Blast wave - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

A blast wave in fluid dynamics is the pressure and flow resulting from the deposition of a large amount of energy in a small very
localised volume. The flow field can be approximated as a lead shock wave, followed by a 'self-similar' subsonic flow field. In simpler
terms, a blast wave is an area of pressure expanding supersonically outward from an explosive core. It has a leading shock front of
compressed gases. The blast wave is followed by a blast wind of negative pressure, which sucks items back in towards the center. The
blast wave is harmful especially when one is very close to the center or at a location of constructive interference. High explosives,
which detonate, generate blast waves.

1 Sources of Blast Waves

2 History
3 Characteristics and properties of blast waves
3.1 Mach Stem Formation
3.2 Constructive and destructive interference
4 How blast waves cause damage
5 Applications
5.1 Bombs
5.2 Effects of blast loads on buildings
5.3 Astronomy
5.4 Research
6 References
7 External links

High-order explosives (HE) are more powerful than low-order explosives (LE). HE detonate to produce a defining supersonic
over-pressurization shock wave. Several sources of HE include Trinitrotoluene, C-4, Semtex, nitroglycerin, and ammonium nitrate fuel
oil (ANFO). LE deflagrate to create a subsonic explosion and lack HEs over-pressurization wave. Sources of LE include pipe bombs,
gunpowder, and most pure petroleum-based incendiary bombs such as Molotov cocktails or aircraft improvised as guided missiles. HE
and LE induce different injury patterns. Only HE produce true blast waves.

The classic flow solutionthe so-called "similarity solution"was independently devised by John von Neumann[1] [2] and British
mathematician Geoffrey Ingram Taylor[3][4] during World War II. After the war, the similarity solution was published by three other
authorsL. I. Sedov,[5] R. Latter,[6] and J. Lockwood-Taylor[7]who had discovered it independently.[8]
Since the early theoretical work more than 50 years ago, both theoretical and experimental studies of blast waves have been ongoing.
[9][10]

The simplest form of a blast wave has been described and termed the Friedlander waveform.[11] It occurs when a high explosive
detonates in a free field, that is, with no surfaces nearby with which it can interact. Blast waves have properties predicted by the physics
of waves. For example they can diffract through a narrow opening, and refract as they pass through materials. Like light or sound
waves, when a blast wave reaches a boundary between two materials, part of it is transmitted, part of it is absorbed, and part of it is
reflected. The impedances of the two materials determine how much of each occurs.
The equation for a Friedlander waveform describes the pressure of the blast wave as a function of time:

where Ps is the peak pressure and t* is the time at which the pressure first crosses the horizontal axis (before the negative phase).
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Blast waves will wrap around objects and buildings.[12] Therefore, persons or objects
behind a large building are not necessarily protected from a blast that starts on the
opposite side of the building. Scientists use sophisticated mathematical models to
predict how objects will respond to a blast in order to design effective barriers and
safer buildings.[13]

Mach Stem Formation

Mach stem formation occurs when a
blast wave reflects off the ground and
the reflection catches up with the
original shock front, therefore creating a
high pressure zone that extends from the
A Friedlander waveform is the simplest form of a
ground up to a certain point called the
blast wave.
triple point at the edge of the blast
wave. Anything in this area experiences
peak pressures that can be several times higher than the peak pressure of the original shock
front.

Constructive and destructive interference

In physics, interference is the meeting of two
correlated waves and either increasing or
lowering the net amplitude, depending on
whether it is constructive or destructive
interference. If a crest of a wave meets a crest
A blast wave reflecting from a surface and
of another wave at the same point then the
forming a mach stem.
crests interfere constructively and the resultant
crest wave amplitude is increased; forming a
much more powerful wave than either of the beginning waves. Similarly two troughs make a
trough of increased amplitude. If a crest of a wave meets a trough of another wave then
they interfere destructively, and the overall amplitude is decreased; thus making a wave that
is much smaller than either of the parent waves.

An example of constructive interference.

The formation of a mach stem is one example of constructive interference. Whenever a

blast wave reflects off of a surface, such as a building wall or the inside of a vehicle,
different reflected waves can interact with each other to cause an increase in pressure at a
certain point (constructive interference) or a decrease (destructive interference). In this way
the interaction of blast waves is similar to that of sound waves or water waves.

Blast waves cause damage by a combination of the significant compression of the air in front of the wave (forming a shock front) and
the subsequent wind that follows.[14] A blast wave travels faster than the speed of sound and the passage of the shock wave usually only
lasts a few milliseconds. Like other types of explosions, a blast wave can also cause damage to things and people by the blast wind,
debris, and fires. The original explosion will send out fragments that travel very fast. Debris and sometimes even people can get swept
up into a blast wave, causing more injuries such as penetrating wounds, impalement, broken bones, or even death. The blast wind is the
area of low pressure that causes debris and fragments to actually rush back towards the original explosions. The blast wave can also
cause fires or even secondary explosions by a combination of the high temperatures that result from detonation and the physical
destruction of fuel-containing objects.

Bombs
In response to an inquiry from the British MAUD Committee, G. I. Taylor estimated the amount of energy that would be released by the
explosion of an atomic bomb in air. He postulated that for an idealized point source of energy, the spatial distributions of the flow
variables would have the same form during a given time interval, the variables differing only in scale. (Thus the name of the "similarity
solution.") This hypothesis allowed the partial differential equations in terms of r (the radius of the blast wave) and t (time) to be

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transformed into an ordinary differential equation in terms of the similarity variable

where
is the density of the air and is the energy that's released by the explosion.[15][16][17] This result allowed G. I. Taylor to
estimate the yield of the first atomic explosion in New Mexico in 1945 using only photographs of the blast, which had been published in
newspapers and magazines.[8] The yield of the explosion was determined by using the equation:

where is a dimensionless constant that is a function of the ratio of the specific heat of air at constant pressure to the specific heat of
air at constant volume. The value of C is also affected by radiative losses, but for air, values of C of 1.00-1.10 generally give reasonable
results. In 1950, G. I. Taylor published two articles in which he revealed the yield E of the first atomic explosion,[3][4] which had
previously been classified and whose publication therefore caused a great to-do.
While nuclear explosions are among the clearest examples of the destructive power of blast waves, blast waves generated by exploding
conventional bombs and other weapons made from high explosives have been used as weapons of war due to their effectiveness at
creating polytraumatic injury. During World War II and the U.S.s involvement in the Vietnam War, blast lung was a common and often
deadly injury. Improvements in vehicular and personal protective equipment have helped to reduce the incidence of blast lung.
However, as soldiers are better protected from penetrating injury and surviving previously lethal exposures, limb injuries, eye and ear
injuries, and traumatic brain injuries have become more prevalent.

Effects of blast loads on buildings

Structural behaviour during an explosion depends entirely on the materials used in the construction of the building. Upon hitting the face
of a building, the shock front from an explosion is instantly reflected. This impact with the structure imparts momentum to exterior
components of the building. The associated kinetic energy of the moving components must be absorbed or dissipated in order for them
to survive. Generally, this is achieved by converting the kinetic energy of the moving component to strain energy in resisting elements.
[18]

Typically the resisting elements, such as windows, building facades and support columns fail, causing partial damage through to
progressive collapse of the building.

Astronomy
The so-called Sedov-Taylor solution has become useful in astrophysics. For example, it can be applied to quantify an estimate for the
outcome from supernova-explosions. The Sedov-Taylor expansion is also known as the 'Blast Wave' phase, which is an adiabatic
expansion phase in the life cycle of supernova. The temperature of the material in a supernova shell decreases with time, but the internal
energy of the material is always 72% of E0, the initial energy released. This is helpful for astrophysicists interested in predicting the
behavior of supernova remnants.
The radius R of the blast wave is given as,

where,
E0 is the initial energy,
t is the age
n is the surrounding medium density
The shock temperature is also given as,
[19]

Research
Blast waves are generated in research environments using explosive or compressed-gas driven shock tubes in an effort to replicate the
environment of a military conflict to better understand the physics of blasts and injuries that may result, and to develop better protection
against blast exposure.[20] Blast waves are directed against structures (such as vehicles),[21] materials, and biological specimens[22] or
surrogates. High-speed pressure sensors and/or high speed cameras are often used to quantify the response to blast exposure.
Anthropomorphic test devices (ATDs or test dummies) initially developed for the automotive industry are being used, sometimes with
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added instrumentation, to estimate the human response to blast events. For examples, personnel in vehicles and personnel on demining
teams have been simulated using these ATDs.[23]
Combined with experiments, complex mathematical models have been made of the interaction of blast waves with inanimate and
biological structures.[24] Validated models are useful for what if experiments predictions of outcomes for different scenarios.
Depending on the system being modeled, it can be difficult to have accurate input parameters (for example, the material properties of a
rate-sensitive material at blast rates of loading). Lack of experimental validation severely limits the usefulness of any numerical model.

1. Neumann, John von, "The point source solution," John von

Neumann. Collected Works, edited by A. J. Taub, Vol. 6
[Elmsford, N.Y.: Permagon Press, 1963], pages 219 - 237.
2. Bethe,H.A., et al, BLAST WAVE, Los Alamos Report LA-2000,
Ch. 2, (1947). read online (http://www.fas.org/sgp/othergov
/doe/lanl/docs1/00320773.pdf)
3. Taylor, Sir Geoffrey Ingram (1950). "The Formation of a Blast
Wave by a Very Intense Explosion. I. Theoretical Discussion".
Proceedings of the Royal Society A 201 (1065): 159174.
Bibcode:1950RSPSA.201..159T (http://adsabs.harvard.edu
/abs/1950RSPSA.201..159T). doi:10.1098/rspa.1950.0049
(https://dx.doi.org/10.1098%2Frspa.1950.0049).
4. Taylor, Sir Geoffrey Ingram (1950). "The Formation of a Blast
Wave by a Very Intense Explosion. II. The Atomic Explosion of
1945" (http://rspa.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/201/1065
/175). Proceedings of the Royal Society A 201 (1065): 175186.
Bibcode:1950RSPSA.201..175T (http://adsabs.harvard.edu
/abs/1950RSPSA.201..175T). doi:10.1098/rspa.1950.0050
(https://dx.doi.org/10.1098%2Frspa.1950.0050).
5. Sedov, L. I., "Propagation of strong shock waves," Journal of
Applied Mathematics and Mechanics, Vol. 10, pages 241 - 250
(1946).
6. Latter, R., "Similarity solution for a spherical shock wave,"
Journal of Applied Physics, Vol. 26, pages 954 - 960 (1955).
7. Lockwood-Taylor, J., "An exact solution of the spherical blast
wave problem," Philosophical Magazine, Vol. 46, pages 317 320 (1955).
8. Batchelor, George, The Life and Legacy of G. I. Taylor,
[Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1996], pages
202 - 207.
9. Dewey JM. 53 years of blast wave research, a personal history.
21st International Symposium on Military and Blast, Israel, 2010
10. Rinehart EJ, et al. DTRA weapons effects testing: a thirty year
perspective. 21st International Symposium on Military and Blast,
Israel, 2010 read online (http://www.dtra.mil/dtru/documents
/V2_1/DTRA_Weapons_Effects_Testing.pdf)
11. Dewey JM. THE SHAPE OF THE BLAST WAVE: STUDIES OF
THE FRIEDLANDER EQUATION. Presented at the 21st
International Symposium on Military Aspects of Blast and Shock,
Israel 2010 read online (http://www.blastanalysis.com
/WordDocuments/MABS21/Dewey%20Presentation
%20%2323.ppt)

12. Remmenikov AM. Modelling blast loads on buildings in complex

city geometries. Computers and Structures, 2005, 83(27),
2197-2205. read online (http://ro.uow.edu.au
/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1359&context=engpapers&
sei-redir=1#search=%22Analysis%20blast%20loads%20buildings
.%22)
13. for example,Cullis IG. Blast waves and how they interact with
structures. J.R. Army Med Corps 147:16-26, 2001
14. Neff M. A visual model for blast waves and fracture. Master's
Thesis, University of Toronto, Canada, 1998
15. Discussion of similarity solutions, including G. I. Taylor's:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buckingham_Pi_theorem
16. Derivation of G. I. Taylor's similarity solution:
http://www.atmosp.physics.utoronto.ca/people/codoban/PHY138
/Mechanics/dimensional.pdf
17. Discussion of G. I. Taylor's research, including his similarity
solution: http://www.deas.harvard.edu/brenner/taylor/physic_today
/taylor.htm
18. Dusenberry, Donald. 'Handbook for Blast Resistant Design of
Buildings', 2010, pages 8-9.
19. Exploring the X-ray Universe, Philip A. Charles, Frederick D.
Seward
20. Rinehart, Dr. E. J., Henny, Dr. R. W., Thomsen, J. M., Duray, J. P.
DTRA Weapons Effects Testing: A Thirty Year Perspective.
Applied Research and Associates, Shock Physics Division
21. for example, Bauman, R. A., Ling, G., Tong, L., Januszkiewicz,
A., Agoston, D., Delanerolle, N., Kim, Y., Ritzel, D., Bell, R.,
Ecklund, J., Armonda, R., Bandak, F., Parks, S. An Introductory
Characterization of a Combat-Casualty-Care Relevant Swine
Model of Closed Head Injury Resulting from Exposure to
Explosive Blast. Journal of Neurotrauma, June 2009, Mary Ann
Liebert, Inc.
22. Cernak, I. The importance of systematic response in the
pathobiology of blast-induced Neurotrauma. Frontiers in
Neurology December, 2010.
23. Makris, A. Nerenberg, J., Dionne, J. P., Bass, C. R., Chichester.
Reduction of Blast Induced Head Acceleration in the Field of
Anti-Personnel Mine Clearance. Med-Eng Systems Inc.
24. for example, Stuhmiller JH. Mathematical Modeling in Support of
Military Operational Medicine Final Report J3150.01-06-306
prepared for the U.S. Army Medical Research and Materiel
Command Fort Detrick, Maryland 21702-5012 OMB No.
0704-0188, July, 2006.

"The formation of a blast wave by a very intense explosion" (http://www.deas.harvard.edu/brenner/taylor/handouts

/bomb/bomb.html) G. I. Taylor's solution
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Categories: Astrophysics Explosion protection Fluid dynamics

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