of rod 127
Deviations from Hooke's law 78
Difference between reciprocals of isothermal and adiabatic elasticities 25
Distortion of section of rod 40, 44, 52,
57, 114
Dynamical method of determining, rigidity 95, 132
Effective force 162
Elastic constant 3, 10, 13, 16

constants, relations between 18
limit 2, 80, 104, 147, -156
table of values of 113
Elasticity, experimental
work in 71
of liquid or gas 11
Electromagnetic radiation 163
Ellipse,
moment of inertia of 168

Ellipsoid,
Elliptical rod, torsion of 61
Elongation
9, 16, 41,
Energy of system 144

Entropy 21
Ewing, 153
Expansion 7
Experimental work in
54
elasticity
71
INDEX
188
FiIamenVeiitral 40, 54, 123
Filon, Dr L. N. G. 32, 35, 36
his results for tension 32
Moments
of inertia,
c.o.s.
unit of 165
definition of 165
torsion 36
formulae for 166
Forces, internal 162

effective
Modulus of torsion 13
Molecular actions 4
162
redaction of group of 1C2
Fourier 63
Freedom, six degrees of 76
of areas 47, 55, 169

properties of 165
theorem of parallel axes 106

angular, of rigid body 170
C.G.S. unit of 163
Momentum,
Gas, elasticity of 11
Geometry of helicoid 63
German-silver, elastic constants for 113
Graphical representation of deviations
from Hooke's law 78
Neutral filament 40, 122

position of, in blade 54
in rod 46, 123
Nickel, elastic constants for 113
Non-uniform bending 119
Harmonic motion 171

amplitude of 171
periodic time of 172
Helicoid, curvature of 64
geometry of 63
Phosphor bronze,
elastic constants for
113
Plane of bending 39, 121
Platinoid, elastic constants for 113
Poisson's ratio 17
Homogeneous 3
Hooke, Bobert 2
Hooke's law 2
deviations from 78
determination
of,
by bending of a
blade 135, 139
experimental investigation of 72
6, 11
Hydrostatic pressure
Hysteresis loop 158

dissipation of energy by torsional
152
Inertia bars, design of 174
*
for torsion of blade 132
Internal forces 162
Isothermal elasticity 20
Isotropic 3
Kelvin (Thomson) and Tait 30
Kinetic energy of rigid body 170
rectangular rod 114

Practical approximation to uniform torsion 62
Principal sections of curved surfacfc 44

radii of curved surface 65
Radiation, electromagnetic 163

Badius of curvature, Cartesian expression
for 124
Badius of wire, correction for variations
of 172
Batio of adiabatic to isothermal elasticity 22
Bayleigh's reciprocal relations, test of
Liquid, elasticity of 11
147
see Bayleigh
Love, A. E. H., treatise on elasticity 31
theory of 141, 145

Bectangular rod, torsion of 61
Belations between elastic constants 18
Maximum
Bigid body, acceleration of centre of

gravity of 163
negative pressure in 11
Lord Bayleigh,
strain
in
experiment 104,
110, 130
Maxwell's thermodynamio relation 26
Mirror method of determining curvature
104
angular acceleration of 164

angular
momentum
of 164, 170
kinetic energy of 170

INDEX
Rigidity 11, 13
determination of by dynamical method 95
by statical method 90
by torsion of a blade 132
Bound
rod,
uniform torsion of 53
Saint- Venant, Barre* de 31
Saint-Venant's principle 31
application of 69, 70
illustration of 62
Searle, G. F. C. 74, 94, 110, 113, 119,
131, 150, 159
Second moment of area 60, 169

permanent 82
Shakespear, G. A. 74
Set,
Shear, definition of 8
maximum in experiments 8
Shears, results for infinitesimal 9
Silver, elastic constants for 113
" Silver
constants for
"-steel, elastic
113
Slope at end of rod 105, 129
Specific heat at constant pressure 23
at constant volume 23
for constant length 24
for constant shear 24
ior constant shearing stress 24
for constant tension 24
Strain, definition of 7
Strained section of rod 44, 114
Stress, definition of 5
189
Thomson (Lord Kelvin) and Tait 39

Thread, use of stretched 83, 87, 93
Time effect in loading copper wire 77
Timing, method of 98
Torsion of a blade 63
determination of rigidity by 132
Torsion of cylindrical tube 60
elliptical rod 61
rectangular rod 61
rods of non-circular section 60
round rod 58
Torsional couple 58, 68
dissipation of energy
through 152
Trapezoidal rule for measurement of
areas 176
Tube, cylindrical, torsion of CO
Twist 58, 63
Twisted blade, stresses in 66
torsional couple for 68
Twisting, cycles of 153
hysteresis,
Uniform bending of blade
52, 135
bending of rod 38, 100, 107
torsion of a blade 63
torsion of a round rod 58
Variations of radius of wire, corrections

for 172
Viscous yielding 153
Volume elasticity 10
Work done by
forces 143
breaking 82
on diagonal planes of a sheared

cube 13, 14
Sudden application of load 82
Stresses
Temperature
modulus 74
Tenacity 82
Tension, effect
pansion 73
coefficient
of,
on
of
Young's
coefficient of ex-
Theoretical elasticity, assumptions of 30
Thermodynamics, applications to
ticity
22
elas-
Young's modulus 15
determination of, by bending a blade
135
by stretching a horizontal wire 86
by stretching a vertical wire 80
by non-uniform bending 119
by uniform bending of a rod,
dynamical method 107
by uniform bending of a rod,
statical method 100
temperature coefficient of 74
CAMBRIDGE PRINTED BY WALTER LEWIS, M.A., AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS

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OU

OSMANIA UNIVERSITY LIBRARY

This book should be returned on or before the date

UNIVERSITY LECTURER IN EXPERIMENTAL PHYSICS

AT THE CAVENDISH LABORATORY

First Edition 1908

Second Edition 1933

PRINTED IN GREAT BRITAIN

present volume has

origin in the manuscript notes

which I have prepared from time

for the use of

in practical physics at the

Cavendish Laboratory. When, in 1890, I was appointed to my

meet the needs of the students, partly because they did

some experiments intended

I was thus led to devise

to illustrate principles as simply

I also wrote notes explaining

necessary formulae are obtained from the principles involved in

The students showed very kind

of these earlier notes and thus I was encouraged to prepare

work has proved

so interesting that I have continued

have occurred, with the result that at the

present time the students attending

upon these manuscript notes

for the necessary instructions.

of the students have

made almost complete

some hundreds of pages of manuscript and have perhaps learned

For instance, the limited number

of copies of any one manuscript

more than two or three students

For the safety of the manuscripts I have relied on

To throw together into a

small volume the manuscripts dealing

require revision in the light of later experience, while

manuscripts contain mathematical arguments which are repeated

but would be intolerable in a book.

For these and other reasons I decided that

satisfactory to rewrite the whole of the manuscripts,

should accompany a detailed description of the experimental

beginning, the present volume

and Magnetism and on Heat and Sound.

The present volume cannot

Its purpose is simply to give the substance of

course of instruction in the subject in a form which

chapter contains an account of the elements of the

with one or two necessary

found the mathematical solutions of some problems which

of rods and blades

The uniform bending

their appearance in several experiments.

discussed rather fully, but I was anxious to

make the arguments apply

to small finite curvatures as distin-

guished from merely infinitesimal curvatures. To the preparation

his store of expert

knowledge of the mathematical