Prinsip Stratigrafi
Prinsip Stratigrafi
Prinsip Stratigrafi
OLEH
MUHAMMAD FIKRI AZIS 270110140034
Disusun untuk memenuhi salah satu nilai tugas mata kuliah Prinsip Stratigrafi
UNIVERSITAS PADJADJARAN
FAKULTAS TEKNIK GEOLOGI
2015
Table of Contents
Table of Contents................................................................................................i
1. History of Geology and Stratigraphy Development.........................1
1.1 Geological Science Development.............................................................................1
1.2 Geological Science Revolution: Plate Tectonic and Sequence Stratigraphy...........12
2. Rock Classification.......................................................................................4
2.1 Sedimentary Rocks.................................................................................................19
2.2 Igneous Rocks........................................................................................................21
2.3 Metamorphic Rocks................................................................................................23
References..........................................................................................................49
alal-Biruni
973-1048)
Muslim
geologists, whose
works included the
earliest writings on
the
geology
of
in
its
development. At this
time,
became
geology
its
own
was discovered by
the Earth. It was now possible to study the history of the Earth from
a scientific perspective without religious preconceptions.
With the application of scientific methods to the investigation
of the Earth's history, the study of geology could become a distinct
field of science. To begin with, the terminology and definition of
what constituted geological study had to be worked out. The term
"geology" was first used technically in publications by two
Genevan naturalists, Jean-Andr Deluc and Horace-Bndict de
Saussure, though "geology" was not well received as a term until it
was taken up in the very influential compendium, the
Encyclopdie, published beginning in 1751 by Denis Diderot. Once
the term was established to denote the study of the Earth and its
history, geology slowly became more generally recognized as a
distinct science that could be taught as a field of study at
educational institutions. In 1741 the best-known institution in the
field of natural history, the National Museum of Natural History in
France, created the first teaching position designated specifically
for geology. This was an important step in further promoting
knowledge of geology as a science and in recognizing the value of
widely disseminating such knowledge.
By the 1770s chemistry was starting to play a pivotal role in
the theoretical foundation of geology and two opposite theories
with committed followers emerged. These contrasting theories
offered differing explanations of how the rock layers of the Earths
surface had formed. One suggested that a liquid inundation,
perhaps like the biblical deluge, had created all geological strata.
The theory extended chemical theories that had been developing
since the seventeenth century and was promoted by Scotland's John
Walker, Sweden's Johan Gottschalk Wallerius and Germany's
Abraham Werner. Of these names, Werner's views become
internationally influential around 1800. He argued that the Earths
Gene Shoemaker took the study of the Moon away from Lunar
astronomers and gave it to Lunar geologists.
In recent years, geology has continued its tradition as the
study of the character and origin of the Earth, its surface features
and internal structure. What changed in the later 20th century is the
perspective of geological study. Geology was now studied using a
more integrative approach, considering the Earth in a broader
context encompassing the atmosphere, biosphere and hydrosphere.
Satellites located in space that take wide scope photographs of the
Earth provide such a perspective. In 1972, The Landsat Program, a
series of satellite missions jointly managed by NASA and the U.S.
Geological Survey, began supplying satellite images that can be
geologically analyzed. These images can be used to map major
geological units, recognize and correlate rock types for vast regions
and track the movements of Plate Tectonics. A few applications of
this data include the ability to produce geologically detailed maps,
locate sources of natural energy and predict possible natural
disasters caused by plate shifts.
beneath the other back into the mantle, the layer underneath the
crust. The cold, sinking plate pulls the crust behind it downward.
Many spectacular volcanoes are found along subduction
zones, such as the "Ring of Fire" that surrounds the Pacific Ocean.
Plate boundaries
Subduction zones, or convergent margins, are one of the three
types of plate boundaries. The others are divergent and transform
margins.At a divergent margin, two plates are spreading apart, as at
seafloor-spreading ridges or continental rift zones such as the East
Africa Rift.
Transform
margins
mark
slip-sliding
plates,
such
as
outcrop or within a borehole (Van Wagoner et al. 1990). A foursystems-tract subdivision of depositional sequences is now
commonly employed (Hunt & Tucker 1992, 1995). Overlying the
sequence boundary is the lowstand systems tract, characterized by
inferred rising relative sea-level and shoreline regression (the latter
continuous from the preceding systems tract). The transgressive
systems tract comprises strata whose depositional environments
migrate overall in a landward direction (i.e. are transgressive) and
whose component stratal surfaces onlap pre-existing deposits; the
base is defined by the transgressive surface and relative sea-level at
the shoreline is also inferred to have been rising. The transgressive
systems tract is terminated at its top at the maximum flooding
surface, above which strata of the highstand systems tract shift
basinward again, with successive stratal surfaces terminating in
progressively more distal locations, forming a geometrical pattern
known as downlap (note the general similarities with the lowstand
systems tract). The final, forced regressive systems tract is
represented by an arrangement of strata whose shoreline positions
migrated progressively downwards as well as basinwards and so is
produced during falling relative sea-level and regression (the
surface defining the base had been termed the basal surface of
forced regression).
2. Rock Classification
Image 2.1
Rock Cycle
Source:
washington.ed
u
their clast or grain size. The smallest grains are called clay, then
silt, then sand. Grains larger that 2 millimeters are called pebbles.
Shale is a rock made mostly of clay, siltstone is made up of siltsized grains, sandstone is made of sand-sized clasts, and
conglomerate is made of pebbles surrounded by a matrix of sand or
mud.
2.1.2. Biologic Sedimentary Rock
Biologic sedimentary rocks form when large numbers of
living things die, pile up, and are compressed and cemented to form
rock. Accumulated carbon-rich plant material may form coal.
Deposits made mostly of animal shells may form limestone,
coquina, or chert.
2.1.3. Chemical Sedimentary Rock
Chemical sedimentary rocks are formed by chemical
precipitation. The stalactites and stalagmites you see in caves form
this way, so does the rock salt that table salt comes from. This
process begins when water traveling through rock dissolves some
of the minerals, carrying them away from their source. Eventually
these minerals can be redeposited, or precipitated, when the water
evaporates away or when the water becomes over- saturated with
minerals.
700 types of igneous rocks have been described, most of them having
formed beneath the surface of Earth's crust. There are two basic types of
igneous rocks:
2.2.1. Intrusive Igneous Rocks
Image2.2 Formation of igneous rocks
minerals
(Quartz,
Alkali-Feldspar,
Plagioclase,
and
Image 2.3
Classification of
Igneous Rocks
(Streckeisen,
1978)
Contact
grained,
compact,
non-foliated
products
of
contact
of
mica
(both
muscovite
and
biotite)
is
often
Regional
metamorphism,
also
known
as
dynamic
rocks will split most readily, and the freshly split specimens will
appear to be faced or coated with this mineral; for example, a piece
of mica schist looked at facewise might be supposed to consist
entirely of shining scales of mica. On the edge of the specimens,
however, the white folia of granular quartz will be visible. In
gneisses these alternating folia are sometimes thicker and less
regular than in schists, but most importantly less micaceous; they
may be lenticular, dying out rapidly. Gneisses also, as a rule,
contain more feldspar than schists do, and are tougher and less
fissile. Contortion or crumbling of the foliation is by no means
uncommon; splitting faces are undulose or puckered. Schistosity
and gneissic banding (the two main types of foliation) are formed
by directed pressure at elevated temperature, and to interstitial
movement, or internal flow arranging the mineral particles while
they are crystallizing in that directed pressure field.
Rocks that were originally sedimentary and rocks that were
undoubtedly igneous may be metamorphosed into schists and
gneisses. If originally of similar composition they may be very
difficult to distinguish from one another if the metamorphism has
been great. A quartz-porphyry, for example, and a fine feldspathic
sandstone, may both be metamorphosed into a grey or pink micaschist.
2.3.2. Types of Metamorphic Rocks
There are two basic types of metamorphic rocks:
2.3.2.1. Foliated Metamorphic Rocks
Foliation forms when pressure squeezes the flat or elongate
minerals within a rock so they become aligned. These rocks
develop a platy or sheet-like structure that reflects the direction that
3.1.Superposition
Image 3.1 Illustration of
Superposition Law
In a rock sequence, rock layer that located above the others is older than
the rock layer beneath it, as long as there was no deformation that occurs
in that rocks
This was stated by a bishop and Catholic scientist, Nicolas Steno in 1669.
3.2.Horizontality
Image 3.2 Illustration of
Horizontality Principal
3.3.Original Continuity
Image 3.3 Illustration of
Original Continuity Principal
3.4.Uniformitarianism
The Present is the key to the past.
This was stated by a Scottish geologist, physician, chemical manufacturer,
naturalist, and experimental agriculturalist, James Hutton, in 1785.
Uniformitarianism is geological event that happens in the past was
controlled by natures law that control recent event. This principal means
that the geological processes that happens recently, can be used as the
basic for knowing the past geological processes.
3.5.Catasthrophism
Catastrophism is the theory that the Earth has been affected in the
past by sudden, short-lived, violent events, possibly worldwide in scope.
This was in contrast to uniformitarianism (sometimes described as
gradualism), in which slow incremental changes, such as erosion, created
all the Earth's geological features. Uniformitarianism held that the
present is the key to the past, and that all things continued as they were
from the indefinite past. Since the early disputes, a more inclusive and
integrated view of geologic events has developed, in which the scientific
consensus accepts that there were some catastrophic events in the
geologic past, but these were explicable as extreme examples of natural
processes which can occur.
Catastrophism held that geological epochs had ended with violent
and sudden natural catastrophes such as great floods and the rapid
formation of major mountain chains. Plants and animals living in the
parts of the world where such events occurred were killed off, being
replaced abruptly by the new forms whose fossils defined the geological
strata. Some catastrophists attempted to relate at least one such change to
the Biblical account of Noah's flood.
The concept was first popularised by the early 19th-century French
scientist Georges Cuvier, who proposed that new life forms had moved in
from other areas after local floods, and avoided religious or metaphysical
speculation in his scientific writings
3.6.Faunal Succession
Image 3.4 Illustration of Faunal
Succession Principal
3.8.Cross-Cutting Relationships
could
biostratigraphy),
be
lithology
so
there
or
are
fossil
(paleontology
lithostratigraphy
and
unit,
sequence, stratal
Tectonic subsidence
Sediment supply
These 3 factors controlled the relative sealevel changes and
downlapping)
Stacking retrogradation which provide stacking direction (to
The term unconformity later develop into various types, such as:
disconformity, angular unconformity, non-conformity and so on. In
sequence stratigraphy, misalignment is one of stratal disconformity,
where fluctuations of realtive sea level is an important element. Here
is emphasized the existence of non-conformity vertically in layering
or stratal discontinuity. In this case stratal discontinuity implies the
existence of hiatus or a time which is not recorded long enough.
Forms of stratal discontinuity it is able forms:
Surface eroded
Forms of non-erosion surface in the form stratal discontinuity is
through
the
surface
without
any
significant
sequence
called
sequence,
which
limits
the
unit
(formation,
member,
group),
and
References
Haryanto, Iyan. 2003. Geologi Struktur. Jurusan Teknik Geologi, Universitas
Padjadjaran. Tidak diterbitkan
Sapiie, Benyamin, Agus H. Harlosumakso. 2012. Prinsip Dasar Geologi Struktur.
Laboratorium Geologi Dinamik. ITB Bandung
Komisi Sandi Stratigrafi, 1996. Sandi Stratigrafi Indonesia. Ikatan Ahli Geologi
Indonesia, Bandung.
Fleuty, M.J., 1964, The description of folds: Geological Association Proceedings,
v. 75, p. 461-492
Anonim.
Igneous
Rocks.
Diperoleh
26
November
2015,
dari
2015,
dari
2015,
dari
http://geology.com/rocks/igneous-rocks.shtml
Anonim.
Sedimentary
Rocks.
Diperoleh
24
November
http://geology.com/rocks/sedimentary-rocks.shtml
Anonim.
Metamorphic
Rocks.
Diperoleh
26
November
http://geology.com/rocks/metamorphic-rocks.shtml