Geomorphology
Geomorphology
Geomorphology
Geomorphology is defined as
The science which deals with the study of the formation of earth.
The science of landforms with main focus on their evolution, origin, form, and
distribution across the physical landscape. Basically it is regarded as science contributing
towards the environmental management and natural resource.
Surface landform, processes and landscape evolution of the earth are included under
this study.
The role of Geomorphologist is increasing day by day with growing awareness towards
environmental problems.
The term "structure" in geomorphology includes the orientation of rock units and their
resistance to erosion. Now days, the study of geomorphology is divided into the study of
various geomorphologic processes. Most of these processes are considered to be
interconnected or linked and are easily measured and observed with modern technology.
Geomorphology is moving away from geography and is closer to geology.
Recent trends:
According to W.M. Davis Landform is the function of structure, process and time.
According to K.J. Gregory Landform is the function of process, geometrical and
Changes through time.
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surface materials. On occasion, these deposits can be compressed, altered by pressure, heat and
processes to become sedimentary rocks. This includes landforms with some of the following
geomorphic features: beaches, deltas, flood plains, and glacial moraines.
Endo genetic forces: The forces which act in interior of the earth are called as
Endogenetic forces. Sudden or slow movements are caused by such forces. E.g.:Earthquake, Building Mountains. Endogenetic factors are agents supplying energy for
actions that are located within the earth. Some scientists think that these forces are
caused by contraction of earth on cooling, change in the rotation of the earth or due to
the action of the radioactive elements. Endogenetic forces which causes two types of
movement in the earth viz.
Horizontal movement
Vertical movement
On the basis of intensity these forces are divided into two sub groups:-
i)
ii)
Diastrophic forces: These forces act very slowly and their effect becomes
discernable after thousands of years. Eg:-the coast of the Baltic Sea rises by 1.3
meters in a century. There is large number of places where the coast is either
risking or sinking.
Exogenetic forces: - The forces that produced and act on the surface of the earth is
called as exogenetic forces. It causes slow movements. Eg:- Erosional and Depositional.
Exogenic (or exogenetic) factors are agents supplying energy for actions that are located
at or near the earth's surface .Wind, water and snow are such forces which erode the
surface of the earth or make depositions on it. These external (exogenetic) forces are
also called processes. Exogenetic and endogenetic forces begin to act against one
another from the moment when uplift exposes a portion of the earths crust to
denudation. These forces are continuously engaged in the destruction of the relief
feature created by endogen tic forces through their weathering and erosion.
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Origin and Evolution of the Earth: The Earth is the third planet from the Sun. It
is the densest and fifth-largest of the eight planets in the Solar System. It is also the
largest of the Solar System's four terrestrial planets. It is sometimes referred to as
the world or the Blue Planet. Earth's lithosphere is divided into several rigid
segments, or tectonic plates, that migrate across the surface over periods of many
millions of years. Over 70% percent of Earth's surface is covered with water, with the
remainder consisting of continents and islands which together have many lakes and
other sources of water that contribute to the hydrosphere. Earth's poles are mostly
covered with ice that is the solid ice of the Antarctic ice sheet and the sea ice that is
the polar ice packs. The planet's interior remains active, with a solid iron inner core,
a liquid outer core that generates the magnetic field, and a thick layer of relatively
solid mantle.
Our Solar System:
Our solar system consists of the sun, 9 planets, 61 moons and a multitude of asteroids, comets
and meteoroids.
Earths crust differentiated (separated) from the underlying mantle on the basis of chemical
composition. During mantle differentiation, relatively light elements such as Si, O, Al, K, Na,
Ca, C, N, H, and He rose to the surface to form the crust, seawater and atmosphere. The
division of the Earth's crust into two distinct types has been long established:
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then the angular momentum of the initial nebula should be equal to the angular momentum of the
entire solar system. Although the suns mass accounts for 99.9% of the entire solar system, the
angular momentum of the sun is only 2% that of the solar system. Moreover, for a ring of such a
magnitude to separate from the nebula, the nebula should have contracted to the size of the
planet Mercury, which does not seem probable. Also, this theory fails to explain the revolution in
the opposite direction by some of the sub-planets of Saturn and Uranus. Finally, going by the
processes involved in this theory, more rings should have separated from the nebula and not just
one such ring. The theory does not explain this factor. Roche modified Laplaces theory by
arguing that a huge gaseous mass with low density could not have given rise to a huge, thick
ting. He proposes that many small rings would have separated from the nebula forming planets
and sub-planets.
4.CHAMBERLAIN-MOULTONS PLANETESIMALHYPOTHESIS (1904): According to
this theory, the planets have a biparental origin, i.e planets were born out of two nebulae. The
sun, with it very high temperatures, projects hot material called the prominences, thousands of
kilometers away from it. Another nebula, passing by the sun, attracted some of this projected
material through its gravitational pull, which now started revolving around it instead of around
the sun. The particles of this material got coalesced to from the planets. A lot of heat was
generated in the process. Partly out of the gas particles attracted from the material floating
around and partly acquired from the volcanic eruptions, the atmosphere around the earth was
formed. This theory sounds probable on account of the fact that the total mass of the planets is
about 1/700 of the solar system which points to the formation of the planets from the sun.
However, the theory fails to explain why, on collision, the particles grew in size instead of
turning into a gaseous form. The theory also fails to explain the low angular momentum of the
sun compared to that of the planets.
5. THE TIDAL HYPOTHESIS OF JEANS AND JEFFREYS
According to this theory, the sun was originally, a gaseous mass. A huge star came so close
to the sun that its gravitational pull created tides on the surface of the sun and a part of the
suns material got ejected. This material, so separated, began revolving around the sun and
acquired an inflated, cigar shape because of the bipolar force being exerted on it-from the sun
and the star. This force was in the form of the gravitational pull. The gaseous material in the
cigar-shaped mass-swollen in the middle and thinner towards the end-cooled down and got
condensed into solid spheres which became the planets in our solar system, the larger ones in
the middle and the smaller ones towards the ends. A similar process involving the
gravitational pull of the sun created sub-planets out of these planets. In this case too, the large
sub-planets occupy the middle positions. Although the peculiar arrangement of the planets
and the sub-plants in the solar system is in accordance with the tidal principle of Jeans and
Jefferys, apart from the fact that all the planets are made up of the same elements some
doubts remain. The low angular momentum of the sun, for instance, cannot produce the high
angular momentum of the planets. Secondly, the distance between stars in the universe is so
great that ejection of material from the sun does not seem probable. Thirdly, the ejected
material had a very high temperature- not conducive to the formation of such large planets.
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Lodestone was known to the Greeks (800 BC) and Chinese (300 BC)
First compass (200 BC) made by Chinese, but not clear why it worked
In 1830 Hans Christian Oersted showed that electric current flowing in a wire
could deflect a compass needle showed a new source of magnetic fields.
Andre-Marie Ampere (1775-1836) further showed that two wires carrying electric
current would exert a force on each other. This was quantified in Amperes Law.
Oersted and Ampere showed that magnetic fields generated by the motion of
electric charges (electric current). This linked electric current and magnetic fields.
Note that both a bar magnet and loop of wire give a dipole magnetic field pattern.
Earth's geomagnetic field: Since the ancient times, people have known that certain materials
would always point to a fixed direction. Ancient Chinese, based on this principle, invented
compass (known as Si-nan at the time). These materials behave in this way because they are
magnetized and the Earth is surrounded by a magnetic field. Whichever direction such
objects are turned to, they would always revert to the direction of the magnetic field, which is
known as the Earth's geomagnetic field.
The Earth's geomagnetic field cause: The Earth's geomagnetic field is a combination of
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several magnetic fields generated by various sources superimposing on each other. More than
90% of the field is generated by the movement of conducting material inside the Earth's core,
which is
often referred to as the Main Field. Other important sources of the geomagnetic field include
electric current flowing in the ionized upper atmosphere and currents flowing within the
earth's crust. There are also local anomalies produced by mountain ranges, ore deposits,
geological faults, and artificial products such as trains, aircraft, power lines etc
The application of geomagnetic knowledge:The discovery of geomagnetism and the invention of compass enabled seafaring and paved
the way for the Age of Exploration, causing tremendous impacts on trades, wars and cultural
exchanges. To date, compass is still a necessary tool for activities such as hiking, stargazing
as well as marine and air navigation.
Basics physics of magnetism:
Secular variation
Geo dynamo.
Geosynclines:
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3. Mio geosynclines consist of sequences of shallow marine sand stones and limestone
that thin towards the craton and thicken toward the ocean basin. These are formed
adjacent to the Kraton, where there is a thinner development of sediments which lack
volcanic rocks.
4. Taphrogeosyncline is geosynclines that were bounded by subsiding blocks. This is an
elongated depression, formed because of faulting. These are also known as 'graben'
or 'rift-valley'.
5. Parageosyncline is formed when sinking troughs that lie between the continents
and ocean basins. This is the geosynclines which lie within the Kraton
6. Zeugo -geosynclines is geosynclines that is adjoined by uplifted areas and is
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receiving clastic sediment. These are para geosynclines with marginal uplifts
7. Auto-geosynclines are limited to areas that are not adjoining highlands. They are not
the typical type of geosynclines tending to be circular or elliptical.
Continental drift:
Continental Drift: The process by which the continents drift about the world is called
plate tectonics. The movement of the Earth's plates, on which the continents ride, is very
slow, being only a few centimeters each year. However, over tens or hundreds of millions
of years, both the size and position of land areas can change appreciably.
Continental drift was the first attempt to explain why similar animal and plant fossils are
found on different continents. The theory was set forth in 1912 by Alfred Wegener and
published in a 1915 book. He wasn't the first person to suggest Earth's continents were
once connected in a giant land mass called a supercontinent, but he was the most reviled.
Continental drift is the movement of the Earth's continents relative to each other by
appearing to drift across the ocean bed. Continental drift is a large scale horizontal
movement of continents relative to one another and to the ocean basins during one or
more episode of geologic time. The speculation that continents might have 'drifted' was
first put forward by Abraham Ortelius in 1596. .This concept was an important precursor
to the development of the theory of plate tectonics which incorporates it. The first truly
detailed and comprehensive theory of continental drift was proposed in 1912 by Alfred
Wegener a German meteorologist. The idea of continental drift has been subsumed by
the theory of plate tectonics, which explains how the continents move.
According to the theory of continental drift, the world was made up of a single
continent through most of geologic time. That continent eventually separated and
drifted apart, forming into the seven continents we have today. The first comprehensive
theory of continental drift was suggested by the German meteorologist Alfred Wegener
in 1912. The hypothesis asserts that the continents consist of lighter rocks that rest on
heavier crustal materialsimilar to the manner in which icebergs float on water.
Wegener contended that the relative positions of the continents are not rigidly fixed but
are slowly movingat a rate of about one yard per century.
According to the generally accepted plate-tectonics theory, scientists believe that
Earth's surface is broken into a number of shifting slabs or plates, which average about
50 miles in thickness. These plates move relative to one another above a hotter, deeper,
more mobile zone at average rates as great as a few inches per year. Most of the world's
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active volcanoes are located along or near the boundaries between shifting plates and
are called plate-boundary volcanoes.
The continental crust (underlies the continents) makes up the continents and larger
islands. The continental crust is usually much thicker than the oceanic crust. The
contention crust is thickest where highest in mountain region sand usually thinnest
beneath coastal regions. The continental crust is made largely of granitic rocks with a
mineral or chemical composition similar to granite. The average rock density of
continental crust about 2.7g/cm3 and average thickness 35-40 Km.
The oceanic crust (underlies the ocean basins) makes up most of the crust beneath the
oceans. The oceanic crust is composed mostly of basaltic rocks similar in mineral or
chemical composition to basalt. The granite is less dense than the basalt; thus, the granitic
continental crust is less dense than the basaltic oceanic crust. The density of oceanic crust
is about 3.0 g/cm3 and average thickness 7-10Km.
The two are also distinguished by differences in composition and density. Many scientists
think Earth's inner and outer core is composed largely of iron and nickel. There is much
evidence to support this hypothesis, including the iron and nickel composition of many
meteorites and Earth's magnetism iron and nickel are two of a few magnetic elements. In
addition, a combination of iron and nickel at the temperatures and pressures believed to
be in Earth's core can account for the observed properties of the seismic waves that pass
through the core.The high-density iron-nickel composition of the core and the low-density
composition of the crust indicate that the mantle must have a composition different from
the crust and the core and an intermediate density.
Earth's crust is composed mostly of rocks and minerals, depicting minerals, sedimentary
rocks, metamorphic rocks, and igneous rocks. Generally, the crust is composed of lowdensity rocks with a mixture of granitic and basaltic compositions.
Earths Mantle: - The mantle is the solid rock layer between the crust and the core. It
is 82% of earths volume and 2885 km thick. Below 100-150 the rock is hot enough to
flow.
The core: The core is an iron rich sphere with a radius of 3,471 Km. There are two
components with differing seismic waves behavior.
The core is divided into two core:-
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Outer core: The core with Liquid iron nickel- sulfur , 2255 Km thick and density is
10-12 g/cm3
Inner core: It is solid iron-nickel alloy with radius of 1220 Km and density is 13g/cm3.
Isostasy: The term Isostasy is derived from Isostasios a work of Greek language meaning
the state of being in balance. It describes the state of equilibrium the state of equilibrium of
a lithosphere plate floating on the Asthenosphere. Isostasy is a term used in geology to refer
to the state of gravitational equilibrium between the earths lithosphere and asthenosphere
such that the tectonic plates float at an elevation which depends on their thickness. In the
simplest example, isostasy is the principle of buoyancy where an object immersed in liquid is
buoyed with force equal to the weight of the displaced liquid. : It is the principle based on
density contrasts within the crust of the earth. Less dense rock material (e.g. granitic
continental rocks) will tend to ride at higher elevation compared to more dense rock material
(e.g. basaltic oceanic rocks).The driving force of isostacy id gravity which is responsive to a
heterogeneous distribution of rock density . Isostatic equilibrium: Masses of crustal rock of a
given density will adjust themselves relative to the earths gravitational field, density and
loading. Isostacy intimately related to epeirogenic movements of the earths crust on a regional
scale.
Isostatic models:
Airy Theory -Crustal thickness block model
down into the asthenosphere depending upon the proportions of the column.
It is due to this reason that the root has developed or the sima has been
displaced from below. To prove this concept, Airy took an example of wooden blocks of various
sizes and immersed them into water (Figure 3.1). All blocks are of same
density. They get immersed differently in proportion to their sizes. In the
same way higher features with great height seen on the surface of the earth
have deeper roots whereas short in length has shorter roots beneath. It is the
concept of root which is sustaining the higher elevation. He is of the opinion
that the landmasses are floating like a boat in the substratum (magmatic
asthenosphere). According to this concept, the root beneath the Mt. Everest
would be 8848X8 = 70784 meter below the sea level. On this bases Airy has
been criticized that the root is not possible to be at such a great depth. Because
the root material will melt due to higher temperature found at that depth.
Prett Theory -Crustal density block model
Isostatic Balance: views of Pratt
Pratt considered land blocks of various heights to be different in terms of
their density. The taller landmass has lesser density and smaller height features to be denser. In
other words, there is an inverse relationship between height
and density. If there is a higher column, density will be lesser and if there is
a shorter column, density will be higher. Assuming this to be true, he accepted
that all blocks of different height get compensated at a certain depth into the
substratum. In this way a line is being demarcated above which there is equal
pressure with varying heights. Thus, he denounced the root concept of Airy
and accepted the concept of a level of compensation. For proving his concept
he took a number of metal bars of varying density with same weight and put
them into mercury (Figure 3.2). In this way they form a line by all those bars,
which he regarded to be the level of compensation.
Heiskanens Theory -Crust behave like a flexible sheet.
Isostatic effects of deposition and erosion
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Views of Pratt
1. Uniform density of crustal Varying density of crustal
Material.
2. Varying depth up to which Uniform depth up to which
root penetrates. Crustal material reaches.
3. Deeper root below the mountain No root formation, but and smaller beneath plain.
4. Level of Compensation.
Plate tectonics:
Plate: The Earths crust consists of a number of mobile plates, masses of crust that move
independently of adjacent plates.
Tectonics: dealing with structural features of the Earth (e.g., mountains, ocean basins.
Plate Tectonics: The process that involves the interaction of moving crustal plates and
results in major structural features of the Earth. A Plate tectonic is defined as a solid rock
mass that builds up the Earths surface. The Plate tectonic theory is the theory that
geologists use to help explain the surface processes and events. The word plate means large
pieces of the earth that are always in motion, lithosphere plates. Tectonic means how the
continents formed and move over time. It states that Earth is made up of two layers, the
lithosphere outer and the inner asthenosphere. The theory of plate tectonics (meaning
"plate structure") was developed in the 1960's. This theory explains the movement of the
Earth's plates (which has since been documented scientifically) and also explains the cause of
earthquakes, volcanoes, oceanic trenches, mountain range formation, and other geologic
phenomenon.
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A tectonic plate (also called lithosphere plate) is a massive, irregularly shaped slab of solid
rock, generally composed of both continental and oceanic lithosphere. Plate size can vary
greatly, from a few hundred to thousands of kilometers across; the Pacific and Antarctic
Plates are among the largest. Plate thickness also varies greatly, ranging from less than 15
km for young oceanic lithosphere to about 200 km or more for ancient continental
lithosphere (for example, the interior parts of North and South America).
The plates are moving at a speed that has been estimated at 1 to 10 cm per year. Most of the
Earth's seismic activity (volcanoes and earthquakes) occurs at the plate boundaries as they
interact. The top layers of the plates are called the crust. Oceanic crust (the crust under the
oceans) is thinner and denser than continental crust. Crust is constantly being created and
destroyed; oceanic crust is more active than continental crust.
Significance of Plate Tectonics:
Global climate by affecting
Ocean and atmospheric circulation
Degree of sentimentality
Rates of weathering related to uplift
Tidal range and wave energy reaching the cost.
Large scale trans aggressive and regressive phases
Glaciations by position continents at high attitudes.
Plate tectonics: It is a scientific theory that describes the large-scale motions of
Earth's lithosphere.
The lithosphere is broken up into tectonic plates. On Earth, there are seven or eight major
plates (depending on how they are defined) and many minor plates. Where plates meet,
their relative motion determines the type of boundary: convergent, divergent, or transform.
Earthquakes, volcanic activity, mountain-building, and oceanic trench formation occur along
these plate boundaries. The lateral relative movement of the plates typically varies from
zero to 100 mm annually.
At the boundaries of the plates, various deformations occur as the plates interact; they separate
from one another (seafloor spreading), collide (forming mountain ranges), slip past one another
(seduction zones, in which plates undergo destruction and re melting), and slip laterally.
Divergent Plate Movement: Seafloor Spreading
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Seafloor spreading is the movement of two oceanic plates away from each other, which results
in the formation of new oceanic crust (from magma that comes from within the Earth's mantle)
along a a mid-ocean ridge. Where the oceanic plates are moving away from each other is called
a zone of divergence. Ocean floor spreading was first suggested by Harry Hess and Robert Dietz
in the 1960's
Convergent Plate Movement:
When two plates collide, some crust is destroyed in the impact and the plates become
smaller. The results differ, depending upon what types of plates are involved.
Lateral Slipping Plate Movement:
When two plates move sideways against each other, there is a tremendous amount of friction
which makes the movement jerky. The plates slip, then stick as the friction and pressure builds
up to incredible levels. When the pressure is released suddenly, and the plates suddenly jerk
apart, this is an earthquake. Tectonic plates are able to move because the Earth's lithosphere has
a higher strength than the underlying asthenosphere.
Plate tectonics: The main features are:
The Earth's surface is made up of a series of large plates (like pieces of a giant jigsaw
puzzle).
These plates are in constant motion travelling at a few centimeters per year.
The ocean floors are continually moving, spreading from the centre and sinking at the
edges.
Convection currents beneath the plates move the plates in different directions. The
source of heat driving the convection currents is radioactive decay which is happening
deep in the Earth.
igneous intrusion and metamorphism are all parts of the orogenic process of mountain
building.
Vulcanicity: Vulcanicity is the process through which gases and molten rock are
either extruded on the earths surface or intruded into the earths crust. Magma is a
molten rock originating from the upper plastic layer of the mantle. When it gets to
the surface and loses its gases it is known as lava.
The Process whereby magma flows into the earths crust or onto the surface. When
magma reaches the surface, it is called lava. The type of landform that arises depends
on:
1.
2.
3.
Location where the magma cools: When magma enters lines of weakness such as faults in the
earths crust, it may cool underground to form intrusive landforms. When the magma (lava)
cools and solidifies on the surface, it forms extrusive landforms
Pyrocrasts are the ashes, cinders and small particles of magma during an explosive volcanic
eruption. Volcanism is the phenomenon of eruption of molten rock (magma) onto the surface
of the Earth or a solid-surface planet or moon, where lava, pyroclastics and volcanic gases erupt
through a break in the surface called a vent. It includes all phenomena resulting from and
causing magma within the crust or mantle of the body to rise through the crust and form
volcanic rocks on the surface.
Types of volcanoes:1. Active: This is a volcano that has erupted within the last 500 years and still shows signs
of activity.
2. Dormant: This is a volcano that has not erupted within the last 500 years but still shows
signs of activity such as hot springs. An example is Mt. Kilimanjaro.
3. Extinct: This is a volcano that has not erupted within the last 500 years and shows no
signs of activity. An example is Mt. Kenya.
Volcanism (or volcanic activity) is the eruption of magma onto the surface of the Earth. It is an
endogenetic process caused by the movement of plate tectonics. Magma under the crust is
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under very great pressure. When folding and faulting occur, cracks or fractures appear. These
are lines of weakness. When these lines of weakness develop downward in the crust and reach
the magma, they will release the pressure in the magma. This allows magma to rise up along
the lines of weakness and intrude into the crust. Some magma may even reach the Earth's
surface. Volcanism is the phenomenon of eruption of molten rock (magma) onto the surface of
the Earth or a solid-surface planet or moon, where lava, pyroclastics and volcanic gases erupt
through a break in the surface called a vent.[1] It includes all phenomena resulting from and
causing magma within the crust or mantle of the body to rise through the crust and form
volcanic rocks on the surface.
While dealing with Volcanoes we come across certain terms like vulcanicity or Volcanism. The
phenomenon of vulcanicity is associated both with periods of earth movement and also with the
main areas of crustal instability.
Materials emitted during an eruption are put into the following categories:
Gaseous materials.: Various gaseous compounds like those of sulphur, hydrogen, carbon dioxide
and carbon mono oxide are emitted during the course of an eruption, most of which are
dissipated directly into the atmosphere.
These gases present in the molten rock-material produce great heat through their inter-reactions
within the lava being poured out on the surface. It may be pointed out that gases are the main
driving force in volcanic eruptions. A large part of the steam is derived from ground-water which
percolates into volcanic vents or down to the heated rocks several hundred meters beneath the
earth's surface. In addition, sea water also contributes to the supply of steam to the volcanoes
located on the periphery of the ocean basins
Solid matter or pyroclasts.- When a volcanic eruption takes place with a series of explosions,
solid fragmental materials are ejected which are known as Pyroclasts. The ejected fragments vary
in size from gravel and sand down to fine silt size. These fragments are called tempera.
Magmatic material:- Remember that so long as the molten rock materials lie beneath the earth's
surface, they are known as magma, but after they escape on the earth's surface the term 'Lava' is
used for them. Depending on the percentage of silica present in the magma or lava, it is classified
as under: (a) Acidic magma, which has high percentage of silica (more than 70 percent), (b)
Basic lava, which has low percentage of silica (less than 50 percent). It may be pointed out that
the form of a volcanic cone is determined largely by the nature of lava. The type of lava also has
much influence on the nature of eruption.
Acid lavas or magmas have a high melting point and, therefore, they are very viscous. Such lavas
solidify rapidly, and so do not flow far. Lavas with high percentage of silica (felsic lava) build
high, steep-sided cones.
1. Earthquake and Tsunami:
An earthquake is a trembling movement of the earth's crust. These tremors are
generally caused by shifts of the plates that make up the earth's surface. The
movements cause vibrations to pass through and around the earth in wave form, just as
ripples are generated when a pebble is dropped into water. Volcanic eruptions, rock
falls, landslides, and explosions can also cause a quake.
A tsunami (pronounced soo-NAHM-ee) is a series of huge waves that occur as the result
of a violent underwater disturbance, such as an earthquake or volcanic eruption. They
are sometimes mistakenly referred to as tidal waves, but tsunamis have nothing to do
with the tides.
A tsunami earthquake is an earthquake is an earthquake that triggers a tsunami of a
magnitude that is very much larger than the magnitude of the earthquake. Tsunami is
generated when oceans floods shift vertically usually due to earthquake.
An earthquake is the shaking of the earth that occurs after pieces of the crust of the
Earth suddenly shift. The term earthquake describes the sudden slip on a fault and
includes the ground shaking and radiating seismic energy that is caused by the slip.
Volcanic activity, or other geologic processes, may cause stress changes in the earth that
can also result in an earthquake.
Earthquakes can occur anywhere in the world although some areas of the globe are
more likely to experience an earthquake than others. Earthquakes occur in all types of
weather, in all climate zones, in all seasons of the year, and at any time of day making it
impossible to predict with any certainty when an earthquake is likely to occur. The best
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Characteristics:
Tsunami earthquake is that releases of seismic energy occur at long periods relative
to typical tsunami genic earthquakes.
Tsunami earthquake is an undersea earthquake for which the surface wave
magnitude differs from the moment magnitude.
Rupture velocities for tsunami earthquakes are typically about 1.0 km per second.
Tsunami earthquake mainly occur at seductions zones.
Cause:
Tsunami earthquake such as the 1946 Aleutian Islands earthquakes shows that
the release of seismic moment take place at long period.
The observation of long period energy release is consistent with slow
rupture propagation velocities.
Most tsunami earthquake have been linked to rupture within the uppermost part
of seduction zone.
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Tsunamis, also called seismic sea waves or, incorrectly, tidal waves, generally are
caused by earthquakes, less commonly by submarine landslides, infrequently by
submarine volcanic eruptions and very rarely by a large meteorite impact in the ocean.
Submarine volcanic eruptions have the potential to produce truly awesome tsunami
waves. The Great Krakatau Volcanic Eruption of 1883 generated giant waves reaching
heights of 125 feet above sea-level, killing thousands of people and wiping out numerous
coastal villages.
Examples: The 2011 earthquake of the Pacific coast of tohoku earthquake also known as Great
Earthquake Disaster occurs on Friday, 11 March 2011. It was the most powerful known
earthquake to have hit Japan and one of the most powerful earthquakes in the world. In
addition to loss of life and destruction of infrastructure, the tsunami causes a number of
nuclear accidents. The Japanese National Police Agency has confirmed 15,538 deaths and 7,060
people missing.45, 700 buildings were destroyed and 144,300 were damaged by earthquake
and tsunami.
Geomorphic cycle: The geomorphic cycle was introduced by William Morris Davis as a
comprehensive model of the way in which natural landscapes develop at a regional scale.
Although initiated somewhat earlier, it emerged as a largely finished product in 1899 and
quickly became the dominant way in which landscapes were viewed academically for several
decades.
Structure was regional and considered as an initial condition (beyond the scope of his
model)
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Process was the sum of weathering and transport rather than specific processes or
mechanisms, although since his cycle was based on the assumption of a normal climate,
i.e. humid temperate, fluvial processes predominate
Time was the central theme, but time in the sense of landscape development relative to
the completion of the entire geographical cycle, i.e .,extent of landscape development
or stage
Landscape Development Concepts (German: 'Lands chaft sent wick lungs konzepte',
LEK) are an attempt to realize a creative space for socio-cultural and biological selforganization in the cultural landscape. As a new planning instrument, LEK represents
the implementation level of the Landscape Concept of Switzerland which was accepted
as the guidelines by the Upper House of Parliament in 1998.
Rates: Modern denudation estimates are usually based on stream load measurements
taken at gauging stations. The weight of the load is converted to volumetric units and
the load volume is divided by the area of the watershed above the gagging stations.
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Medical use: In medicines, denudation refers to the loss of surface layers such as the
epithelium.
Channel Morphology: Channel morphology is studied in plan form; cross sectional view and
through the longitudinal profile. The classical descriptions of channel plan form by Wolman and
Leopold(1957) include braided, meandering and straight. Gradual growth of the central bar
deflects the main current against the channel banks causing them to erode.
Channel Morphology Influences/Controls:
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Deposition: The process in which the flowing materials are left by the river and collected it in
the river's side and bed is called deposition. Deposition takes place in small velocity and low
gradient. This process causes the riverbed to be up and sometimes changing the course of river.
Surface erosion: Surface erosion are different forms of erosion that describe how a degrading
polymer erodes. In surface erosion, the polymer degrades from the exterior surface. The inside
of the material does not degrade until all the surrounding material around it has been
degraded.
Applied Geomorphology: The term applied geomorphology can be interpreted to mean the
techniques of geomorphology applied to real world problems that is things society cares
about. This class applies knowledge of geomorphology to problems in the built and coastal
environments.
Aims and objectives:
Introduce students to basic concepts of geomorphology, in terms of both
rock formation and weathering.
To introduce coastal landform morphology and the process of
landform development.
To practice techniques for recognition and analysis of landforms and process.
Learning outcomes:
An understanding of the basic principles of rock formation and weathering.
An ability to apply lecture based knowledge to our surrounding built development.
An ability to critically assess methods of conservation and evaluate ethical
issues involved.
An understanding of basic process of operating along the coast (e.g. waves,
tides, currents and sea level rise).
Geomorphology is the study of the surface of the earth its form, evolution and the
processes that sculpture it, so applied geomorphology can be defined as the application
of this knowledge in the resolution of engineering, planning and
environmental/resource management problems (Jones (1983) Quart. J. Engineering
Geol. & Hydro geol.
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Stresses
Gravity exerts a constant pull on all earth materials. Several other forces are at work on them:
flowing water, raindrop impact, wind or moving ice.
Strength
Weathered material would not slide down for the fact that it poses a certain strength.
First, all particles have rough surfaces, which results in friction between touching particles.
Secondly, the shape of the particles may cause them to interlock rather as the pieces of a jigsaw
puzzle interlock.
Finally, the clay particles of the weathered material attract each other by electric forces which
produce cohesion between particles.
slope instability, therefore, is caused by increase in stress or decrease in strength of the slopeforming materials.
Economic geology: It is concerned with earth materials that can be used for economic and
industrial purposes. These materials include precious and base metals, non-metallic minerals,
construction-grade stone, petroleum minerals, coal and water. The technique employed by
other earth science disciplines used to understand, describe and exploit an ore deposit.
Mineral resources
Ore geology
Coal and petroleum
Criticism
Economic geology is concerned with earth materials that can be used for economic and/or
industrial purposes. These materials include precious and base metals, nonmetallic minerals,
construction-grade stone, petroleum minerals, coal, and water. The term commonly refers to
metallic mineral deposits and mineral resources. The techniques employed by other earth
science disciplines (such as geochemistry, mineralogy, geophysics, petrology and structural
geology) might all be used to understand, describe, and exploit an ore deposit.
Environmental geology:
It is like hydrogeology is an applied science concerned with the practical application of the
principles of geology in the solving of environmental problems. In other words, Environmental
geology is the application of geological information to solve conflicts from the use of natural
and modified environment.
Environmental geology includes:
Managing geological and hydro geological resources such as fossil
fuels, minerals, water and land use.
Studying the earths surface
Defining and mitigating exposure of natural hazards on humans
Managing industrial and domestic waste disposal and minimizing or
eliminating effects of pollution.
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