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A signal can be analyzed in the time domain, for example, by
using a CRO, or in the frequency domain, for example, by using

a spectrum analyzer. Time domain analysis has the
disadvantage that we cannot see the contribution of individual
frequency component of a complex waveform. Signal
characteristics that are difficult to see in the time domain
frequently become visible in the frequency domain
Distortion is a measure of signal impurity. It is usually
expressed as a percentage or decibel ratio of the undesired
components to the desired components of a signal. Distortion
of a device is measured by feeding into it one or more sine
waves of various amplitudes and frequencies. In simple terms,
frequencies in the output which were not present in the input
constitute distortion.
HARMONIC DISTORTION
Harmonic distortion results when a voltage at a single
frequency f, applied to a nonlinear device or system, creates
unwanted voltages at frequencies (harmonics) 2f, 3f, , Nf.
The order of the distortion product is given by the frequency
multiplier, Individual components of harmonics distortion are
defined as follows:
Since it is difficult to find the amplitude of the fundamental

alone in the presence of harmonics we use the eqn
,
The denominator is the amplitude of the signal with all
harmonic components.
SINAD is a parameter which provides a quantitative
measurement of the quality of an audio signal from a
communication device. It is the ratio of the total signal power
level (desired signal + noise + distortion or SND) to unwanted
signal power (noise + distortion or ND). The higher this ratio,
the better the quality of the audio signal
INTERMODULATION DISTORTION
This occurs when the nonlinearity of a device or system with

multiple input frequencies causes undesired outputs at other
frequencies In a communication system, this means that
signals in one channel can cause interference with adjacent
channels. As the spectrum becomes busier and the channels
become more tightly spaced, minimizing intermodulation
distortion becomes more important.
DISTORTION ANALYSER
This is the instrument used to measure total harmonic
components. It removes the fundamental component of the
signal under investigation and measures the remainder. With
the switch S1 at Set Level, the band-pass filter is adjusted to
the fundamental frequency and attenuator is adjusted to obtain
full-scale reading on the meter. The switch position is then
changed to Distortion, the notch filter is tuned to the
fundamental and attenuator is adjusted again to get full-scale
reading on the meter. THD is then calculated from the
attenuator position. SINAD can also be measured with this
equipment.
Any practical signal contains some hum and noise, and the
distortion analyzer will include these in the reading. Because of
these added components, the correct value measured by the
instrument is total harmonic distortion and noise (THD + n).
Additional filters (low pass and high pass) are included on most
distortion analyzers to reduce unwanted hum and noise
The shape of the output waveform from a notch-type analyzer
indicates the slope of the nonlinearity. Displaying the residual
components on the vertical axis of an oscilloscope and the
input signal on the horizontal gives a plot of the transfer
characteristics deviation from a best-fit straight line.
WAVE ANALYSER
This instrument is used to measure each harmonic component
individually. This instrument uses the principle of heterodyne
(heterodyne means to mix) where signal of frequency, fsig, is
mixed with a local oscillator frequency, fLO, generating
frequencies fLO + fsig, fLO fsig and harmonics. A narrow
band-pass filter is tuned to pass signal of frequency fLO +fsig
to the amplifier which is Then read by the meter. By varying the
frequency of the local oscillator, signal amplitudes of
fundamental, 2nd harmonic, 3rd harmonic, etc.can be
measured individually. Note that each harmonic frequency is
converted to a constant frequency, which allows the use of
highly selective filters. Since the frequency components are
measured one at a time, this is called non-real time analyzer
(NRTA). The bandwidth of heterodyne wave analyzer is usually
constant. This makes the analysis very difficult if signal
frequency does not remain constant during the time required

by the instrument for complete analysis
SPECTRUM ANALYSER
An analysis of a complex waveform, in terms of a graphic plot
of the amplitude versus frequency, is known as spectrum
analysis. Spectrum analysis recognizes the fact that waveforms
are composed of the summation of a group of sinusoidal waves,
each of an exact frequency and all existing together
simultaneously The frequency-domain (amplitude versus
frequency) plot is used to observe frequency response
Real-time spectrum analyzers are realized in basic two types:

1. Filter bank spectrum analyser 2. Superheterodyne
spectrum analyser
FILTER BANK SPECTRUM ANALYSER

It has a bank of fixed tuned filters spread over the frequency
range of interest. Each filter passes one frequency. A detector
then measures the power level of the signal passing through
the filter, producing a dc voltage that drives the vertical plates
of the display. An electronic sweep switch selects one output of

the detector at a time. As the ramp (sweep) generator sweeps
through its frequency range, a trace is drawn across the screen.
This trace shows the spectral content of the input signal within
a selected range of frequencies.
Superheterodyne spectrum analyser

the input signal is first attenuated, if required. Then it passes
through a low-pass (LP) filter. Then it is mixed with a signal
from the local oscillator (LO). Because the mixer is a non-linear
device, its output includes not only the two original signals but
also their harmonics and the sums and differences of the
original frequencies and their harmonics. The mixed signal
falling within the pass-band of the intermediate-frequency (IF)
filter, are amplified (sometimes log amplified to increase the
range). The resultant signal is then applied to the vertical
plates of a cathode-ray tube (CRT) after it is rectified by the
envelope detector. It produces a vertical deflection on the CRT
screen (the display). A ramp generator deflects the CRT beam
horizontally across the screen from left to right. The ramp also
tunes the local oscillator, so that its frequency changes in
proportion to the ramp voltage. So we get an X-Y display on the
screen.

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A signal can be analyzed in the time domain, for example, by

using a CRO, or in the frequency domain, for example, by using

Since it is difficult to find the amplitude of the fundamental

This occurs when the nonlinearity of a device or system with

frequency does not remain constant during the time required

Real-time spectrum analyzers are realized in basic two types:

FILTER BANK SPECTRUM ANALYSER

of the display. An electronic sweep switch selects one output of

Superheterodyne spectrum analyser

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