Steven B. Achelis - Technical Analysis From A To Z

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Technical Analysis from A to Z

Preface
Acknowledgments
by Steven B. Achelis
Terminology
To Learn More
PART ONE: Introduction to Technical Analysis This online edition of Technical Analysis from A to Zis
PART TWO: Reference reproduced here with permission from the author and
Bibliography publisher.
About the Author
Formula Primer To navigate through the book, use the tree-style navigation to
the left, or you may use the links below:
User Groups
Educational Products ● Preface

● Acknowledgments
Training Partners
● Terminology
● To Learn More
● PART ONE: Introduction to Technical Analysis
Related Link: ● PART TWO: Reference
Traders Library Investment Bookstore ● Bibliography
● About the Author
Copyright ©2003 Equis International. All rights reserved.

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Preface
Acknowledgments
Terminology
To Learn More
PART ONE: Introduction to Technical Analysis
PART TWO: Reference
PREFACE
Bibliography
About the Author Over the last decade I have met many of the top technical
analysis "gurus" as well as shared experiences with thousands
Formula Primer
of newcomers. The common element I've discovered among
User Groups investors who use technical analysis, regardless of their
expertise, is the desire to learn more.
Educational Products
Training Partners No single book, nor any collection of books, can provide a
complete explanation of technical analysis. Not only is the field
too massive, covering every thing from Federal Reserve
reports to Fibonacci Arcs, but it is also evolving so quickly that
Related Link: anything written today becomes incomplete (but not obsolete)
Traders Library Investment Bookstore tomorrow.
Armed with the above knowledge and well aware of the myriad
of technical analysis books that are already available, I feel
there is a genuine need for a concise book on technical
analysis that serves the needs of both the novice and veteran
investor. That is what I have strived to create.
The first half of this book is for the newcomer. It is an

introduction to technical analysis that presents basic concepts
and terminology. The second half is a reference that is
designed for anyone using technical analysis. It contains
concise explanations of numerous technical analysis tools in a
reference format.
When my father began using technical analysis thirty years

ago, many people considered technical analysis just another
1960's adventure into the occult. Today, technical analysis is
accepted as a viable analytical approach by most universities
and brokerage firms. Rarely are large investments made
without reviewing the technical climate. Yet even with its
acceptance, the number of people who actually perform
technical analysis remains relatively small. It is my hope that
this book will increase the awareness and use of technical
analysis, and in turn, improve the results of those who practice
it.
"Information is pretty thin stuff, unless mixed with experience."

-Clarence Day, 1920
● Back to Previous Section



Preface
Acknowledgments
Terminology
To Learn More
PART TWO: Reference
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Bibliography
About the Author The truth that no man is an island certainly holds true here.
This book would not be possible without the help of thousands
Formula Primer
of analysts who have studied the markets and shared their
User Groups results. To those from whom I have compiled this information,
thank you.
Training Partners There are two people who have helped so much that I want to
mention them by name. Without John Slauson's editorial and
research assistance, this book would not have been published
until the next century; And Denise, my wife, who has been an
Related Link: active participant in my work for more than a dozen years.
Traders Library Investment Bookstore



Preface
Acknowledgments
Terminology
To Learn More
PART TWO: Reference
TERMINOLOGY
Bibliography
About the Author For brevity, I use the term "security" when referring to any
tradable financial instrument. This includes stocks, bonds,
Formula Primer
commodities, futures, indices, mutual funds, options, etc. While
User Groups I may imply a specific investment product (for example, I may
say "shares" which implies an equity) these investment
Educational Products concepts will work with any publicly traded financial instrument
Training Partners in which an open market exists.
Similarly, I intermix the terms "investing" and "trading."

Typically, an investor takes a long-term position while a trader
Related Link: takes a much shorter-term position. In either case, the basic
Traders Library Investment Bookstore concepts and techniques presented in this book are equally
adept.
"Words are like money; there is nothing so useless, unless

when in actual use."
- Samuel Butler, 1902



Preface
Acknowledgments
Terminology
To Learn More
PART TWO: Reference
TO LEARN MORE...
Bibliography
About the Author Investors share a common desire--they want to learn more. If
you'd like to receive a list of additional learning material
Formula Primer
(technical analysis books, software, and videos), please call
User Groups my office at 800-882-3034.
Training Partners
Related Link:


Technical Analysis from A to

Preface
Acknowledgments
Terminology
To Learn More
Z
PART ONE: Introduction to Technical Analysis by Steven B. Achelis
Technical Analysis
Price Fields
Charts PART ONE: INTRODUCTION TO
Support & Resistance
Trends TECHNICAL ANALYSIS
Moving Averages
Indicators This introduction was written for investors who are new to
Market Indicators technical analysis. It presents the basic concepts and
Line Studies
terminology in a concise manner. If you are familiar with
Periodicity
technical analysis, you will probably find the Reference the
The Time Element
Conclusion
appropriate starting point.
PART TWO: Reference
Bibliography ● Technical Analysis
About the Author ● Price Fields
Formula Primer ● Charts
● Support & Resistance
User Groups ● Trends
Educational Products ● Moving Averages
● Indicators
Training Partners
● Market Indicators
● Line Studies
● Periodicity
Related Link: ● The Time Element
Traders Library Investment Bookstore ● Conclusion



Preface
Acknowledgments
Terminology
To Learn More
Technical Analysis
TECHNICAL ANALYSIS
Price Fields
Charts Technical analysis
Trends
Should I buy today? What will prices be tomorrow, next week,
Moving Averages
Indicators
or next year? Wouldn't investing be easy if we knew the
Market Indicators answers to these seemingly simple questions? Alas, if you are
Line Studies reading this book in the hope that technical analysis has the
Periodicity answers to these questions, I'm afraid I have to disappoint you
The Time Element early--it doesn't. However, if you are reading this book with the
Conclusion hope that technical analysis will improve your investing, I have
PART TWO: Reference good news--it will!
Bibliography
About the Author
Some history
Formula Primer
The term "technical analysis" is a complicated sounding name
User Groups
for a very basic approach to investing. Simply put, technical
Educational Products analysis is the study of prices, with charts being the primary
tool.
Training Partners
The roots of modern-day technical analysis stem from the Dow
Theory, developed around 1900 by Charles Dow. Stemming
Related Link: either directly or indirectly from the Dow Theory, these roots
include such principles as the trending nature of prices, prices
Traders Library Investment Bookstore discounting all known information, confirmation and
divergence, volume mirroring changes in price, and
support/resistance. And of course, the widely followed Dow
Jones Industrial Average is a direct offspring of the Dow
Theory.
Charles Dow's contribution to modern-day technical analysis

cannot be understated. His focus on the basics of security
price movement gave rise to a completely new method of
analyzing the markets.
The human element

The price of a security represents a consensus. It is the price
at which one person agrees to buy and another agrees to sell.
The price at which an investor is willing to buy or sell depends
primarily on his expectations. If he expects the security's price
to rise, he will buy it; if the investor expects the price to fall, he
will sell it. These simple statements are the cause of a major
challenge in forecasting security prices, because they refer to
human expectations. As we all know firsthand, humans are not
easily quantifiable nor predictable. This fact alone will keep any
mechanical trading system from working consistently.
Because humans are involved, I am sure that much of the

world's investment decisions are based on irrelevant criteria.
Our relationships with our family, our neighbors, our employer,
the traffic, our income, and our previous success and failures,
all influence our confidence, expectations, and decisions.
Security prices are determined by money managers and home

managers, students and strikers, doctors and dog catchers,
lawyers and landscapers, and the wealthy and the wanting.
This breadth of market participants guarantees an element of
unpredictability and excitement.
Fundamental analysis
If we were all totally logical and could separate our emotions

from our investment decisions, then, fundamental analysis the
determination of price based on future earnings, would work
magnificently. And since we would all have the same
completely logical expectations, prices would only change
when quarterly reports or relevant news was released.
Investors would seek "overlooked" fundamental data in an
effort to find undervalued securities.
The hotly debated "efficient market theory" states that security

prices represent everything that is known about the security at
a given moment. This theory concludes that it is impossible to
forecast prices, since prices already reflect everything that is
currently known about the security.
The future can be found in the past
If prices are based on investor expectations, then knowing

what a security should sell for (i.e., fundamental analysis)
becomes less important than knowing what other investors
expect it to sell for. That's not to say that knowing what a
security should sell for isn't important--it is. But there is usually
a fairly strong consensus of a stock's future earnings that the
average investor cannot disprove.
"I believe the future is only the past again, entered through
another gate."
- Sir Arthur Wing Pinero, 1893
Technical analysis is the process of analyzing a security's

historical prices in an effort to determine probable future prices.
This is done by comparing current price action (i.e., current
expectations) with comparable historical price action to predict
a reasonable outcome. The devout technician might define this
process as the fact that history repeats itself while others
would suffice to say that we should learn from the past.
The roulette wheel
In my experience, only a minority of technicians can

consistently and accurately determine future prices. However,
even if you are unable to accurately forecast prices, technical
analysis can be used to consistently reduce your risks and
improve your profits.
The best analogy I can find on how technical analysis can

improve your investing is a roulette wheel. I use this analogy
with reservation, as gamblers have very little control when
compared to investors (although considering the actions of
many investors, gambling may be a very appropriate analogy).
"There are two times in a man's life when he should not

speculate: when he can't afford it, and when he can."
- Mark Twain, 1897
A casino makes money on a roulette wheel, not by knowing

what number will come up next, but by slightly improving their
odds with the addition of a "0" and "00."
Similarly, when an investor purchases a security, he doesn't

know that its price will rise. But if he buys a stock when it is in a
rising trend, after a minor sell off, and when interest rates are
falling, he will have improved his odds of making a profit. That's
not gambling--it's intelligence. Yet many investors buy
securities without attempting to control the odds.
Contrary to popular belief, you do not need to know what a

security's price will be in the future to make money. Your goal
should simply be to improve the odds of making profitable
trades. Even if your analysis is as simple as determining the
long-, intermediate-, and short-term trends of the security, you
will have gained an edge that you would not have without
technical analysis.
Consider the chart of Merck in Figure 1 where the trend is

obviously down and there is no sign of a reversal. While the
company may have great earnings prospects and
fundamentals, it just doesn't make sense to buy the security
until there is some technical evidence in the price that this
trend is changing.
Figure 1
Automated trading
If we accept the fact that human emotions and expectations

play a role in security pricing, we should also admit that our
emotions play a role in our decision making. Many investors try
to remove their emotions from their investing by using
computers to make decisions for them. The concept of a
"HAL," the intelligent computer in the movie 2001, is appealing.
Mechanical trading systems can help us remove our emotions

from our decisions. Computer testing is also useful to
determine what has happened historically under various
conditions and to help us optimize our trading techniques. Yet
since we are analyzing a less than logical subject (human
emotions and expectations), we must be careful that our
mechanical systems don't mislead us into thinking that we are
analyzing a logical entity.
That is not to say that computers aren't wonderful technical

analysis tools--they are indispensable. In my totally biased
opinion, technical analysis software has done more to level the
playing field for the average investor than any other non-
regulatory event. But as a provider of technical analysis tools, I
caution you not to let the software lull you into believing
markets are as logical and predictable as the computer you
use to analyze them.



Preface
Acknowledgments
Terminology
To Learn More
Technical Analysis
PRICE FIELDS
Price Fields
Charts Price Fields
Trends
Technical analysis is based almost entirely on the analysis of
Moving Averages
Indicators
price and volume. The fields which define a security's price and
Market Indicators volume are explained below.
Line Studies
Periodicity Open- This is the price of the first trade for the period (e.g., the
The Time Element first trade of the day). When analyzing daily data, the Open is
Conclusion especially important as it is the consensus price after all
PART TWO: Reference interested parties were able to "sleep on it."
Bibliography
About the Author
High- This is the highest price that the security traded during
Formula Primer the period. It is the point at which there were more sellers than
buyers (i.e., there are always sellers willing to sell at higher
User Groups
prices, but the High represents the highest price buyers were
Educational Products willing to pay).
Training Partners Low- This is the lowest price that the security traded during the
period. It is the point at which there were more buyers than
sellers (i.e., there are always buyers willing to buy at lower
prices, but the Low represents the lowest price sellers were
Related Link:
willing to accept).
Close- This is the last price that the security traded during the
period. Due to its availability, the Close is the most often used
price for analysis. The relationship between the Open (the first
price) and the Close (the last price) are considered significant
by most technicians. This relationship is emphasized in
candlestick charts.
Volume- This is the number of shares (or contracts) that were

traded during the period. The relationship between prices and
volume (e.g., increasing prices accompanied with increasing
volume) is important.
Open Interest- This is the total number of outstanding

contracts (i.e., those that have not been exercised, closed, or
expired) of a future or option. Open interest is often used as an
indicator.
Bid- This is the price a market maker is willing to pay for a

security (i.e., the price you will receive if you sell).
Ask- This is the price a market maker is willing to accept (i.e.,

the price you will pay to buy the security).
These simple fields are used to create literally hundreds of

technical tools that study price relationships, trends, patterns,
etc.
Not all of these price fields are available for all security types,
and many quote providers publish only a subset of these.
Table 1 shows the typical fields that are reported for several
security types.
Table 1
Mutual
Futures Stocks Options
Funds
Open Yes No Often Yes
High Yes Closed end Yes Yes
Low Yes Closed end Yes Yes
Close Yes Yes (*NAV) Yes Yes
Volume Yes Closed end Yes Yes
Open
Yes N/A N/A Often
Interest
Bid Intraday Closed end Intraday Intraday
Ask Intraday Closed end Intraday Intraday
* Net Asset Value



Preface
Acknowledgments
Terminology
To Learn More
Technical Analysis
CHARTS
Price Fields
Charts Charts
Trends
The foundation of technical analysis is the chart. In this case, a
Moving Averages
Indicators
picture truly is worth a thousand words.
Market Indicators
Line Studies Line charts
Periodicity
The Time Element A line chart is the simplest type of chart. As shown in the chart
Conclusion
of General Motors in Figure 2, the single line represents the
PART TWO: Reference
Bibliography
security's closing price on each day. Dates are displayed along
About the Author the bottom of the chart and prices are displayed on the side(s).
Formula Primer Figure 2

User Groups
Training Partners
Related Link:
A line chart's strength comes from its simplicity. It provides an

uncluttered, easy to understand view of a security's price. Line
charts are typically displayed using a security's closing prices.
Bar charts
A bar chart displays a security's open (if available), high, low,
and closing prices. Bar charts are the most popular type of
security chart.
As illustrated in the bar chart in Figure 3, the top of each

vertical bar represents the highest price that the security traded
during the period, and the bottom of the bar represents the
lowest price that it traded. A closing "tick" is displayed on the
right side of the bar to designate the last price that the security
traded. If opening prices are available, they are signified by a
tick on the left side of the bar.
Figure 3
Volume bar chart
Volume is usually displayed as a bar graph at the bottom of the

chart (see Figure 4). Most analysts only monitor the relative
level of volume and as such, a volume scale is often not
displayed.
Figure 4
Figure 4 displays "zero-based" volume. This means the bottom
of each volume bar represents the value of zero. However,
most analysts prefer to see volume that is "relative adjusted"
rather than zero-based. This is done by subtracting the lowest
volume that occurred during the period displayed from all of the
volume bars. Relative adjusted volume bars make it easier to
see trends in volume by ignoring the minimum daily volume.
Figure 5
Figure 5 displays the same volume information as in the

previous chart, but this volume is relative adjusted.
Other chart types
Security prices can also be displayed using other types of

charts, such as candlestick, Equivolume, point & figure, etc.
For brevity's sake, explanations of these charting methods
appear only in Part II.



Preface
Acknowledgments
Terminology
To Learn More
Technical Analysis
SUPPORT & RESISTANCE
Price Fields
Charts Support and Resistance
Trends
Think of security prices as the result of a head-to-head battle
Moving Averages
Indicators
between a bull (the buyer) and a bear (the seller). The bulls
Market Indicators push prices higher and the bears push prices lower. The
Line Studies direction prices actually move reveals who is winning the
Periodicity battle.
The Time Element
Conclusion Using this analogy, consider the price action of Phillip Morris in
PART TWO: Reference Figure 6. During the period shown, note how each time prices
Bibliography
fell to the $45.50 level, the bulls (i.e., the buyers) took control
About the Author
and prevented prices from falling further. That means that at
Formula Primer the price of $45.50, buyers felt that investing in Phillip Morris
was worthwhile (and sellers were not willing to sell for less than
User Groups $45.50). This type of price action is referred to as support,
Educational Products because buyers are supporting the price of $45.50.
Training Partners Figure 6
Related Link:
Similar to support, a "resistance" level is the point at which

sellers take control of prices and prevent them from rising
higher. Consider Figure 7. Note how each time prices neared
the level of $51.50, sellers outnumbered buyers and prevented
the price from rising.
Figure 7
The price at which a trade takes place is the price at which a

bull and bear agree to do business. It represents the
consensus of their expectations. The bulls think prices will
move higher and the bears think prices will move lower.
Support levels indicate the price where the majority of

investors believe that prices will move higher, and resistance
levels indicate the price at which a majority of investors feel
prices will move lower.
But investor expectations change with time! For a long time

investors did not expect the Dow Industrials to rise above
1,000 (as shown by the heavy resistance at 1,000 in Figure 8).
Yet only a few years later, investors were willing to trade with
the Dow near 2,500.
Figure 8
When investor expectations change, they often do so abruptly.
Note how when prices rose above the resistance level of
Hasbro Inc. in Figure 9, they did so decisively. Note too, that
the breakout above the resistance level was accompanied with
a significant increase in volume.
Figure 9
Once investors accepted that Hasbro could trade above

$20.00, more investors were willing to buy it at higher levels
(causing both prices and volume to increase). Similarly, sellers
who would previously have sold when prices approached
$20.00 also began to expect prices to move higher and were
no longer willing to sell.
The development of support and resistance levels is probably

the most noticeable and reoccurring event on price charts. The
penetration of support/resistance levels can be triggered by
fundamental changes that are above or below investor
expectations (e.g., changes in earnings, management,
competition, etc) or by self-fulfilling prophecy ( investors buy as
they see prices rise). The cause is not as significant as the
effect--new expectations lead to new price levels.
Figure 10 shows a breakout caused by fundamental factors.

The breakout occurred when Snapple released a higher than
expected earnings report. How do we know it was higher than
expectations? By the resulting change in prices following the
report!
Figure 10
Other support/resistance levels are more emotional. For

example, the DJIA had a tough time changing investor
expectations when it neared 3,000 (see Figure 11).
Figure 11
Supply and demand
There is nothing mysterious about support and resistance--it is

classic supply and demand. Remembering "Econ 101" class,
supply/demand lines show what the supply and demand will be
at a given price.
The "supply" line shows the quantity (i.e., the number of

shares) that sellers are willing to supply at a given price. When
prices increase, the quantity of sellers also increases as more
investors are willing to sell at these higher prices.
The "demand" line shows the number of shares that buyers are
willing to buy at a given price. When prices increase, the
quantity of buyers decreases as fewer investors are willing to
buy at higher prices.
At any given price, a supply/demand chart (see Figure 12)

shows how many buyers and sellers there are. For example,
the following chart shows that, at the price of 42-1/2, there will
be 10 buyers and 25 sellers.
Figure 12
Support occurs at the price where the supply line touches the
left side of the chart (e.g., 27-1/2 on the above chart). Prices
can't fall below this amount, because no sellers are willing to
sell at these prices. Resistance occurs at the price where the
demand line touches the left side of the chart (e.g., 47-1/2).
Prices can't rise above this amount, because there are no
buyers willing to buy at these prices.
In a free market these lines are continually changing. As

investor expectations change, so do the prices buyers and
sellers feel are acceptable. A breakout above a resistance
level is evidence of an upward shift in the demand line as more
buyers become willing to buy at higher prices. Similarly, the
failure of a support level shows that the supply line has shifted
downward./p>
The foundation of most technical analysis tools is rooted in the
concept of supply and demand. Charts of security prices give
us a superb view of these forces in action.
Traders' remorse
Following the penetration of a support/resistance level, it is

common for traders to question the new price levels. For
example, after a breakout above a resistance level, buyers and
sellers may both question the validity of the new price and may
decide to sell. This creates a phenomena I refer to as "traders'
remorse" where prices return to a support/resistance level
following a price breakout.
Consider the breakout of Phillip Morris in Figure 13. Note how

the breakout was followed by a correction in the price where
prices returned to the resistance level.
Figure 13
The price action following this remorseful period is crucial. One

of two things can happen. Either the consensus of
expectations will be that the new price is not warranted, in
which case prices will move back to their previous level; or
investors will accept the new price, in which case prices will
continue to move in the direction of the penetration.
If, following traders' remorse, the consensus of expectations is

that a new higher price is not warranted, a classic "bull trap" (or
"false breakout") is created. As shown in the Figure 14, prices
penetrated the resistance level at $67.50 (luring in a herd of
bulls who expected prices to move higher), and then prices
dropped back to below the resistance level leaving the bulls
holding overpriced stock.
Figure 14
Similar sentiment creates a bear trap. Prices drop below a
support level long enough to get the bears to sell (or sell short)
and then bounce back above the support level leaving the
bears out of the market (see Figure 15).
Figure 15
The other thing that can happen following traders' remorse is

that investors expectations may change causing the new price
to be accepted. In this case, prices will continue to move in the
direction of the penetration (i.e., up if a resistance level was
penetrated or down if a support level was penetrated). [See
Figure 16.]
Figure 16
A good way to quantify expectations following a breakout is
with the volume associated with the price breakout. If prices
break through the support/resistance level with a large
increase in volume and the traders' remorse period is on
relatively low volume, it implies that the new expectations will
rule (a minority of investors are remorseful). Conversely, if the
breakout is on moderate volume and the "remorseful" period is
on increased volume, it implies that very few investor
expectations have changed and a return to the original
expectations (i.e., original prices) is warranted.
Resistance becomes support
When a resistance level is successfully penetrated, that level

becomes a support level. Similarly, when a support level is
successfully penetrated, that level becomes a resistance level.
An example of resistance changing to support is shown in

Figure 17. When prices broke above the resistance level of
$45.00, the level of $45.00 became the new support level.
This is because a new "generation" of bulls who didn't buy

when prices were less than $45 (they didn't have bullish
expectations then) are now anxious to buy anytime prices
return near the $45 level.
Figure 17
Similarly, when prices drop below a support level, that level
often becomes a resistance level that prices have a difficult
time penetrating. When prices approach the previous support
level, investors seek to limit their losses by selling (see Figure
18).
Review
I kept discussions of price action, investor expectations, and

support/ resistance as concise as possible. However, from my
experience working with investors, I am thoroughly convinced
that most investors could significantly improve their
performance if they would pay more attention to the underlying
causes effecting security prices: investor expectations and
supply/demand.
The following is a very brief review of the support/resistance

concepts discussed in this section.
Figure 18
1. A security's price represents the fair market value as
agreed between buyers (bulls) and sellers (bears).
2. Changes in price are the result of changes in investor

expectations of the security's future price.
3. Support levels occur when the consensus is that the

price will not move lower. It is the point where buyers
outnumber sellers.
4. Resistance levels occur when the consensus is that the

price will not move higher. It is the point where sellers
outnumber buyers.
5. The penetration of a support or resistance level indicates

a change in investor expectations and a shift in the
supply/demand lines.
6. Volume is useful in determining how strong the change

of expectations really is.
7. Traders' remorse often follows the penetration of a

support or resistance level as prices retreat to the
penetrated level.



Preface
Acknowledgments
Terminology
To Learn More
Technical Analysis
TRENDS
Price Fields
Charts Trends
Trends
In the preceding section, we saw how support and resistance
Moving Averages
Indicators
levels can be penetrated by a change in investor expectations
Market Indicators (which results in shifts of the supply/demand lines). This type
Line Studies of a change is often abrupt and "news based."
Periodicity
The Time Element In this section, we'll review "trends." A trend represents a
Conclusion consistent change in prices (i.e., a change in investor
PART TWO: Reference expectations). Trends differ from support/resistance levels in
Bibliography
that trends represent change, whereas support/resistance
About the Author
levels represent barriers to change.
Formula Primer
As shown in Figure 19, a rising trend is defined by
User Groups successively higher low-prices. A rising trend can be thought of
Educational Products as a rising support level--the bulls are in control and are
pushing prices higher.
Training Partners
Figure 19
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Figure 20 shows a falling trend. A falling trend is defined by

successively lower high-prices. A falling trend can be thought
of as a falling resistance level--the bears are in control and are
pushing prices lower.
Figure 20
Just as prices penetrate support and resistance levels when

expectations change, prices can penetrate rising and falling
trendlines. Figure 21 shows the penetration of Merck's falling
trendline as investors no longer expected lower prices.
Note in Figure 21 how volume increased when the trendline

was penetrated. This is an important confirmation that the
previous trend is no longer intact.
Figure 21
As with support and resistance levels, it is common to have

traders' remorse following the penetration of a trendline. This is
illustrated in Figure 22.
Figure 22
Again, volume is the key to determining the significance of the

penetration of a trend. In the above example, volume
increased when the trend was penetrated, and was weak as
the bulls tried to move prices back above the trendline.



Preface
Acknowledgments
Terminology
To Learn More
Technical Analysis
MOVING AVERAGES
Price Fields
Charts Moving Averages
Trends
Moving averages are one of the oldest and most popular
Moving Averages
Indicators
technical analysis tools. This chapter describes the basic
Market Indicators calculation and interpretation of moving averages. Full details
Line Studies on moving averages are provided in Part Two.
Periodicity
The Time Element A moving average is the average price of a security at a given
Conclusion time. When calculating a moving average, you specify the time
PART TWO: Reference span to calculate the average price (e.g., 25 days).
Bibliography
About the Author
A "simple" moving average is calculated by adding the
Formula Primer security's prices for the most recent "n" time periods and then
dividing by "n." For example, adding the closing prices of a
User Groups security for most recent 25 days and then dividing by 25. The
Educational Products result is the security's average price over the last 25 days. This
calculation is done for each period in the chart.
Training Partners
Note that a moving average cannot be calculated until you
have "n" time periods of data. For example, you cannot display
a 25-day moving average until the 25th day in a chart.
Related Link:
Traders Library Investment Bookstore Figure 23 shows a 25-day simple moving average of the
closing price of Caterpillar.
Figure 23
Since the moving average in this chart is the average price of
the security over the last 25 days, it represents the consensus
of investor expectations over the last 25 days. If the security's
price is above its moving average, it means that investor's
current expectations (i.e., the current price) are higher than
their average expectations over the last 25 days, and that
investors are becoming increasingly bullish on the security.
Conversely, if today's price is below its moving average, it
shows that current expectations are below average
expectations over the last 25 days.
The classic interpretation of a moving average is to use it to

observe changes in prices. Investors typically buy when a
security's price rises above its moving average and sell when
the price falls below its moving average.
Time periods in moving averages
"Buy" arrows were drawn on the chart in Figure 24 when

Aflac's price rose above its 200-day moving average; "sell"
arrows were drawn when Aflac's price fell below its 200-day
moving average. (To simplify the chart, I did not label the brief
periods where Aflac crossed its moving average for only a few
days.)
Figure 24
Long-term trends are often isolated using a 200-day moving
average. You can also use computer software to automatically
determine the optimum number of time periods. Ignoring
commissions, higher profits are usually found using shorter
moving averages.
Merits
The merit of this type of moving average system (i.e., buying

and selling when prices penetrate their moving average) is that
you will always be on the "right" side of the market--prices
cannot rise very much without the price rising above its
average price. The disadvantage is that you will always buy
and sell late. If the trend doesn't last for a significant period of
time, typically twice the length of the moving average, you'll
lose money. This is illustrated in Figure 25.
Figure 25
Traders' remorse
Moving averages often demonstrate traders' remorse. As
shown in Figure 26, it is very common for a security to
penetrate its long-term moving average, and then return to its
average before continuing on its way.
Figure 26
You can also use moving averages to smooth erratic data. The
charts in Figure 27 show the 13 year history of the number of
stocks making new highs (upper chart) and a 10-week moving
average of this value (lower chart). Note how the moving
average makes it easier to view the true trend of the data.
Figure 27



Preface
Acknowledgments
Terminology
To Learn More
Technical Analysis
INDICATORS
Price Fields
Charts Indicators
Trends
An indicator is a mathematical calculation that can be applied
Moving Averages
Indicators
to a security's price and/or volume fields. The result is a value
Market Indicators that is used to anticipate future changes in prices.
Line Studies
Periodicity A moving average fits this definition of an indicator: it is a
The Time Element calculation that can be performed on a security's price to yield
Conclusion a value that can be used to anticipate future changes in prices.
PART TWO: Reference
Bibliography
The following chapters (see page ) contain numerous
About the Author
examples of indicators. I'll briefly review one simple indicator
Formula Primer here, the Moving Average Convergence Divergence (MACD).
User Groups
MACD
The MACD is calculated by subtracting a 26-day moving
Training Partners
average of a security's price from a 12-day moving average of
its price. The result is an indicator that oscillates above and
below zero.
Related Link:
When the MACD is above zero, it means the 12-day moving
average is higher than the 26-day moving average. This is
bullish as it shows that current expectations (i.e., the 12-day
moving average) are more bullish than previous expectations
(i.e., the 26-day average). This implies a bullish, or upward,
shift in the supply/demand lines. When the MACD falls below
zero, it means that the 12-day moving average is less than the
26-day moving average, implying a bearish shift in the
Figure 28 shows Autozone and its MACD. I labeled the chart

as "Bullish" when the MACD was above zero and "Bearish"
when it was below zero. I also displayed the 12- and 26-day
moving averages on the price chart.
Figure 28
A 9-day moving average of the MACD (not of the security's

price) is usually plotted on top of the MACD indicator. This line
is referred to as the "signal" line. The signal line anticipates the
convergence of the two moving averages (i.e., the movement
of the MACD toward the zero line).
The chart in Figure 29 shows the MACD (the solid line) and its
signal line (the dotted line). "Buy" arrows were drawn when the
MACD rose above its signal line; "sell" arrows were drawn
when the MACD fell below its signal line.
Figure 29
Let's consider the rational behind this technique. The MACD is

the difference between two moving averages of price. When
the shorter-term moving average rises above the longer-term
moving average (i.e., the MACD rises above zero), it means
that investor expectations are becoming more bullish (i.e.,
there has been an upward shift in the supply/demand lines). By
plotting a 9-day moving average of the MACD, we can see the
changing of expectations (i.e., the shifting of the
supply/demand lines) as they occur.
Leading versus lagging indicators
Moving averages and the MACD are examples of trend

following, or "lagging," indicators. [See Figure 30.] These
indicators are superb when prices move in relatively long
trends. They don't warn you of upcoming changes in prices,
they simply tell you what prices are doing (i.e., rising or falling)
so that you can invest accordingly. Trend following indicators
have you buy and sell late and, in exchange for missing the
early opportunities, they greatly reduce your risk by keeping
you on the right side of the market.
Figure 30
As shown in Figure 31, trend following indicators do not work

well in sideways markets.
Figure 31
Another class of indicators are "leading" indicators. These
indicators help you profit by predicting what prices will do next.
Leading indicators provide greater rewards at the expense of
increased risk. They perform best in sideways, "trading"
markets.
Leading indicators typically work by measuring how

"overbought" or "oversold" a security is. This is done with the
assumption that a security that is "oversold" will bounce back.
[See Figure 32.]
Figure 32
What type of indicators you use, leading or lagging, is a matter

of personal preference. It has been my experience that most
investors (including me) are better at following trends than
predicting them. Thus, I personally prefer trend following
indicators. However, I have met many successful investors
who prefer leading indicators.
Trending prices versus trading prices

There have been several trading systems and indicators
developed that determine if prices are trending or trading. The
approach is that you should use lagging indicators during
trending markets and leading indicators during trading markets.
While it is relatively easy to determine if prices are trending or
trading, it is extremely difficult to know if prices will trend or
trade in the future. [See Figure 33.]
Figure 33
Divergences
A divergence occurs when the trend of a security's price

doesn't agree with the trend of an indicator. Many of the
examples in subsequent chapters demonstrate divergences.
The chart in Figure 34 shows a divergence between Whirlpool

and its 14-day CCI (Commodity Channel Index). [See page .]
Whirlpool's prices were making new highs while the CCI was
failing to make new highs. When divergences occur, prices
usually change direction to confirm the trend of the indicator as
shown in Figure 34. This occurs because indicators are better
at gauging price trends than the prices themselves.
Figure 34



Preface
Acknowledgments
Terminology
To Learn More
Technical Analysis
MARKET INDICATORS
Price Fields
Charts Market Indicators
Trends
All of the technical analysis tools discussed up to this point
Moving Averages
Indicators
were calculated using a security's price (e.g., high, low, close,
Market Indicators volume, etc). There is another group of technical analysis tools
Line Studies designed to help you gauge changes in all securities within a
Periodicity specific market. These indicators are usually referred to as
The Time Element "market indicators," because they gauge an entire market, not
Conclusion just an individual security. Market indicators typically analyze
PART TWO: Reference the stock market, although they can be used for other markets
Bibliography (e.g., futures).
About the Author
Formula Primer While the data fields available for an individual security are
limited to its open, high, low, close, volume (see page ), and
User Groups sparse financial reports, there are numerous data items
Educational Products available for the overall stock market. For example, the number
of stocks that made new highs for the day, the number of
Training Partners stocks that increased in price, the volume associated with the
stocks that increased in price, etc. Market indicators cannot be
calculated for an individual security because the required data
is not available.
Related Link:
Traders Library Investment Bookstore Market indicators add significant depth to technical analysis,
because they contain much more information than price and
volume. A typical approach is to use market indicators to
determine where the overall market is headed and then use
price/volume indicators to determine when to buy or sell an
individual security. The analogy being "all boats rise in a rising
tide," it is therefore much less risky to own stocks when the
stock market is rising.
Categories of market indicators
Market indicators typically fall into three categories: monetary,

sentiment, and momentum.
Monetary indicators concentrate on economic data such as
interest rates. They help you determine the economic
environment in which businesses operate. These external
forces directly affect a business' profitability and share price.
Examples of monetary indicators are interest rates, the money

supply, consumer and corporate debt, and inflation. Due to the
vast quantity of monetary indicators, I only discuss a few of the
basic monetary indicators in this book.
Sentiment indicators focus on investor expectations--often

before those expectations are discernible in prices. With an
individual security, the price is often the only measure of
investor sentiment available. However, for a large market such
as the New York Stock Exchange, many more sentiment
indicators are available. These include the number of odd lot
sales (i.e., what are the smallest investors doing?), the put/call
ratio (i.e., how many people are buying puts versus calls?), the
premium on stock index futures, the ratio of bullish versus
bearish investment advisors, etc.
"Contrarian" investors use sentiment indicators to determine

what the majority of investors expect prices to do; they then do
the opposite. The rational being, if everybody agrees that
prices will rise, then there probably aren't enough investors left
to push prices much higher. This concept is well proven--
almost everyone is bullish at market tops (when they should be
selling) and bearish at market bottoms (when they should be
buying).
The third category of market indicators, momentum, show what

prices are actually doing, but do so by looking deeper than
price. Examples of momentum indicators include all of the
price/volume indicators applied to the various market indices
(e.g., the MACD of the Dow Industrials), the number of stocks
that made new highs versus the number of stocks making new
lows, the relationship between the number of stocks that
advanced in price versus the number that declined, the
comparison of the volume associated with increased price with
the volume associated with decreased price, etc.
Given the above three groups of market indicators, we have

insight into:
1. The external monetary conditions affecting security

prices. This tells us what security prices should do.
2. The sentiment of various sectors of the investment

community. This tells us what investors expect prices to
do.
3. The current momentum of the market. This tells us what
prices are actually doing.
Figure 35 shows the Prime Rate along with a 50-week moving

average. "Buy" arrows were drawn when the Prime Rate
crossed below its moving average (interest rates were falling)
and "sell" arrows were drawn when the Prime Rate crossed
above its moving average (interest rates were rising). This
chart illustrates the intense relationship between stock prices
and interest rates.
Figure 35
Figure 36 shows a 10-day moving average of the Put/Call

Ratio (a sentiment indicator). I labeled the chart with "buy"
arrows each time the moving average rose above 85.0. This is
the level where investors were extremely bearish and expected
prices to decline. You can see that each time investors
became extremely bearish, prices actually rose.
Figure 36
Figure 37 shows a 50-week moving average (a momentum
indicator) of the S&P 500. "Buy" arrows were drawn when the
S&P rose above its 50-week moving average; "sell" arrows
were drawn when the S&P fell below its moving average. You
can see how this momentum indicator caught every major
market move.
Figure 37
Figure 38 merges the preceding monetary and momentum

charts. The chart is labeled "Bullish" when the Prime Rate was
below its 50-week moving average (meaning that interest rates
were falling) and when the S&P was above its 50-week moving
average.
Figure 38
The chart in Figure 38 is a good example of the roulette

metaphor. You don't need to know exactly where prices will be
in the future--you simply need to improve your odds. At any
given time during the period shown in this chart, I couldn't have
told you where the market would be six months later. However,
by knowing that the odds favor a rise in stock prices when
interest rates are falling and when the S&P is above its 50-
week moving average, and by limiting long positions (i.e.,
buying) to periods when both of these indicators are bullish,
you could dramatically reduce your risks and increase your
chances of making a profit.



Preface
Acknowledgments
Terminology
To Learn More
Technical Analysis
LINE STUDIES
Price Fields
Charts Line Studies
Trends
Line studies are technical analysis tools that consist of lines
Moving Averages
Indicators
drawn on top of a security's price and/or indicator. These
Market Indicators include the support, resistance, and trendline concepts already
Line Studies discussed.
Periodicity
The Time Element Figure 39 illustrates several line studies. These and numerous
Conclusion additional studies are explained in later chapters.
PART TWO: Reference
Bibliography
About the Author
Figure 39
Formula Primer
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Preface
Acknowledgments
Terminology
To Learn More
Technical Analysis
PERIODICITY
Price Fields
Charts Periodicity
Trends
Regardless of the "periodicity" of the data in your charts (i.e.,
Moving Averages
Indicators
hourly, daily, weekly, monthly, etc), the basic principles of
Market Indicators technical analysis endure. Consider the following charts of a
Line Studies Swiss Franc contract shown in Figures 40, 41, and 42.
Periodicity
The Time Element Figure 40
Conclusion
PART TWO: Reference
Bibliography
About the Author
Formula Primer
User Groups
Training Partners
Related Link:
Figure 41
Figure 42
Typically, the shorter the periodicity, the more difficult it is to

predict and profit from changes in prices. The difficulty
associated with shorter periodicities is compounded by the fact
that you have less time to make your decisions.
"While we stop and think, we often miss our opportunity."

- Publilius Syrus, 1st century B.C.
Opportunities exist in any time frame. But I have rarely met a

successful short-term trader who wasn't also successful a long-
term investor. And I have met many investors who get caught
by the grass-is-greener syndrome believing that shorter-and-
shorter time periods is the secret to making money--it isn't.



Preface
Acknowledgments
Terminology
To Learn More
Technical Analysis
THE TIME ELEMENT
Price Fields
Charts The Time Element
Trends
The discussion that began on page explained the open, high,
Moving Averages
Indicators
low, and closing price fields. This section presents the time
Market Indicators element.
Line Studies
Periodicity Much of technical analysis focuses on changes in prices over
The Time Element time. Consider the effect of time in the following charts, each of
Conclusion which show a security's price increase from $25 to around $45.
PART TWO: Reference
Bibliography
Figure 43 shows that Merck's price increased consistently over
About the Author
a 12-month time period. This chart shows that investors
Formula Primer continually reaffirmed the security's upward movement.
User Groups
Figure 43
Training Partners
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As shown in Figure 44, Disney's price also moved from around

$25 to $45, but it did so in two significant moves. This shows
that on two occasions investors believed the security's price
would move higher. But following the first bidding war, a period
of time had to pass before investors accepted the new prices
and were ready to move them higher.
Figure 44
The pause after the rapid increase in Disney's price is a typical

phenomena. People have a difficult time accepting new prices
suddenly, but will accept them over time. What once looked
expensive may one day look cheap as expectations evolve.
This is an interesting aspect of point and figure charts,

because point and figure charts totally disregard the passage
of time and only display changes in price.
A Sample Approach
There are many technical analysis tools in this book. The most
difficult part of technical analysis may be deciding which tools
to use! Here is an approach you might try.
1. Determine the overall market condition.

If you are trading equity-based securities (e.g., stocks),
determine the trend in interest rates, the trend of the
New York Stock Exchange, and of investor sentiment
(e.g., read the newspaper). The object is to determine
the overall trend of the market.
2. Pick the securities.

I suggest that you pick the securities using either a
company or industry you are familiar with, or the
recommendation of a trusted analyst (either fundamental
or technical).
3. Determine the overall trend of the security.

Plot a 200-day (or 39-week) moving average of the
security's closing price. The best buying opportunities
occur when the security has just risen above this long-
term moving average.
4. Pick your entry points.

Buy and sell using your favorite indicator. However, only
take positions that agree with overall market conditions.
Much of your success in technical analysis will come from

experience. The goal isn't to find the holy grail of technical
analysis, it is to reduce your risks (e.g., by trading with the
overall trend) while capitalizing on opportunities (e.g., using
your favorite indicator to time your trades). As you gain
experience, you will make better, more informed, and more
profitable investments.
"A fool sees not the same tree that a wise man sees."
- William Blake, 1790



Preface
Acknowledgments
Terminology
To Learn More
Technical Analysis
CONCLUSION
Price Fields
Charts Conclusion
Trends
This concludes the Introduction to Technical Analysis. I
Moving Averages
Indicators
suggest you refer to Section Two while you continue to explore
Market Indicators this exciting and potentially profitable pursuit.
Line Studies
Periodicity A fitting conclusion to an introduction on technical analysis is a
The Time Element list of lessons I have learned, both from others and the hard
Conclusion way.
PART TWO: Reference
Bibliography
● Don't compound your losses by averaging down (i.e.,
About the Author
don't keep buying additional shares at lower prices). It is
Formula Primer tempting to think that a loss "doesn't count" until the
position is closed--but it does!
User Groups
Educational Products ● Anytime you own a security, ask yourself if you would
buy it today. If you wouldn't buy it, you should consider
Training Partners selling it.
● Don't get distracted by others' investment prowess. Most

investors only discuss their successes, threatening your
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focus and confidence.
● Wise investments aren't made with Ouija boards, they
are made using logical approaches that minimize risks
and maximize opportunities.
● Master the basics. Most investors spend their time

looking for easy money (which is not an easy search)
instead of learning the key factors to security prices--
supply and demand.
"Opportunities flit by while we sit regretting the chances we

have lost..."
- Jerome K. Jerome, 1889



Preface
Acknowledgments
Terminology
To Learn More
PART TWO: Reference
PART TWO: REFERENCE
A-C
D-L This Online Volume is a concise reference to a vast array of
M-O technical indicators and line studies.
P-S
T-Z
The discussion on each tool includes an overview, an
Bibliography
explanation of its interpretation, and an example of the
About the Author
indicator or line study in action. When space has permitted, I
Formula Primer have also included a step-by-step explanation of the relevant
calculations.
User Groups
Educational Products Most of these techniques can be applied to any type of

security, including stocks, bonds, options, futures, mutual
Training Partners funds, and indices.
● A-C
Related Link: ● D-L
● M-O
● P-S
● T-Z



Preface
Acknowledgments
Terminology
To Learn More
PART TWO: Reference
ABSOLUTE BREADTH INDEX
A-C
Absolute Breadth Index Overview
Accumulation/Distribution
Accumulation Swing Index
The Absolute Breadth Index ("ABI") is a market momentum
Advance/Decline Line
Advance/Decline Ratio
indicator that was developed by Norman G. Fosback.
Advancing-Declining Issues
Advancing, Declining, Unchanged Volume The ABI shows how much activity, volatility, and change is
Andrews' Pitchfork taking place on the New York Stock Exchange while ignoring
Arms Index the direction prices are headed.
Average True Range
Bollinger Bands
Breadth Thrust
Interpretation
Bull/Bear Ratio
Candlesticks - Japanese You can think of the ABI as an "activity index." High readings
CANSLIM indicate market activity and change, while low readings
Chaikin Oscillator indicate lack of change.
Commodity Channel Index
Commodity Selection Index In Fosback's book, Stock Market Logic, he indicates that
Correlation Analysis historically, high values typically lead to higher prices three to
Cumulative Volume Index
twelve months later. Fosback found that a highly reliable
Cycles
D-L
variation of the ABI is to divide the weekly ABI by the total
M-O issues traded. A ten-week moving average of this value is then
P-S calculated. Readings above 40% are very bullish and readings
T-Z below 15% are bearish.
Bibliography
About the Author Example
Formula Primer
The following chart shows the S&P 500 and a 5-week moving
User Groups average of the ABI.
Training Partners
Related Link:
Strong rallies occurred every time the ABI's moving average
rose above 310.
Calculation
The Absolute Breadth Index is calculated by taking the

absolute value of the difference between NYSE Advancing
Issues and NYSE Declining Issues.
Absolute value (i.e., ABS) means "regardless of sign." Thus,

the absolute value of -100 is 100 and the absolute value of
+100 is also 100.



Preface
Acknowledgments
Terminology
To Learn More
PART TWO: Reference
ACCUMULATION/DISTRIBUTION
A-C
The Accumulation/Distribution is a momentum indicator that
associates changes in price and volume. The indicator is
Advancing-Declining Issues based on the premise that the more volume that accompanies
Advancing, Declining, Unchanged Volume a price move, the more significant the price move.
Andrews' Pitchfork
Arms Index Interpretation
Average True Range
Bollinger Bands
Breadth Thrust
The Accumulation/Distribution is really a variation of the more
Bull/Bear Ratio popular On Balance Volume indicator. Both of these indicators
Candlesticks - Japanese attempt to confirm changes in prices by comparing the volume
CANSLIM associated with prices.
Chaikin Oscillator
Commodity Channel Index When the Accumulation/Distribution moves up, it shows that
Commodity Selection Index the security is being accumulated, as most of the volume is
Correlation Analysis associated with upward price movement. When the indicator
moves down, it shows that the security is being distributed, as
Cycles
most of the volume is associated with downward price
D-L
M-O
movement.
P-S
T-Z Divergences between the Accumulation/Distribution and the
Bibliography security's price imply a change is imminent. When a
About the Author divergence does occur, prices usually change to confirm the
Accumulation/Distribution. For example, if the indicator is
Formula Primer
moving up and the security's price is going down, prices will
User Groups probably reverse.
Example
Training Partners
The following chart shows Battle Mountain Gold and its
Accumulation/Distribution.
Related Link:
Battle Mountain's price diverged as it reached new highs in late
July while the indicator was falling. Prices then corrected to
confirm the indicator's trend.
Calculation
A portion of each day's volume is added or subtracted from a

cumulative total. The nearer the closing price is to the high for
the day, the more volume added to the cumulative total. The
nearer the closing price is to the low for the day, the more
volume subtracted from the cumulative total. If the close is
exactly between the high and low prices, nothing is added to
the cumulative total.



Preface
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Terminology
To Learn More
PART TWO: Reference
ACCUMULATION SWING INDEX
A-C
The Accumulation Swing Index is a cumulative total of the
Swing Index. The Accumulation Swing Index was developed
Advancing-Declining Issues by Welles Wilder.
Advancing, Declining, Unchanged Volume
Andrews' Pitchfork Interpretation
Arms Index
Average True Range
Mr. Wilder said, "Somewhere amidst the maze of Open, High,
Bollinger Bands
Breadth Thrust
Low and Close prices is a phantom line that is the real market."
Bull/Bear Ratio The Accumulation Swing Index attempts to show this phantom
Candlesticks - Japanese line. Since the Accumulation Swing Index attempts to show the
CANSLIM "real market," it closely resembles prices themselves. This
Chaikin Oscillator allows you to use classic support/resistance analysis on the
Commodity Channel Index Index itself. Typical analysis involves looking for breakouts,
Commodity Selection Index new highs and lows, and divergences.
Correlation Analysis
Cycles
Wilder notes the following characteristics of the
D-L Accumulation Swing Index:
M-O
P-S ● It provides a numerical value that quantifies price swings.
T-Z
Bibliography
● It defines short-term swing points.
About the Author
Formula Primer ● It cuts through the maze of high, low, and close prices
and indicates the real strength and direction of the
User Groups market.
Example
Training Partners
The following chart shows Corn and its Accumulation Swing
Index.
Related Link:
You can see that the breakouts of the price trendlines labeled
"A" and "B" were confirmed by breakouts of the Accumulation
Swing Index trendlines labeled "A'" and "B'."
Calculation
The Accumulation Swing Index is a cumulative total of the

Swing Index. The Swing Index and the Accumulation Swing
Index require opening prices.
Step-by-step instructions on calculating the Swing Index are

provided in Wilder's book, New Concepts In Technical Trading
Systems.



Preface
Acknowledgments
Terminology
To Learn More
PART TWO: Reference
ADVANCE/DECLINE LINE
A-C
The Advance/Decline Line ("A/D Line") is undoubtedly the
most widely used measure of market breadth. It is a cumulative
Advancing-Declining Issues total of the Advancing-Declining Issues indicator. When
Advancing, Declining, Unchanged Volume compared to the movement of a market index (e.g., Dow Jones
Andrews' Pitchfork Industrials, S&P 500, etc) the A/D Line has proven to be an
Arms Index effective gauge of the stock market's strength.
Average True Range
Bollinger Bands
Interpretation
Breadth Thrust
Bull/Bear Ratio
Candlesticks - Japanese The A/D Line is helpful when measuring overall market
CANSLIM strength. When more stocks are advancing than declining, the
Chaikin Oscillator A/D Line moves up (and vice versa).
Commodity Selection Index Many investors feel that the A/D Line shows market strength
Correlation Analysis better than more commonly used indices such as the Dow
Jones Industrial Average ("DJIA") or the S&P 500 Index. By
Cycles
studying the trend of the A/D Line you can see if the market is
D-L
M-O
in a rising or falling trend, if the trend is still intact, and how
P-S long the current trend has prevailed.
T-Z
Bibliography Another way to use the A/D Line is to look for a divergence
About the Author between the DJIA (or a similar index) and the A/D Line. Often,
an end to a bull market can be forecast when the A/D Line
Formula Primer
begins to round over while the DJIA is still trying to make new
User Groups highs. Historically, when a divergence develops between the
DJIA and the A/D Line, the DJIA has corrected and gone the
Educational Products direction of the A/D Line.
Training Partners
A military analogy is often used when discussing the
relationship between the A/D Line and the DJIA. The analogy
is that trouble looms when the generals lead (e.g., the DJIA is
Related Link: making new highs) and the troops refuse to follow (e.g., the
Traders Library Investment Bookstore A/D Line fails to make new highs).
Example
The following chart shows the DJIA and the A/D Line.
The DJIA was making new highs during the 12 months leading
up to the 1987 crash. During this same period, the A/D Line
was failing to reach new highs. This type of divergence, where
the generals lead and the troops refuse to follow, usually
results in the generals retreating in defeat as happened in
1987.
Calculation
Table 2
Date Advancing Declining A-D A/D Line
02/15/94 1198 882 316 316
02/16/94 1183 965 218 534
02/17/94 882 1251 -369 165
02/18/94 706 1411 -705 -540
02/22/94 1139 1003 136 -404
Because the A/D Line always starts at zero, the numeric value
of the A/D Line is of little importance. What is important is the
slope and pattern of the A/D Line.



Preface
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Terminology
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PART TWO: Reference
ADVANCE/DECLINE RATIO
A-C
The Advance/Decline Ratio ("A/D Ratio") shows the ratio of
advancing issues to declining issues. It is calculated by
Advancing-Declining Issues dividing the number of advancing issues by the number of
Advancing, Declining, Unchanged Volume declining issues.
Andrews' Pitchfork
Average True Range
Bollinger Bands
Breadth Thrust
The A/D Ratio is similar to the Advancing-Declining Issues in
Bull/Bear Ratio that it displays market breadth. But, where the Advancing-
Candlesticks - Japanese Declining Issues subtracts the advancing/declining values, the
CANSLIM A/D Ratio divides the values. The advantage of the Ratio is
Chaikin Oscillator that it remains constant regardless of the number of issues that
Commodity Channel Index are traded on the New York Stock Exchange (which has
Commodity Selection Index steadily increased).
A moving average of the A/D Ratio is often used as an
Cycles
overbought/oversold indicator. The higher the value, the more
D-L
M-O
"excessive" the rally and the more likely a correction. Likewise,
P-S low readings imply an oversold market and suggest a technical
T-Z rally.
Bibliography
About the Author Keep in mind, however, that markets that appear to be
extremely overbought or oversold may stay that way for some
Formula Primer
time. When investing using overbought and oversold
User Groups indicators, it is wise to wait for the prices to confirm your belief
that a change is due before placing your trades.
Training Partners Day-to-day fluctuations of the Advance/Decline Ratio are often

eliminated by smoothing the ratio with a moving average.
Example
Related Link:
Traders Library Investment Bookstore The following chart shows the S&P 500 and a 15-day moving
average of the A/D Ratio.
You can see that prices usually declined after entering the
overbought level above 1.25 ("sell" arrows) and that they
usually rallied after entering the oversold level below 0.90
("buy" arrows).
Calculation
The A/D Ratio is calculated by dividing the number of stocks

that advanced in price for the day by the number of stocks that
declined.
Table 3 shows the calculation of the A/D Ratio.
Table 3
Date Advancing Declining A/D Ratio
02/15/94 1198 882 1.3583
02/16/94 1183 965 1.2259
02/17/94 882 1251 0.7050
02/18/94 706 1411 0.5004
02/22/94 1139 1003 1.1356



Preface
Acknowledgments
Terminology
To Learn More
PART TWO: Reference
ADVANCING-DECLINING ISSUES
A-C
The Advancing-Declining Issues is a market momentum
indicator which shows the difference between stocks listed on
Advancing-Declining Issues the New York Stock Exchange that advanced in price minus
Advancing, Declining, Unchanged Volume those that declined. As of this writing, about 2,500 issues trade
Andrews' Pitchfork each day on the NYSE.
Arms Index
Average True Range The difference between the number of advancing and declining
Bollinger Bands issues is the foundation of many market breadth indicators.
Breadth Thrust
These indicators include the Advance/Decline Line,
Bull/Bear Ratio
Advance/Decline Ratio, Absolute Breadth Index, Breadth
Candlesticks - Japanese
CANSLIM
Thrust, McClellan Oscillator and Summation Index. Indicators
Chaikin Oscillator that use advancing and declining issues in their calculations
Commodity Channel Index are called market breadth indicators.
Commodity Selection Index
Correlation Analysis Interpretation
Cycles
The Advancing-Declining Issues indicator shows the difference
D-L
M-O
between the number of advancing issues and the number of
P-S declining issues. Plotted by itself, this indicator is helpful to
T-Z determine daily market strength. Strong up days generally
Bibliography show readings of more than +1,000. Very weak days have
About the Author readings of less than -1,000.
Formula Primer
I prefer to plot a 5-to-40 day exponential moving average of the
User Groups Advancing-Declining Issues rather than the daily values
themselves. The moving average creates an excellent short-
Educational Products term overbought/oversold indicator. Both the Over-bought/-
Training Partners Oversold indicator and the McClellan Oscillator are created
using moving averages of advancing minus declining issues.
Example
Related Link:
Traders Library Investment Bookstore The following chart shows the DJIA and a 40-day moving
average of the Advancing-Declining Issues indicator.
I drew "buy" arrows when the moving average rose above -50
and "sell" arrows when it fell below 125. Normally, I would use
100, but the strong up-trend during this period caused the
indicator to have an upward bias.
Calculation
The Advancing-Declining Issues is calculated simply by

subtracting the number of declining issues from the number of
advancing issues.
The following table shows the calculation of the Advancing-

Declining Issues.
Table 4
Date Advancing Declining A/D
02/15/94 1198 882 316
02/16/94 1183 965 218
02/17/94 882 1251 -369
02/18/94 706 1411 -705
02/22/94 1139 1003 136


Technical Analysis from A to

Preface
Acknowledgments
Terminology
To Learn More
Z
PART ONE: Introduction to Technical Analysis by Steven B. Achelis
PART TWO: Reference
A-C
Absolute Breadth Index ADVANCING, DECLINING,
Accumulation Swing Index UNCHANGED VOLUME
Advance/Decline Ratio Overview
Advancing-Declining Issues
Andrews' Pitchfork Advancing, declining, and unchanged volume are all market
Arms Index momentum indicators. They reflect movement on the New
Average True Range York Stock exchange in millions of shares.
Bollinger Bands
Breadth Thrust Advancing volume is the total volume for all securities that
Bull/Bear Ratio advanced in price. Declining volume is the total volume for
Candlesticks - Japanese all securities that declined in price. And similarly, unchanged
CANSLIM
volume is the total volume for all securities that were
Chaikin Oscillator
unchanged in price.
Cycles Numerous indicators have been developed using up and
D-L
down volume indicators. These indicators include the
M-O
Cumulative Volume Index, Negative Volume Index, Positive
P-S
T-Z
Volume Index, and the Upside-Downside Ratio. Charts of
Bibliography the advancing or declining volume can be used to look for
About the Author volume divergences (where advancing volume increases but
the market falls) to see if selling pressure is waning, to view
Formula Primer daily trends, etc.
User Groups
Due to the erratic fluctuations in advancing and declining
Educational Products volume, I suggest you smooth the indicators with a 3- to 10-
Training Partners
day moving average.
Example
Related Link: The following chart shows the S&P 500 and a 10-day
Traders Library Investment Bookstore moving average of advancing volume.
A bearish divergence developed as prices tried to rally
(trendline "A") while the advancing volume was declining
(trendline "B"). If you only looked at the S&P 500 you might
think the market was gaining strength. The Advancing
Volume showed the true picture and prices were forced to
correct.



Preface
Acknowledgments
Terminology
To Learn More
PART TWO: Reference
ANDREWS' PITCHFORK
A-C
Andrews' Pitchfork is a line study consisting of three parallel
trendlines based on three points you select. This tool was
Advancing-Declining Issues developed by Dr. Alan Andrews.
Andrews' Pitchfork Interpretation
Arms Index
Average True Range
The interpretation of a pitchfork is based on normal trendline
Bollinger Bands
Breadth Thrust
support and resistance principles.
Bull/Bear Ratio
Candlesticks - Japanese Example
CANSLIM
Chaikin Oscillator The following chart of Xerox shows an Andrews' Pitchfork.
Cycles
D-L
M-O
P-S
T-Z
Bibliography
About the Author
Formula Primer
User Groups
Training Partners
The pitchfork was displayed by selecting the three points
shown. You can see how prices tended to "walk along" the
trendlines.
Related Link:
Traders Library Investment Bookstore Calculation
The first trendline begins at the left-most point selected (either
a major peak or trough) and is drawn so it passes directly
between the two right-most points. This line is the "handle" of
the pitchfork. The second and third trendlines are then drawn
beginning at the two right-most points (a major peak and a
major trough) and are drawn parallel to the first line. These
lines are the "tines" of the pitchfork.



Preface
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Terminology
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PART TWO: Reference
ARMS INDEX
A-C
The Arms Index is a market indicator that shows the
relationship between the number of stocks that increase or
Advancing-Declining Issues decrease in price (advancing/declining issues) and the volume
Advancing, Declining, Unchanged Volume associated with stocks that increase or decrease in price
Andrews' Pitchfork (advancing/declining volume). It is calculated by dividing the
Arms Index Advance/Decline Ratio by the Upside/Downside Ratio.
Average True Range
Bollinger Bands The Arms Index was developed by Richard Arms in 1967. Over
Breadth Thrust
the years, the index has been referred to by a number of
Bull/Bear Ratio
different names. When Barron's published the first article on
CANSLIM
the indicator in 1967, they called it the Short-term Trading
Chaikin Oscillator Index. It has also been known as TRIN (an acronym for
Commodity Channel Index TRading INdex), MKDS, and STKS.
Cycles
The Arms Index is primarily a short-term trading tool. The
D-L
M-O
Index shows whether volume is flowing into advancing or
P-S declining stocks. If more volume is associated with advancing
T-Z stocks than declining stocks, the Arms Index will be less than
Bibliography 1.0; if more volume is associated with declining stocks, the
About the Author Index will be greater than 1.0.
Formula Primer
The Index is usually smoothed with a moving average. I
User Groups suggest using a 4-day moving average for short-term analysis,
a 21-day moving average for intermediate-term, and a 55-day
Educational Products moving average for longer-term analysis.
Training Partners
Normally, the Arms Index is considered bullish when it is below
1.0 and bearish when it is above 1.0. However, the Index
seems to work most effectively as an overbought/oversold
Related Link: indicator. When the indicator drops to extremely overbought
Traders Library Investment Bookstore levels, it is foretelling a selling opportunity. When it rises to
extremely oversold levels, a buying opportunity is approaching.
What constitutes an "extremely" overbought or oversold level
depends on the length of the moving average used to smooth
the indicator and on market conditions. Table 5 shows typical
overbought and oversold levels.
Table 5
Moving Average Overbought Oversold
4-day 0.70 1.25
21-day 0.85 1.10
55-day 0.90 1.05
Example
The following chart contains a 21-day moving average of the

Arms Index and the New York Stock Exchange Index.
Horizontal lines are drawn at the oversold level of 1.08 and at

the overbought level of 0.85. I drew "buy" arrows when the
Arms Index peaked above 1.08 and "sell" arrows when the
Index bottomed below 0.85. In most of the cases the arrows
occur at, or one day before, significant changes in price.
Calculation
The Arms Index is calculated by first dividing the number of

stocks that advanced in price by the number of stocks that
declined in price to determine the Advance/Decline Ratio.
Next, the volume of advancing stocks is divided by the volume
of declining stocks to determine the Upside/Downside Ratio.
Finally, the Advance/Decline Ratio is divided by the
Upside/Downside Ratio.



Preface
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Terminology
To Learn More
PART TWO: Reference
AVERAGE TRUE RANGE
A-C
The Average True Range ("ATR") is a measure of volatility. It
was introduced by Welles Wilder in his book, New Concepts in
Advancing-Declining Issues Technical Trading Systems, and has since been used as a
Advancing, Declining, Unchanged Volume component of many indicators and trading systems.
Andrews' Pitchfork
Average True Range
Bollinger Bands
Breadth Thrust
Wilder has found that high ATR values often occur at market
Bull/Bear Ratio bottoms following a "panic" sell-off. Low Average True Range
Candlesticks - Japanese values are often found during extended sideways periods,
CANSLIM such as those found at tops and after consolidation periods.
Chaikin Oscillator
Commodity Channel Index The Average True Range can be interpreted using the same
Commodity Selection Index techniques that are used with the other volatility indicators.
Correlation Analysis Refer to the discussion on Standard Deviation for additional
information on volatility interpretation.
Cycles
D-L
M-O Example
P-S
T-Z The following chart shows McDonald's and its Average True
Bibliography Range.
About the Author
Formula Primer
User Groups
Training Partners
Related Link:
This is a good example of high volatility as prices bottom
(points "A" and "A'") and low volatility as prices consolidate
prior to a breakout (points "B" and "B'").
Calculation
The True Range indicator is the greatest of the following:
● The distance from today's high to today's low.
● The distance from yesterday's close to today's high.
● The distance from yesterday's close to today's low.
The Average True Range is a moving average (typically 14-

days) of the True Ranges.



Preface
Acknowledgments
Terminology
To Learn More
PART TWO: Reference
BOLLINGER BANDS
A-C
Bollinger Bands are similar to moving average envelopes. The
difference between Bollinger Bands and envelopes is
Advancing-Declining Issues envelopes are plotted at a fixed percentage above and below a
Advancing, Declining, Unchanged Volume moving average, whereas Bollinger Bands are plotted at
Andrews' Pitchfork standard deviation levels above and below a moving average.
Arms Index Since standard deviation is a measure of volatility, the bands
Average True Range are self-adjusting: widening during volatile markets and
Bollinger Bands contracting during calmer periods.
Breadth Thrust
Bull/Bear Ratio
Bollinger Bands were created by John Bollinger.
CANSLIM
Chaikin Oscillator Interpretation
Commodity Selection Index Bollinger Bands are usually displayed on top of security prices,
Correlation Analysis but they can be displayed on an indicator. These comments
refer to bands displayed on prices.
Cycles
D-L
M-O As with moving average envelopes, the basic interpretation of
P-S Bollinger Bands is that prices tend to stay within the upper-
T-Z and lower-band. The distinctive characteristic of Bollinger
Bibliography Bands is that the spacing between the bands varies based on
About the Author the volatility of the prices. During periods of extreme price
changes (i.e., high volatility), the bands widen to become more
Formula Primer
forgiving. During periods of stagnant pricing (i.e., low volatility),
User Groups the bands narrow to contain prices.
Mr. Bollinger notes the following characteristics of Bollinger
Training Partners Bands.
● Sharp price changes tend to occur after the bands

tighten, as volatility lessens.
Related Link:
Traders Library Investment Bookstore ● When prices move outside the bands, a continuation of
the current trend is implied.
● Bottoms and tops made outside the bands followed by
bottoms and tops made inside the bands call for
reversals in the trend.
● A move that originates at one band tends to go all the

way to the other band. This observation is useful when
projecting price targets.
Example
The following chart shows Bollinger Bands on Exxon's prices.
The Bands were calculated using a 20-day exponential moving

average and are spaced two deviations apart.
The bands were at their widest when prices were volatile

during April. They narrowed when prices entered a
consolidation period later in the year. The narrowing of the
bands increases the probability of a sharp breakout in prices.
The longer prices remain within the narrow bands the more
likely a price breakout.
Calculation
Bollinger Bands are displayed as three bands. The middle

band is a normal moving average. In the following formula, "n"
is the number of time periods in the moving average (e.g., 20
days).
The upper band is the same as the middle band, but it is
shifted up by the number of standard deviations (e.g., two
deviations). In this next formula, "D" is the number of standard
deviations.
The lower band is the moving average shifted down by the

same number of standard deviations (i.e., "D").
Mr. Bollinger recommends using "20" for the number of periods

in the moving average, calculating the moving average using
the "simple" method (as shown in the formula for the middle
band), and using 2 standard deviations. He has also found that
moving averages of less then 10 periods do not work very well.



Preface
Acknowledgments
Terminology
To Learn More
PART TWO: Reference
BREADTH THRUST
A-C
The Breadth Thrust indicator is a market momentum indicator.
It was developed by Dr. Martin Zweig. The Breadth Thrust is
Advancing-Declining Issues calculated by dividing a 10-day exponential moving average of
Advancing, Declining, Unchanged Volume the number of advancing issues, by the number of advancing
Andrews' Pitchfork plus declining issues.
Arms Index
Average True Range Interpretation
Bollinger Bands
Breadth Thrust
Bull/Bear Ratio A "Breadth Thrust" occurs when, during a 10-day period, the
Candlesticks - Japanese Breadth Thrust indicator rises from below 40% to above
CANSLIM 61.5%. A "Thrust" indicates that the stock market has rapidly
Chaikin Oscillator changed from an oversold condition to one of strength, but has
Commodity Channel Index not yet become overbought.
Correlation Analysis According to Dr. Zweig, there have only been fourteen Breadth
Thrusts since 1945. The average gain following these fourteen
Cycles
Thrusts was 24.6% in an average time-frame of eleven
D-L
M-O
months. Dr. Zweig also points out that most bull markets begin
P-S with a Breadth Thrust.
T-Z
Bibliography Example
About the Author
Formula Primer The following chart shows the S&P 500 and the Breadth Thrust
indicator.
User Groups
Training Partners
Related Link:
Horizontal lines are drawn on the Breadth Thrust indicator at
40.0% and 61.5%. Remember that a Thrust occurs when the
indicator moves from below 40% to above 61.5% during a 10
day period.
On December 18, 1984, I wrote the following comment

regarding the Breadth Thrust indicator in a software manual:
"At the time this discussion on the Breadth Thrust

is being written (12/18/84), the NYSE has gained
only 1.6% since the 'Thrust.' If the market fails to
go higher in the next six to twelve months, it will be
the first false signal generated by the Breadth
Thrust indicator in 39 years! With historical
average gains of almost 25%, we feel the odds are
in our favor when we go with the Thrust."
As shown in the example, the NYSE did in fact go higher in the

ensuing months. Twelve months after the Thrust occurred the
NYSE was up 21.6%. Twenty-one months after the Thrust
occurred, the NYSE was up a whopping 51%. Trust the next
thrust...
Calculation
The Breadth Thrust is a 10-day simple moving average of the

following:



Preface
Acknowledgments
Terminology
To Learn More
PART TWO: Reference
BULL/BEAR RATIO
A-C
Each week a poll of investment advisors is taken and
published by Investor's Intelligence of New Rochelle, New
Advancing-Declining Issues York. Investment advisors are tracked as to whether they are
Advancing, Declining, Unchanged Volume bullish, bearish, or neutral on the stock market. The Bull/Bear
Andrews' Pitchfork Ratio shows the relationship between the bullish and bearish
Arms Index advisors.
Average True Range
Bollinger Bands
Interpretation
Breadth Thrust
Bull/Bear Ratio
Candlesticks - Japanese The Bull/Bear Ratio is a market sentiment indicator. Dr. Martin
CANSLIM Zweig sums up sentiment indicators in his book Winning On
Chaikin Oscillator Wall Street by saying, "Beware of the crowd when the crowd is
Commodity Channel Index too one-sided." Extreme optimism on the part of the public and
Commodity Selection Index even professionals almost always coincides with market tops.
Correlation Analysis Extreme pessimism almost always coincides with market
Cumulative Volume Index bottoms.
Cycles
D-L
M-O
High readings of the Bull/Bear Ratio are bearish (there are too
P-S many bulls) and low readings are bullish (there are not enough
T-Z bulls). In almost every case, extremely high or low readings
Bibliography have coincided with market tops or bottoms. Historically,
About the Author readings above 60% have indicated extreme optimism (which
is bearish for the market) and readings below 40% have
Formula Primer
indicated extreme pessimism (which is bullish for the market).
User Groups
Example
Training Partners The following chart shows the Bull/Bear Ratio and the S&P
500.
Related Link:
"Buy" arrows were drawn on the S&P 500 when the advisors
were extremely bearish and "sell" arrows were drawn when
advisors were extremely bullish.
Calculation
The Bull/Bear Ratio is calculated by dividing the number of

bullish advisors by the number of bullish plus bearish advisors.
The number of neutral advisors is ignored.



Preface
Acknowledgments
Terminology
To Learn More
PART TWO: Reference
CANDLESTICKS - JAPANESE
A-C
In the 1600s, the Japanese developed a method of technical
analysis to analyze the price of rice contracts. This technique is
Advancing-Declining Issues called candlestick charting. Steven Nison is credited with
Advancing, Declining, Unchanged Volume popularizing candlestick charting and has become recognized
Andrews' Pitchfork as the leading expert on their interpretation.
Arms Index
Average True Range Candlestick charts display the open, high, low, and closing
Bollinger Bands prices in a format similar to a modern-day bar-chart, but in a
Breadth Thrust
manner that extenuates the relationship between the opening
Bull/Bear Ratio
and closing prices. Candlestick charts are simply a new way of
CANSLIM
looking at prices, they don't involve any calculations.
Chaikin Oscillator
Commodity Channel Index Each candlestick represents one period (e.g., day) of data.
Commodity Selection Index Figure 45 displays the elements of a candle.
Cycles
D-L
M-O
P-S
T-Z
Bibliography
About the Author
Formula Primer
User Groups
Training Partners
Related Link:
Interpretation
I have met investors who are attracted to candlestick charts by

their mystique--maybe they are the "long forgotten Asian
secret" to investment analysis. Other investors are turned-off
by this mystique--they are only charts, right? Regardless of
your feelings about the heritage of candlestick charting, I
strongly encourage you to explore their use. Candlestick charts
dramatically illustrate changes in the underlying
Because candlesticks display the relationship between the

open, high, low, and closing prices, they cannot be displayed
on securities that only have closing prices, nor were they
intended to be displayed on securities that lack opening prices.
If you want to display a candlestick chart on a security that
does not have opening prices, I suggest that you use the
previous day's closing prices in place of opening prices. This
technique can create candlestick lines and patterns that are
unusual, but valid.
The interpretation of candlestick charts is based primarily on

patterns. The most popular patterns are explained below.
Bullish Patterns
Long white (empty) line.This is a bullish line.

It occurs when prices open near the low and
close significantly higher near the period's
high.
Hammer.This is a bullish line if it occurs after a

significant downtrend. If the line occurs after a
significant up-trend, it is called a Hanging Man.
A Hammer is identified by a small real body
(i.e., a small range between the open and
closing prices) and a long lower shadow (i.e.,
the low is significantly lower than the open,
high, and close). The body can be empty or
filled-in.
Piercing line.This is a bullish pattern and the
opposite of a dark cloud cover. The first line is
a long black line and the second line is a long
white line. The second line opens lower than
the first line's low, but it closes more than
halfway above the first line's real body.
Bullish engulfing lines.This pattern is

strongly bullish if it occurs after a significant
downtrend (i.e., it acts as a reversal pattern). It
occurs when a small bearish (filled-in) line is
engulfed by a large bullish (empty) line.
Morning star.This is a bullish pattern

signifying a potential bottom. The "star"
indicates a possible reversal and the bullish
(empty) line confirms this. The star can be
empty or filled-in.
Bullish doji star.A "star" indicates a reversal

and a doji indicates indecision. Thus, this
pattern usually indicates a reversal following an
indecisive period. You should wait for a
confirmation (e.g., as in the morning star,
above) before trading a doji star. The first line
can be empty or filled in.
Bearish Patterns
Long black (filled-in) line.This is a bearish

line. It occurs when prices open near the high
and close significantly lower near the period's
low.
Hanging Man.These lines are bearish if they
occur after a significant uptrend. If this pattern
occurs after a significant downtrend, it is called
a Hammer. They are identified by small real
bodies (i.e., a small range between the open
and closing prices) and a long lower shadow
(i.e., the low was significantly lower than the
open, high, and close). The bodies can be
empty or filled-in.
Dark cloud cover.This is a bearish pattern.

The pattern is more significant if the second
line's body is below the center of the previous
line's body (as illustrated).
Bearish engulfing lines.This pattern is

strongly bearish if it occurs after a significant
up-trend (i.e., it acts as a reversal pattern). It
occurs when a small bullish (empty) line is
engulfed by a large bearish (filled-in) line.
Evening star.This is a bearish pattern

signifying a potential top. The "star" indicates a
possible reversal and the bearish (filled-in) line
confirms this. The star can be empty or filled-
in.
Doji star.A star indicates a reversal and a doji

indicates indecision. Thus, this pattern usually
indicates a reversal following an indecisive
period. You should wait for a confirmation (e.g.,
as in the evening star illustration) before
trading a doji star.
Shooting star.This pattern suggests a minor
reversal when it appears after a rally. The
star's body must appear near the low price and
the line should have a long upper shadow.
Reversal Patterns
Long-legged doji.This line often signifies a

turning point. It occurs when the open and
close are the same, and the range between the
high and low is relatively large.
Dragon-fly doji.This line also signifies a

turning point. It occurs when the open and
close are the same, and the low is significantly
lower than the open, high, and closing prices.
Gravestone doji.This line also signifies a

turning point. It occurs when the open, close,
and low are the same, and the high is
significantly higher than the open, low, and
closing prices.
Star.Stars indicate reversals. A star is a line

with a small real body that occurs after a line
with a much larger real body, where the real
bodies do not overlap. The shadows may
overlap.
Doji star.A star indicates a reversal and a doji
indicates indecision. Thus, this pattern usually
indicates a reversal following an indecisive
period. You should wait for a confirmation (e.g.,
as in the evening star illustration) before
trading a doji star.
Neutral Patterns
Spinning tops.These are neutral lines. They

occur when the distance between the high and
low, and the distance between the open and
close, are relatively small.
Doji.This line implies indecision. The security

opened and closed at the same price. These
lines can appear in several different patterns.
Double doji lines (two adjacent doji lines) imply

that a forceful move will follow a breakout from
the current indecision.
Harami ("pregnant" in English).This pattern

indicates a decrease in momentum. It occurs
when a line with a small body falls within the
area of a larger body.
In this example, a bullish (empty) line with a

long body is followed by a weak bearish (filled-
in) line. This implies a decrease in the bullish
momentum.
Harami cross.This pattern also indicates a

decrease in momentum. The pattern is similar
to a harami, except the second line is a doji
(signifying indecision).
Example
The following chart of Corn illustrates several Japanese

candlestick patterns and principles.
You can see that advancing prices are usually accompanied

with empty lines (prices opened low and closed higher) and
that declines are accompanied with filled-in lines (prices
opened high and closed lower).
Bearish engulfing lines occurred at points "A" and "B" (and

prices subsequently moved lower). Bullish white lines occurred
at points "1," "2," and "3" (as prices moved higher).



Preface
Acknowledgments
Terminology
To Learn More
PART TWO: Reference
CANSLIM
A-C
CANSLIM is an acronym for a stock market investment method
developed by William O'Neil. O'Neil is the founder and
Advancing-Declining Issues chairman of Investor's Business Daily, a national business
Advancing, Declining, Unchanged Volume newspaper. He also heads an investment research
Andrews' Pitchfork organization, William O'Neil & Company, Inc.
Arms Index
Average True Range Drawing from his study of the greatest money-making stocks
Bollinger Bands from 1953 to 1985, O'Neil developed a set of common
Breadth Thrust
characteristics that each of these stocks possessed. The key
Bull/Bear Ratio
characteristics to focus on are captured in the acronym
CANSLIM
CANSLIM.
Chaikin Oscillator
Commodity Channel Index Current quarterly earnings per share
Commodity Selection Index Annual earnings growth
Correlation Analysis New products, New Management, New Highs
Cumulative Volume Index Shares outstanding
Cycles Leading industry
D-L
Institutional sponsorship
M-O
P-S
Market direction
T-Z
Bibliography Although not strictly a technical analysis tool, the CANSLIM
About the Author approach combines worthy technical and fundamental
concepts. The CANSLIM approach is covered in detail in
Formula Primer
O'Neil's book, How To Make Money In Stocks.
User Groups
Interpretation
Training Partners The following text summarizes each of the seven components
of the CANSLIM method.
Current Quarterly Earnings

Related Link:
Traders Library Investment Bookstore Earnings per share ("EPS") for the most recent quarter should
be up at least 20% when compared to the same quarter for the
previous year (e.g., first quarter of 1993 to the first quarter of
1994).
Annual Earnings Growth
Earnings per share over the last five years should be

increasing at the rate of at least 15% per year. Preferably, the
EPS should increase each year. However, a single year set-
back is acceptable if the EPS quickly recovers and moves back
into new high territory.
New Products, New Management, New Highs
A dramatic increase in a stock's price typically coincides with

something "new." This could be a new product or service, a
new CEO, a new technology, or even new high stock prices.
One of O'Neil's most surprising conclusions from his research

is contrary to what many investors feel to be prudent. Instead
of adhering to the old stock market maxim, "buy low and sell
high," O'Neil would say, "buy high and sell higher." O'Neil's
research concluded that the ideal time to purchase a stock is
when it breaks into new high territory after going through a two
to 15 month consolidation period. Some of the most dramatic
increases follow such a breakout, due possibly to the lack of
resistance (i.e., sellers).
Shares Outstanding
More than 95% of the stocks in O'Neil's study of the greatest

stock market winners had less than 25 million shares
outstanding. Using the simple principles of supply and
demand, restricting the shares outstanding forces the supply
line to shift upward which results in higher prices.
A huge amount of buying (i.e., demand) is required to move a

stock with 400 million shares outstanding. However, only a
moderate amount of buying is required to propel a stock with
only four to five million shares outstanding (particularly if a
large amount is held by corporate insiders).
Leader
Although there is never a "satisfaction guaranteed" label

attached to a stock, O'Neil found that you could significantly
increase your chances of a profitable investment if you
purchase a leading stock in a leading industry.
He also found that winning stocks are usually outperforming

the majority of stocks in the overall market as well.
Institutional Sponsorship
The biggest source of supply and demand comes from

institutional buyers (e.g., mutual funds, banks, insurance
companies, etc). A stock does not require a large number of
institutional sponsors, but institutional sponsors certainly give
the stock a vote of approval. As a rule of thumb, O'Neil looks
for stocks that have at least 3 to 10 institutional sponsors with
better-than-average performance records.
However, too much sponsorship can be harmful. Once a stock

has become "institutionalized" it may be too late. If 70 to 80
percent of a stock's outstanding shares are owned by
institutions, the well may have run dry. The result of excessive
institutional ownership can translate into excessive selling if
bad news strikes.
O'Neil feels the ideal time to purchase a stock is when it has

just become discovered by several quality institutional
sponsors, but before it becomes so popular that it appears on
every institution's hot list.
Market Direction
This is the most important element in the formula. Even the

best stocks can lose money if the general market goes into a
slump. Approximately seventy-five percent of all stocks move
with the general market. This means that you can pick stocks
that meet all the other criteria perfectly, yet if you fail to
determine the direction of the general market, your stocks will
probably perform poorly.
Market indicators are designed to help you determine the

conditions of the overall market. O'Neil says, "Learn to interpret
a daily price and volume chart of the market averages. If you
do, you can't get too far off the track. You really won't need
much else unless you want to argue with the trend of the
market."



Preface
Acknowledgments
Terminology
To Learn More
PART TWO: Reference
CHAIKIN OSCILLATOR
A-C
Inspired by the prior work of Joe Granville and Larry Williams,
Marc Chaikin developed a new volume indicator, extending the
Advancing-Declining Issues work done by his predecessors. The Chaikin Oscillator is a
Advancing, Declining, Unchanged Volume moving average oscillator based on the
Andrews' Pitchfork Accumulation/Distribution indicator.
Arms Index
Bollinger Bands
Breadth Thrust
Bull/Bear Ratio The following discussion of volume accumulation/distribution
Candlesticks - Japanese interpretation, written by Marc Chaikin, is reprinted here with
CANSLIM his permission:
Chaikin Oscillator
Commodity Channel Index Technical analysis of both market averages and
Commodity Selection Index individual stocks must include volume studies in
Correlation Analysis order to give the technician a true picture of the
internal dynamics of a given market. Volume
Cycles
analysis helps in identifying internal strengths and
D-L
M-O
weaknesses that exist under the cover of price
P-S action. Very often, volume divergences versus
T-Z price movement are the only clues to an important
Bibliography reversal that is about to take place. While volume
About the Author has always been mentioned by technicians as
important, little effective volume work was done
Formula Primer
until Joe Granville and Larry Williams began to
User Groups look at volume versus price in the late 1960s in a
more creative way.
Training Partners For many years it had been accepted that volume
and price normally rose and fell together, but when
this relationship changed, the price action should
be examined for a possible change of trend. The
Related Link: Granville OBV concept which views the total
volume on an up day as accumulation and the total
volume on a down day as distribution is a decent
one, but much too simplistic to be of value. The
reason is that there are too many important tops
and bottoms, both short-term and intermediate-
term, where OBV confirms the price extreme.
However, when an OBV line gives a divergence
signal versus a price extreme, it can be a valuable
technical signal and usually triggers a reversal in
price.
Larry Williams took the OBV concept and improved

on it. In order to determine whether there was
accumulation or distribution in the market or an
individual stock on a given day, Granville
compared the closing price to the previous close,
whereas Williams compared the closing price to
the opening price. He [Williams] created a
cumulative line by adding a percentage of total
volume to the line if the close was higher than the
opening and, subtracting a percentage of the total
volume if the close was lower than its opening
price. The accumulation/distribution line improved
results dramatically over the classic OBV approach
to volume divergences.
Williams then took this one step further in

analyzing the Dow Jones Industrials by creating an
oscillator of the accumulation/distribution line for
even better buy and sell signals. In the early
1970s, however, the opening price for stocks was
eliminated from the daily newspaper and Williams'
formula became difficult to compute without many
daily calls to a stockbroker with a quote machine.
Because of this void, I created the Chaikin
Oscillator substituting the average price of the day
for Williams' opening and took the approach one
step further by applying the oscillator to stocks and
commodities. The Chaikin Oscillator is an excellent
tool for generating buy and sell signals when its
action is compared to price movement. I believe it
is a significant improvement over the work that
preceded it.
The premise behind my oscillator is three-fold. The

first premise is that if a stock or market average
closes above its midpoint for the day (as defined
by [high + low] / 2), then there was accumulation
on that day. The closer a stock or average closes
to its high, the more accumulation there was.
Conversely, if a stock closes below its midpoint for
the day, there was distribution on that day. The
closer a stock closes to its low, the more
distribution there was.
The second premise is that a healthy advance is

accompanied by rising volume and a strong
volume accumulation. Since volume is the fuel that
powers rallies, it follows that lagging volume on
rallies is a sign of less fuel available to move
stocks higher.
Conversely, declines are usually accompanied by

low volume, but end with panic-like liquidation on
the part of institutional investors. Thus, we look for
a pickup in volume and then lower-lows on
reduced volume with some accumulation before a
valid bottom can develop.
The third premise is that by using the Chaikin

Oscillator, you can monitor the flow of volume into
and out of the market. Comparing this flow to price
action can help identify tops and bottoms, both
short-term and intermediate-term.
Since no technical approach works all the time, I

suggest using the oscillator along with other
technical indicators to avoid problems. I favor
using a price envelope around a 21-day moving
average and an overbought/oversold oscillator
together with the Chaikin Oscillator for the best
short and intermediate-term technical signals.
The most important signal generated by the

Chaikin Oscillator occurs when prices reach a new
high or new low for a swing, particularly at an
overbought or oversold level, and the oscillator
fails to exceed its previous extreme reading and
then reverses direction.
1. Signals in the direction of the intermediate-

term trend are more reliable than those
against the trend.
2. A confirmed high or low does not imply any

further price action in that direction. I view
that as a non-event.
A second way to use the Chaikin Oscillator is to

view a change of direction in the oscillator as a buy
or sell signal, but only in the direction of the trend.
For example, if we say that a stock that is above its
90-day moving average of price is in an uptrend,
then an upturn of the oscillator while in negative
territory would constitute a buy signal only if the
stock were above its 90-day moving average--not
below it.
A downturn of the oscillator while in positive

territory (above zero) would be a sell signal if the
stock were below its 90-day moving average of
closing prices.
Example
The following chart shows Eastman Kodak and the Chaikin

Oscillator. Bearish divergences (where prices increased to new
highs while the Oscillator was falling) occurred at points "A"
and "B." These divergences were warnings of the sell-offs that
followed.
Calculation
The Chaikin Oscillator is created by subtracting a 10-period

exponential moving average of the Accumulation/Distribution
Line from a 3-period exponential moving average of the
Accumulation/Distribution Line.



Preface
Acknowledgments
Terminology
To Learn More
PART TWO: Reference
COMMODITY CHANNEL INDEX
A-C
The Commodity Channel Index ("CCI") measures the variation
of a security's price from its statistical mean. High values show
Advancing-Declining Issues that prices are unusually high compared to average prices
Advancing, Declining, Unchanged Volume whereas low values indicate that prices are unusually low.
Andrews' Pitchfork Contrary to its name, the CCI can be used effectively on any
Arms Index type of security, not just commodities.
Average True Range
Bollinger Bands The CCI was developed by Donald Lambert.
Breadth Thrust
Bull/Bear Ratio
Candlesticks - Japanese Interpretation
CANSLIM
Chaikin Oscillator There are two basic methods of interpreting the CCI: looking
Commodity Channel Index for divergences and as an overbought/oversold indicator.
Correlation Analysis ● A divergence occurs when the security's prices are
making new highs while the CCI is failing to surpass its
Cycles
D-L
previous highs. This classic divergence is usually
M-O followed by a correction in the security's price.
P-S
T-Z ● The CCI typically oscillates between 100. To use the CCI
Bibliography as an overbought/oversold indicator, readings above
About the Author +100 imply an overbought condition (and a pending price
correction) while readings below -100 imply an oversold
Formula Primer
condition (and a pending rally).
User Groups
Example
Training Partners The following chart shows the British Pound and its 14-day
CCI. A bullish divergence occurred at point "A" (prices were
declining as the CCI was advancing). Prices subsequently
rallied. A bearish divergence occurred at point "B" (prices were
Related Link: advancing while the CCI was declining). Prices corrected. Note
Traders Library Investment Bookstore too, that each of these divergences occurred at extreme levels
(i.e., above +100 or below -100) making them even more
significant.
Calculation
A complete explanation of the CCI calculation is beyond the

scope of this book. The following are basic steps involved in
the calculation:
1. Add each period's high, low, and close and divide this
sum by 3. This is the typical price.
2. Calculate an n-period simple moving average of the
typical prices computed in Step 1.
3. For each of the prior n-periods, subtract today's Step 2
value from Step 1's value n days ago. For example, if
you were calculating a 5-day CCI, you would perform five
subtractions using today's Step 2 value.
4. Calculate an n-period simple moving average of the
absolute values of each of the results in Step 3.
5. Multiply the value in Step 4 by 0.015.
6. Subtract the value from Step 2 from the value in Step 1.
7. Divide the value in Step 6 by the value in Step 5.
Further details on the contents and interpretation of the CCI

can be found in an article by Donald Lambert that appeared in
the October 1980 issue of Commodities (now known as
Futures) Magazine.



Preface
Acknowledgments
Terminology
To Learn More
PART TWO: Reference
COMMODITY SELECTION INDEX
A-C
The Commodity Selection Index ("CSI") is a momentum
indicator. It was developed by Welles Wilder and is presented
Advancing-Declining Issues in his book New Concepts in Technical Trading Systems.
Andrews' Pitchfork The name of the index reflects its primary purpose. That is, to
Arms Index help select commodities suitable for short-term trading.
Average True Range
Bollinger Bands
Breadth Thrust
Interpretation
Bull/Bear Ratio
Candlesticks - Japanese A high CSI rating indicates that the commodity has strong
CANSLIM trending and volatility characteristics. The trending
Chaikin Oscillator characteristics are brought out by the Directional Movement
Commodity Channel Index factor in the calculation--the volatility characteristic by the
Commodity Selection Index Average True Range factor.
Wilder's approach is to trade commodities with high CSI values
Cycles
D-L
(relative to other commodities). Because these commodities
M-O are highly volatile, they have the potential to make the "most
P-S money in the shortest period of time." High CSI values imply
T-Z trending characteristics which make it easier to trade the
Bibliography security.
About the Author
The Commodity Selection Index is designed for short-term
Formula Primer
traders who can handle the risks associated with highly volatile
User Groups markets.
Example
Training Partners
The following chart shows the Japanese Yen and its 14-day
CSI. Strong volatility and strong trends result in high CSI
values at points "A" and "B."
Related Link:
Calculation
It is beyond the scope of this book to provide full calculation

details on the Commodity Selection Index. It is calculated using
the ADXR component of the Directional Movement indicator.
Wilder's book New Concepts in Technical Trading Systems
contains detailed information on the calculation of the CSI.



Preface
Acknowledgments
Terminology
To Learn More
PART TWO: Reference
CORRELATION ANALYSIS
A-C
Correlation analysis measures the relationship between two
items, for example, a security's price and an indicator. The
Advancing-Declining Issues resulting value (called the "correlation coefficient") shows if
Advancing, Declining, Unchanged Volume changes in one item (e.g., an indicator) will result in changes in
Andrews' Pitchfork the other item (e.g., the security's price).
Arms Index
Bollinger Bands
Breadth Thrust
Bull/Bear Ratio When comparing the correlation between two items, one item
Candlesticks - Japanese is called the "dependent" item and the other the "independent"
CANSLIM item. The goal is to see if a change in the independent item
Chaikin Oscillator (which is usually an indicator) will result in a change in the
Commodity Channel Index dependent item (usually a security's price). This information
Commodity Selection Index helps you understand an indicator's predictive abilities.
The correlation coefficient can range between 1.0 (plus or
Cycles
minus one). A coefficient of +1.0, a "perfect positive
D-L
M-O
correlation," means that changes in the independent item will
P-S result in an identical change in the dependent item (e.g., a
T-Z change in the indicator will result in an identical change in the
Bibliography security's price). A coefficient of -1.0, a "perfect negative
About the Author correlation," means that changes in the independent item will
result in an identical change in the dependent item, but the
Formula Primer
change will be in the opposite direction. A coefficient of zero
User Groups means there is no relationship between the two items and that
a change in the independent item will have no effect in the
Educational Products dependent item.
Training Partners
A low correlation coefficient (e.g., less than 0.10) suggests that
the relationship between two items is weak or non-existent. A
high correlation coefficient (i.e., closer to plus or minus one)
Related Link: indicates that the dependent variable (e.g., the security's price)
will usually change when the independent variable (e.g., an
indicator) changes.
The direction of the dependent variable's change depends on
the sign of the coefficient. If the coefficient is a positive
number, then the dependent variable will move in the same
direction as the independent variable; if the coefficient is
negative, then the dependent variable will move in the opposite
direction of the independent variable.
You can use correlation analysis in two basic ways: to

determine the predictive ability of an indicator and to determine
the correlation between two securities.
When comparing the correlation between an indicator and a

security's price, a high positive coefficient (e.g., move then
+0.70) tells you that a change in the indicator will usually
predict a change in the security's price. A high negative
correlation (e.g., less than -0.70) tells you that when the
indicator changes, the security's price will usually move in the
opposite direction. Remember, a low (e.g., close to zero)
coefficient indicates that the relationship between the security's
price and the indicator is not significant.
Correlation analysis is also valuable in gauging the relationship

between two securities. Often, one security's price "leads" or
predicts the price of another security. For example, the
correlation coefficient of gold versus the dollar shows a strong
negative relationship. This means that an increase in the dollar
usually predicts a decrease in the price of gold.
Example
The following chart shows the relationship between corn and

live hogs. The high correlation values show that, except during
brief periods in February and May, there is a strong
relationship between the price of these items (i.e., when the
price of corn changes, the price of live hogs also moves in the
same direction).



Preface
Acknowledgments
Terminology
To Learn More
PART TWO: Reference
CUMULATIVE VOLUME INDEX
A-C
The Cumulative Volume Index ("CVI") is a market momentum
indicator that shows whether money is flowing into or out of the
Advancing-Declining Issues stock market. It is calculated by subtracting the volume of
Advancing, Declining, Unchanged Volume declining stocks from the volume of advancing stocks, and
Andrews' Pitchfork then adding this value to a running total. See Advancing,
Arms Index declining, and unchanged volume.
Average True Range
Bollinger Bands
Interpretation
Breadth Thrust
Bull/Bear Ratio
Candlesticks - Japanese The CVI and OBV (On Balance Volume) are quite similar.
CANSLIM Many computer programs and investors incorrectly call the
Chaikin Oscillator OBV the CVI. OBV, like the CVI, was designed to show if
Commodity Channel Index volume is flowing into or out of the market. But, because up-
Commodity Selection Index volume and down-volume are not available for individual
Correlation Analysis stocks, OBV assumes that all volume is up-volume when the
Cumulative Volume Index stock closes higher and that all volume is down-volume when
Cycles
the stock closes lower. The CVI does not have to make this
D-L
large assumption, because it can use the actual up- and down-
M-O
P-S
volume for the New York Stock Exchange.
T-Z
Bibliography One useful method of interpreting the CVI is to look at its
About the Author overall trend. The CVI shows whether there has been more up-
volume or down-volume and how long the current volume trend
Formula Primer
has been in place. Also, look for divergences that develop
User Groups between the CVI and a market index. For example, is the
market index making a new high while the CVI fails to reach
Educational Products new highs? If so, it is probable that the market will correct to
Training Partners confirm the underlying story told by the CVI.
For additional information on interpreting the CVI, refer to the

discussion on OBV.
Related Link:
Traders Library Investment Bookstore Example
I wrote the following discussion on the CVI in a software
manual in July, 18, 1984.
The trendline on the chart below shows that up-

volume exceeded down-volume (on average) for
all of 1983. When this rising trend was broken (in
February of 1984), the market's weakness was
confirmed.
Since breaking down through its rising trendline,

the CVI has begun to trend upward (and sideways)
once again. While the market has been down, up-
volume has exceeded or equaled down-volume
(the CVI is trending upward again). There are two
different ways to interpret this: Some investors feel
that because the market has failed to go up (even
though up-volume has exceeded, or at least kept
pace with, down-volume) that the overhead supply
is too great. After all, if the market falls when there
is more up-volume than down-volume, what is
going to happen when there is more down-volume
than up-volume? An opposing school of thought is
that the CVI shows what the smart money is doing.
Therefore, since money is flowing into the market
on the up-side, the NYSE should soon correct the
divergence and rise too.
Now that I have the advantage of retrospect, we can see that

the CVI was in fact showing "what the smart money" was
doing. Shortly after the above commentary was written, the
market broke, corrected the divergence, and rose sharply.
Calculation
The Cumulative Volume Index is calculated by subtracting the

volume of declining stocks from the volume of advancing
stocks, and then adding this value to a cumulative total.
Table 6 shows the calculation of the CVI.
Table 6
Date Advancing Declining A-D CVI
02/15/94 175 87 88 88
02/16/94 132 129 3 91
02/17/94 122 183 -61 30
02/18/94 79 171 -92 -62
02/22/94 160 80 80 18
Because the CVI always starts at zero, the numeric value of

the CVI is of little importance. What is important is the slope
and pattern of the CVI.



Preface
Acknowledgments
Terminology
To Learn More
PART TWO: Reference
CYCLES
A-C
Cycles allow us to accurately predict events in nature: bird
migrations, the tides, planetary movements, etc. You can also use
Advancing-Declining Issues cycle analysis to predict changes in financial markets, although not
Advancing, Declining, Unchanged Volume always with the accuracy found in nature.
Andrews' Pitchfork
Arms Index The prices of many commodities reflect seasonal cycles. Due to the
Average True Range agricultural nature of most commodities, these cycles are easily
Bollinger Bands explained and understood. However, for some securities, the
Breadth Thrust
cyclical nature is more difficult to explain. Theories as to why
Bull/Bear Ratio
certain securities exhibit cyclical patterns range from weather and
CANSLIM
sun spots, to planetary movement and basic human psychology. I
Chaikin Oscillator feel human psychology is responsible.
Commodity Selection Index We know that prices are a consensus of human expectations.
Correlation Analysis These expectations are always changing, shifting the
Cumulative Volume Index supply/demand lines, and causing prices to oscillate between
Cycles overbought and oversold levels. Fluctuations in prices are a natural
D-L process of changing expectations and lead to cyclical patterns.
M-O
P-S
T-Z
Many technical analysis indicators and tools were developed in an
Bibliography attempt to profit from the cyclical nature of prices. For example
About the Author overbought/oversold indicators (e.g., Stochastic, RSI, etc) are
designed to help you determine the excessive boundaries of a
Formula Primer cycle.
User Groups
The following illustration shows the major components of a cycle.
Training Partners
Related Link:
Interpretation
An entire book could easily be filled with a discussion of cycles and

cycle analysis. In the following sections, I briefly explain some of
the more popular cycles. A good starting point to learn more about
cycles, and technical analysis in general, is Martin Pring's book
Technical Analysis Explained.
Keep in mind that, in hindsight, you can find patterns in anything.

To successfully profit from cycle analysis, the cycle should have a
strong track record and be used in conjunction with other trading
tools.
28 Day Trading Cycle.Research in the 1930s found a 28-day cycle

in the wheat market. Some attribute this to the lunar cycle.
Regardless of the cause, many markets, including stocks, do
appear to have a 28-day cycle. (The 28-day cycle is calendar days.
This is approximately 20 trading days.)
10-1/2 Month Futures Cycle.Although individual commodities

exhibit their own unique cycles, a cycle ranging between 9 and 12
months has been found in the CRB (Commodity Research bureau)
Index.
January Effect.The stock market has shown an uncanny tendency

to end the year higher if prices increase during the month of
January, and to end the year with lower prices if prices decline
during January. The saying is, "So goes January, so goes the rest
of the year." Between 1950 and 1993, the January Effect was
correct 38 out of 44 times--an accuracy of 86%.
4 Year Cycle (Kitchin Wave).In 1923, Joseph Kitchin found that a

40 month cycle existed in a variety of financial items in both Great
Britain and the United States between 1890 and 1922. The four-
year cycle was later found to have an extremely strong presence in
the stock market between 1868 and 1945.
Although it is called a "four-year cycle," the cycle length has been

found to vary between 40 and 53 months.
Presidential Cycle.This cycle is based on the presidential election

that occurs every four years in the United States. The concept is
that stock prices will decline following the election as the newly
elected president takes unpopular steps to make adjustments to the
economy. Then mid-term, stock prices will begin to rise in
anticipation of a strong election day economy.
9.2 Year Cycle (Juglar Wave).In 1860 Clemant Juglar found that a
cycle lasting approximately 9 years existed in many areas of
economic activity. Subsequent research found this cycle to have
had a strong presence during the period of 1840 to 1940.
54 Year Cycle (Kondratieff Wave).Named after a Russian

economist, the Kondratieff Wave is a long-term, 54-year cycle
identified in prices and economic activity. Since the cycle is
extremely long-term, it has only repeated itself three times in the
stock market.
The up-wave is characterized by rising prices, a growing economy,

and mildly bullish stock markets. The plateau is characterized by
stable prices, peak economic capacity, and strong bullish stock
markets. The down-wave is characterized by falling prices, severe
bear markets, and often by a major war.
The following chart of the Kondratieff Wave (from The Media

General Financial Weekly, June 3, 1974) shows the Kondratieff
Wave and U.S. Wholesale prices.



Preface
Acknowledgments
Terminology
To Learn More
PART TWO: Reference
DEMAND INDEX
A-C
D-L Overview
Demand Index
Detrended Price Oscillator
The Demand Index combines price and volume in such a way
Directional Movement
Dow Theory
that it is often a leading indicator of price change. The Demand
Ease of Movement Index was developed by James Sibbet.
Efficient Market Theory
Elliott Wave Theory Interpretation
Envelopes (Trading Bands)
Equivolume/Candlevolume
Mr. Sibbet defined six "rules" for the Demand Index:
Fibonacci Studies
Four Percent Model
Fourier Transform 1. A divergence between the Demand Index and prices
Fundamental Analysis suggests an approaching weakness in price.
Gann Angles
Herrick Payoff Index 2. Prices often rally to new highs following an extreme peak
Interest Rates in the Demand Index (the Index is performing as a
Kagi leading indicator).
Large Block Ratio
Linear Regression Lines
3. Higher prices with a lower Demand Index peak usually
M-O
coincides with an important top (the Index is performing
P-S
T-Z
as a coincidental indicator).
Bibliography
About the Author 4. The Demand Index penetrating the level of zero
indicates a change in trend (the Index is performing as a
Formula Primer lagging indicator).
User Groups
5. When the Demand Index stays near the level of zero for
Educational Products any length of time, it usually indicates a weak price
movement that will not last long.
Training Partners
6. A large long-term divergence between prices and the

Demand Index indicates a major top or bottom.
Related Link:
Example
The following chart shows Procter & Gamble and the Demand
Index. A long-term bearish divergence occurred in 1992 as
prices rose while the Demand Index fell. According to Sibbet,
this indicates a major top.
Calculation
The Demand Index calculations are too complex for this book
(they require 21-columns of data).
Sibbet's original Index plotted the indicator on a scale labeled

+0 at the top, 1 in the middle, and -0 at the bottom. Most
computer software makes a minor modification to the indicator
so it can be scaled on a normal scale.



Preface
Acknowledgments
Terminology
To Learn More
PART TWO: Reference
DETRENDED PRICE OSCILLATOR
A-C
D-L Overview
Demand Index
The Detrended Price Oscillator ("DPO") attempts to eliminate
Dow Theory
the trend in prices. Detrended prices allow you to more easily
Ease of Movement identify cycles and overbought/oversold levels.
Long-term cycles are made up of a series of short-term cycles.
Fibonacci Studies
Four Percent Model
Analyzing these shorter term components of the long-term
Fourier Transform cycles can be helpful in identifying major turning points in the
Fundamental Analysis longer term cycle. The DPO helps you remove these longer-
Gann Angles term cycles from prices.
Herrick Payoff Index
Interest Rates To calculate the DPO, you specify a time period. Cycles longer
Kagi than this time period are removed from prices, leaving the
Large Block Ratio shorter-term cycles.
M-O
P-S Example
T-Z
Bibliography The following chart shows the 20-day DPO of Ryder. You can
About the Author see that minor peaks in the DPO coincided with minor peaks in
Ryder's price, but the longer-term price trend during June was
Formula Primer
not reflected in the DPO. This is because the 20-day DPO
User Groups removes cycles of more than 20 days.
Training Partners
Related Link:
Calculation
To calculate the Detrended Price Oscillator, first create an n-

period simple moving average (where "n" is the number of
periods in the moving average).
Now, subtract the moving average "(n / 2) + 1" days ago, from
the closing price. The result is the DPO.



Preface
Acknowledgments
Terminology
To Learn More
PART TWO: Reference
DIRECTIONAL MOVEMENT
A-C
D-L Overview
Demand Index
The Directional Movement System helps determine if a security
Dow Theory
is "trending." It was developed by Welles Wilder and is
Ease of Movement explained in his book, New Concepts in Technical Trading
Efficient Market Theory Systems.
Elliott Wave Theory
Envelopes (Trading Bands) Interpretation
Fibonacci Studies
Four Percent Model
The basic Directional Movement trading system involves
Fourier Transform comparing the 14-day +DI ("Directional Indicator") and the 14-
Fundamental Analysis day -DI. This can be done by plotting the two indicators on top
Gann Angles of each other or by subtracting the +DI from the -DI. Wilder
Herrick Payoff Index suggests buying when the +DI rises above the -DI and selling
Interest Rates when the +DI falls below the -DI.
Kagi
Large Block Ratio Wilder qualifies these simple trading rules with the "extreme
point rule." This rule is designed to prevent whipsaws and
M-O
reduce the number of trades. The extreme point rule requires
P-S
T-Z
that on the day that the +DI and -DI cross, you note the
Bibliography "extreme point." When the +DI rises above the -DI, the extreme
About the Author price is the high price on the day the lines cross. When the +DI
falls below the -DI, the extreme price is the low price on the
Formula Primer day the lines cross.
User Groups
The extreme point is then used as a trigger point at which you
Educational Products should implement the trade. For example, after receiving a buy
Training Partners
signal (the +DI rose above the -DI), you should then wait until
the security's price rises above the extreme point (the high
price on the day that the +DI and -DI lines crossed) before
buying. If the price fails to rise above the extreme point, you
Related Link: should continue to hold your short position.
In Wilder's book, he notes that this system works best on
securities that have a high Commodity Selection Index. He
says, "as a rule of thumb, the system will be profitable on
commodities that have a CSI value above 25. When the CSI
drops below 20, then do not use a trend-following system."
Example
The following chart shows Texaco and the +DI and -DI
indicators. I drew "buy" arrows when the +DI rose above the -
DI and "sell" arrows when the +DI fell below the -DI. I only
labeled the significant crossings and did not label the many
short-term crossings.
Calculation
The calculations of the Directional Movement system are

beyond the scope of this book. Wilder's book, New Concepts In
Technical Trading, gives complete step-by-step instructions on
the calculation and interpretation of these indicators.



Preface
Acknowledgments
Terminology
To Learn More
PART TWO: Reference
DOW THEORY
A-C
D-L Overview
Demand Index
In 1897, Charles Dow developed two broad market averages.
Dow Theory
The "Industrial Average" included 12 blue-chip stocks and the
Ease of Movement "Rail Average" was comprised of 20 railroad enterprises.
Efficient Market Theory These are now known as the Dow Jones Industrial Average
Elliott Wave Theory and the Dow Jones Transportation Average.
Equivolume/Candlevolume The Dow Theory resulted from a series of articles published by
Fibonacci Studies Charles Dow in The Wall Street Journal between 1900 and
Four Percent Model
1902. The Dow Theory is the common ancestor to most
Fourier Transform
principles of modern technical analysis.
Fundamental Analysis
Gann Angles
Herrick Payoff Index Interestingly, the Theory itself originally focused on using
Interest Rates general stock market trends as a barometer for general
Kagi business conditions. It was not originally intended to forecast
Large Block Ratio stock prices. However, subsequent work has focused almost
Linear Regression Lines exclusively on this use of the Theory.
M-O
P-S
T-Z
Interpretation
Bibliography
About the Author The Dow Theory comprises six assumptions:
Formula Primer
1. The Averages Discount Everything.
User Groups
An individual stock's price reflects everything that is known
about the security. As new information arrives, market
Training Partners participants quickly disseminate the information and the price
adjusts accordingly. Likewise, the market averages discount
and reflect everything known by all stock market participants.
Related Link: 2. The Market Is Comprised of Three Trends.

At any given time in the stock market, three forces are in effect:
the Primary trend, Secondary trends, and Minor trends.
The Primary trend can either be a bullish (rising) market or a
bearish (falling) market. The Primary trend usually lasts more
than one year and may last for several years. If the market is
making successive higher-highs and higher-lows the primary
trend is up. If the market is making successive lower-highs and
lower-lows, the primary trend is down.
Secondary trends are intermediate, corrective reactions to the

Primary trend. These reactions typically last from one to three
months and retrace from one-third to two-thirds of the previous
Secondary trend. The following chart shows a Primary trend
(Line "A") and two Secondary trends ("B" and "C").
Minor trends are short-term movements lasting from one day to

three weeks. Secondary trends are typically comprised of a
number of Minor trends. The Dow Theory holds that, since
stock prices over the short-term are subject to some degree of
manipulation (Primary and Secondary trends are not), Minor
trends are unimportant and can be misleading.
3. Primary Trends Have Three Phases.
The Dow Theory says that the First phase is made up of

aggressive buying by informed investors in anticipation of
economic recovery and long-term growth. The general feeling
among most investors during this phase is one of "gloom and
doom" and "disgust." The informed investors, realizing that a
turnaround is inevitable, aggressively buy from these
distressed sellers.
The Second phase is characterized by increasing corporate

earnings and improved economic conditions. Investors will
begin to accumulate stock as conditions improve.
The Third phase is characterized by record corporate earnings

and peak economic conditions. The general public (having had
enough time to forget about their last "scathing") now feels
comfortable participating in the stock market--fully convinced
that the stock market is headed for the moon. They now buy
even more stock, creating a buying frenzy. It is during this
phase that those few investors who did the aggressive buying
during the First phase begin to liquidate their holdings in
anticipation of a downturn.
The following chart of the Dow Industrials illustrates these

three phases during the years leading up to the October 1987
crash.
In anticipation of a recovery from the recession, informed

investors began to accumulate stock during the First phase
(box "A"). A steady stream of improved earnings reports came
in during the Second phase (box "B"), causing more investors
to buy stock. Euphoria set in during the Third phase (box "C"),
as the general public began to aggressively buy stock.
4. The Averages Must Confirm Each Other.
The Industrials and Transports must confirm each other in

order for a valid change of trend to occur. Both averages must
extend beyond their previous secondary peak (or trough) in
order for a change of trend to be confirmed.
The following chart shows the Dow Industrials and the Dow
Transports at the beginning of the bull market in 1982.
Confirmation of the change in trend occurred when both
averages rose above their previous secondary peak.
5. The Volume Confirms the Trend.
The Dow Theory focuses primarily on price action. Volume is

only used to confirm uncertain situations.
Volume should expand in the direction of the primary trend. If

the primary trend is down, volume should increase during
market declines. If the primary trend is up, volume should
increase during market advances.
The following chart shows expanding volume during an up

trend, confirming the primary trend.
6. A Trend Remains Intact Until It Gives a

Definite Reversal Signal.
An up-trend is defined by a series of higher-highs and higher-

lows. In order for an up-trend to reverse, prices must have at
least one lower high and one lower low (the reverse is true of a
downtrend).
When a reversal in the primary trend is signaled by both the

Industrials and Transports, the odds of the new trend
continuing are at their greatest. However, the longer a trend
continues, the odds of the trend remaining intact become
progressively smaller. The following chart shows how the Dow
Industrials registered a higher high (point "A") and a higher low
(point "B") which identified a reversal of the down trend (line
"C").



Preface
Acknowledgments
Terminology
To Learn More
PART TWO: Reference
EASE OF MOVEMENT
A-C
D-L Overview
Demand Index
The Ease of Movement indicator shows the relationship
Dow Theory
between volume and price change. As with Equivolume
Ease of Movement charting, this indicator shows how much volume is required to
Efficient Market Theory move prices.
Elliott Wave Theory
Envelopes (Trading Bands) The Ease of Movement indicator was developed Richard W.
Equivolume/Candlevolume Arms, Jr., the creator of Equivolume.
Fibonacci Studies
Four Percent Model
Fourier Transform
Interpretation
Gann Angles High Ease of Movement values occur when prices are moving
Herrick Payoff Index upward on light volume. Low Ease of Movement values occur
Interest Rates when prices are moving downward on light volume. If prices
Kagi are not moving, or if heavy volume is required to move prices,
Large Block Ratio then the indicator will also be near zero.
M-O
P-S
The Ease of Movement indicator produces a buy signal when it
T-Z crosses above zero, indicating that prices are moving upward
Bibliography more easily; a sell signal is given when the indicator crosses
About the Author below zero, indicating that prices are moving downward more
easily.
Formula Primer
User Groups Example

The following chart shows Compaq and a 14-day Ease of
Training Partners Movement indicator. A 9-day moving average was plotted on
the Ease of Movement indicator.
Related Link:
"Buy" and "sell" arrows were placed on the chart when the
moving average crossed zero.
Calculation
To calculate the Ease of Movement indicator, first calculate the

Midpoint Move as shown below.
Next, calculate the "High-Low" Box Ratio expressed in eighths

with the denominator dropped (e.g., 1-1/2 points = 12/8 or just
12).
The Ease of Movement ("EMV") indicator is then calculated

from the Midpoint Move and Box Ratio.
The raw Ease of Movement value is usually smoothed with a

moving average.



Preface
Acknowledgments
Terminology
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PART TWO: Reference
EFFICIENT MARKET THEORY
A-C
D-L Overview
Demand Index
The Efficient Market Theory says that security prices correctly
Dow Theory
and almost immediately reflect all information and
Ease of Movement expectations. It says that you cannot consistently outperform
Efficient Market Theory the stock market due to the random nature in which information
Elliott Wave Theory arrives and the fact that prices react and adjust almost
Envelopes (Trading Bands) immediately to reflect the latest information. Therefore, it
Equivolume/Candlevolume assumes that at any given time, the market correctly prices all
Fibonacci Studies securities. The result, or so the Theory advocates, is that
Four Percent Model securities cannot be overpriced or underpriced for a long
Fourier Transform
enough period of time to profit therefrom.
Gann Angles
Herrick Payoff Index The Theory holds that since prices reflect all available
Interest Rates information, and since information arrives in a random fashion,
Kagi there is little to be gained by any type of analysis, whether
Large Block Ratio fundamental or technical. It assumes that every piece of
Linear Regression Lines information has been collected and processed by thousands of
M-O investors and this information (both old and new) is correctly
P-S reflected in the price. Returns cannot be increased by studying
T-Z historical data, either fundamental or technical, since past data
Bibliography
will have no effect on future prices.
About the Author
Formula Primer The problem with both of these theories is that many investors
base their expectations on past prices (whether using technical
User Groups
indicators, a strong track record, an oversold condition,
Educational Products industry trends, etc). And since investors expectations control
prices, it seems obvious that past prices do have a significant
Training Partners influence on future prices.

Related Link:


Preface
Acknowledgments
Terminology
To Learn More
PART TWO: Reference
ELLIOTT WAVE THEORY
A-C
D-L Overview
Demand Index
The Elliott Wave Theory is named after Ralph Nelson Elliott.
Dow Theory
Inspired by the Dow Theory and by observations found
Ease of Movement throughout nature, Elliott concluded that the movement of the
Efficient Market Theory stock market could be predicted by observing and identifying a
Elliott Wave Theory repetitive pattern of waves. In fact, Elliott believed that all of
Envelopes (Trading Bands) man's activities, not just the stock market, were influenced by
Equivolume/Candlevolume these identifiable series of waves.
Fibonacci Studies
Four Percent Model
With the help of C. J. Collins, Elliott's ideas received the
Fourier Transform
attention of Wall Street in a series of articles published in
Gann Angles
Financial World magazine in 1939. During the 1950s and
Herrick Payoff Index 1960s (after Elliott's passing), his work was advanced by
Interest Rates Hamilton Bolton. In 1960, Bolton wrote Elliott Wave Principle--
Kagi A Critical Appraisal. This was the first significant work since
Large Block Ratio Elliott's passing. In 1978, Robert Prechter and A. J. Frost
Linear Regression Lines collaborated to write the book Elliott Wave Principle.
M-O
P-S
Interpretation
T-Z
Bibliography
About the Author The underlying forces behind the Elliott Wave Theory are of
building up and tearing down. The basic concepts of the Elliott
Formula Primer Wave Theory are listed below.
User Groups
1. Action is followed by reaction.
Training Partners
2. There are five waves in the direction of the main trend
followed by three corrective waves (a "5-3" move).
3. A 5-3 move completes a cycle. This 5-3 move then

Related Link: becomes two subdivisions of the next higher 5-3 wave.
4. The underlying 5-3 pattern remains constant, though the
time span of each may vary.
The basic pattern is made up of eight waves (five up and
three down) which are labeled 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, a, b, and c on
the following chart.
Waves 1, 3, and 5 are called impulse waves. Waves 2

and 4 are called corrective waves. Waves a, b, and c
correct the main trend made by waves 1 through 5.
The main trend is established by waves 1 through 5 and

can be either up or down. Waves a, b, and c always
move in the opposite direction of waves 1 through 5.
Elliott Wave Theory holds that each wave within a wave

count contains a complete 5-3 wave count of a smaller
cycle. The longest wave count is called the Grand
Supercycle. Grand Supercycle waves are comprised of
Supercycles, and Supercycles are comprised of Cycles.
This process continues into Primary, Intermediate,
Minute, Minuette, and Sub-minuette waves.
The following chart shows how 5-3 waves are comprised

of smaller cycles.
This chart contains the identical pattern shown in the
preceding chart (now displayed using dotted lines), but
the smaller cycles are also displayed. For example, you
can see that impulse wave labeled 1 in the preceding
chart is comprised of five smaller waves.
Fibonacci numbers provide the mathematical foundation

for the Elliott Wave Theory. Briefly, the Fibonacci number
sequence is made by simply starting at 1 and adding the
previous number to arrive at the new number (i.e.,
0+1=1, 1+1=2, 2+1=3, 3+2=5, 5+3=8, 8+5=13, etc).
Each of the cycles that Elliott defined are comprised of a
total wave count that falls within the Fibonacci number
sequence. For example, the preceding chart shows two
Primary waves (an impulse wave and a corrective wave),
eight intermediate waves (the 5-3 sequence shown in the
first chart), and 34 minute waves (as labeled). The
numbers 2, 8, and 34 fall within the Fibonacci numbering
sequence.
Elliott Wave practitioners use their determination of the

wave count in combination with the Fibonacci numbers
to predict the time span and magnitude of future market
moves ranging from minutes and hours to years and
decades.
There is general agreement among Elliott Wave

practitioners that the most recent Grand Supercycle
began in 1932 and that the final fifth wave of this cycle
began at the market bottom in 1982. However, there has
been much disparity since 1982. Many heralded the
arrival of the October 1987 crash as the end of the cycle.
The strong recovery that has since followed has caused
them to reevaluate their wave counts. Herein, lies the
weakness of the Elliott Wave Theory--its predictive value
is dependent on an accurate wave count. Determining
where one wave starts and another wave ends can be
extremely subjective.
❍ Back to Previous Section



Preface
Acknowledgments
Terminology
To Learn More
PART TWO: Reference
ENVELOPES (TRADING BANDS)
A-C
D-L Overview
Demand Index
An envelope is comprised of two moving averages. One
Dow Theory
moving average is shifted upward and the second moving
Ease of Movement average is shifted downward.
Envelopes define the upper and lower boundaries of a
Fibonacci Studies
Four Percent Model
security's normal trading range. A sell signal is generated when
Fourier Transform the security reaches the upper band whereas a buy signal is
Fundamental Analysis generated at the lower band. The optimum percentage shift
Gann Angles depends on the volatility of the security--the more volatile, the
Herrick Payoff Index larger the percentage.
Interest Rates
Kagi The logic behind envelopes is that overzealous buyers and
Large Block Ratio sellers push the price to the extremes (i.e., the upper and lower
bands), at which point the prices often stabilize by moving to
M-O
more realistic levels. This is similar to the interpretation of
P-S
T-Z
Bollinger Bands.
Bibliography
Formula Primer
The following chart displays American Brands with a 6%
User Groups envelope of a 25-day exponential moving average.
Training Partners
Related Link:
You can see how American Brands' price tended to bounce off
the bands rather than penetrate them.
Calculation
Envelopes are calculated by shifted moving averages. In the

above example, one 25-day exponential moving average was
shifted up 6% and another 25-day moving average was shifted
down 6%.



Preface
Acknowledgments
Terminology
To Learn More
PART TWO: Reference
EQUIVOLUME
A-C
D-L Overview
Demand Index
Equivolume displays prices in a manner that emphasizes the
Dow Theory
relationship between price and volume. Equivolume was
Ease of Movement developed by Richard W. Arms, Jr., and is further explained in
Efficient Market Theory his book Volume Cycles in the Stock Market.
Elliott Wave Theory
Envelopes (Trading Bands) Instead of displaying volume as an "afterthought" on the lower
Equivolume/Candlevolume margin of a chart, Equivolume combines price and volume in a
Fibonacci Studies two-dimensional box. The top line of the box is the high for the
Four Percent Model
period and the bottom line is the low for the period. The width
Fourier Transform
of the box is the unique feature of Equivolume--it represents
Gann Angles
the volume for the period.
Interest Rates Figure 46 shows the components of an Equivolume box:
Kagi
Large Block Ratio Figure 46
M-O
P-S
T-Z
Bibliography
About the Author
Formula Primer
User Groups
The bottom scale on an Equivolume chart is based on volume,
Training Partners rather than on dates. This suggests that volume, rather than
time, is the guiding influence of price change. To quote Mr.
Arms, "If the market wore a wristwatch, it would be divided into
shares, not hours."
Related Link:
Traders Library Investment Bookstore Candlevolume
Candlevolume charts are a unique hybrid of Equivolume and

candlestick charts. Candlevolume charts possess the shadows
and body characteristics of candlestick charts, plus the volume
width attribute of Equivolume charts. This combination gives
you the unique ability to study candlestick patterns in
combination with their volume related movements.
Interpretation
The shape of each Equivolume box provides a picture of the

supply and demand for the security during a specific trading
period. Short and wide boxes (heavy volume accompanied
with small changes in price) tend to occur at turning points,
while tall and narrow boxes (light volume accompanied with
large changes in price) are more likely to occur in established
trends.
Especially important are boxes which penetrate support or

resistance levels, since volume confirms penetrations. A
"power box" is one in which both height and width increase
substantially. Power boxes provide excellent confirmation to a
breakout. A narrow box, due to light volume, puts the validity of
a breakout in question.
Example
The following Equivolume chart shows Phillip Morris' prices.
Note the price consolidation from June to September with

resistance around $51.50. The strong move above $51.50 in
October produced a power box validating the breakout.
The following is a Candlevolume chart of the British Pound.

You can see that this hybrid chart is similar to a candlestick
chart, but the width of the bars vary based on volume.



Preface
Acknowledgments
Terminology
To Learn More
PART TWO: Reference
FIBONACCI STUDIES
A-C
D-L Overview
Demand Index
Leonardo Fibonacci was a mathematician who was born in
Dow Theory
Italy around the year 1170. It is believed that Mr. Fibonacci
Ease of Movement discovered the relationship of what are now referred to as
Efficient Market Theory Fibonacci numbers while studying the Great Pyramid of Gizeh
Elliott Wave Theory in Egypt.
Equivolume/Candlevolume Fibonacci numbers are a sequence of numbers in which each
Fibonacci Studies successive number is the sum of the two previous numbers:
Four Percent Model
Fourier Transform
1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, 144, 610, etc.
Gann Angles
Herrick Payoff Index These numbers possess an intriguing number of
Interest Rates interrelationships, such as the fact that any given number is
Kagi approximately 1.618 times the preceding number and any
Large Block Ratio given number is approximately 0.618 times the following
Linear Regression Lines number. The booklet Understanding Fibonacci Numbers by
M-O Edward Dobson contains a good discussion of these
P-S
interrelationships.
T-Z
Bibliography
About the Author Interpretation
Formula Primer There are four popular Fibonacci studies: arcs, fans,
User Groups retracements, and time zones. The interpretation of these
studies involves anticipating changes in trends as prices near
Educational Products the lines created by the Fibonacci studies.
Training Partners
Arcs
Fibonacci Arcs are displayed by first drawing a trendline

Related Link: between two extreme points, for example, a trough and
Traders Library Investment Bookstore opposing peak. Three arcs are then drawn, centered on the
second extreme point, so they intersect the trendline at the
Fibonacci levels of 38.2%, 50.0%, and 61.8%.
The interpretation of Fibonacci Arcs involves anticipating
support and resistance as prices approach the arcs. A
common technique is to display both Fibonacci Arcs and
Fibonacci Fan Lines and to anticipate support/resistance at the
points where the Fibonacci studies cross.
Note that the points where the Arcs cross the price data will
vary depending on the scaling of the chart, because the Arcs
are drawn so they are circular relative to the chart paper or
computer screen.
The following British Pound chart illustrates how the arcs can
provide support and resistance (points "A," "B," and "C").
Fans
Fibonacci Fan Lines are displayed by drawing a trendline

between two extreme points, for example, a trough and
opposing peak. Then an "invisible" vertical line is drawn
through the second extreme point. Three trendlines are then
drawn from the first extreme point so they pass through the
invisible vertical line at the Fibonacci levels of 38.2%, 50.0%,
and 61.8%.. (This technique is similar to Speed Resistance
Lines.)
The following chart of Texaco shows how prices found support

at the Fan Lines.
You can see that when prices encountered the top Fan Line
(point "A"), they were unable to penetrate the line for several
days. When prices did penetrate this line, they dropped quickly
to the bottom Fan Line (points "B" and "C") before finding
support. Also note that when prices bounced off the bottom line
(point "C"), they rose freely to the top line (point "D") where
they again met resistance, fell to the middle line (point "E") and
rebounded.
Retracements
Fibonacci Retracements are displayed by first drawing a

trendline between two extreme points, for example, a trough
and opposing peak. A series of nine horizontal lines are drawn
intersecting the trendline at the Fibonacci levels of 0.0%,
23.6%, 38.2%, 50%, 61.8%, 100%, 161.8%, 261.8%, and
423.6%. (Some of the lines will probably not be visable
because they will be off the scale.)
After a significant price move (either up or down), prices will

often retrace a significant portion (if not all) of the original
move. As prices retrace, support and resistance levels often
occur at or near the Fibonacci Retracement levels.
In the following chart of Eastman Kodak, Fibonacci

Retracement lines were drawn between a major trough and
peak.
You can see that support and resistance occurred near the
Fibonacci levels of 23 and 38%.
Time Zones
Fibonacci Time Zones are a series of vertical lines. They are

spaced at the Fibonacci intervals of 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34,
etc. The interpretation of Fibonacci Time Zones involves
looking for significant changes in price near the vertical lines.
In the following example, Fibonacci Time Zones were drawn on

the Dow Jones Industrials beginning at the market bottom in
1970.
You can see that significant changes in the Industrials

occurred on or near the Time Zone lines.



Preface
Acknowledgments
Terminology
To Learn More
PART TWO: Reference
FOUR PERCENT MODEL
A-C
D-L Overview
Demand Index
The Four Percent Model is a stock market timing tool based on
Dow Theory
the percent change of the weekly close of the (geometric)
Ease of Movement Value Line Composite Index. It is a trend following tool
Efficient Market Theory designed to keep you in the market during major up moves and
Elliott Wave Theory out (or short) during major down moves.
Equivolume/Candlevolume The Four Percent Model was developed by Ned Davis and
Fibonacci Studies popularized in Martin Zweig's book Winning on Wall Street.
Four Percent Model
Fourier Transform
Fundamental Analysis Interpretation
Gann Angles
Herrick Payoff Index A significant strength of the Four Percent Model is its simplicity.
Interest Rates The Model is easy to calculate and to analyze. In fact, only one
Kagi piece of data is required--the weekly close of the Value Line
Large Block Ratio Composite Index.
M-O
P-S
A buy signal is generated when the index rises at least four
T-Z percent from a previous value. A sell signal is generated when
Bibliography the index falls at least four percent. For example, a buy signal
About the Author would be generated if the weekly close of the Value Line rose
from 200 to 208 (a four percent rise). If the index subsequently
Formula Primer rallied to 250 and then dropped below 240 (a four percent
User Groups drop), a sell signal would be generated.
Educational Products From 1961 to 1992, a buy and hold approach on the Value
Training Partners Line Index would have yielded 149 points (3% annual return).
Using the Four Percent Model (including shorts) during the
same period would have yielded 584 points (13.6% annual
return). Interestingly, about half of the signals generated were
Related Link: wrong. However, the average gain was much larger than the
average loss--an excellent example of the stock market maxim
"cut your losses short and let your profits run."
Example
The following chart shows the Zig Zag indicator plotted on top
of the Value Line Composite Index.
The Zig Zag indicator identifies changes in price that are at

least 4%.



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Terminology
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PART TWO: Reference
FOURIER TRANSFORM
A-C
D-L Overview
Demand Index
Fourier Transforms were originally developed as an
Dow Theory
engineering tool to study repetitious phenomena such as the
Ease of Movement vibration of a stringed musical instrument or an airplane wing
Efficient Market Theory during flight. It is used in technical analysis to detect cyclical
Elliott Wave Theory patterns within prices.
Equivolume/Candlevolume It is beyond the scope of this book to provide a full explanation
Fibonacci Studies of Fourier analysis. Further information can be found in
Four Percent Model
Technical Analysis of Stocks and Commodities (TASC),
Fourier Transform
Volume One issues #2, #4, and #7; Volume Two issue #4;
Gann Angles
Volume Three issues #2 and #7 (Understanding Cycles);
Herrick Payoff Index Volume Four issue #6; Volume Five issues #3 (In Search of
Interest Rates the Cause of Cycles) and #5 (Cycles and Chart Patterns); and
Kagi Volume Six issue #11 (Cycles).
Large Block Ratio
Linear Regression Lines The complete Fourier analysis concept is called spectral
M-O analysis. Fast Fourier Transform ("FFT") is an abbreviated
P-S calculation that can be computed in a fraction of the time. FFT
T-Z
sacrifices phase relationships and concentrates only on cycle
Bibliography
length and amplitude.
About the Author
Formula Primer The benefit of FFT is its ability to extract the predominate
cycle(s) from a series of data (e.g., an indicator or a security's
User Groups
price).
FFTs are based on the principal that any finite, time-ordered
Training Partners
set of data can be approximated by decomposing the data into
a set of sine waves. Each sine wave has a specific cycle
length, amplitude, and phase relationship to the other sine
waves.
Related Link:
Traders Library Investment Bookstore A difficulty occurs when applying FFT analysis to security
prices, because FFTs were designed to be applied to non-
trending, periodic data. The fact that security prices are often
trending is overcome by "detrending" the data using either a
linear regression trendline or a moving average. To adjust for
the fact that security data is not truly periodic, since securities
are not traded on weekends and some holidays, the prices are
passed through a smoothing function called a "hamming
window."
Interpretation
As stated above, it is beyond the scope of this book to provide

complete interpretation of FFT analysis. I will focus my
discussion on the "Interpreted" Fast Fourier Transforms found
in the MetaStock computer program. This indicator shows the
three predominate cycle lengths and the relative strength of
each of these cycles.
The following chart displays the Interpreted FFT of US Steel.
The Interpreted FFT shows that predominate cycle lengths in

US Steel are 205, 39, and 27 trading days.
The Interpreted FFT indicator always displays the most

significant cycle (205 days in this example) on the left and the
least significant cycle (27 days in this example) on the right.
The length of each cycle is determined by the numeric value of
the indicator (as read from the y-axis scales on the sides of the
chart).
The longer the indicator remains at a specific value, the more

predominate it was in the data being analyzed. For example, in
the above chart, the 205-day cycle is five times stronger than
the 39-day cycle, because the indicator was at 205 for a much
longer period (the fact that 205 is five times greater than 39 is
coincidental).
Once you know the predominate cycle length, you can use it
as a parameter for other indicators. For example, if you know
that a security has a 35-day cycle, you may want to plot a 35-
day moving average or a 35-day RSI on the security.



Preface
Acknowledgments
Terminology
To Learn More
PART TWO: Reference
FUNDAMENTAL ANALYSIS
A-C
D-L Overview
Demand Index
Fundamental analysis is the study of economic, industry, and
Dow Theory
company conditions in an effort to determine the value of a
Ease of Movement company's stock. Fundamental analysis typically focuses on
Efficient Market Theory key statistics in a company's financial statements to determine
Elliott Wave Theory if the stock price is correctly valued.
Equivolume/Candlevolume I realize that some people will find a discussion on fundamental
Fibonacci Studies analysis within a book on technical analysis peculiar, but the
Four Percent Model
two theories are not as different as many people believe. It is
Fourier Transform
quite popular to apply technical analysis to charts of
Gann Angles
fundamental data, for example, to compare trends in interest
Herrick Payoff Index rates with changes in security prices. It is also popular to use
Interest Rates fundamental analysis to select securities and then use
Kagi technical analysis to time individual trades. Even diehard
Large Block Ratio technicians can benefit from an understanding of fundamental
Linear Regression Lines analysis (and vice versa).
M-O
P-S
Interpretation
T-Z
Bibliography
About the Author Most fundamental information focuses on economic, industry,
and company statistics. The typical approach to analyzing a
Formula Primer company involves four basic steps:
User Groups
1. Determine the condition of the general economy.
Training Partners
2. Determine the condition of the industry.
3. Determine the condition of the company.
Related Link: 4. Determine the value of the company's stock.

Economic Analysis
The economy is studied to determine if overall conditions are
good for the stock market. Is inflation a concern? Are interest
rates likely to rise or fall? Are consumers spending? Is the
trade balance favorable? Is the money supply expanding or
contracting? These are just some of the questions that the
fundamental analyst would ask to determine if economic
conditions are right for the stock market.
Industry Analysis
The company's industry obviously influences the outlook for

the company. Even the best stocks can post mediocre returns
if they are in an industry that is struggling. It is often said that a
weak stock in a strong industry is preferable to a strong stock
in a weak industry.
Company Analysis
After determining the economic and industry conditions, the

company itself is analyzed to determine its financial health.
This is usually done by studying the company's financial
statements. From these statements a number of useful ratios
can be calculated. The ratios fall under five main categories:
profitability, price, liquidity, leverage, and efficiency. When
performing ratio analysis on a company, the ratios should be
compared to other companies within the same or similar
industry to get a feel for what is considered "normal." At least
one popular ratio from each category is shown below.
Net Profit Margin.A company's net profit margin is a

profitability ratio calculated by dividing net income by total
sales. This ratio indicates how much profit the company is able
to squeeze out of each dollar of sales. For example, a net profit
margin of 30%, indicates that $0.30 of every $1.00 in sales is
realized in profits.
P/E Ratio.The P/E ratio (i.e., Price/Earnings ratio) is a price

ratio calculated by dividing the security's current stock price by
the previous four quarter's earnings per share (EPS).
The P/E Ratio shows how much an investor must pay to "buy"
$1 of the company's earnings. For example, if a stock's current
price is $20 and the EPS for the last four quarters was $2, the
P/E ratio is 10 (i.e., $20 / $2 = 10). This means that you must
pay $10 to "buy" $1 of the company's earnings. Of course,
investor expectations of company's future performance play a
heavy role in determining a company's current P/E ratio.
A common approach is to compare the P/E ratio of companies

within the same industry. All else being equal, the company
with the lower P/E ratio is the better value.
Book Value Per Share.A company's book value is a price ratio
calculated by dividing total net assets (assets minus liabilities)
by total shares outstanding. Depending on the accounting
methods used and the age of the assets, book value can be
helpful in determining if a security is overpriced or under-
priced. If a security is selling at a price far below book value, it
may be an indication that the security is under-priced.
Current Ratio.A company's current ratio is a liquidity ratio

calculated by dividing current assets by current liabilities. This
measures the company's ability to meet current debt
obligations. The higher the ratio the more liquid the company.
For example, a current ratio of 3.0 means that the company's
current assets, if liquidated, would be sufficient to pay for three
times the company's current liabilities.
Debt Ratio.A company's debt ratio is a leverage ratio

calculated by dividing total liabilities by total assets. This ratio
measures the extent to which total assets have been financed
with debt. For example, a debt ratio of 40% indicates that 40%
of the company's assets have been financed with borrowed
funds. Debt is a two-edged sword. During times of economic
stress or rising interest rates, companies with a high debt ratio
can experience financial problems. However, during good
times, debt can enhance profitability by financing growth at a
lower cost.
Inventory Turnover.A company's inventory turnover is an

efficiency ratio calculated by dividing cost of goods sold by
inventories. It reflects how effectively the company manages its
inventories by showing the number of times per year
inventories are turned over (replaced). Of course, this type of
ratio is highly dependent on the industry. A grocery store chain
will have a much higher turnover than a commercial airplane
manufacturer. As stated previously, it is important to compare
ratios with other companies in the same industry.
Stock Price Valuation
After determining the condition and outlook of the economy,

the industry, and the company, the fundamental analyst is
prepared to determine if the company's stock is overvalued,
undervalued, or correctly valued.
Several valuation models have been developed to help

determine the value of a stock. These include dividend models
which focus on the present value of expected dividends,
earnings models which focuses on the present value of
expected earnings, and asset models which focus on the value
of the company's assets.
There is no doubt that fundamental factors play a major role in
a stock's price. However, if you form your price expectations
based on fundamental factors, it is important that you study the
price history as well or you may end up owning an undervalued
stock that remains undervalued.



Preface
Acknowledgments
Terminology
To Learn More
PART TWO: Reference
GANN ANGLES
A-C
D-L Overview
Demand Index
W. D. Gann (1878-1955) designed several unique techniques
Dow Theory
for studying price charts. Central to Gann's techniques was
Ease of Movement geometric angles in conjunction with time and price. Gann
Efficient Market Theory believed that specific geometric patterns and angles had
Elliott Wave Theory unique characteristics that could be used to predict price
Envelopes (Trading Bands) action.
Fibonacci Studies All of Gann's techniques require that equal time and price
Four Percent Model
intervals be used on the charts, so that a rise/run of 1 x 1 will
Fourier Transform
always equal a 45 degree angle.
Gann Angles
Herrick Payoff Index Interpretation
Interest Rates
Kagi Gann believed that the ideal balance between time and price
Large Block Ratio exists when prices rise or fall at a 45 degree angle relative to
the time axis. This is also called a 1 x 1 angle (i.e., prices rise
M-O
one price unit for each time unit).
P-S
T-Z
Bibliography Gann Angles are drawn between a significant bottom and top
About the Author (or vice versa) at various angles. Deemed the most important
by Gann, the 1 x 1 trendline signifies a bull market if prices are
Formula Primer above the trendline or a bear market if below. Gann felt that a
User Groups 1 x 1 trendline provides major support during an up-trend and
when the trendline is broken, it signifies a major reversal in the
Educational Products trend. Gann identified nine significant angles, with the 1 x 1
Training Partners
being the most important:
1 x 8 - 82.5 degrees
Related Link: 1 x 4 - 75 degrees
Traders Library Investment Bookstore 1 x 3 - 71.25 degrees

1 x 2 - 63.75 degrees
1 x 1 - 45 degrees
2 x 1 - 26.25 degrees
3 x 1 - 18.75 degrees
4 x 1 - 15 degrees
8 x 1 - 7.5 degrees
Note that in order for the rise/run values (e.g., 1 x 1, 1 x 8, etc)

to match the actual angles (in degrees), the x- and y-axes must
have equally spaced intervals. This means that one unit on the
x-axis (i.e., hour, day, week, month, etc) must be the same
distance as one unit on the y-axis. The easiest way to calibrate
the chart is make sure that a 1 x 1 angle produces a 45 degree
angle.
Gann observed that each of the angles can provide support

and resistance depending on the trend. For example, during an
up-trend the 1 x 1 angle tends to provide major support. A
major reversal is signaled when prices fall below the 1 x 1
angled trendline. According to Gann, prices should then be
expected to fall to the next trendline (i.e., the 2 x 1 angle). In
other words, as one angle is penetrated, expect prices to move
and consolidate at the next angle.
Gann developed several techniques for studying market action.

These include Gann Angles, Gann Fans, Gann Grids and
Cardinal Squares.
Example
A Gann Fan displays lines at each of the angles that Gann

identified. The following chart shows a Gann Fan on the S&P
500.
You can see that the S&P bounced off the 1 x 1 and 2 x 1
lines.
This next chart shows the same S&P 500 data with a Gann
Grid.
This is an 80 x 80 grid (each line on the grid is 1 x 1 and the

lines are spaced 80 weeks apart).



Preface
Acknowledgments
Terminology
To Learn More
PART TWO: Reference
HERRICK PAYOFF INDEX
A-C
D-L Overview
Demand Index
The Herrick Payoff Index is designed to show the amount of
Dow Theory
money flowing into or out of a futures contract. The Index uses
Ease of Movement open interest during its calculations, therefore, the security
Efficient Market Theory being analyzed must contain open interest.
Elliott Wave Theory
Envelopes (Trading Bands) The Herrick Payoff Index was developed by John Herrick.
Fibonacci Studies
Four Percent Model
Interpretation
Fourier Transform
Fundamental Analysis When the Herrick Payoff Index is above zero, it shows that
Gann Angles money is flowing into the futures contract (which is bullish).
Herrick Payoff Index When the Index is below zero, it shows that money is flowing
Interest Rates out of the futures contract (which is bearish).
Kagi
Large Block Ratio The interpretation of the Herrick Payoff Index involves looking
for divergences between the Index and prices.
M-O
P-S
T-Z Example
Bibliography
About the Author The following chart shows the British Pound and the Herrick
Formula Primer
Payoff Index.
User Groups
Training Partners
Related Link:
The trendlines identify a bearish divergence where prices were
making new highs while the Payoff Index was failing to make
new highs. As is typical with divergences, prices corrected to
confirm the indicator.
Calculation
The Herrick Payoff Index requires two inputs, a smoothing

factor known as the "multiplying factor" and the "value of a one
cent move."
The multiplying factor is part of a smoothing mechanism. The

results are similar to the smoothing obtained by a moving
average. For example, a multiplying factor of ten produces
results similar to a 10-period moving average.
Mr. Herrick recommends 100 as "the value of a one cent

move" for all commodities except silver, which should be 50.
The calculation of the Herrick Payoff Index ("HPI") is:
Where:



Preface
Acknowledgments
Terminology
To Learn More
PART TWO: Reference
INTEREST RATES
A-C
D-L Overview
Demand Index
Interest rates play a key role in the general business cycle and
Dow Theory
the financial markets. When interest rates change, or interest
Ease of Movement rate expectations change, the effects are far-reaching. When
Efficient Market Theory rates rise, consumers spend less which causes retail sales to
Elliott Wave Theory slow, which leads to reduced corporate profits, a declining
Envelopes (Trading Bands) stock market, and higher unemployment.
Fibonacci Studies The effect of declining corporate profits on the stock market is
Four Percent Model
compounded by the fact that higher interest rates make
Fourier Transform
interest-bearing investments more attractive, causing an
Gann Angles
exodus of money from the stock market.
Interest Rates Interpretation
Kagi
Large Block Ratio Historically, an increase in interest rates is bearish for the stock
market, whereas a decrease is bullish.
M-O
P-S
T-Z The following chart shows the 4-month rate-of-change of the
Bibliography Prime Rate and the Dow Industrials. I drew "buy" arrows when
About the Author interest rates were falling (the indicator was below zero) and
"sell" arrows when rates were rising. The arrows show the
Formula Primer strong correlation between interest rates and the stock market.
User Groups
Training Partners
Related Link:
Corporate Bond Rates
Just as governments issue bonds to fund their activities, so do

corporations. Corporate bonds are considered riskier than
Treasury Bonds and compensate for their higher risk with
higher yields. The yield of a specific corporate bond depends
on numerous factors, the most important is the financial health
of the corporation and prevailing interest rates. Several bond
rating services provide investors with an evaluation to help
judge the bond's quality.
The Confidence Index, developed by Barron's in 1932, uses

corporate bond yields as one of its components. The
Confidence Index attempts to measure the "confidence" that
investors have in the economy by comparing high grade bond
yields to speculative grade bond yields.
If investors are optimistic about the economy, they are more

likely to invest in speculative bonds, thereby driving speculative
bond yields down, and the Confidence Index up. On the other
hand, if they are pessimistic about the economy, they are more
likely to move their money from speculative grade bonds to
conservative high-grade bonds, thereby driving high-grade
bond yields down and the Confidence Index down.
Discount Rate
The Discount Rate is the interest rate that the Federal Reserve
charges member banks for loans. Banks use the Discount
Rate as the base for loans made to their customers. The
Discount Rate is set by the Federal Reserve Board which
consists of seven members appointed by the President of the
United States.
The Discount Rate does not fluctuate on a day-to-day basis
like most other interest rates. Instead, it only changes when the
Federal Reserve Board feels it is necessary to influence the
economy. During recessionary times, the Fed will ease interest
rates to promote borrowing and spending. During inflationary
times, the Fed will raise interest rates to discourage borrowing
and spending, thereby slowing the rise in prices.
Federal Funds
Banks with excess reserves can lend their reserves to banks

with deficient reserves at the Federal Funds Market. The
interest rate charged for these short (often just overnight) loans
is called the Fed Funds Rate.
Prime Rate
The Prime Rate is the interest rate U.S. banks charge their
best corporate clients. Changes in the Prime Rate are almost
always on the heels of a change in the Discount Rate.
Treasury Bond Rates
An extremely important interest rate is the yield on 30-year

Treasury Bonds ("long bonds"). The U.S. Treasury Department
auctions these bonds every six months.
Long bonds are the most volatile of all government bonds,

because of the length of their maturities--a small change in
interest rates causes an amplified change in the underlying
bonds' price.
Treasury Bill Rates
Treasury Bills are short-term (13- and 26-week) money market

instruments. They are auctioned by the U.S. Treasury
Department weekly and are often used as a secure place to
earn current market rates.
Example
The following chart shows several interest rates side-by-side.




Preface
Acknowledgments
Terminology
To Learn More
PART TWO: Reference
KAGI
A-C
D-L Overview
Demand Index
Kagi charts are believed to have been created around the time
Dow Theory
that the Japanese stock market began trading in the 1870s.
Ease of Movement Kagi charts display a series of connecting vertical lines where
Efficient Market Theory the thickness and direction of the lines are dependent on the
Elliott Wave Theory price action. The charts ignore the passage of time.
Equivolume/Candlevolume If prices continue to move in the same direction, the vertical
Fibonacci Studies line is extended. However, if prices reverse by a "reversal"
Four Percent Model
amount, a new kagi line is then drawn in a new column. When
Fourier Transform
prices penetrate a previous high or low, the thickness of the
Gann Angles
kagi line changes.
Interest Rates Kagi charts were brought to the United States by Steven Nison
Kagi when he published the book, Beyond Candlesticks.
Large Block Ratio
Linear Regression Lines Interpretation
M-O
P-S
T-Z Kagi charts illustrate the forces of supply and demand on a
Bibliography security:
About the Author
● A series of thick lines shows that demand is exceeding
Formula Primer supply (a rally).
User Groups
● A series of thin lines shows that supply is exceeding
Educational Products demand (a decline).
Training Partners
● Alternating thick and thin lines shows that the market is
in a state of equilibrium (i.e., supply equals demand).
Related Link: The most basic trading technique for kagi charts is to buy when
the kagi line changes from thin to thick and to sell when the
kagi line changes from thick to thin.
A sequence of higher-highs and higher-lows on a kagi chart

shows the underlying forces are bullish. Whereas, lower-highs
and lower-lows indicate underlying weakness.
Example
The following chart shows a 0.02-point kagi chart and a classic

bar chart of Euro Dollars.
I drew "buy" arrows on the bar chart when the kagi lines
changed from thin to thick and drew "sell" arrows when the
lines changed from thick to thin.
Calculation
The first closing price in a kagi chart is the "starting price." To

draw the first kagi line, today's close is compared to the
starting price.
● If today's price is greater than or equal to the starting

price, then a thick line is drawn from the starting price to
the new closing price.
● If today's price is less than or equal to the starting price,

then a thin line is drawn from the starting price to the
new closing price.
To draw subsequent lines, compare the closing price to the tip

(i.e. bottom or top) of the previous kagi line:
● If the price continued in the same direction as the

previous line, the line is extended in the same direction,
no matter how small the move.
● If the price moved in the opposite direction by at least the

reversal amount (this may take several days), then a
short horizontal line is drawn to the next column and a
new vertical line is drawn to the closing price.
● If the price moved in the opposite direction of the current

column by less than the reversal amount no lines are
drawn.
If a thin kagi line exceeds the prior high point on the chart, the
line becomes thick. Likewise, if a thick kagi line falls below the
prior low point, the line becomes thin.



Preface
Acknowledgments
Terminology
To Learn More
PART TWO: Reference
LARGE BLOCK RATIO
A-C
D-L Overview
Demand Index
This market sentiment indicator shows the relationship
Dow Theory
between large block trades, which are trades of more than
Ease of Movement 10,000 shares, and the total volume on the New York Stock
Efficient Market Theory Exchange. The comparison of large block trades to total
Elliott Wave Theory volume shows how active the large institutional traders are.
Equivolume/Candlevolume The higher the Large Block Ratio, the more institutional activity
Fibonacci Studies is taking place. To smooth out the day-to-day fluctuations, I
Four Percent Model
recommend plotting a 20-day moving average of the Large
Fourier Transform
Block Ratio.
Gann Angles
Herrick Payoff Index Interpretation
Interest Rates
Kagi A high number of Large Block trades in relation to total volume
Large Block Ratio often coincides with market tops and bottoms. This occurs as
institutions recognize the extreme overbought or oversold
M-O
conditions of the market and place trades accordingly. Of
P-S
T-Z
course, this assumes the institutions know what they are doing!
Bibliography
Formula Primer
The following chart shows the New York Stock Exchange
User Groups Index and the Large Block Ratio.
Training Partners
Related Link:
I drew vertical lines when the Ratio was relatively high. You
can see that these points coincided with intermediate-term
peaks.
Calculation
The Large Block Ratio is calculated by dividing the number of

large block trades by the total volume on the New York Stock
Exchange.



Preface
Acknowledgments
Terminology
To Learn More
PART TWO: Reference
LINEAR REGRESSION LINES
A-C
D-L Overview
Demand Index
Linear regression is a statistical tool used to predict future
Dow Theory
values from past values. In the case of security prices, it is
Ease of Movement commonly used to determine when prices are overextended.
Elliott Wave Theory A Linear Regression trendline uses the least squares method
Envelopes (Trading Bands) to plot a straight line through prices so as to minimize the
Equivolume/Candlevolume distances between the prices and the resulting trendline.
Fibonacci Studies
Four Percent Model
Fourier Transform
Interpretation
Gann Angles If you had to guess what a particular security's price would be
Herrick Payoff Index tomorrow, a logical guess would be "fairly close to today's
Interest Rates price." If prices are trending up, a better guess might be "fairly
Kagi close to today's price with an upward bias." Linear regression
Large Block Ratio analysis is the statistical confirmation of these logical
assumptions.
M-O
P-S
T-Z A Linear Regression trendline is simply a trendline drawn
Bibliography between two points using the least squares fit method. The
About the Author trendline is displayed in the exact middle of the prices. If you
think of this trendline as the "equilibrium" price, any move
Formula Primer above or below the trendline indicates overzealous buyers or
User Groups sellers.
Educational Products A popular method of using the Linear Regression trendline is to

Training Partners construct Linear Regression Channel lines. Developed by
Gilbert Raff, the channel is constructed by plotting two parallel,
equidistant lines above and below a Linear Regression
trendline. The distance between the channel lines to the
Related Link: regression line is the greatest distance that any one closing
price is from the regression line. Regression Channels contain
price movement, with the bottom channel line providing
support and the top channel line providing resistance. Prices
may extend outside of the channel for a short period of time.
However if prices remain outside the channel for a longer
period of time, a reversal in trend may be imminent.
A Linear Regression trendline shows where equilibrium exists.

Linear Regression Channels show the range prices can be
expected to deviate from a Linear Regression trendline.
The Time Series Forecast indicator displays the same

information as a Linear Regression trendline. Any point along
the Time Series Forecast is equal to the ending value of a
Linear Regression Trendline. For example, the ending value of
a Linear Regression trendline that covers 10 days will have the
same value as a 10-day Time Series Forecast.
Example
The following chart shows the Japanese Yen with a Linear

Regression Channel.
Calculation
The linear regression formula is:
Where:



Preface
Acknowledgments
Terminology
To Learn More
PART TWO: Reference
MACD
A-C
D-L Overview
M-O
MACD
The MACD ("Moving Average Convergence/Divergence") is a
Mass Index
McClellan Oscillator
trend following momentum indicator that shows the relationship
McClellan Summation Index between two moving averages of prices. The MACD was
Median Price developed by Gerald Appel, publisher of Systems and
Member Short Ratio Forecasts.
Momentum
Money Flow Index The MACD is the difference between a 26-day and 12-day
Moving Averages exponential moving average. A 9-day exponential moving
Negative Volume Index
average, called the "signal" (or "trigger") line is plotted on top of
New Highs-Lows Cumulative
the MACD to show buy/sell opportunities. (Appel specifies
New Highs-New Lows
New Highs/Lows Ratio
exponential moving averages as percentages. Thus, he refers
Odd Lot Balance Index to these three moving averages as 7.5%, 15%, and 20%
Odd Lot Purchases/Sales respectively.)
Odd Lot Short Ratio
On Balance Volume Interpretation
Open Interest
Open-10 TRIN
The MACD proves most effective in wide-swinging trading
Option Analysis
Overbought/Oversold
markets. There are three popular ways to use the MACD:
P-S crossovers, overbought/oversold conditions, and divergences.
T-Z
Bibliography Crossovers
About the Author
Formula Primer The basic MACD trading rule is to sell when the MACD falls
below its signal line. Similarly, a buy signal occurs when the
User Groups MACD rises above its signal line. It is also popular to buy/sell
when the MACD goes above/below zero.
Training Partners Overbought/Oversold Conditions
The MACD is also useful as an overbought/oversold indicator.

When the shorter moving average pulls away dramatically from
Related Link:
the longer moving average (i.e., the MACD rises), it is likely
Traders Library Investment Bookstore that the security price is overextending and will soon return to
more realistic levels. MACD overbought and oversold
conditions exist vary from security to security.
Divergences
A indication that an end to the current trend may be near

occurs when the MACD diverges from the security. A bearish
divergence occurs when the MACD is making new lows while
prices fail to reach new lows. A bullish divergence occurs when
the MACD is making new highs while prices fail to reach new
highs. Both of these divergences are most significant when
they occur at relatively overbought/oversold levels.
Example
The following chart shows Whirlpool and its MACD.
I drew "buy" arrows when the MACD rose above its signal line
and drew "sell" when the MACD fell below its signal line.
This chart shows that the MACD is truly a trend following

indicator--sacrificing early signals in exchange for keeping you
on the right side of the market. When a significant trend
developed, such as in October 1993 and beginning in February
1994, the MACD was able to capture the majority of the move.
When the trend was short lived, such as in January 1993, the
MACD proved unprofitable.
Calculation
The MACD is calculated by subtracting the value of a 26-day

exponential moving average from a 12-day exponential moving
average. A 9-day dotted exponential moving average of the
MACD (the "signal" line) is then plotted on top of the MACD.



Preface
Acknowledgments
Terminology
To Learn More
PART TWO: Reference
MASS INDEX
A-C
D-L Overview
M-O
MACD
The Mass Index was designed to identify trend reversals by
Mass Index
measuring the narrowing and widening of the range between
McClellan Summation Index the high and low prices. As this range widens, the Mass Index
Median Price increases; as the range narrows the Mass Index decreases.
Member Short Ratio
Momentum The Mass Index was developed by Donald Dorsey.
Money Flow Index
Moving Averages
Interpretation
New Highs-New Lows According to Mr. Dorsey, the most significant pattern to watch
New Highs/Lows Ratio for is a "reversal bulge." A reversal bulge occurs when a 25-
Odd Lot Balance Index period Mass Index rises above 27.0 and subsequently falls
Odd Lot Purchases/Sales below 26.5. A reversal in price is then likely. The overall price
Odd Lot Short Ratio trend (i.e., trending or trading range) is unimportant.
On Balance Volume
Open Interest
A 9-period exponential moving average of prices is often used
Open-10 TRIN
Option Analysis
to determine whether the reversal bulge indicates a buy or sell
Overbought/Oversold signal. When the reversal bulge occurs, you should buy if the
P-S moving average is trending down (in anticipation of the
T-Z reversal) and sell if it is trending up.
Bibliography
Formula Primer
The following chart shows Litton and its Mass Index.
User Groups
Training Partners
Related Link:
A 9-day exponential moving average is plotted on top of
Litton's prices. I drew arrows when a reversal bulge occurred
(i.e., the Mass Index rose above 27 and then fell below 26.5). If
the 9-day moving average was falling, I drew a "buy" arrow. If
the 9-day moving average was rising, I drew a "sell" arrow.
You can see that the signals generated by the Mass Index
during this time period occurred a few days before the trend
reversed.
Calculation
1. Calculate a 9-day exponential moving average ("EMA")

of the difference between the high and low prices.
2. Calculate a 9-day exponential moving average of the

moving average calculated in Step 1.
3. Divide the moving average calculated in Step 1 by the

moving average calculated in Step 2.
4. Total the values in Step 3 for the number of periods in

the Mass Index (e.g., 25 days).



Preface
Acknowledgments
Terminology
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PART TWO: Reference
McCLELLAN OSCILLATOR
A-C
D-L Overview
M-O
MACD
The McClellan Oscillator is a market breadth indicator that is
Mass Index
based on the smoothed difference between the number of
McClellan Summation Index advancing and declining issues on the New York Stock
Median Price Exchange.
Member Short Ratio
Momentum The McClellan Oscillator was developed by Sherman and
Money Flow Index Marian McClellan. Extensive coverage of the oscillator is
Moving Averages provided in their book Patterns for Profit.
New Highs-New Lows Interpretation
Odd Lot Balance Index Indicators that use advancing and declining issues to
Odd Lot Purchases/Sales determine the amount of participation in the movement of the
Odd Lot Short Ratio stock market are called "breadth" indicators. A healthy bull
On Balance Volume market is accompanied by a large number of stocks making
Open Interest
moderate upward advances in price. A weakening bull market
Open-10 TRIN
is characterized by a small number of stocks making large
Option Analysis
Overbought/Oversold
advances in price, giving the false appearance that all is well.
P-S This type of divergence often signals an end to the bull market.
T-Z A similar interpretation applies to market bottoms, where the
Bibliography market index continues to decline while fewer stocks are
About the Author declining.
Formula Primer
The McClellan Oscillator is one of the most popular breadth
User Groups indicators (another popular breadth indicator is the
Advance/Decline Line). Buy signals are typically generated
Educational Products when the McClellan Oscillator falls into the oversold area of -70
Training Partners to -100 and then turns up. Sell signals are generated when the
oscillator rises into the overbought area of +70 to +100 and
then turns down.
Related Link: If the oscillator goes beyond these areas (i.e., rises above
Traders Library Investment Bookstore +100 or falls below -100), it is a sign of an extremely
overbought or oversold condition. These extreme readings are
usually a sign of a continuation of the current trend.
For example, if the oscillator falls to -90 and turns up, a buy
signal is generated. However, if the oscillator falls below -100,
the market will probably trend lower during the next two or
three weeks. You should postpone buying until the oscillator
makes a series of rising bottoms or the market regains
strength.
Example
The following chart illustrates the five "trading zones" of the

McClellan Oscillator (i.e., above +100, between +70 and +100,
between +70 and -70, between -70 and -100, and below -100).
This next chart shows the McClellan Oscillator and the Dow
Industrials.
drew "buy" arrows when the Oscillator rose above -70 and
"sell" arrows when the Oscillator fell below +70. This indicator
does an excellent job of timing entry and exit points.
Calculation
The McClellan Oscillator is the difference between 10%

(approximately 19-day) and 5% (approximately 39-day)
exponential moving averages of advancing minus declining
issues.



Preface
Acknowledgments
Terminology
To Learn More
PART TWO: Reference
McCLELLAN SUMMATION INDEX
A-C
D-L Overview
M-O
MACD
The McClellan Summation Index is a market breath indicator
Mass Index
based on the McClellan Oscillator.
McClellan Summation Index
Median Price The McClellan Summation Index was developed by Sherman
Member Short Ratio and Marian McClellan. Extensive coverage of the index is
Momentum provided in their book Patterns for Profit.
Money Flow Index
Moving Averages
Interpretation
New Highs-New Lows The McClellan Summation Index is a long-term version of the
New Highs/Lows Ratio McClellan Oscillator. Its interpretation is similar to that of the
Odd Lot Balance Index McClellan Oscillator except that it is more suited to major trend
Odd Lot Purchases/Sales reversals.
Odd Lot Short Ratio
On Balance Volume As explained in the Calculation section, there are two methods
Open Interest
to calculate the Summation Index. The two calculation
Open-10 TRIN
Option Analysis
methods create indicators with identical appearances, but their
Overbought/Oversold numeric values differ. These interpretational comments refer to
P-S the "suggested" calculation method explained in the
T-Z Calculation section.
Bibliography
About the Author McClellan suggests the following rules for use with the
Summation Index:
Formula Primer
User Groups ● Look for major bottoms when the Summation Index falls
below -1,300.
Training Partners ● Look for major tops to occur when a divergence (page
29) with the market occurs above a Summation Index
level of +1,600.
Related Link: ● The beginning of a significant bull market is indicated

Traders Library Investment Bookstore when the Summation Index crosses above +1,900 after
moving upward more than 3,600 points from its prior low
(e.g., the index moves from -1,600 to +2,000).
Example
The following chart shows the McClellan Summation Index and

the New York Stock Exchange Index.
At the point labeled "A," the Summation Index fell below -

1,300. This signified a major bottom. The point labeled "B"
indicated the beginning of a significant bull market, because
the Summation Index rose above +1,900 after moving upward
more than 3,600 points from its prior low.
Calculation
The McClellan Summation Index can be calculated using two

different methods. This first method is the suggested method
promoted by Mr. McClellan. It subtracts 10% (approximately 19-
day) and 5% (approximately 39-day) exponential moving
averages of advancing minus declining issues from the
McClellan Oscillator.
Where:
The second method is to calculate a cumulative sum of the

McClellan Oscillator values:



Preface
Acknowledgments
Terminology
To Learn More
PART TWO: Reference
MEDIAN PRICE
A-C
D-L Overview
M-O
MACD
The Median Price indicator is simply the midpoint of each day's
Mass Index
price. The Typical Price and Weighted Close are similar
McClellan Summation Index indicators.
Median Price
Member Short Ratio Interpretation
Momentum
Money Flow Index
The Median Price indicator provides a simple, single-line chart
Moving Averages
of the day's "average price." This average price is useful when
New Highs-Lows Cumulative you want a simpler view of prices.
New Highs-New Lows
New Highs/Lows Ratio Example
Odd Lot Balance Index
Odd Lot Purchases/Sales
The following chart shows the Median Price indicator (dotted
Odd Lot Short Ratio
line) on top of Keycorp's bar chart.
On Balance Volume
Open Interest
Open-10 TRIN
Option Analysis
Overbought/Oversold
P-S
T-Z
Bibliography
About the Author
Formula Primer
User Groups
Training Partners
Related Link: Calculation

The Median Price indicator is calculated by adding the high
and low price and dividing by two.



Preface
Acknowledgments
Terminology
To Learn More
PART TWO: Reference
MEMBER SHORT RATIO
A-C
D-L Overview
M-O
MACD
The Member Short Ratio ("MSR") is a market sentiment
Mass Index
indicator that measures the short selling activity of members of
McClellan Summation Index the New York Stock Exchange. "Members" trade on the floor of
Median Price the exchange either for their own account or for their clients.
Member Short Ratio Stocks are sold short in anticipation of the price falling.
Momentum
Money Flow Index Knowing what the "smart money" is doing (e.g., members) is
Moving Averages often a good indication of the near-term market direction.
The MSR is the inverse of the Public Short Ratio. This is
New Highs-New Lows
because there are only two players in the market, the Public
Odd Lot Balance Index and the Members (Members are further divided into Special-
Odd Lot Purchases/Sales ists and Others). When the Public Short Ratio is 20%, the
Odd Lot Short Ratio Member Short Ratio must be 80%.
On Balance Volume
Open Interest Interpretation
Open-10 TRIN
Option Analysis
Overbought/Oversold Because the MSR is the inverse of the PSR, interpretation of
P-S the MSR is the opposite of the PSR. When the members are
T-Z short (a high MSR), you should be short and when the
Bibliography members are long (a low MSR), you should be long. For more
About the Author information on interpreting the MSR, refer to the discussion on
the Public Short Ratio.
Formula Primer
User Groups Calculation

The Member Short Ratio is calculated by dividing the number
Training Partners of member shorts (defined as total short sales minus public
short sales) by the total number of short sales. The resulting
figure shows the percentage of shorts that were made by
members of the New York Stock Exchange.
Related Link:



Preface
Acknowledgments
Terminology
To Learn More
PART TWO: Reference
MOMENTUM
A-C
D-L Overview
M-O
MACD
The Momentum indicator measures the amount that a
Mass Index
security's price has changed over a given time span.
Median Price Interpretation
Member Short Ratio
Momentum The interpretation of the Momentum indicator is identical to the
Money Flow Index
interpretation of the Price ROC. Both indicators display the rate-
Moving Averages
of-change of a security's price. However, the Price ROC
New Highs-Lows Cumulative indicator displays the rate-of-change as a percentage whereas
New Highs-New Lows the Momentum indicator displays the rate-of-change as a ratio.
Odd Lot Balance Index There are basically two ways to use the Momentum indicator:
Odd Lot Short Ratio ● You can use the Momentum indicator as a trend-
On Balance Volume following oscillator similar to the MACD (this is the
Open Interest
method I prefer). Buy when the indicator bottoms and
Open-10 TRIN
Option Analysis
turns up and sell when the indicator peaks and turns
Overbought/Oversold down. You may want to plot a short-term (e.g., 9-period)
P-S moving average of the indicator to determine when it is
T-Z bottoming or peaking.
Bibliography
About the Author If the Momentum indicator reaches extremely high or low
values (relative to its historical values), you should
Formula Primer assume a continuation of the current trend. For example,
User Groups if the Momentum indicator reaches extremely high values
and then turns down, you should assume prices will
Educational Products probably go still higher. In either case, only trade after
Training Partners
prices confirm the signal generated by the indicator (e.g.,
if prices peak and turn down, wait for prices to begin to
fall before selling).
Related Link: ● You can also use the Momentum indicator as a leading
indicator. This method assumes that market tops are
typically identified by a rapid price increase (when
everyone expects prices to go higher) and that market
bottoms typically end with rapid price declines (when
everyone wants to get out). This is often the case, but it
is also a broad generalization.
As a market peaks, the Momentum indicator will climb

sharply and then fall off-- diverging from the continued
upward or sideways movement of the price. Similarly, at
a market bottom, Momentum will drop sharply and then
begin to climb well ahead of prices. Both of these
situations result in divergences between the indicator
and prices.
Example
The following chart shows Integrated Circuits and its 12-day

Momentum indicator.
Divergences at points "A" and "B" provided leading indications

of the reversals that followed.



Preface
Acknowledgments
Terminology
To Learn More
PART TWO: Reference
MONEY FLOW INDEX
A-C
D-L Overview
M-O
MACD
The Money Flow Index ("MFI") is a momentum indicator that
Mass Index
measures the strength of money flowing in and out of a
McClellan Summation Index security. It is related to the Relative Strength Index, but where
Median Price the RSI only incorporates prices, the Money Flow Index
Member Short Ratio accounts for volume.
Momentum
Money Flow Index Interpretation
Moving Averages
New Highs-Lows Cumulative The interpretation of the Money Flow Index is as follows:
New Highs-New Lows
New Highs/Lows Ratio ● Look for divergence between the indicator and the price
Odd Lot Balance Index action. If the price trends higher and the MFI trends
Odd Lot Purchases/Sales lower (or vice versa), a reversal may be imminent.
Odd Lot Short Ratio
On Balance Volume ● Look for market tops to occur when the MFI is above 80.
Open Interest
Look for market bottoms to occur when the MFI is below
Open-10 TRIN
20.
Option Analysis
Overbought/Oversold
P-S Example
T-Z
Bibliography The following chart shows Intel and its 14-day Money Flow
About the Author Index.
Formula Primer
User Groups
Training Partners
Related Link:
Divergences at points "A" and "B" provided leading indications
of the reversals that followed.
Calculation
The Money Flow Index requires a series of calculations. First,

the period's Typical Price is calculated.
Next, Money Flow (not the Money Flow Index) is calculated by

multiplying the period's Typical Price by the volume.
If today's Typical Price is greater than yesterday's Typical

Price, it is considered Positive Money Flow. If today's price is
less, it is considered Negative Money Flow.
Positive Money Flow is the sum of the Positive Money over the
specified number of periods. Negative Money Flow is the sum
of the Negative Money over the specified number of periods.
The Money Ratio is then calculated by dividing the Positive

Money Flow by the Negative Money Flow.
Finally, the Money Flow Index is calculated using the Money

Ratio.



Preface
Acknowledgments
Terminology
To Learn More
PART TWO: Reference
MOVING AVERAGES
A-C
D-L Overview
M-O
MACD
A Moving Average is an indicator that shows the average value
Mass Index
of a security's price over a period of time. When calculating a
McClellan Summation Index moving average, a mathematical analysis of the security's
Median Price average value over a predetermined time period is made. As
Member Short Ratio the security's price changes, its average price moves up or
Momentum down.
Money Flow Index
Moving Averages There are five popular types of moving averages: simple (also
referred to as arithmetic), exponential, triangular, variable, and
weighted. Moving averages can be calculated on any data
New Highs-New Lows
series including a security's open, high, low, close, volume, or
Odd Lot Balance Index another indicator. A moving average of another moving
Odd Lot Purchases/Sales average is also common.
Odd Lot Short Ratio
On Balance Volume The only significant difference between the various types of
Open Interest moving averages is the weight assigned to the most recent
Open-10 TRIN data. Simple moving averages apply equal weight to the
Option Analysis prices. Exponential and weighted averages apply more weight
Overbought/Oversold
to recent prices. Triangular averages apply more weight to
P-S
prices in the middle of the time period. And variable moving
T-Z
Bibliography
averages change the weighting based on the volatility of
About the Author prices.
Formula Primer Interpretation

User Groups
The most popular method of interpreting a moving average is
Educational Products to compare the relationship between a moving average of the
Training Partners security's price with the security's price itself. A buy signal is
generated when the security's price rises above its moving
average and a sell signal is generated when the security's
price falls below its moving average.
Related Link:
Traders Library Investment Bookstore The following chart shows the Dow Jones Industrial Average
("DJIA") from 1970 through 1993.
Also displayed is a 15-month simple moving average. "Buy"
arrows were drawn when the DJIA's close rose above its
moving average; "sell" arrows were drawn when it closed
below its moving average.
This type of moving average trading system is not intended to

get you in at the exact bottom nor out at the exact top. Rather,
it is designed to keep you in line with the security's price trend
by buying shortly after the security's price bottoms and selling
shortly after it tops.
The critical element in a moving average is the number of time

periods used in calculating the average. When using hindsight,
you can always find a moving average that would have been
profitable (using a computer, I found that the optimum number
of months in the preceding chart would have been 43). The key
is to find a moving average that will be consistently profitable.
The most popular moving average is the 39-week (or 200-day)
moving average. This moving average has an excellent track
record in timing the major (long-term) market cycles.
The length of a moving average should fit the market cycle you
wish to follow. For example if you determine that a security has
a 40-day peak to peak cycle, the ideal moving average length
would be 21 days calculated using the following formula:
Table 7
Trend Moving Average
Very Short Term 5-13 days
Short Term 14-25 days
Minor Intermediate 26-49 days
Intermediate 50-100 days
Long Term 100-200 days
You can convert a daily moving average quantity into a weekly

moving average quantity by dividing the number of days by 5
(e.g., a 200-day moving average is almost identical to a 40-
week moving average). To convert a daily moving average
quantity into a monthly quantity, divide the number of days by
21 (e.g., a 200-day moving average is very similar to a 9-
month moving average, because there are approximately 21
trading days in a month).
Moving averages can also be calculated and plotted on

indicators. The interpretation of an indicator's moving average
is similar to the interpretation of a security's moving average:
when the indicator rises above its moving average, it signifies a
continued upward movement by the indicator; when the
indicator falls below its moving average, it signifies a continued
downward movement by the indicator.
Indicators which are especially well-suited for use with moving

average penetration systems include the MACD, Price ROC,
Momentum, and Stochastics.
Some indicators, such as short-term Stochastics, fluctuate so

erratically that it is difficult to tell what their trend really is. By
erasing the indicator and then plotting a moving average of the
indica-tor, you can see the general trend of the indicator rather
than its day-to-day fluctuations.
Whipsaws can be reduced, at the expense of slightly later

signals, by plotting a short-term moving average (e.g., 2-10
day) of oscillating indicators such as the 12-day ROC, Stochas-
tics, or the RSI. For example, rather than selling when the
Stochastic Oscillator falls below 80, you might sell only when a
5-period moving average of the Stochastic Oscillator falls
below 80.
Example
The following chart shows Lincoln National and its 39-week

exponential moving average.
Although the moving average does not pinpoint the tops and
bottoms perfectly, it does provide a good indication of the
direction prices are trending.
Calculation
The following sections explain how to calculate moving

averages of a security's price using the various calculation
techniques.
Simple
A simple, or arithmetic, moving average is calculated by adding

the closing price of the security for a number of time periods
(e.g., 12 days) and then dividing this total by the number of
time periods. The result is the average price of the security
over the time period. Simple moving averages give equal
weight to each daily price.
For example, to calculate a 21-day moving average of IBM:

First, you would add IBM's closing prices for the most recent
21 days. Next, you would divide that sum by 21; this would
give you the average price of IBM over the preceding 21 days.
You would plot this average price on the chart. You would
perform the same calculation tomorrow: add up the previous
21 days' closing prices, divide by 21, and plot the resulting
figure on the chart.
Where:
Exponential
An exponential (or exponentially weighted) moving average is

calculated by applying a percentage of today's closing price to
yesterday's moving average value. Exponential moving
averages place more weight on recent prices.
For example, to calculate a 9% exponential moving average of

IBM, you would first take today's closing price and multiply it by
9%. Next, you would add this product to the value of
yesterday's moving average multiplied by 91% (100% - 9% =
91%).
Because most investors feel more comfortable working with

time periods, rather than with percentages, the exponential
percentage can be converted into an approximate number of
days. For example, a 9% moving average is equal to a 21.2
time period (rounded to 21) exponential moving average.
The formula for converting exponential percentages to time

periods is:
You can use the above formula to determine that a 9% moving

average is equivalent to a 21-day exponential moving average:
The formula for converting time periods to exponential

percentages is:
You can use the above formula to determine that a 21-day

exponential moving average is actually a 9% moving average:
Triangular
Triangular moving averages place the majority of the weight on

the middle portion of the price series. They are actually double-
smoothed simple moving averages. The periods used in the
simple moving averages varies depending on if you specify an
odd or even number of time periods.
The following steps explain how to calculate a 12-period

triangular moving average.
1. Add 1 to the number of periods in the moving average

(e.g., 12 plus 1 is 13).
2. Divide the sum from Step #1 by 2 (e.g., 13 divided by 2

is 6.5).
3. If the result of Step #2 contains a fractional portion,

round the result up to the nearest integer (e.g., round 6.5
up to 7).
4. Using the value from Step #3 (i.e., 7), calculate a simple

moving average of the closing prices (i.e., a 7-period
simple moving average).
5. Again using the value from Step #3 (i.e., 7) calculate a

simple moving average of the moving average calculated
in Step #4 (i.e., a moving average of a moving average).
Variable
A variable moving average is an exponential moving average

that automatically adjusts the smoothing percentage based on
the volatility of the data series. The more volatile the data, the
more sensitive the smoothing constant used in the moving
average calculation. Sensitivity is increased by giving more
weight given to the current data.
Most moving average calculation methods are unable to

compensate for trading range versus trending markets. During
trading ranges (when prices move sideways in a narrow range)
shorter term moving averages tend to produce numerous false
signals. In trending markets (when prices move up or down
over an extended period) longer term moving averages are
slow to react to reversals in trend. By automatically adjusting
the smoothing constant, a variable moving average is able to
adjust its sensitivity, allowing it to perform better in both types
of markets.
A variable moving average is calculated as follows:
Where:
Different indicators have been used for the Volatility Ratio. I
use a ratio of the VHF indicator compared to the VHF indicator
12 periods ago. The higher this ratio, the "trendier" the market,
thereby increasing the sensitivity of the moving average.
The variable moving average was defined by Tushar Chande

in an article that appeared in Technical Analysis of Stocks and
Commodities in March, 1992.
Weighted
A weighted moving average is designed to put more weight on

recent data and less weight on past data. A weighted moving
average is calculated by multiplying each of the previous day's
data by a weight. The following table shows the calculation of a
5-day weighted moving average.
Table 8
5-day Weighted moving average
Day # Weight Price Weighted Average
1 1 * 25.00 = 25.00
2 2 * 26.00 = 52.00
3 3 * 28.00 = 84.00
4 4 * 25.00 = 100.00
5 5 * 29.00 = 145.00
Totals: 15 * 133.00 = 406.00 / 15 = 27.067
The weight is based on the number of days in the moving

average. In the above example, the weight on the first day is
1.0 while the value on the most recent day is 5.0. This gives
five times more weight to today's price than the price five days
ago.
The following chart displays 25-day moving averages using the

simple, exponential, weighted, triangular, and variable methods
of calculation.



Preface
Acknowledgments
Terminology
To Learn More
PART TWO: Reference
NEGATIVE VOLUME INDEX
A-C
D-L Overview
M-O
MACD
The Negative Volume Index ("NVI") focuses on days where the
Mass Index
volume decreases from the previous day. The premise being
McClellan Summation Index that the "smart money" takes positions on days when volume
Median Price decreases.
Member Short Ratio
Momentum Interpretation
Money Flow Index
Moving Averages
The interpretation of the NVI assumes that on days when
New Highs-Lows Cumulative volume increases, the crowd-following "uninformed" investors
New Highs-New Lows are in the market. Conversely, on days with decreased volume,
New Highs/Lows Ratio the "smart money" is quietly taking positions. Thus, the NVI
Odd Lot Balance Index displays what the smart money is doing.
Odd Lot Short Ratio In Stock Market Logic, Norman Fosback points out that the
On Balance Volume odds of a bull market are 95 out of 100 when the NVI rises
Open Interest
above its one-year moving average. The odds of a bull market
Open-10 TRIN
are roughly 50/50 when the NVI is below its one-year average.
Option Analysis
Overbought/Oversold
Therefore, the NVI is most usefuly as a bull market indicator.
P-S
T-Z Example
Bibliography
About the Author The following chart shows Avon and its NVI. I drew "buy"
Formula Primer arrows whenever the NVI crossed above its 1-year (255-
trading day) moving average.
User Groups
Training Partners
Related Link:
I drew "equal-signs" when the NVI fell below the moving
average. You can see that the NVI did a great job of identifying
profitable opportunities.
Calculation
If today's volume is less than yesterday's volume then:
If today's volume is greater than or equal to yesterday's volume

then:
Because falling prices are usually associated with falling

volume, the NVI usually trends downward.



Preface
Acknowledgments
Terminology
To Learn More
PART TWO: Reference
NEW HIGHS-LOWS CUMULATIVE
A-C
D-L Overview
M-O
MACD
The New Highs-Lows Cumulative indicator is a long-term
Mass Index
market momentum indicator. It is a cumulative total of the
McClellan Summation Index difference between the number of stocks reaching new 52-
Median Price week highs and the number of stocks reaching new 52-week
Member Short Ratio lows.
Momentum
Money Flow Index Interpretation
Moving Averages
New Highs-Lows Cumulative The New High-Low Cumulative indicator provides a
New Highs-New Lows confirmation of the current trend. Most of the time, the indicator
New Highs/Lows Ratio will move in the same direction as major market indicies.
Odd Lot Balance Index However, when the indicator and market move in opposite
Odd Lot Purchases/Sales directions, it is likely that the market will reverse.
Odd Lot Short Ratio
On Balance Volume The interpretation of the New Highs-Lows Cumulative indicator
Open Interest
is similar to the Advance/Decline Line in that divergences
Open-10 TRIN
occur when the indicator fails to confirm the market index's
Option Analysis
Overbought/Oversold
high or low. Divergences during an up-trending market indicate
P-S potential weakness, while divergences in a down-trending
T-Z market indicate potential strength.
Bibliography
Formula Primer
The following chart shows the S&P 500 and the New Highs-
User Groups Lows Cumulative indicator.
Training Partners
Related Link:
A classic divergence occurred during 1985 and 1986 where the
S&P 500 Index was making new highs, but the New Highs-
Lows Cumulative indicator was failing to surpass its previous
highs. This was followed by the crash of 1987.
Calculation
The New Highs-Lows Cumulative indicator is simply a

cumulative total of the number of stocks making new 52-week
highs minus the number of stocks making new 52-week lows.



Preface
Acknowledgments
Terminology
To Learn More
PART TWO: Reference
NEW HIGHS-NEW LOWS
A-C
D-L Overview
M-O
MACD
The New Highs-New Lows indicator ("NH-NL") displays the
Mass Index
daily difference between the number of stocks reaching new 52-
McClellan Summation Index week highs and the number of stocks reaching new 52-week
Median Price lows.
Member Short Ratio
Money Flow Index
Moving Averages
You can interpret the NH-NL indicator as a divergence
New Highs-Lows Cumulative indicator or as an oscillator. I usually plot a 10-day moving
New Highs-New Lows average of the NH-NL indicator to smooth the daily values.
Odd Lot Balance Index Divergence
Odd Lot Short Ratio
The NH-NL indicator generally reaches its extreme lows
On Balance Volume
Open Interest
slightly before a major market bottom. As the market then turns
Open-10 TRIN up from the major bottom, the indicator jumps up rapidly.
Option Analysis During this period, many new stocks are making new highs
Overbought/Oversold because it's easy to make a new high when prices have been
P-S depressed for a long time.
T-Z
Bibliography As the cycle matures, a divergence often occurs as fewer and
About the Author fewer stocks are making new highs (the indicator falls), yet the
Formula Primer market indices continue to reach new highs. This is a classic
bearish divergence that indicates that the current upward trend
User Groups is weak and may reverse.
Oscillator
Training Partners
The NH-NL indicator oscillates around zero. If the indicator is
positive, the bulls are in control. If it is negative, the bears are
in control. You can trade the NH-NL indicator by buying and
Related Link:
selling as the indicators passes through zero. This won't
Traders Library Investment Bookstore always keep you on the right side of the market, but it is helpful
to confirm the current trend.
Example
The following chart shows the S&P 500 and a 10-day moving
average of the NH-NL indicator.
I used the NH-NL indicator to confirm a traditional moving

average trading system. I drew "buy" arrows when the S&P
500 rose above its 50-day moving average, but only if the 10-
day moving average of the NH-NL indicator was above zero. I
drew "sell" arrows anytime the S&P 500 fell below its moving
average.
By ignoring buy signals unless the 10-day moving average of

the NH-NL indicator was above zero, I reduced the number of
trades by 50% and increased profits by 9%.
Calculation
The New Highs-New Lows is calculated by simply taking the

difference between the number of stocks that made new 52-
week highs and the number of stocks that made new 52-week
lows. I usually plot a 10-day moving average of this value.



Preface
Acknowledgments
Terminology
To Learn More
PART TWO: Reference
NEW HIGHS/LOWS RATIO
A-C
D-L Overview
M-O
MACD
The New Highs/Lows Ratio ("NH/NL Ratio") displays the daily
Mass Index
ratio between the number of stocks reaching new 52-week
McClellan Summation Index highs and the number of stocks reaching new 52-week lows.
Median Price
Momentum
Money Flow Index
The NH/NL Ratio is another useful method to visualize the
Moving Averages
relationship of stocks that are making new highs and new lows.
New Highs-Lows Cumulative High readings indicate that a large number of stocks are
New Highs-New Lows making new highs (compared to the number of stocks making
New Highs/Lows Ratio new lows). Readings less than one indicate that the number of
Odd Lot Balance Index stocks making new highs are less than the number of stocks
Odd Lot Purchases/Sales making lows.
Odd Lot Short Ratio
On Balance Volume Refer to the New Highs-New Lows indicator for more
Open Interest
information on interpreting the NH/NL Ratio.
Open-10 TRIN
Option Analysis
Overbought/Oversold Example
P-S
T-Z The following chart shows the S&P 500 and the NH/NL Ratio.
Bibliography
About the Author
Formula Primer
User Groups
Training Partners
Related Link:
The Ratio increased dramatically when the S&P 500 began
making new highs in 1990. However, as the S&P has
continued to move on to new highs, the Ratio has failed to
reach new highs. This implies that the S&P 500 is weaker than
it appears.
Calculation



Preface
Acknowledgments
Terminology
To Learn More
PART TWO: Reference
ODD LOT BALANCE INDEX
A-C
D-L Overview
M-O
MACD
The Odd Lot Balance Index ("OLBI") is a market sentiment
Mass Index
indicator that shows the ratio of odd lot sales to purchases (an
McClellan Summation Index "odd lot" is a stock transaction of less than 100 shares). The
Median Price assumption is that the "odd lotters," the market's smallest
Member Short Ratio traders, don't know what they are doing.
Momentum
Money Flow Index (Unfortunately, the trading of 99 share lots in an effort to skirt
Moving Averages the "up-tick" rule, which requires that specialists take short
positions only when prices move upward, has rendered odd lot
indicators less reliable.)
New Highs-New Lows
Odd Lot Balance Index Interpretation
Odd Lot Short Ratio When the Odd Lot Balance Index is high, odd lotters are selling
On Balance Volume more than they are buying and are therefore bearish on the
Open Interest
market. To trade contrarily to the odd lotters, you should buy
Open-10 TRIN
when they are selling (as indicated by a high OLBI) and sell
Option Analysis
Overbought/Oversold
when the odd lotters are bullish and buying (as indicated by a
P-S low OLBI).
T-Z
Bibliography You can smooth day-to-day fluctuations of the Odd Lot
About the Author Balance Index by plotting a 10-day moving average of the
Index.
Formula Primer
User Groups Example

The following chart shows the S&P 500 and a 10-day moving
Training Partners average of the Odd Lot Balance Index.
Related Link:
I drew a vertical line when the odd lotters were excessively
pessimistic--which turned out to be a good time to buy.
Calculation



Preface
Acknowledgments
Terminology
To Learn More
PART TWO: Reference
ODD LOT PURCHASES/SALES
A-C
D-L Overview
M-O
MACD
Both of these indicators, Odd Lot Purchases and Odd Lot
Mass Index
Sales, display what their names imply: the number of shares
McClellan Summation Index (in thousands) purchased or sold in odd lots. An "odd lot" is a
Median Price stock transaction of less than 100 shares.
Member Short Ratio
Momentum (Unfortunately, the trading of 99 share lots in an effort to skirt
Money Flow Index the "up-tick" rule, which requires that specialists take short
Moving Averages positions only when prices move upward, has rendered Odd
Lot indicators less reliable.)
New Highs-New Lows
New Highs/Lows Ratio Interpretation
Odd Lot Purchases/Sales The odd lot trade numbers are used in several different ratios
Odd Lot Short Ratio and indicators. By themselves, they show the investment
On Balance Volume activities of the odd lot traders. Being a contrarian indicator, a
Open Interest
high number of Odd Lot Purchases is generally considered
Open-10 TRIN
bearish, whereas a high number of Odd Lot Sales is
Option Analysis
Overbought/Oversold
considered bullish. The idea is to act opposite of the small,
P-S uninformed odd lot traders.
T-Z
Bibliography However, it has been my experience that, for whatever reason,
About the Author the odd lotters have tended to be on the right side of the
market recently.
Formula Primer
User Groups Example

The following chart shows the Value Line Composite Index and
Training Partners a 10-day moving average of Odd Lot Sales.
Related Link:
I drew vertical lines when the odd lotters were selling (as
identified by relatively high moving average values).
Conventional odd lot interpretation would have you buy at
these points. However, in retrospect, it appears that these
were appropriate short-term selling points.



Preface
Acknowledgments
Terminology
To Learn More
PART TWO: Reference
ODD LOT SHORT RATIO
A-C
D-L Overview
M-O
MACD
The Odd Lot Short Ratio ("OLSR") is a market sentiment
Mass Index
indicator that displays the daily ratio of odd lot short sales
McClellan Summation Index compared to odd lot buy/sell transactions.
Median Price
Member Short Ratio Investors "short" a stock in anticipation of the stock's price
Momentum falling. Instead of the traditional transaction of buying at a lower
Money Flow Index price and profiting by selling at a higher price, the short sale
Moving Averages transaction is just the opposite. To profit from a short sale, the
stock must be sold at a higher price and bought (covered) at a
lower price An "odd lot" short is a short sale transaction
New Highs-New Lows
involving less than 100 shares.
Odd Lot Purchases/Sales Interpretation
Odd Lot Short Ratio
On Balance Volume If we could find an investor who was always wrong and do the
Open Interest
exact opposite of him, we would always be right! Odd lot
Open-10 TRIN
indicators strive to do just that. If we assume that small
Option Analysis
Overbought/Oversold
investors ("odd lotters") are inexperienced (and thus usually
P-S wrong), then trading contrarily to the odd lot traders should be
T-Z profit-able.
Bibliography
About the Author The higher the OLSR indicator, the higher the percentage of
odd lot shorts and the more likely the market will rise (proving
Formula Primer
the odd lotters wrong). Similarly, the lower the OLSR, the more
User Groups likely a market decline.
Generally this rule (invest contrarily to the odd lotters) has held
Training Partners true. Odd lotters tend to be reactive rather than proactive. High
Odd Lot Short Ratios tend to come after major market declines
(when investors should be buying, not selling) and low
readings usually come after long market advances.
Related Link:
Traders Library Investment Bookstore In 1986, the number of odd lot shorts reached levels that were
unheard of. The explanation I have heard for this is that
specialists are placing multiple odd lot short orders to avoid the
up-tick rule which states that a short order must be processed
on an up tick. They do this on days with major declines in
prices.
If this explanation is true, it drastically complicates the

interpretation of all odd lot indicators. It would mean that the
odd lot indicators show what the "littlest" guy is doing, except
when it reaches extreme readings in which case it would show
what the "biggest" guy (the members) is doing.
Example
Refer to the examples inside the explanation of the Odd Lot

Balance Index and Odd Lot Purchases/Sales.
Calculation
The Odd Lot Short Ratio is calculated by dividing the number

of odd lot short sales by the average number of odd lot
transactions for the day. (Because odd lots do not necessarily
have a buyer and a seller for every transaction, we calculate
the average number of transactions by adding the number of
odd lot buy orders with the number of odd lot sell orders and
then dividing by two.)



Preface
Acknowledgments
Terminology
To Learn More
PART TWO: Reference
ON BALANCE VOLUME
A-C
D-L Overview
M-O
MACD
On Balance Volume ("OBV") is a momentum indicator that
Mass Index
relates volume to price change.
Median Price On Balance Volume was developed by Joe Granville and
Member Short Ratio originally presented in his book New Strategy of Daily Stock
Momentum Market Timing for Maximum Profits.
Money Flow Index
Moving Averages
Interpretation
New Highs-New Lows On Balance Volume is a running total of volume. It shows if
New Highs/Lows Ratio volume is flowing into or out of a security. When the security
Odd Lot Balance Index closes higher than the previous close, all of the day's volume is
Odd Lot Purchases/Sales considered up-volume. When the security closes lower than
Odd Lot Short Ratio the previous close, all of the day's volume is considered down-
On Balance Volume volume.
Open Interest
Open-10 TRIN
Option Analysis
A full explanation of OBV is beyond the scope of this book. If
Overbought/Oversold you would like further information on OBV analysis, I
P-S recommend that you read Granville's book, New Strategy of
T-Z Daily Stock Market Timing for Maximum Profits.
Bibliography
About the Author The basic assumption, regarding OBV analysis, is that OBV
changes precede price changes. The theory is that smart
Formula Primer
money can be seen flowing into the security by a rising OBV.
User Groups When the public then moves into the security, both the security
and the OBV will surge ahead.
Training Partners If the security's price movement precedes OBV movement, a

"non-confirmation" has occurred. Non-confirma-tions can occur
at bull market tops (when the security rises without, or before,
the OBV) or at bear market bottoms (when the security falls
Related Link: without, or before, the OBV).
The OBV is in a rising trend when each new peak is higher
than the previous peak and each new trough is higher than the
previous trough. Likewise, the OBV is in a falling trend when
each successive peak is lower than the previous peak and
each successive trough is lower than the previous trough.
When the OBV is moving sideways and is not making
successive highs and lows, it is in a doubtful trend. [See Figure
47]
Figure 47
Once a trend is established, it remains in force until it is

broken. There are two ways in which the OBV trend can be
broken. The first occurs when the trend changes from a rising
trend to a falling trend, or from a falling trend to a rising trend.
The second way the OBV trend can be broken is if the trend
changes to a doubtful trend and remains doubtful for more than
three days. Thus, if the security changes from a rising trend to
a doubtful trend and remains doubtful for only two days before
changing back to a rising trend, the OBV is consid-ered to
have always been in a rising trend.
When the OBV changes to a rising or falling trend, a "breakout"

has occurred. Since OBV breakouts normally precede price
breakouts, investors should buy long on OBV upside
breakouts. Likewise, investors should sell short when the OBV
makes a downside breakout. Positions should be held until the
trend changes (as explain-ed in the preceding paragraph).
This method of analyzing On Balance Volume is designed for

trading short-term cycles. According to Granville, investors
must act quickly and decisively if they wish to profit from short-
term OBV analysis.
Example
The following chart shows Pepsi and the On Balance Volume

indicator. I have labeled the OBV Up, Down, and Doubtful
trends.
A falling trend, as you will recall, is defined by lower peaks and
lower troughs. Conversely, a rising trend is defined by higher
peaks and higher troughs.
Calculation
On Balance Volume is calculated by adding the day's volume

to a cumulative total when the security's price closes up, and
subtracting the day's volume when the security's price closes
down.
If today's close is greater than yesterday's close then:
If today's close is less than yesterday's close then:
If today's close is equal to yesterday's close then:



Preface
Acknowledgments
Terminology
To Learn More
PART TWO: Reference
OPEN INTEREST
A-C
D-L Overview
M-O
MACD
Open Interest is the number of open contracts of a given future
Mass Index
or option contract. An open contract can be a long or short
McClellan Summation Index contract that has not been exercised, closed out, or allowed to
Median Price expire. Open interest is really more of a data field than an
Member Short Ratio indicator.
Momentum
Money Flow Index A fact that is sometimes overlooked is that a futures contract
Moving Averages always involves a buyer and a seller. This means that one unit
of open interest always represents two people, a buyer and a
seller.
New Highs-New Lows
Odd Lot Balance Index Open interest increases when a buyer and seller create a new
Odd Lot Purchases/Sales contract. This happens when the buyer initiates a long position
Odd Lot Short Ratio and the seller initiates a short position. Open interest
On Balance Volume decreases when the buyer and seller liquidate existing
Open Interest contracts. This happens when the buyer is selling an existing
Open-10 TRIN long position and the seller is covering an existing short
Option Analysis position.
Overbought/Oversold
P-S
T-Z Interpretation
Bibliography
About the Author By itself, open interest only shows the liquidity of a specific
contract or market. However, combining volume analysis with
Formula Primer
open interest sometimes provides subtle clues to the flow of
User Groups money in and out of the market:
● Rising volume and rising open interest confirm the
Training Partners direction of the current trend.
● Falling volume and falling open interest signal that an

end to the current trend may be imminent.
Related Link:
The following chart shows Copper, open interest (the solid
line), and volume (the dotted line).
The open interest is for all copper contracts, not just the
current contract.
I drew a trendline ("A") when both open interest and volume

were increasing. This confirmed the upward trend of prices as
shown by the trendline ("B").
I then drew a vertical line ("C") when open interest and volume
began to diverge. From this point, volume continued to
increase while open interest decreased sharply. This warned of
an end to the rising trend.



Preface
Acknowledgments
Terminology
To Learn More
PART TWO: Reference
OPEN-10 TRIN
A-C
D-L Overview
M-O
MACD
The Open-10 TRIN is a smoothed variation of the Arms Index.
Mass Index
It is a market breadth indicator that uses advancing/declining
McClellan Summation Index volume and advancing/declining issues to measure the
Median Price strength of the market.
Member Short Ratio
Money Flow Index
Moving Averages
The interpretation of Open-10 TRIN (also called the Open
New Highs-Lows Cumulative Trading Index) is similar to the interpretation of the "normal"
New Highs-New Lows TRIN.
Odd Lot Balance Index Readings above 0.90 are generally con-sidered bearish and
Odd Lot Purchases/Sales readings below 0.90 are considered bullish.
Odd Lot Short Ratio
On Balance Volume The following table was reprinted from Peter Eliades' Stock
Open Interest
Market Cycles. It shows what the DJIA did after the 10-day
Open-10 TRIN
Option Analysis
TRIN rose above the level of one. Impressive...
Overbought/Oversold
P-S Table 9
T-Z
Bibliography Days to Final
About the Author 1st Reading > 1.0 Next Market Move
Low
Formula Primer May 23, 1984 3 60-point rally
User Groups June 15, 1984 1 63-point rally
Educational Products July 20, 1984 3 165-point rally
Training Partners October 10, 1984 0 88-point rally
November 16, 1984 1 45-point rally
December 5, 1984 3 69-point rally
Related Link:
Traders Library Investment Bookstore January 3, 1985 1 130-point rally
March 15, 1985 1 48-point rally
April 30, 1985 2 96-point rally
June 19, 1985 3 78-point rally
I created a similar table for the period 1985 through 1988. The
table appears below.
Table 10
Days to Final
1st Reading > 1.0 Next Market Move
Low
June 19, 1985 0 60-point rally
January 8, 1986 2 302-point rally
April 30, 1986 N/A 16 point rally
July 15, 1986 0 41-point rally
September 11, 1986 1 141-point rally
October 15, 1987 2 289-point rally
February 8, 1988 5 79-point rally
March 11, 1988 0 53-point rally
April 4, 1988 0 127-point rally
May 12, 1988 0 39-point rally
May 17, 1988 4 211-point rally
July 1, 1988 N/A 78-point rally
August 12, 1988 7 111-point rally
October 30, 1989 5 171-point rally
December 18, 1989 2 109-point rally
Calculation
The Open-10 TRIN is calculated by keeping a 10-day total of

each of the TRIN's components before performing the TRIN
calculation.



Preface
Acknowledgments
Terminology
To Learn More
PART TWO: Reference
OPTION ANALYSIS
A-C
D-L Overview
M-O
MACD
The most widely used option pricing model is the Black-
Mass Index
Scholes option valuation model which was developed by
McClellan Summation Index Fisher Black and Myron Scholes in 1973.
Median Price
Member Short Ratio The Black-Scholes model helps determine the fair market
Momentum value of an option based on the security's price and volatility,
Money Flow Index time until expiration, and the current market interest rate. The
Moving Averages following assumptions were made by Black and Scholes when
the model was developed:
New Highs-New Lows
1. Markets are "frictionless." In other words, there are no
Odd Lot Balance Index transaction costs or taxes; all market participants may
Odd Lot Purchases/Sales borrow and lend at the "riskless" rate of interest; there
Odd Lot Short Ratio are no penalties for short selling; and all securities are
On Balance Volume infinitely divisible (i.e., fractional shares can be
Open Interest purchased).
Open-10 TRIN
Option Analysis 2. Stock prices are lognormally distributed (i.e., they follow
Overbought/Oversold
a bell curve). This means that a stock can double in price
P-S
as easily as it can drop to half its price.
T-Z
Bibliography
About the Author 3. Stocks do not pay dividends or make any distributions.
(The model is often modified to allow for dividend
Formula Primer adjustments.)
User Groups
4. The option can only be exercised on the expiration date.
The components of the option model are security price,
Training Partners
volatility, option life, market interest rate, and dividend (if any).
I suggest you refer to the book Option Volatility and Pricing

Related Link: Strategies, by Sheldon Natenberg for more information on
calculations and strategies using the Black-Scholes model.
Interpretation
Put/Call Price
The Put/Call Price is the main output of the Black-Scholes

model. It shows how much an option should sell for based on
the various components that make up the model (e.g.,
volatility, option life, security price, etc). It helps answer the
question, "Is the option overpriced or underpriced?"
The usefulness of the Put/Call Price is basically two-fold:
1. It helps you locate mispriced options. The option

purchaser can use the model to find options that are
underpriced. The option writer can use the model to find
options that are overpriced.
2. It helps you form a riskless hedge to earn arbitrage

profits. For example, you could buy undervalued calls
and then short the underlying stock. This creates a
riskless hedge because regardless of whether the
security's price goes up or down, the two positions will
exactly offset each other. You would then wait for the
option to return to its fair market value to earn arbitrage
profits.
Delta (below) is used to determine the number of shares to

purchase in order to form a riskless hedge.
Delta
Delta shows the amount that the option's price will change if
the underlying security's price changes by $1.00.
For example, if XYZ is selling for $25.00/share, a call option on

XYZ is selling for $2.00 and the Delta is 75%, then the option's
price should increase $0.75 (to $2.75) if the price of XYZ
increases to $26.00/share. In other words, the option should go
up $0.75 for each $1.00 that XYZ goes up.
If an option is deep in-the-money, then it will have a high Delta,

because almost all of the gain/loss in the security will be
reflected in the option price. Conversely, deep out-of-the-
money options will have a low Delta, because very little of the
gain/loss in the security is reflected in the option price.
If you don't have a computer, the rough rule-of-thumb for

calculating Delta is: 75% for an option $5.00 in the money,
50% for an option at the money, and %25 for an option $5.00
out of the money.
As an in-the-money option nears expiration, the Delta will
approach 100% because the amount of time remaining for the
option to move out-of-the-money is small.
Delta is also used to determine the correct number of shares to

buy/short to form a "riskless hedge." For example, suppose the
Delta on a put option is 66%. A riskless hedge would result
from owning a ratio of two-thirds (66%) a position in stock (i.e.,
66 shares) to every one long position in a put option contract. If
the stock price goes up one point, then the stock position will
increase $66.00. This $66.00 increase should be exactly offset
by a $66.00 decrease in the value of the put option contract.
As discussed on earlier, forming a riskless hedge gives the

investor the potential of earning arbitrage profits, by profiting
from the undervalued option's return to its fair market value
(i.e., the price at which the option is neither overpriced nor
underpriced). Theoretically, the market will eventually value
underpriced options at their fair market value. However, it
should be noted that high transaction costs may undermine
this theory.
Gamma
Gamma shows the anticipated change in Delta, given a one

point increase in the underlying security. Thus, it shows how
responsive Delta is to a change in the underlying security's
price. For example, a Gamma of four indicates that the Delta
will increase four points (e.g., from 50% to 54%) for each one
point increase in the underlying security's price.
Gamma indicates the amount of risk involved with an option

position. A large Gamma indicates higher risk, because the
value of the option can change more quickly. However, a
trader may desire higher risk depending on the strategy
employed.
Option Life
Option Life shows the number of days until expiration.

Generally speaking, the longer the time until expiration, the
more valuable the option.
A graph of Option Life appears as a stepped line from the

upper-left to the lower-right side of the screen. The reason the
line is stepped is because of weekends and holidays. For
example, on Friday there may be 146 days to expiration and
on the following Monday only 143 days remaining.
Theta
Theta shows the change in the option's price (in points) due to
the effect of time alone. The longer the time until expiration, the
less effect that time has on the price of the option. However, as
the option nears expiration, the effect can be great, particularly
on out-of-the-money options. Theta is also referred to as "time
decay."
For example, a Theta value of -0.0025 means that the option

lost 1/4 of one cent due to the passage of time alone.
The effect of time on the option price is almost always positive.

The more time until expiration the better chance the option has
of being in-the-money at expiration. The only exception to this
positive relationship is deep in-the-money put options with an
expiration date far into the future.
All other things being equal, options with low Thetas are more
preferable (for purchase) than are those with high Thetas.
Vega
Vega shows the change in the option price due to an assumed

1% increase in the underlying security's volatility. Vega shows
the dollar amount of gain that should be expected if the
volatility goes up one point (all else being equal).
The effect of volatility on the option price is always positive.

The greater the volatility of the underlying security, the better
chance the option has of being in-the-money at expiration.
Therefore, options with higher volatilities will cost more than
those with lower volatilities.
Since Vega measures the sensitivity of an option to a change

in volatility, options with higher Vegas are more preferable (for
purchase) than those with low Vegas.
Volatility
Volatility is a measurement that shows the degree of

fluctuation that a security experiences over a given time frame.
Wide price movements over a short time frame are
characteristic of high volatility stocks.
Volatility is the only input parameter of the Black-Scholes

model (e.g., security price, volatility, option life, market interest
rate) that is calculated, yet the accuracy of the model is highly
dependent on a good Volatility figure. The best measurement
of volatility is the one that captures future price movements.
But if we knew what future price movements would be, we
would care less about the Black-Scholes model--we'd be
trading! However, reality forces us to estimate volatility. There
are two ways to estimate volatility for use with the Black-
Scholes model: Historical Volatility and Implied Volatility.
Historical Volatility measures the actual volatility of the

security's prices using a standard deviation based formula. It
shows how volatile prices have been over the last x-time
periods. The advantage of histocial volatility is that can be
calculated using only historical security prices. When you
calculate the Black-Scholes put/call price using historial
volatililty, most options appear overpriced.
A more widely used measure of option volatility is called

Implied Volatility. Implied Volatility is the amount of volatility
that the option market is assuming (i.e., implying) for the
option. To calculate implied volatility, the actual option price,
security price, strike price, and the option expiration date are
plugged into the Black-Scholes formula. The formula then
solves for the implied volatility.
Options of high volatility stocks are worth more (i.e., carry

higher premiums) than those with low volatility, because of the
greater chance the option has of moving in-the-money by
expiration. Option purchasers normally prefer options with high
volatilities and option writers normally prefer options with low
volatilities (all else being equal).
Calculation
For exact mathematical formulas used in calculating option

values, I recommend Option Volatility and Pricing Strategies by
Sheldon Natenberg.
The formula for the Black-Scholes option pricing model is

widely available in many books and publications. The original
work by Black and Scholes was only done on equity call
options. Since their work was originally published, extensions
of their model have been developed, such as models for put
options and options on futures. Gamma, Theta, and Vega
calculations are all extensions of the original Black-Scholes
model.
Adjusting the model for dividends provides a more accurate

calculation of the option's fair market value. A popular
adjustment method assumes that dividend payments are paid
out continuously.



Preface
Acknowledgments
Terminology
To Learn More
PART TWO: Reference
OVERBOUGHT/OVERSOLD
A-C
D-L Overview
M-O
MACD
The Overbought/Oversold ("OB/OS") indicator is a market
Mass Index
breadth indicator based on the smoothed difference between
McClellan Summation Index advancing and declining issues.
Median Price
Momentum
Money Flow Index
The OB/OS indicator shows when the stock market is
Moving Averages
overbought (and a correction is due) and when it is oversold
New Highs-Lows Cumulative (and a rally is due).
New Highs-New Lows
New Highs/Lows Ratio Readings above +200 are generally considered bearish and
Odd Lot Balance Index readings below -200 are generally considered bullish. When
Odd Lot Purchases/Sales the OB/OS indicator falls below +200 a sell signal is generated.
Odd Lot Short Ratio Similarly, a buy signal is generated when the OB/OS indicator
On Balance Volume rises above -200.
Open Interest
Open-10 TRIN
Option Analysis
As with all OB/OS-type indicators, extreme readings may be a
Overbought/Oversold sign of a change in investor expectations and may not be
P-S followed by the expected correction. (Refer to the discussion
T-Z on the Advance/Decline Ratio, and the McClellan Oscillator, for
Bibliography additional comments on extremely overbought/oversold
About the Author conditions.)
Formula Primer
Example
User Groups
Educational Products The following chart shows the DJIA and the
Overbought/Oversold indicator.
Training Partners
Related Link:
I drew "buy" and "sell" arrows when the indicator penetrated
the +200/-200 levels. The OB/OS indicator works very well in
this type of trading-range market.
Calculation
The Overbought/Oversold indicator is a 10-period exponential

moving average of the difference between the number of
advancing and declining issues.



Preface
Acknowledgments
Terminology
To Learn More
PART TWO: Reference
PARABOLIC SAR
A-C
D-L Overview
M-O
P-S
The Parabolic Time/Price System, developed by Welles Wilder,
Parabolic SAR
Patterns
is used to set trailing price stops and is usually referred to as
Percent Retracement the "SAR" (stop-and-reversal). This indicator is explained
Performance thoroughly in Wilder's book, New Concepts in Technical
Point & Figure Trading Systems.
Positive Volume Index
Price and Volume Trend Interpretation
Price Oscillator
Price Rate-of-Change
Public Short Ratio The Parabolic SAR provides excellent exit points. You should
Puts/Calls Ratio close long positions when the price falls below the SAR and
Quadrant Lines close short positions when the price rises above the SAR.
Relative Strength, Comparative
Relative Strength Index If you are long (i.e., the price is above the SAR), the SAR will
Renko move up every day, regardless of the direction the price is
Speed Resistance Lines moving. The amount the SAR moves up depends on the
Spreads
amount that prices move.
Standard Deviation
STIX
Stochastic Oscillator Example
Swing Index
T-Z The following chart shows Compaq and its Parabolic SAR.
Bibliography
About the Author
Formula Primer
User Groups
Training Partners
Related Link:
You should be long when the SAR is below prices and short
when it is above prices.
The Parabolic SAR is plotted as shown in Wilder's book. Each

SAR stop level point is displayed on the day in which it is in
effect. Note that the SAR value is today's, not tomorrow's stop
level.
Calculation
It is beyond the scope of this book to explain the calculation of

the Parabolic SAR. Refer to Wilder's book New Concepts in
Technical Trading, for detailed calculation information.



Preface
Acknowledgments
Terminology
To Learn More
PART TWO: Reference
PATTERNS
A-C
D-L Overview
M-O
P-S
A basic principle of technical analysis is that security prices
Parabolic SAR
Patterns
move in trends. We also know that trends do not last forever.
Percent Retracement They eventually change direction and when they do, they
Performance rarely do so on a dime. Instead, prices typically decelerate,
Point & Figure pause, and then reverse. These phases occur as investors
Positive Volume Index form new expectations and by doing so, shift the security's
Price and Volume Trend supply/demand lines.
Price Oscillator
The changing of expectations often causes price patterns to
Public Short Ratio
emerge. Although no two markets are identical, their price
Puts/Calls Ratio
Quadrant Lines
patterns are often very similar. Predictable price behavior often
Relative Strength, Comparative follows these price patterns.
Relative Strength Index
Renko Chart patterns can last from a few days to many months or
Speed Resistance Lines even years. Generally speaking, the longer a pattern takes to
Spreads form, the more dramatic the ensuing price move.
Standard Deviation
STIX
Stochastic Oscillator
Interpretation
Swing Index
T-Z The following sections explain some of the more common price
Bibliography patterns. For more information on chart patterns, I suggest the
About the Author book, Technical Analysis of Stock Trends by Robert Edwards
and John Magee.
Formula Primer
User Groups Head-and-Shoulders

The Head-and-Shoulders price pattern is the most reliable and
Training Partners well-known chart pattern. It gets its name from the
resemblance of a head with two shoulders on either side. The
reason this reversal pattern is so common is due to the manner
in which trends typically reverse.
Related Link:
Traders Library Investment Bookstore A up-trend is formed as prices make higher-highs and higher-
lows in a stair-step fashion. The trend is broken when this
upward climb ends. As you can see in the following illustration,
the "left shoulder" and the "head" are the last two higher-highs.
The right shoulder is created as the bulls try to push prices

higher, but are unable to do so. This signifies the end of the up-
trend. Confirmation of a new down-trend occurs when the
"neckline" is penetrated.
During a healthy up-trend, volume should increase during each

rally. A sign that the trend is weakening occurs when the
volume accompanying rallies is less than the volume
accompanying the preceding rally. In a typical Head-and-
Shoulders pattern, volume decreases on the head and is
especially light on the right shoulder.
Following the penetration of the neckline, it is very common for

prices to return to the neckline in a last effort to continue the up-
trend (as shown in the preceding chart). If prices are then
unable to rise above the neckline, they usually decline rapidly
on increased volume.
An inverse (or upside-down) Head-and-Shoulders pattern often

coincides with market bottoms. As with a normal Head-and-
Shoulders pattern, volume usually decreases as the pattern is
formed and then increases as prices rise above the neckline.
Rounding Tops and Bottoms
Rounding tops occur as expectations gradually shift from

bullish to bearish. The gradual, yet steady shift forms a
rounded top. Rounding bottoms occur as expectations
gradually shift from bearish to bullish.
Volume during both rounding tops and rounding bottoms often

mirrors the bowl-like shape of prices during a rounding bottom.
Volume, which was high during the previous trend, decreases
as expectations shift and traders become indecisive. Volume
then increases as the new trend is established.
The following chart shows Goodyear and a classic rounding

bottom formation.
Triangles
A triangle occurs as the range between peaks and troughs

narrows. Triangles typically occur as prices encounter a
support or resistance level which constricts the prices.
A "symmetrical triangle" occurs when prices are making both

lower-highs and higher-lows. An "ascending triangle" occurs
when there are higher-lows (as with a symmetrical triangle),
but the highs are occurring at the same price level due to
resistance. The odds favor an upside breakout from an
ascending triangle. A "descending triangle" occurs when there
are lower-highs (as with a symmetrical triangle), but the lows
are occurring at the same price level due to support. The odds
favor a downside breakout from a descending triangle.
Just as pressure increases when water is forced through a

narrow opening, the "pressure" of prices increases as the
triangle pattern forms. Prices will usually breakout rapidly from
a triangle. Breakouts are confirmed when they are
accompanied by an increase in volume.
The most reliable breakouts occur somewhere between half

and three-quarters of the distance between the beginning and
end (apex) of the triangle. There are seldom many clues as to
the direction prices will break out of a symmetrical triangle. If
prices move all the way through the triangle to the apex, a
breakout is unlikely.
The following chart shows Boeing and a descending triangle.
Note the strong downside breakout on increased volume.
Double Tops and Bottoms
A double top occurs when prices rise to a resistance level on

significant volume, retreat, and subsequently return to the
resistance level on decreased volume. Prices then decline
marking the beginning of a new down-trend.
A double bottom has the same characteristics as a double top

except it is upside-down.
The following chart shows Caterpillar and a double bottom

pattern.



Preface
Acknowledgments
Terminology
To Learn More
PART TWO: Reference
PERCENT RETRACEMENT
A-C
D-L Overview
M-O
P-S
A characteristic of a healthy bull market is that it makes higher-
Parabolic SAR
Patterns
highs and higher-lows. This indicates a continual upward shift
Percent Retracement in expectations and the supply/demand lines. The amount that
Performance prices retreat following a higher-high can be measured using a
Point & Figure technique referred to as "percent retracement." This measures
Positive Volume Index the percentage that prices "retraced" from the high to the low.
Price and Volume Trend
Price Oscillator For example, if a stock moves from a low of 50 to a high of 100
and then retraces to 75, the move from 100 to 75 (25 points)
Public Short Ratio
retraced 50% of the original move from 50 to 100.
Puts/Calls Ratio
Quadrant Lines
Relative Strength, Comparative Interpretation
Renko Measuring the percent retracement can be helpful when
Speed Resistance Lines determining the price levels at which prices will reverse and
Spreads
continue upward. During a vigorous bull market, prices often
Standard Deviation
retrace up to 33% of the original move. It is not uncommon for
STIX
prices to retrace up to 50%. Retracements of more than 66%
Swing Index almost always signify an end to the bull market.
T-Z
Bibliography Some investors feel that the similarities between 33%, 50%,
About the Author and 66% and the Fibonacci numbers of 38.2%, 50%, and
61.8% are significant. These investors will use Fibonacci
Formula Primer
Levels to view retracement levels.
User Groups
Example
Training Partners I labeled the following chart of Great Western at three points
(labeled "A," "B," and "C").
Related Link:
These points define the price before the price move ("A"), at
the end of the price move ("B"), and at the retraced price ("C").
In this example, prices have retraced 61.5% of the original
price move.



Preface
Acknowledgments
Terminology
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PART TWO: Reference
PERFORMANCE
A-C
D-L Overview
M-O
P-S
The Performance indicator displays a security's price
Parabolic SAR
Patterns
performance as a percentage. This is sometimes called a
Percent Retracement "normalized" chart.
Performance
Point & Figure Interpretation
The Performance indicator displays the percentage that the
Price Oscillator
security has increased since the first period displayed. For
Public Short Ratio example, if the Performance indicator is 10, it means that the
Puts/Calls Ratio security's price has increased 10% since the first period
Quadrant Lines displayed on the left side of the chart. Similarly, a value of -
Relative Strength, Comparative 10% means that the security's price has fallen by 10% since
Relative Strength Index the first period displayed.
Renko
Speed Resistance Lines Performance charts are helpful for comparing the price
Spreads
movements of different securities.
Standard Deviation
STIX
Stochastic Oscillator Example
Swing Index
T-Z The following chart shows United Airlines and its Performance
Bibliography indicator. The indicator shows that United's price has increased
About the Author 16% since the beginning of 1993.
Formula Primer
User Groups
Training Partners
Related Link:
Calculation
The Performance indicator is calculated by dividing the change

in prices by the first price displayed.



Preface
Acknowledgments
Terminology
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PART TWO: Reference
POINT & FIGURE
A-C
D-L Overview
M-O
P-S
Point & Figure ("P&F") charts differ from traditional price charts
Parabolic SAR
Patterns
in that they completely disregard the passage of time and only
Percent Retracement display changes in prices. Rather than having price on the y-
Performance axis and time on the x-axis, P&F charts display price changes
Point & Figure on both axes. This is similar toKagi, Renko, and Three Line
Positive Volume Index Break charts.
Price Oscillator
Interpretation
Public Short Ratio
Puts/Calls Ratio Point & Figure charts display the underlying supply and
Quadrant Lines demand of prices. A column of Xs shows that demand is
Relative Strength, Comparative exceeding supply (a rally); a column of Os shows that supply is
Relative Strength Index exceeding demand (a decline); and a series of short columns
Renko shows that supply and demand are relatively equal.
Speed Resistance Lines
Spreads
There are several chart patterns that regularly appear in P&F
Standard Deviation
charts. These include Double Tops and Bottoms, Bullish and
STIX
Bearish Signal formations, Bullish and Bearish Symmetrical
Swing Index Triangles, Triple Tops and Bottoms, etc. It is beyond the scope
T-Z of this book to fully explain all of these patterns.
Bibliography
Formula Primer
The following two charts both show the prices of Atlantic
User Groups Richfield. The first chart displays prices in P&F, the second
chart displays prices as high, low, close bars.
Training Partners As I mentioned above, P&F charts focus only on price action.
Looking at this P&F chart, you can see that prices were initially
contained between a support level at 114 and a resistance
level at 121. When prices broke above the resistance level at
Related Link: 121 (the long column of Xs), that level became the new
Traders Library Investment Bookstore support level. This new support level eventually failed (the long
column of Os), prices re-tested the support at 114, made a
small rally, and then fell below the 114 support level.
This next chart shows the same pricing information as the

preceding P&F chart. You can see that the support and
resistance levels are also identifiable in this bar chart, but the
P&F chart made it much easier to identify them.
Calculation
Point & Figure charts display an "X" when prices rise by the
"box size" (a value you specify) and display an "O" when prices
fall by the box size. Note that no Xs or Os are drawn if prices
rise or fall by an amount that is less than the box size.
Each column can contain either Xs or Os, but never both. In

order to change columns (e.g., from an X column to an O
column), prices must reverse by the "reversal amount" (another
value you specify) multiplied by the box size. For example, if
the box size is three points and the reversal amount is two
boxes, then prices must reverse direction six points (three
multiplied by two) in order to change columns. If you are in a
column of Xs, the price must fall six points to change to a
column of Os. If you are in a column of Os, the price must rise
six points to change to a column of Xs.
The changing of columns identifies a change in the trend of

prices. When a new column of Xs appears, it shows that prices
are rallying higher. When a new column of Os appears, it
shows that prices are moving lower.
Because prices must reverse direction by the reversal amount,

the minimum number of Xs or Os that can appear in a column
is equal to the "reversal amount."
The common practice is to use the high and low prices (not just
the close) to decide if prices have changed enough to display a
new box.



Preface
Acknowledgments
Terminology
To Learn More
PART TWO: Reference
POSITIVE VOLUME INDEX
A-C
D-L Overview
M-O
P-S
The Positive Volume Index ("PVI") focuses on days where the
Parabolic SAR
Patterns
volume increased from the previous day. The premise being
Percent Retracement that the "crowd" takes positions on days when volume
Performance increases.
Point & Figure
Positive Volume Index Interpretation
Price Oscillator
Interpretation of the PVI assumes that on days when volume
Public Short Ratio increases, the crowd-following "uninformed" investors are in
Puts/Calls Ratio the market. Conversely, on days with decreased volume, the
Quadrant Lines "smart money" is quietly taking positions. Thus, the PVI
Relative Strength, Comparative displays what the not-so-smart-money is doing. (The Negative
Relative Strength Index Volume Index, displays what the smart money is doing.) Note,
Renko however, that the PVI is not a contrarian indicator. Even
Speed Resistance Lines though the PVI is supposed to show what the not-so-smart-
Spreads money is doing, it still trends in the same direction as prices.
Standard Deviation
STIX
The following table summarizes NVI and PVI data from 1941
Swing Index through 1975 as explained in Stock Market Logic, by Norman
T-Z Fosback.
Bibliography
About the Author
Table 11
Formula Primer
Indicator Probability Probability
User Groups Relative to that Bull that Bear
Educational Products Indicator One-Year market is market is
Moving in in
Training Partners Average Progress Progress
NVI Above 96% 4%
Related Link:
PVI Above 79% 21%
Traders Library Investment Bookstore NVI Below 47% 53%

PVI Below 33% 67%
As you can see, NVI is excellent at identifying bull markets

(i.e., when the NVI is above its one-year moving average) and
the PVI is pretty good at identifying bull markets (when the PVI
is above its moving average) and bear markets (i.e., when the
PVI is below its moving average).
Example
The following chart shows the NVI, the PVI, and the Dow
Jones Industrial Average ("DJIA") over a four year period
(weekly data).
I labeled both the NVI and PVI indicators bullish or bearish

depending on if they were above or below their 52-week
moving averages.
I then labeled the DJIA as Bullish when either the NVI or PVI
was above its moving average, and as Very Bullish when both
the indicators were above their moving averages.
Calculation
If today's volume is greater than yesterday's volume then:
If today's volume is less than or equal to yesterday's volume

then:
Because rising prices are usually associated with rising
volume, the PVI usually trends upward.



Preface
Acknowledgments
Terminology
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PART TWO: Reference
PRICE AND VOLUME TREND
A-C
D-L Overview
M-O
P-S
The Price and Volume Trend ("PVT") is similar to On Balance
Parabolic SAR
Patterns
Volume ("OBV,") in that it is a cumulative total of volume that is
Percent Retracement adjusted depending on changes in closing prices. But where
Performance OBV adds all volume on days when prices close higher and
Point & Figure subtracts all volume on days when prices close lower, the PVT
Positive Volume Index adds/subtracts only a portion of the daily volume. The amount
Price and Volume Trend of volume added to the PVT is determined by the amount that
Price Oscillator prices rose or fell relative to the previous day's close.
Public Short Ratio
Puts/Calls Ratio
Interpretation
Quadrant Lines
Relative Strength, Comparative The interpretation of the Price and Volume Trend is similar to
Relative Strength Index the interpretation of On Balance Volume and the Volume
Renko Accumulation/Distribution Line.
Spreads
Many investors feel that the PVT more accurately illustrates
Standard Deviation
the flow of money into and out of a security than does OBV.
STIX
This is because OBV adds the same amount of volume to the
Swing Index indicator regardless of whether the security closes up a fraction
T-Z of a point or doubles in price. Whereas, the PVT adds only a
Bibliography small portion of volume to the indicator when the price changes
About the Author by a small percentage and adds a large portion of volume to
the indicator when the price changes by a large percentage.
Formula Primer
User Groups Example

The following chart shows Dupont and the PVT.
Training Partners
Related Link:
The bullish divergence (the PVT was trending higher while
prices trended lower) was followed by a strong price increase.
Calculation
The PVT is calculated by multiplying the day's volume by the

percent that the security's price changed, and adding this value
to a cumulative total.
For example, if the security's price increased 0.5% on volume

of 10,000 shares, we would add 50 (i.e., 0.005 * 10,000) to the
PVT. If the security's price had closed down 0.5%, we would
have subtracted 50 from the PVT.



Preface
Acknowledgments
Terminology
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PART TWO: Reference
PRICE OSCILLATOR
A-C
D-L Overview
M-O
P-S
The Price Oscillator displays the difference between two
Parabolic SAR
Patterns
moving averages of a securitys price. The difference between
Percent Retracement the moving averages can be expressed in either points or
Performance percentages.
Point & Figure
Positive Volume Index The Price Oscillator is almost identical to the MACD, except
Price and Volume Trend that the Price Oscillator can use any two user-specified moving
Price Oscillator averages. (The MACD always uses 12- and 26-day moving
averages, and always expresses the difference in points.)
Public Short Ratio
Puts/Calls Ratio
Quadrant Lines Interpretation
Relative Strength Index Moving average analysis typically generates buy signals when
Renko a short-term moving average (or the securitys price) rises
Speed Resistance Lines above a longer-term moving average. Conversely, sell signals
Spreads
are generated when a shorter-term moving average (or the
Standard Deviation
securitys price) falls below a longer-term moving average. The
STIX
Price Oscillator illustrates the cyclical and often profitable
Swing Index signals generated by these one- or two-moving-average
T-Z systems.
Bibliography
Formula Primer
The following chart shows Kellogg and a 10-day/30-day Price
User Groups Oscillator. In this example, the Price Oscillator shows the
difference between the moving averages as percentages.
Training Partners I drew buy arrows when the Price Oscillator rose above zero
and sell arrows when the indicator fell below zero. This
example is typical of the Price Oscillators effectiveness.
Because the Price Oscillator is a trend-following indicator, it
Related Link: does an outstanding job of keeping you on the right side of the
Traders Library Investment Bookstore market during trending periods (as show by the arrows labeled
B, E, and F). However, during less decisive periods, the Price
Oscillator produces small losses (as shown by the arrows
labeled A, C, and D).
Calculation
When the Price Oscillator displays the difference between the

moving averages in points, it subtracts the longer-term moving
average from the short-term average:
When the Price Oscillator displays the difference between the

moving averages in percentages, it divides the difference
between the averages by the shorter-term moving average:



Preface
Acknowledgments
Terminology
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PART TWO: Reference
PRICE RATE-OF-CHANGE
A-C
D-L Overview
M-O
P-S
The Price Rate-of-Change ("ROC") indicator displays the
Parabolic SAR
Patterns
difference between the current price and the price x-time
Percent Retracement periods ago. The difference can be displayed in either points or
Performance as a percentage. The Momentum indicator displays the same
Point & Figure information, but expresses it as a ratio.
Price Oscillator
Public Short Ratio It is a well recognized phenomenon that security prices surge
Puts/Calls Ratio ahead and retract in a cyclical wave-like motion. This cyclical
Quadrant Lines action is the result of the changing expectations as bulls and
Relative Strength, Comparative bears struggle to control prices.
Renko The ROC displays the wave-like motion in an oscillator format
Speed Resistance Lines by measuring the amount that prices have changed over a
Spreads
given time period. As prices increase, the ROC rises; as prices
Standard Deviation
fall, the ROC falls. The greater the change in prices, the
STIX
greater the change in the ROC.
Swing Index
T-Z The time period used to calculate the ROC may range from 1-
Bibliography day (which results in a volatile chart showing the daily price
About the Author change) to 200-days (or longer). The most popular time
periods are the 12- and 25-day ROC for short to intermediate-
Formula Primer
term trading. These time periods were popularized by Gerald
User Groups Appel and Fred Hitschler in their book, Stock Market Trading
Systems.
Training Partners The 12-day ROC is an excellent short- to intermediate-term

overbought/oversold indicator. The higher the ROC, the more
overbought the security; the lower the ROC, the more likely a
rally. However, as with all overbought/over-sold indicators, it is
Related Link: prudent to wait for the market to begin to correct (i.e., turn up
Traders Library Investment Bookstore or down) before placing your trade. A market that appears
overbought may remain overbought for some time. In fact,
extremely overbought/oversold readings usually imply a
continuation of the current trend.
The 12-day ROC tends to be very cyclical, oscillating back and

forth in a fairly regular cycle. Often, price changes can be
anticipated by studying the previous cycles of the ROC and
relating the previous cycles to the current market.
Example
The following chart shows the 12-day ROC of Walgreen

expressed in percent.
I drew "buy" arrows each time the ROC fell below, and then
rose above, the oversold level of -6.5. I drew "sell" arrows each
time the ROC rose above, and then fell below, the overbought
level of +6.5.
The optimum overbought/oversold levels (e.g., 6.5) vary

depending on the security being analyzed and overall market
conditions. I selected 6.5 by drawing a horizontal line on the
chart that isolated previous "extreme" levels of Walgreen's 12-
day ROC.
Calculation
When the Rate-of-Change displays the price change in points,

it subtracts the price x-time periods ago from today's price:
When the Rate-of-Change displays the price change as a

percentage, it divides the price change by price x-time period's
ago:



Preface
Acknowledgments
Terminology
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PART TWO: Reference
PUBLIC SHORT RATIO
A-C
D-L Overview
M-O
P-S
The Public Short Ratio ("PSR") shows the relationship between
Parabolic SAR
Patterns
the number of public short sales and the total number of short
Percent Retracement sales. (The Public Short Ratio is sometimes referred to as the
Performance non-member short ratio.)
Point & Figure
Price Oscillator
The interpretation of the PSR assumes one premise: that of
Public Short Ratio the short sellers, the public is the worst (well, except for the
Puts/Calls Ratio odd lot traders whose indicators begin with the Odd Lot
Quadrant Lines Balance Index). If this is true, then we should buy when the
Relative Strength, Comparative public is shorting and sell when the public is long. Historically,
Relative Strength Index this premise has held true.
Renko
Speed Resistance Lines Generally speaking, the higher the PSR, the more bearish the
Spreads
public, and the more likely prices will increase (given the above
Standard Deviation
premise). Historically, it has been considered bullish when the
STIX
10-week moving average of the PSR is above 25% and
Swing Index bearish when the moving average is below 25%. The further
T-Z the moving average is in the bullish or bearish territory, the
Bibliography more likely it is that a correction/ rally will take place. Also, the
About the Author longer the indicator is in the bullish/bearish territory, the better
the chances of a market move. For more information on the
Formula Primer
PSR, I suggest reading the discussion on the non-member
User Groups short ratio in Stock Market Logic, by Norman G. Fosback.
Example
Training Partners
The following chart shows the New York Stock Exchange
Index and a 10-week moving average of the Public Short
Ratio.
Related Link:
The PSR dropped below 25% into bearish territory at the point
labeled "A." Over the next several months, the PSR continued
to move lower as the public became more and more bullish.
During this period, prices surged upward adding to the bullish
frenzy. The subsequent crash of 1987 gave the public a strong
dose of reality.
Since the crash of 1987, the PSR has remained high, telling us
that the public doesn't expect higher prices--a bullish sign.
Calculation
The Public Short Ratio is calculated by dividing the number of

public short sales by the total number of short sales. The result
is the percent-age of public shorts.



Preface
Acknowledgments
Terminology
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PART TWO: Reference
PUTS/CALLS RATIO
A-C
D-L Overview
M-O
P-S
Developed by Martin Zweig, the Puts/Calls Ratio ("P/C Ratio")
Parabolic SAR
Patterns
is a market sentiment indicator that shows the relationship
Percent Retracement between the number of Puts to Calls traded on the Chicago
Performance Board Options Exchange (CBOE).
Point & Figure
Positive Volume Index Traditionally, options are traded by unsophisticated, impatient
Price and Volume Trend investors who are lured by the potential for huge profits with a
Price Oscillator small capital outlay. Interestingly, the actions of these investors
provide excellent signals for market tops and bottoms.
Public Short Ratio
Puts/Calls Ratio
Quadrant Lines Interpretation
Relative Strength Index A Call gives an investor the right to purchase 100 shares of
Renko stock at a pre-determined price. Investors who purchase Calls
Speed Resistance Lines expect stock prices to rise in the coming months. Conversely, a
Spreads
Put gives an investor the right to sell 100 shares of stock at a
Standard Deviation
pre-set price. Investors purchasing Puts expect stock prices to
STIX
decline. (An exception to these general rules is that Puts and
Swing Index Calls can also be purchased to hedge other investments, even
T-Z other options.)
Bibliography
About the Author Because investors who purchase Calls expect the market to
rise and investors who purchase Puts expect the market to
Formula Primer
decline, the relationship between the number of Puts to Calls
User Groups illustrates the bullish/bearish expectations of these traditionally
ineffective investors.
Training Partners The higher the level of the P/C Ratio, the more bearish these
investors are on the market. Conversely, lower readings
indicate high Call volume and thus bullish expectations.
Related Link: The P/C Ratio is a contrarian indicator. When it reaches

Traders Library Investment Bookstore "excessive" levels, the market usually corrects by moving the
opposite direction. The following table, general guidelines for
interpreting the P/C Ratio. However, the market does not have
to correct itself just because investors are excessive in their
bullish/bearish beliefs! As with all technical analysis tools, you
should use the P/C Ratio in conjunction with other market
indicators.
Table 12
P/C Ratio 10- P/C Ratio 4-
day Moving week Moving
Average Average
Excessively
greater than 80 greater than 70
Bearish (buy)
Excessively
less than 45 less than 40
Bullish (sell)
Example
The following chart shows the S&P 500 and a 4-week moving
average of the Puts/Calls Ratio.
I drew "buy" arrows when investors were excessively

pessimistic (greater than 70) and "sell" arrows when they were
excessively optimistic (less than 40). The arrows certainly
show that investors are buying Puts when they should be
buying Calls, and vice versa.
Calculation
The Puts/Calls Ratio is calculated by dividing the volume of

Puts by the volume of Calls.



Preface
Acknowledgments
Terminology
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PART TWO: Reference
QUADRANT LINES
A-C
D-L Overview
M-O
P-S
Quadrant Lines are a series of horizontal lines that divide the
Parabolic SAR
Patterns
highest and lowest values (usually prices) into four equal
Percent Retracement sections.
Performance
Quadrant Lines are primarily intended to aid in the visual
Price Oscillator
inspection of price movements. They help you see the highest,
Public Short Ratio lowest, and average price during a specified period.
Puts/Calls Ratio
Quadrant Lines Example
An interesting technique is to display a Linear Regression
Renko
trendline and Quadrant Lines. This combination displays the
Spreads
highest, lowest, and average price, as well as the average
Standard Deviation slope of the prices. I used this technique on the following chart
STIX of Black & Decker.
Swing Index
T-Z
Bibliography
About the Author
Formula Primer
User Groups
Training Partners
Related Link:
Calculation
Quadrant Lines are calculated by finding the highest-high and

the lowest-low during the time period being analyzed. The top
line is drawn at the highest price during the time period and the
bottom line is drawn at the lowest price during the time period.
The remaining three lines are then drawn so they divide the
section between the highest-high and the lowest-low into four
equal sections. The center line (the "mean") is usually
displayed as a dotted line.



Preface
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Terminology
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PART TWO: Reference
RELATIVE STRENGTH,
A-C COMPARATIVE
D-L
M-O
P-S Overview
Parabolic SAR
Patterns Comparative Relative Strength compares two securities to
Percent Retracement
show how the securities are performing relative to each other.
Performance
Be careful not to confuse Comparative Relative Strength with
Point & Figure
the Relative Strength Index.
Price Oscillator Interpretation
Public Short Ratio Comparative Relative Strength compares a security's price
Puts/Calls Ratio
change with that of a "base" security. When the Comparative
Quadrant Lines
Relative Strength indicator is moving up, it shows that the
security is performing better than the base security. When the
Renko indicator is moving sideways, it shows that both securities are
Speed Resistance Lines performing the same (i.e., rising and falling by the same
Spreads percentages). When the indicator is moving down, it shows
Standard Deviation that the security is performing worse than the base security
STIX (i.e., not rising as fast or falling faster).
Swing Index Comparative Relative Strength is often used to compare a
T-Z
security's performance with a market index. It is also useful in
Bibliography
developing spreads (i.e., buy the best performer and short the
About the Author
weaker issue).
Formula Primer
User Groups Example

Educational Products In the following charts, the top chart displays both Microsoft
Training Partners and IBM's prices.
Related Link:
The bottom chart shows the Comparative Relative Strength of
IBM compared to Microsoft.
The Comparative Relative Strength indicator shows that IBM's

price outperformed Microsoft's price during the last three
months of 1993. It also shows that IBM's price then
underperformed Microsoft's price during the first three months
of 1994. (I drew the trendlines on the Comparative Relative
Strength indicator using the linear regression technique.)
Calculation
The Comparative Relative Strength indicator is calculated by

dividing one security's price by a second security's price (the
"base" security). The result of this division is the ratio, or
relationship, between the two securities.



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PART TWO: Reference
RELATIVE STRENGTH INDEX
A-C
D-L Overview
M-O
P-S
The Relative Strength Index ("RSI") is a popular oscillator. It
Parabolic SAR
Patterns
was first introduced by Welles Wilder in an article in
Percent Retracement Commodities (now known as Futures) Magazine in June, 1978.
Performance Step-by-step instructions on calculating and interpreting the
Point & Figure RSI are also provided in Mr. Wilder's book, New Concepts in
Positive Volume Index Technical Trading Systems.
Price Oscillator The name "Relative Strength Index" is slightly misleading as
the RSI does not compare the relative strength of two
Public Short Ratio
securities, but rather the internal strength of a single security. A
Puts/Calls Ratio
Quadrant Lines
more appropriate name might be "Internal Strength Index."
Relative Strength, Comparative Relative strength charts that compare two market indices,
Relative Strength Index which are often referred to as Comparative Relative Strength.
Renko
Speed Resistance Lines Interpretation
Spreads
Standard Deviation
When Wilder introduced the RSI, he recommended using a 14-
STIX
day RSI. Since then, the 9-day and 25-day RSIs have also
Swing Index gained popularity. Because you can vary the number of time
T-Z periods in the RSI calculation, I suggest that you experiment to
Bibliography find the period that works best for you. (The fewer days used to
About the Author calculate the RSI, the more volatile the indicator.)
Formula Primer
The RSI is a price-following oscillator that ranges between 0
User Groups and 100. A popular method of analyzing the RSI is to look for a
divergence in which the security is making a new high, but the
Educational Products RSI is failing to surpass its previous high. This divergence is an
Training Partners indication of an impending reversal. When the RSI then turns
down and falls below its most recent trough, it is said to have
completed a "failure swing." The failure swing is considered a
confirmation of the impending reversal.
Related Link:
Traders Library Investment Bookstore In Mr. Wilder's book, he discusses five uses of the RSI in
analyzing commodity charts. These methods can be applied to
other security types as well.
● Tops and Bottoms.

The RSI usually tops above 70 and bottoms below 30. It
usually forms these tops and bottoms before the
underlying price chart.
● Chart Formations.
The RSI often forms chart patterns such as head and
shoulders (page 215) or triangles (page 216) that may or
may not be visible on the price chart.
● Failure Swings.
(also known as support or resistance penetrations or
breakouts). This is where the RSI surpasses a previous
high (peak) or falls below a recent low (trough).
● Support and Resistance.

The RSI shows, sometimes more clearly than price
themselves, levels of support and resistance.
● Divergences.
As discussed above, divergences occur when the price
makes a new high (or low) that is not confirmed by a new
high (or low) in the RSI. Prices usually correct and move
in the direction of the RSI.
For additional information on the RSI, refer to Mr. Wilder's

book.
Example
The following chart shows PepsiCo and its 14-day RSI.
A bullish divergence occurred during May and June as prices

were falling while the RSI was rising. Prices subsequently
corrected and trended upward.
Calculation
The RSI is a fairly simple formula, but is difficult to explain

without pages of examples. Refer to Wilder's book for
additional calculation information. The basic formula is:
Where:



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Terminology
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PART TWO: Reference
RENKO
A-C
D-L Overview
M-O
P-S
The Renko charting method is thought to have acquired its
Parabolic SAR
Patterns
name from "renga" which is the Japanese word for bricks.
Percent Retracement Renko charts are similar to Three Line Break charts except
Performance that in a Renko chart, a line (or "brick" as they're called) is
Point & Figure drawn in the direction of the prior move only if prices move by
Positive Volume Index a minimum amount (i.e., the box size). The bricks are always
Price and Volume Trend equal in size. For example, in a 5-unit Renko chart, a 20-point
Price Oscillator rally is displayed as four, 5-unit tall Renko bricks.
Public Short Ratio
Kagi charts were first brought to the United States by Steven
Puts/Calls Ratio
Quadrant Lines
Nison when he published the book, Beyond Candlesticks.
Relative Strength Index Interpretation
Renko
Speed Resistance Lines Basic trend reversals are signaled with the emergence of a
Spreads
new white or black brick. A new white brick indicates the
Standard Deviation
beginning of a new up-trend. A new black brick indicates the
STIX
beginning of a new down-trend. Since the Renko chart is a
Swing Index trend following technique, there are times when Renko charts
T-Z produce whipsaws, giving signals near the end of short-lived
Bibliography trends. However, the expectation with a trend following
About the Author technique is that it allows you to ride the major portion of
significant trends.
Formula Primer
User Groups Since a Renko chart isolates the underlying price trend by
filtering out the minor price changes, Renko charts can also be
Educational Products very helpful when determining support and resistance levels.
Training Partners
Example
The following charts show Intel as a classic high-low-close bar

Related Link: chart and as a 2.5-unit Renko chart.
I drew "buy" and "sell" arrows on both charts when trend
reversals occurred in the Renko chart. You can see that
although the signals were late, they did ensure that you
invested with the major trend.
Calculation
Renko charts are always based on closing prices. You specify

a "box size" which determines the minimum price change to
display.
To draw Renko bricks, today's close is compared with the high

and low of the previous brick (white or black):
● If the closing price rises above the top of the previous

brick by at least the box size, one or more white bricks
are drawn in new columns. The height of the bricks is
always equal to the box size.
● If the closing price falls below the bottom of the previous

brick by at least the box size, one or more black bricks
are drawn in new columns. Again, the height of the
bricks is always equal to the box size.
If prices move more than the box size, but not enough to
create two bricks, only one brick is drawn. For example, in a
two-unit Renko chart, if the prices move from 100 to 103, only
one white brick is drawn from 100 to 102. The rest of the move,
from 102 to 103, is not shown on the Renko chart.



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PART TWO: Reference
SPEED RESISTANCE LINES
A-C
D-L Overview
M-O
P-S
Speed Resistance Lines ("SRL"), sometimes called 1/3-2/3
Parabolic SAR
Patterns
lines, are a series of trendlines that divide a price move into
Percent Retracement three equal sections. They are similar in construction and
Performance interpretation to Fibonacci Fan Lines.
Point & Figure
Price Oscillator
Speed Resistance Lines display three trendlines. The slope of
Public Short Ratio each line defines a different rate at which pricing expectations
Puts/Calls Ratio are changing.
Quadrant Lines
Relative Strength, Comparative Prices should find support above the 2/3 line. When prices do
Relative Strength Index fall below the 2/3 line, they should quickly drop to the 1/3 line
Renko where they should then again find support.
Spreads
Standard Deviation
Example
STIX
Stochastic Oscillator The following charts show McDonald's price and Speed
Swing Index Resistance Lines.
T-Z
Bibliography
About the Author
Formula Primer
User Groups
Training Partners
Related Link:
The initial trendline was drawn from the low point labeled "A" to
the high point labeled "B." You can see that prices found
support each time they fell to the 2/3 line. When prices finally
penetrated the 2/3 line (at point "C") they quickly fell to the 1/3
line where they again found support.
Calculation
To draw Speed Resistance Lines:
1. Draw a line from a major low to a major high.
2. Draw a vertical line on the day the major high occurred.

Divide this vertical line into thirds.
3. Draw lines from the major low so they intersect the

vertical line at the 1/3 and 2/3 levels.



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PART TWO: Reference
SPREADS
A-C
D-L Overview
M-O
P-S
Spreads show the difference in price between two securities.
Parabolic SAR
Patterns
Spreads are normally calculated using options.
Percent Retracement
Performance Interpretation
Point & Figure
Positive Volume Index A spread involves buying one security and selling another with
the goal of profiting from the narrowing or expanding of the
Price Oscillator
difference between the two securities. For example, you might
Public Short Ratio buy gold and short silver with the expectation that the price of
Puts/Calls Ratio gold will rise faster (or fall more slowly) than the price of silver.
Quadrant Lines
Relative Strength, Comparative You can also spread a single security by buying one contract
Relative Strength Index and selling another. For example, buy an October contract and
Renko sell a December contract.
Spreads
Standard Deviation
Example
STIX
Stochastic Oscillator The following charts show Live Hogs (top chart), Pork Bellies
Swing Index (middle chart), and the spread between the Hogs and Bellies
T-Z (bottom chart).
Bibliography
About the Author
Formula Primer
User Groups
Training Partners
Related Link:
This spread involves buying the Hogs and shorting the Bellies
with the anticipation that Hogs will rise faster (or fall more
slowly) than Bellies.
You can see that during the time period shown, both Hogs and
Bellies decreased in price. As desired, the price of Hogs fell
less than the price of Bellies. This is shown by the spread
narrowing from -10.55 to -3.58, with a resulting profit of 6.97.



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PART TWO: Reference
STANDARD DEVIATION
A-C
D-L Overview
M-O
P-S
Standard Deviation is a statistical measure of volatility.
Parabolic SAR
Patterns
Standard Deviation is typically used as a component of other
Percent Retracement indicators, rather than as a stand-alone indicator. For example,
Performance Bollinger Bands are calculated by adding a security's Standard
Point & Figure Deviation to a moving average.
Price Oscillator
Public Short Ratio High Standard Deviation values occur when the data item
Puts/Calls Ratio being analyzed (e.g., prices or an indicator) is changing
Quadrant Lines dramatically. Similarly, low Standard Deviation values occur
Relative Strength, Comparative when prices are stable.
Renko Many analysts feel that major tops are accompanied with high
Speed Resistance Lines volatility as investors struggle with both euphoria and fear.
Spreads
Major bottoms are expected to be calmer as investors have
Standard Deviation
few expectations of profits.
STIX
Swing Index Example
T-Z
Bibliography The following chart shows Proctor & Gamble and its 10-week
About the Author Standard Deviation.
Formula Primer
User Groups
Training Partners
Related Link:
The extremely low Standard Deviation values at points "A" and
"B" preceded significant rallies at points 1 and "2."
Calculation
Where:
Standard Deviation is derived by calculating an n-period simple

moving average of the data item (i.e., the closing price or an
indicator), summing the squares of the difference between the
data item and its moving average over each of the preceding n-
time periods, dividing this sum by n, and then calculating the
square root of this result.



Preface
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Terminology
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PART TWO: Reference
STIX
A-C
D-L Overview
M-O
P-S
STIX is a short-term trading oscillator that was published in
Parabolic SAR
Patterns
The Polymetric Report. It compares the amount of volume
Percent Retracement flowing into advancing and declining stocks.
Performance
According to The Polymetric Report:
Price Oscillator
Public Short Ratio ● STIX usually ranges between +42 and +58.
Puts/Calls Ratio
Quadrant Lines ● If STIX gets as low as 45, the market is almost always a
Relative Strength, Comparative buy, except in a raging bear market.
Renko ● The market is fairly overbought if STIX rises to 56; and
Speed Resistance Lines except in a new bull market, it's wise to sell if STIX
Spreads
should go over 58.
Standard Deviation
STIX
● Traders and investors should modify these rough rules to
Swing Index suit their own objectives.
T-Z
Bibliography ● In normal markets, STIX rarely gets as high as 56 or as
About the Author low as 45, so rigid use of these rules of thumb would
keep you inactive most of the time. For active accounts,
Formula Primer
the rules might be made much less stringent.
User Groups
Educational Products Table 13

Training Partners Extremely Overbought greater than 58
Fairly Overbought greater than 56
Fairly Oversold less than 45
Related Link:
Extremely Oversold less than 42
Example
The following chart shows the S&P 500 and the STIX indicator.
I drew "buy" arrows when the STIX fell below, and the rose
above, the oversold level of 45. I drew "sell" arrows when the
STIX rose above, and then fell below, the overbought level of
56.
Calculation
STIX is based on a variation of the Advance/Decline Ratio:
The STIX is a 21-period (i.e., 9%) exponential moving average

of the above A/D Ratio:



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PART TWO: Reference
STOCHASTIC OSCILLATOR
A-C
D-L Overview
M-O
P-S
Sto.chas.tic(sto kas'tik) adj. 2. Math. designating a process
Parabolic SAR
Patterns having an infinite progression of jointly distributed random
Percent Retracement variables.
Performance - Webster's New World Dictionary
Point & Figure
Positive Volume Index The Stochastic Oscillator compares where a security's price
Price and Volume Trend closed relative to its price range over a given time period.
Price Oscillator
Public Short Ratio
Interpretation
Puts/Calls Ratio
Quadrant Lines The Stochastic Oscillator is displayed as two lines. The main
Relative Strength, Comparative line is called "%K." The second line, called "%D," is a moving
Relative Strength Index average of %K. The %K line is usually displayed as a solid line
Renko and the %D line is usually displayed as a dotted line.
Spreads
There are several ways to interpret a Stochastic Oscillator.
Standard Deviation
STIX
Three popular methods include:
Swing Index 1. Buy when the Oscillator (either %K or %D) falls below a
T-Z specific level (e.g., 20) and then rises above that level.
Bibliography Sell when the Oscillator rises above a specific level (e.g.,
About the Author 80) and then falls below that level.
Formula Primer
2. Buy when the %K line rises above the %D line and sell
User Groups when the %K line falls below the %D line.
Educational Products Look for divergences. For example, where prices are
Training Partners making a series of new highs and the Stochastic
Oscillator is failing to surpass its previous highs.
Example
Related Link:
Traders Library Investment Bookstore The following chart shows Avon Products and its 10-day
Stochastic.
I drew "buy" arrows when the %K line fell below, and then rose
above, the level of 20. Similarly, I drew "sell" arrows when the
%K line rose above, and then fell below, the level of 80.
This next chart also shows Avon Products.
In this example I drew "buy" arrows each time the %K line rose
above the %D (dotted). Similarly, "sell" arrows were drawn
when the %K line fell below the %D line.
This final chart shows a divergence between the Stochastic

Oscillator and prices.
This is a classic divergence where prices are headed higher,
but the underlying indicator (the Stochastic Oscillator) is
moving lower. When a divergence occurs between an indicator
and prices, the indicator typically provides the clue as to where
prices will head.
Calculation
The Stochastic Oscillator has four variables:
1. %K Periods.
This is the number of time periods used in the stochastic
calculation.
2. %K Slowing Periods.
This value controls the internal smoothing of %K. A value
of 1 is considered a fast stochastic; a value of 3 is
considered a slow stochastic.
3. %D Periods.
This is the number of time periods used when calculating
a moving average of %K. The moving average is called
"%D" and is usually displayed as a dotted line on top of
%K.
4. %D Method.
The method (i.e., Exponential, Simple, Time Series,
Triangular, Variable, or Weighted) that is used to
calculate %D.
The formula for %K is:

For example, to calculate a 10-day %K, first find the security's
highest-high and lowest-low over the last 10 days. As an
example, let's assume that during the last 10 days the highest-
high was 46 and the lowest-low was 38--a range of 8 points. If
today's closing price was 41, %K would be calculated as:
The 37.5% in this example shows that today's close was at the
level of 37.5% relative to the security's trading range over the
last 10 days. If today's close was 42, the Stochastic Oscillator
would be 50%. This would mean that that the security closed
today at 50%, or the mid-point, of its 10-day trading range.
The above example used a %K Slowing Period of 1-day (no

slowing). If you use a value greater than one, you average the
highest-high and the lowest-low over the number of %K
Slowing Periods before performing the division.
A moving average of %K is then calculated using the number

of time periods specified in the %D Periods. This moving
average is called %D.
The Stochastic Oscillator always ranges between 0% and

100%. A reading of 0% shows that the security's close was the
lowest price that the security has traded during the preceding x-
time periods. A reading of 100% shows that the security's close
was the highest price that the security has traded during the
preceding x-time periods.



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PART TWO: Reference
SWING INDEX
A-C
D-L Overview
M-O
P-S
Developed by Welles Wilder, the Swing Index seeks to isolate
Parabolic SAR
Patterns
the "real" price of a security by comparing the relationships
Percent Retracement between the current prices (i.e., open, high, low, and close)
Performance and the previous period's prices.
Point & Figure
Price Oscillator
The Swing Index is primarily used as a component of the
Public Short Ratio Accumulation Swing Index.
Puts/Calls Ratio
Quadrant Lines Example
The following chart shows the British Pound and the Swing
Renko
Index.
Spreads
Standard Deviation
STIX
Swing Index
T-Z
Bibliography
About the Author
Formula Primer
User Groups
Training Partners
Related Link: You can see that by itself, the Swing Index is an erratic plot.
Traders Library Investment Bookstore The value of this indicator develops when it is accumulated into
the Accumulation Swing Index.
Calculation
Although it is beyond the scope of this book to completely

define the Swing Index, the basic formula is shown below. Step-
by-step instructions on calculating the Swing Index are
provided in Wilder's book, New Concepts In Technical Trading
Systems.
Where:
The following table lists the limit moves for several

commodities. You can get a list of limit moves from your
broker.
Table 14
Commodity Limit Move
Coffee $0.06
Gold $75.00
Heating Oil $0.04
Hogs $0.015
Soybeans $0.30
T-Bonds $3.00
You may need to adjust the limit moves shown in the above
table based on the position of the decimal in your data. For
example, if the price of corn is quoted as $2.45, the limit move
would be $0.10. However, if the price of corn is quoted as
$245.00, the limit move would be $10.00.
If the security does not have a limit move (e.g., a stock or

some futures), use an extremely high value (e.g., $30,000).



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PART TWO: Reference
THREE LINE BREAK
A-C
D-L Overview
M-O
P-S
Three Line Break charts display a series of vertical boxes
T-Z
Three Link Break
("lines") that are based on changes in prices. As with Kagi,
Time Series Forcast Point & Figure, and Renko charts, Three Line Break charts
Tirone Levels ignore the passage of time.
Total Short Ratio
Trade Volume Index The Three Line Break charting method is so-named because
Trendlines of the number of lines typically used.
TRIX
Typical Price
Three Line Break charts were first brought to the United States
Ultimate Oscillator
by Steven Nison when he published the book, Beyond
Upside/Downside Ratio
Upside/Downside Volume
Candlesticks.
Vertical Horizonal Filter
Volatility, Chaikin's Interpretation
Volume
Volume Oscillator The following are the basic trading rules for a three-line
Volume Rate-of-Change
break chart:
Weighted Close
Williams' Accumulation/Distribution
Williams' %R ● Buy when a white line emerges after three adjacent
Zig Zag black lines (a "white turnaround line").
Bibliography
About the Author ● Sell when a black line appears after three adjacent white
lines (a "black turnaround line").
Formula Primer
User Groups ● Avoid trading in "trendless" markets where the lines

alternate between black and white.
Training Partners An advantage of Three Line Break charts is that there is no

arbitrary fixed reversal amount. It is the price action which
gives the indication of a reversal. The disadvantage of Three
Line Break charts is that the signals are generated after the
Related Link: new trend is well under way. However, many traders are willing
to accept the late signals in exchange for calling major trends.
You can adjust the sensitivity of the reversal criteria by

changing the number of lines in the break. For example, short-
term traders might use two-line breaks to get more reversals
while a longer-term investor might use four-line or even 10-line
breaks to reduce the number of reversals. The Three Line
Break is the most popular in Japan.
Steven Nison recommends using Three Line Break charts in

conjunction with candlestick charts. He suggests using the
Three Line Break chart to determine the prevailing trend and
then using candlestick patterns to time your individual trades.
Example
The following illustration shows a Three Line Break and a bar

chart of Apple Computer.
You can see that the number of break lines in a given month
depend on the price change during the month. For example,
June has many lines because the prices changed significantly
whereas November only has two lines because prices were
relatively flat.
Calculation
Line Break charts are always based on closing prices.
The general rules for calculating a Line Break chart are:
● If the price exceeds the previous line's high price, a new

white line is drawn.
● If the price falls below the previous line's low price, a new
black line is drawn.
● If the price does not rise above nor fall below the
previous line, nothing is drawn.
In a Three Line Break chart, if rallies are strong enough to

display three consecutive lines of the same color, then prices
must reverse by the extreme price of the last three lines in
order to create a new line:
● If a rally is powerful enough to form three consecutive

white lines, then prices must fall below the lowest point
of the last three white lines before a new black line is
drawn.
● If a sell-off is powerful enough to form three consecutive

black lines, then prices must rise above the highest point
of the last three black lines before a new white line is
drawn.



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PART TWO: Reference
TIME SERIES FORECAST
A-C
D-L Overview
M-O
P-S
The Time Series Forecast indicator displays the statistical
T-Z
Three Link Break
trend of a security's price over a specified time period. The
Time Series Forcast trend is based on linear regression analysis. Rather than
Tirone Levels plotting a straight linear regression trendline, the Time Series
Total Short Ratio Forecast plots the last point of multiple linear regression
Trade Volume Index trendlines. The resulting Time Series Forecast indicator is
Trendlines sometimes referred to as the "moving linear regression"
TRIX indicator or the "regression oscillator."
Typical Price
Ultimate Oscillator
Interpretation
Vertical Horizonal Filter The interpretation of a Time Series Forecast is identical to a
Volatility, Chaikin's moving average. However, the Time Series Forecast indicator
Volume has two advantages over classic moving averages.
Volume Oscillator
Unlike a moving average, a Time Series Forecast does not
Weighted Close
exhibit as much delay when adjusting to price changes. Since
Williams' %R
the indicator is "fitting" itself to the data rather than averaging
Zig Zag them, the Time Series Forecast is more responsive to price
Bibliography changes.
About the Author
As the name suggests, you can use the Time Series Forecast
Formula Primer
to forecast the next period's price. This estimate is based on
User Groups the trend of the security's prices over the period specified (e.g.,
20 days). If the current trend continues, the value of the Time
Educational Products Series Forecast is a forecast of the next period's price.
Training Partners
Example
The following chart shows a 50-day Time Series Forecast of

Related Link: Microsoft's prices.
I've also drawn three 50-day long linear regression trendlines.
You can see that the ending point of each trendline is equal to
the value of the Time Series Forecast.
Calculation
The Time Series Forecast is determined by calculating a linear

regression trendline using the "least squares fit" method. The
least squares fit technique fits a trendline to the data in the
chart by minimizing the distance between the data points and
the linear regression trendline. Click here to go to the formula
for a linear regression trendline.



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PART TWO: Reference
TIRONE LEVELS
A-C
D-L Overview
M-O
P-S
Tirone Levels are a series of horizontal lines that identify
T-Z
Three Link Break
support and resistance levels. They were developed by John
Time Series Forcast Tirone.
Tirone Levels
Total Short Ratio Interpretation
Trade Volume Index
Trendlines
Tirone Levels can be drawn using either the Midpoint 1/3-2/3
TRIX
Typical Price
method or the Mean method. Both methods are intended to
Ultimate Oscillator help you identify potential support and resistance levels based
Upside/Downside Ratio on the range of prices over a given time period. The
Upside/Downside Volume interpretation of Tirone Levels is similar to Quadrant Lines.
Volatility, Chaikin's Example
Volume
Volume Oscillator
The following chart shows Midpoint Tirone Levels on Lincoln
Weighted Close National.
Williams' %R
Zig Zag
Bibliography
About the Author
Formula Primer
User Groups
Training Partners
Related Link:
The dotted line shows the average price. The top and bottom
lines divide the range between the highest and lowest prices
into thirds.
Calculation
Midpoint Method
Midpoint levels are calculated by finding the highest high and

the lowest low during the time period being analyzed. The lines
are then calculated as follows:
● Top line:
Subtract the lowest low from the highest high, divide this
value by three, and then subtract this result from the
highest high.
● Center Line:
value by two, and then add this result to the lowest low.
● Bottom Line:
value by three, and then add this result to the lowest low.
Mean Method
Mean levels are displayed as five lines (the spacing between

the lines is not necessarily symmetrical). The lines are
calculated as follows:
● Extreme High:
Subtract the lowest low from the highest high and add
this value to the Adjusted Mean.
● Regular High:
Subtract the lowest low from the value of the Adjusted
Mean multiplied by two.
● Adjusted Mean:
This is the sum of the highest high, the lowest low, and
the most recent closing price, divided by three.
● Regular Low:
Subtract the highest high from the value of the Adjusted
Mean multiplied by two.
● Extreme Low:
Subtract the lowest low from the highest high and then
subtract this value from the Adjusted Mean.



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PART TWO: Reference
TOTAL SHORT RATIO
A-C
D-L Overview
M-O
P-S
The Total Short Ratio ("TSR") shows the percentage of short
T-Z
Three Link Break
sales to the total volume on the New York Stock Exchange.
Time Series Forcast
Tirone Levels Interpretation
Total Short Ratio
Trade Volume Index As with the Public Short Ratio, the Total Short Ratio takes the
Trendlines
contrarian view that short sellers are usually wrong. While the
TRIX
Typical Price
odd lotters are typically the worst of the short sellers, history
Ultimate Oscillator has shown that even the specialists tend to over-short at
Upside/Downside Ratio market bottoms.
Vertical Horizonal Filter The TSR shows investor expectations. High values indicate
Volatility, Chaikin's bearish expectations and low values indicate bullish
Volume expectations. Taking a contrarian stance, when there are high
Volume Oscillator levels of shorts (many investors expect a market decline), we
would expect the market to rise. Likewise, extremely low levels
Weighted Close
of short sales should indicate excessive optimism and the
Williams' %R
increased likelihood of a market decline.
Zig Zag
Bibliography The interpretation of all of the short sale indicators has become
About the Author more difficult recently due to option hedging and arbitrage.
However, they are still helpful in determining overall market
Formula Primer
expectations.
User Groups
Example
Training Partners The following chart shows the New York Stock Exchange and
a 10-week moving average of the Total Short Ratio.
Related Link:
I drew "buy" arrows each time investors were excessively
bearish. In hindsight, each of these turned out to be excellent
times to enter the market.
Calculation
The Total Short Ratio is calculated by dividing the total number

of short sales by the total number of buy and sell orders. Both
of these figures are reported weekly (on Fridays) by the NYSE.



Preface
Acknowledgments
Terminology
To Learn More
PART TWO: Reference
TRADE VOLUME INDEX
A-C
D-L Overview
M-O
P-S
The Trade Volume Index ("TVI") shows whether a security is
T-Z
Three Link Break
being accumulated (purchased) or distributed (sold).
Time Series Forcast
Tirone Levels The TVI is designed to be calculated using intraday "tick" price
Total Short Ratio data. The TVI is based on the premise that trades taking place
Trade Volume Index at higher "asking" prices are buy transactions and trades at
Trendlines lower "bid" prices are sell transactions.
TRIX
Typical Price
Ultimate Oscillator
Interpretation
Upside/Downside Volume The TVI is very similar to On Balance Volume. The OBV
Vertical Horizonal Filter method works well with daily prices, but it doesn't work as well
Volatility, Chaikin's with intraday tick prices. Tick prices, especially stock prices,
Volume often display trades at the bid or ask price for extended periods
Volume Oscillator without changing. This creates a flat support or resistance level
in the chart. During these periods of unchanging prices, the
Weighted Close
TVI continues to accumulate this volume on either the buy or
Williams' %R
sell side, depending on the last price change.
Zig Zag
Bibliography The TVI helps identify whether a security is being accumulated
About the Author or distributed. When the TVI is trending up, it shows that trades
are taking place at the asking price as buyers accumulate the
Formula Primer
security. When the TVI is trending down, it shows that trades
User Groups are taking place at the bid price as sellers distribute the
security.
Training Partners When prices create a flat resistance level and the TVI is rising,
look for prices to breakout to the upside. When prices create a
flat support level and the TVI is falling, look for prices to drop
below the support level.
Related Link:
The following chart shows IBM's tick prices and TVI.
During the 45 minutes leading up to the point labeled "A,"

prices were locked in a tight range between the bid price of 69
1/4 and the asking price of 69 3/8. During this same period, the
TVI was trending upward which showed the prices were slowly
being accumulated.
Calculation
The Trade Volume Index is calculated by adding each trade's

volume to a cumulative total when the price moves up by a
specified amount, and subtracting the trade's volume when the
price moves down by a specified amount. The "specified"
amount is called the "Minimum Tick Value."
To calculate the TVI you must first determine if prices are

being accumulated or distributed:
Once you know the direction, you can then calculate the TVI:



Preface
Acknowledgments
Terminology
To Learn More
PART TWO: Reference
TRENDLINES
A-C
D-L Overview
M-O
P-S
One of the basic tenets put forth by Charles Dow in the Dow
T-Z
Three Link Break
Theory is that security prices do trend. Trends are often
Time Series Forcast measured and identified by "trendlines." A trendline is a sloping
Tirone Levels line that is drawn between two or more prominent points on a
Total Short Ratio chart. Rising trends are defined by a trendline that is drawn
Trade Volume Index between two or more troughs (low points) to identify price
Trendlines support. Falling trend-s are defined by trendlines that are
TRIX drawn between two or more peaks (high points) to identify
Typical Price price resistance.
Ultimate Oscillator
Upside/Downside Volume Interpretation
Volatility, Chaikin's A principle of technical analysis is that once a trend has been
Volume formed (two or more peaks/troughs have touched the trendline
Volume Oscillator and reversed direction) it will remain intact until broken.
Weighted Close
That sounds much more simplistic than it is! The goal is to
Williams' %R
analyze the current trend using trendlines and then either
Zig Zag invest with the current trend until the trendline is broken, or
Bibliography wait for the trendline to be broken and then invest with the new
About the Author (opposite) trend.
Formula Primer
One benefit of trendlines is they help distinguish emotional
User Groups decisions ("I think it's time to sell...") from analytical decisions
("I will hold until the current rising trendline is broken"). Another
Educational Products benefit of trendlines is that they almost always keep you on the
Training Partners "right" side of the market. When using trendlines, it's difficult to
hold a security for very long when prices are falling just as it's
hard to be short when prices are rising--either way the
trendline will be broken.
Related Link:
The following chart shows Goodyear along with several
trendlines.
Trendlines "A" and "C" are falling trendlines. Note how they
were drawn between successive peaks. Trendlines "B" and "D"
are rising trendlines. They were drawn between successive
troughs in the price.



Preface
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Terminology
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PART TWO: Reference
TRIX
A-C
D-L Overview
M-O
P-S
TRIX is a momentum indicator that displays the percent rate-of-
T-Z
Three Link Break
change of a triple exponentially smoothed moving average of
Time Series Forcast the security's closing price. It is designed to keep you in trends
Tirone Levels equal to or shorter than the number of periods you specify.
Total Short Ratio
Trade Volume Index Interpretation
Trendlines
TRIX
Typical Price
The TRIX indicator oscillates around a zero line. Its triple
Ultimate Oscillator exponential smoothing is designed to filter out "insignificant"
Upside/Downside Ratio cycles (i.e., those that are shorter than the number of periods
Upside/Downside Volume you specify).
Volatility, Chaikin's Trades should be placed when the indicator changes direction
Volume (i.e., buy when it turns up and sell when it turns down). You
Volume Oscillator may want to plot a 9-period moving average of the TRIX to
create a "signal" line (similar to the MACD indicator, and then
Weighted Close
buy when the TRIX rises above its signal, and sell when it falls
Williams' %R
below its signal.
Zig Zag
Bibliography Divergences between the security and the TRIX can also help
About the Author identify turning points.
Formula Primer
Example
User Groups
The following chart shows Checker Drive-In, its 12-day TRIX
(solid line), and a 9-day "signal" moving average of the TRIX
Training Partners (dotted line).
Related Link:
I drew "buy" arrows when the TRIX rose above its signal line
and drew "sell" arrows when it fell below its signal line. This
method worked well when prices were trending, but it
generated numerous false signals when prices were moving
sideways.
A bearish divergence occurred when the TRIX was falling

(trendline "A") while prices rose. Prices subsequently
corrected. Similarly, a bullish divergence occurred when the
TRIX was rising (trendline "B") while prices were falling. Prices
subsequently rallied.
Calculation
To calculate the TRIX indicator:
1. Calculate an n-period exponential moving average of the

closing prices.

moving average calculated in Step #1.

moving average calculated in Step #2.
4. Calculate the 1-period (e.g., 1-day) percent change of

the moving average calculated in Step #3.



Preface
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Terminology
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PART TWO: Reference
TYPICAL PRICE
A-C
D-L Overview
M-O
P-S
The Typical Price indicator is simply an average of each day's
T-Z
Three Link Break
price. The Median Price and Weighted Close are similar
Time Series Forcast indicators.
Tirone Levels
Trade Volume Index
Trendlines
The Typical Price indicator provides a simple, single-line plot of
TRIX
Typical Price
the day's average price. Some investors use the Typical Price
Ultimate Oscillator rather than the closing price when creating moving average
Upside/Downside Ratio penetration systems.
Vertical Horizonal Filter The Typical Price is a building block of the Money Flow Index.
Volatility, Chaikin's
Volume
Example
Volume Oscillator
Weighted Close The following chart shows the Typical Price indicator on top of
Williams' Accumulation/Distribution Value Line's bar chart.
Williams' %R
Zig Zag
Bibliography
About the Author
Formula Primer
User Groups
Training Partners
Related Link:
Calculation
The Typical Price indicator is calculated by adding the high,

low, and closing prices together, and then dividing by three.
The result is the average, or typical price.



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PART TWO: Reference
ULTIMATE OSCILLATOR
A-C
D-L Overview
M-O
P-S
Oscillators typically compare a security's smoothed price with
T-Z
Three Link Break
its price x-periods ago. Larry Williams noted that the value of
Time Series Forcast this type of oscillator can vary greatly depending on the
Tirone Levels number of time periods used during the calculation. Thus, he
Total Short Ratio developed the Ultimate Oscillator that uses weighted sums of
Trade Volume Index three oscillators, each of which uses a different time period.
Trendlines
TRIX The three oscillators are based on Williams' definitions of
Typical Price
buying and selling "pressure."
Ultimate Oscillator
Upside/Downside Volume Interpretation
Volatility, Chaikin's Williams recommends that you initiate a trade following a
Volume divergence and a breakout in the Ultimate Oscillator's trend.
Volume Oscillator The following text sumarizes these rules.
Weighted Close
Buy when:
Williams' %R
Zig Zag 1. A bullish divergence occurs. This is when the security's
Bibliography price makes a lower low that is not confirmed by a lower
About the Author low in the Oscillator.
Formula Primer
2. During the bullish divergence, the Oscillator falls below
User Groups 30.
Educational Products 3. The Oscillator then rises above the highest point reached
Training Partners during the span of the bullish divergence. This is the
point at which you buy.
Close long positions when:

Related Link:
Traders Library Investment Bookstore ● The conditions are met to sell short (explained below), or
● The Oscillator rises above 50 and then falls below 45, or

● The Oscillator rises above 70. (I sometimes wait for the
oscillator to then fall below 70.)
Sell short when:
1. A bearish divergence occurs. This is when the security's

price makes a higher high that is not confirmed by a
higher high in the Oscillator.
2. During the bearish divergence, the Oscillator rises above

50.
3. The Oscillator then falls below the lowest point reached

during the span of the bearish divergence. This is the
point at which you sell short.
Close short positions when:
● The conditions are met to buy long (explained above), or
● The Oscillator rises above 65, or
● The Oscillator falls below 30. (I will sometimes wait for

the oscillator to then rise above 30.)
Example
The following chart shows Autozone and its Ultimate Oscillator.
I drew "sell" arrows when the conditions for a sell signal were
met:
● A bearish divergence occurred (lines "A") when prices

made a new high that was not confirmed by the
Oscillator.
● The Oscillator rose above 50 during the divergence.
● The Oscillator fell below the lowest point reached during

the span of the divergence (line "B").
Similarly, I drew "buy" arrows when the conditions for a buy

signal were met:
● A bullish divergence occurred (lines "C") then prices

made a new low that was not confirmed by the Oscillator.
● The Oscillator fell below 30 during the divergence.
● The Oscillator rose above the highest point reached

during the span of the divergence (line "D").



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PART TWO: Reference
UPSIDE/DOWNSIDE RATIO
A-C
D-L Overview
M-O
P-S
The Upside/Downside Ratio shows the relationship between
T-Z
Three Link Break
up (advancing) and down (declining) volume on the New York
Time Series Forcast Stock Exchange. Click here for more information on
Tirone Levels Advancing, declining, and unchanged volume.
Total Short Ratio
Trendlines
TRIX
Typical Price
When the Upside/Downside Ratio is greater than 1.0, it is
Ultimate Oscillator showing that there is more volume associated with stocks that
Upside/Downside Ratio are increasing in price than with stocks that are decreasing in
Upside/Downside Volume price.
Volatility, Chaikin's While discussing advancing/declining volume in his book,
Volume Winning on Wall Street, Martin Zweig states, "Every bull
Volume Oscillator market in history, and many good intermediate advances, have
been launched with a buying stampede that included one or
Weighted Close
more 9-to-1 days" ("9-to-1" refers to a day were the
Williams' %R
Upside/Downside Ratio is greater than nine). He goes on to
Zig Zag say, "the 9-to-1 up day is a most encouraging sign, and having
Bibliography two of them within a reasonably short span is very bullish. I call
About the Author it a "double 9-to-1" when two such days occur with three
months of one another."
Formula Primer
User Groups Table 15 (originally tabulated through 1984 by Martin Zweig)

shows all of the double 9-to-1 buy signals that occurred from
Educational Products 1962 to October 1994. As of this writing, no signals have
Training Partners occurred since the last one on June 8, 1988.
Table 15
Related Link:
% % %
Change Change Change
Date DJIA 3 6 12
months months months
later later later
11/12/62 624 +8.5 +15.9 +20.2
11/19/63 751 +6.9 +9.1 +16.5
10/12/66 778 +6.9 +8.6 +17.4
5/27/70 663 +14.6 +17.8 +16.5
11/19/71 830 +11.8 +17.0 +22.8
9/19/75 830 +1.7 +18.1 +19.9
4/22/80 790 +11.8 +17.0 +22.8
3/22/82 820 -2.4 +13.2 +37.0
8/20/82 869 +15.1 +24.3 +38.4
1/6/83 1,071 +3.9 +14.0 +20.2
8/2/84 1,166 +4.4 +10.6 +16.0
11/23/84 1,220 +4.7 +6.2 +19.3
1/2/87 1,927 +20.4 +26.4 +4.6
10/29/87 1,938 +1.0 +4.9 +10.8
1/4/88 2,015 -1.7 +7.1 +8.0
6/8/88 2,102 -1.9 +1.9 +19.7
AVERAGE +6.4/qtr. +12.5/half +18.4/year
Example
The following chart shows the Dow Jones Industrial Average

during most of the 1980s.
I drew "buy" arrows on the chart where double 9-to-1 buy
signals occurred.
Calculation
The Upside/Downside Ratio is calculated by dividing the daily

volume of advancing stocks by the daily volume of declining
stocks.



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PART TWO: Reference
UPSIDE-DOWNSIDE VOLUME
A-C
D-L Overview
M-O
P-S
The Upside-Downside Volume indicator shows the difference
T-Z
Three Link Break
between up (advancing) and down (declining) volume on the
Time Series Forcast New York Stock Exchange. Click here for more information on
Tirone Levels Advancing, declining, and unchanged volume.
Total Short Ratio
Trendlines
TRIX
Typical Price
The Upside-Downside Volume indicator shows the net flow of
Ultimate Oscillator volume into or out of the market. A reading of +40 indicates
Upside/Downside Ratio that up volume exceeded down volume by 40 million shares.
Upside/Downside Volume Likewise a reading of -40 would indicate that down volume
Vertical Horizonal Filter exceeded up volume by 40 million shares.
Volatility, Chaikin's
Volume The indicator is useful to compare today's volume action with
Volume Oscillator previous days. Currently, normal readings are in the area of
50. Very active days exceed 150 million shares (the October,
Weighted Close
1987 crash reached -602).
Williams' %R
Zig Zag The Cumulative Volume Index is a cumulative total of the
Bibliography Upside-Downside Volume indicator.
About the Author
Formula Primer
Example
User Groups The following chart shows the Dow Jones Industrial Average
and the Upside-Downside Volume indicator.
Training Partners
Related Link:
I labeled the DJIA with "buy" arrows when the Upside-
Downside Volume indicator was greater than 200 and with
"sell" arrows when the indicator was less than -200.
Calculation
The Upside-Downside Volume indicator is calculated by

subtracting the daily volume of advancing stocks by the daily
volume of declining stocks.



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Terminology
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PART TWO: Reference
VERTICAL HORIZONTAL FILTER
A-C
D-L Overview
M-O
P-S
The Vertical Horizontal Filter ("VHF") determines whether
T-Z
Three Link Break
prices are in a trending phase or a congestion phase.
Time Series Forcast
Tirone Levels The VHF was first presented by Adam White in an article
Total Short Ratio published in the August, 1991 issue of Futures Magazine.
Trade Volume Index
Trendlines Interpretation
TRIX
Typical Price
Ultimate Oscillator Probably the biggest dilemma in technical analysis is
Upside/Downside Ratio determining if prices are trending or are in a trading-range.
Upside/Downside Volume Trend-following indicators such as the MACD and moving
Vertical Horizonal Filter averages are excellent in trending markets, but they usually
Volatility, Chaikin's generate multiple conflicting trades during trading-range (or
Volume "congestion") periods. On the other hand, oscillators such as
Volume Oscillator the RSI and Stochastics work well when prices fluctuate within
a trading range, but they almost always close positions
Weighted Close
prematurely during trending markets. The VHF indicator
Williams' %R
attempts to determine the "trendiness" of prices to help you
Zig Zag decide which indicators to use.
Bibliography
About the Author There are three ways to interpret the VHF indicator:
Formula Primer
1. You can use the VHF values themselves to determine
User Groups the degree that prices are trending. The higher the VHF,
the higher the degree of trending and the more you
Educational Products should be using trend-following indicators.
Training Partners
2. You can use the direction of the VHF to determine
whether a trending or congestion phase is developing. A
rising VHF indicates a developing trend; a falling VHF
Related Link: indicates that prices may be entering a congestion
phase.
3. You can use the VHF as a contrarian indicator. Expect

congestion periods to follow high VHF values; expect
prices to trend following low VHF values.
Example
The following chart shows Motorola and the VHF indicator.
The VHF indicator was relatively low from 1989 through most
of 1992. These low values showed that prices were in a trading
range. From late-1992 through 1993 the VHF was significantly
higher. These higher values indicated that prices were
trending.
The 40-week (i.e., 200-day) moving average on Motorola's

prices demonstrates the value of the VHF indicator. You can
see that a classic moving average trading system (buy when
prices rise above their moving average and sell when prices
fall below their average) worked well in 1992 and 1993, but
generated numerous whipsaws when prices were in a trading
range.
Calculation
To calculate the VHF indicator, first determine the highest

closing price ("HCP") and the lowest closing price ("LCP") over
the specified time period (often 28-days).
Next, subtract the lowest closing price from the highest closing
price and take the absolute value of this difference. This value
will be the numerator.
To determine the denominator, sum the absolute value of the
difference between each day's price and the previous day's
price over the specified time periods.
The VHF is then calculated by dividing the previously defined

numerator by the denominator.



Preface
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Terminology
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PART TWO: Reference
VOLATILITY, CHAIKIN'S
A-C
D-L Overview
M-O
P-S
Chaikin's Volatility indicator compares the spread between a
T-Z
Three Link Break
security's high and low prices. It quantifies volatility as a
Time Series Forcast widening of the range between the high and the low price.
Tirone Levels
Trade Volume Index
Trendlines
There are two ways to interpret this measure of volatility. One
TRIX
Typical Price
method assumes that market tops are generally accompanied
Ultimate Oscillator by increased volatility (as investors get nervous and indecisive)
Upside/Downside Ratio and that the latter stages of a market bottom are generally
Upside/Downside Volume accompanied by decreased volatility (as investors get bored).
Volatility, Chaikin's Another method (Mr. Chaikin's) assumes that an increase in
Volume the Volatility indicator over a relatively short time period
Volume Oscillator indicates that a bottom is near (e.g., a panic sell-off) and that a
decrease in volatility over a longer time period indicates an
Weighted Close
approaching top (e.g., a mature bull market).
Williams' %R
Zig Zag As with almost all experienced investors, Mr. Chaikin
Bibliography recommends that you do not rely on any one indicator. He
About the Author suggests using a moving average penetration or trading band
system to confirm this (or any) indicator.
Formula Primer
User Groups Example

The following chart shows the Eurodollar and Chaikin's
Training Partners Volatility indicator.
Related Link:
The indicator reached a rapid peak following a panic sell-off
(point "A"). This indicated that a bottom was near (point "B").
Calculation
Chaikin's Volatility is calculated by first calculating an

exponential moving average of the difference between the
daily high and low prices. Chaikin recommends a 10-day
moving average.
Next, calculate the percent that this moving average has

changed over a specified time period. Chaikin again
recommends 10 days.



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PART TWO: Reference
VOLUME
A-C
D-L Overview
M-O
P-S
Volume is simply the number of shares (or contracts) traded
T-Z
Three Link Break
during a specified time frame (e.g., hour, day, week, month,
Time Series Forcast etc). The analysis of volume is a basic yet very important
Tirone Levels element of technical analysis. Volume provides clues as to the
Total Short Ratio intensity of a given price move.
Trade Volume Index
TRIX
Typical Price
Ultimate Oscillator Low volume levels are characteristic of the indecisive
Upside/Downside Ratio expectations that typically occur during consolidation periods
Upside/Downside Volume (i.e., periods where prices move sideways in a trading range).
Vertical Horizonal Filter Low volume also often occurs during the indecisive period
Volatility, Chaikin's during market bottoms.
Volume
Volume Oscillator High volume levels are characteristic of market tops when
there is a strong consensus that prices will move higher. High
Weighted Close
volume levels are also very common at the beginning of new
Williams' %R
trends (i.e., when prices break out of a trading range). Just
Zig Zag before market bottoms, volume will often increase due to panic-
Bibliography driven selling.
About the Author
Volume can help determine the health of an existing trend. A
Formula Primer
healthy up-trend should have higher volume on the upward
User Groups legs of the trend, and lower volume on the downward
(corrective) legs. A healthy downtrend usually has higher
Educational Products volume on the downward legs of the trend and lower volume
Training Partners on the upward (corrective) legs.
Example
Related Link: The following chart shows Merck and its volume.
Prices peaked at the end 1991 following a long rally. This was
followed by a price decline (trendline "A1"). Notice how volume
was relatively high during this price decline (trendline "A2").
The increase in volume during the price decline showed that
many investors would sell when prices declined. This was
bearish.
Prices then tried to rally (trendline "B1"). However, volume

decreased dramatically (trendline "B2") during this rally. This
showed that investors were not willing to buy, even when
prices were rising. This too, was bearish.
This pattern continued throughout the decline in 1992 and

1993. When prices rallied, they did so on decreased volume.
When prices declined, they did so on increased volume. This
showed, again and again, that the bears were in control and
that prices would continue to fall.



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PART TWO: Reference
VOLUME OSCILLATOR
A-C
D-L Overview
M-O
P-S
The Volume Oscillator displays the difference between two
T-Z
Three Link Break
moving averages of a security's volume. The difference
Time Series Forcast between the moving averages can be expressed in either
Tirone Levels points or percentages.
Total Short Ratio
Trendlines
TRIX
Typical Price
You can use the difference between two moving averages of
Ultimate Oscillator volume to determine if the overall volume trend is increasing or
Upside/Downside Ratio decreasing. When the Volume Oscillator rises above zero, it
Upside/Downside Volume signifies that the shorter-term volume moving average has
Vertical Horizonal Filter risen above the longer-term volume moving average, and thus,
Volatility, Chaikin's that the short-term volume trend is higher (i.e., more volume)
Volume than the longer-term volume trend.
Volume Oscillator
There are many ways to interpret changes in volume trends.
Weighted Close
One common belief is that rising prices coupled with increased
Williams' %R
volume, and falling prices coupled with decreased volume, is
Zig Zag bullish. Conversely, if volume increases when prices fall, and
Bibliography volume decreases when prices rise, the market is showing
About the Author signs of underlying weakness.
Formula Primer
The theory behind this is straight forward. Rising prices
User Groups coupled with increased volume signifies increased upside
participation (more buyers) that should lead to a continued
Educational Products move. Conversely, falling prices coupled with increased
Training Partners volume (more sellers) signifies decreased upside participation.
Example
Related Link: The following chart shows Xerox and 5/10-week Volume
Traders Library Investment Bookstore Oscillator.
I drew linear regression trendlines on both the prices and the
Volume Oscillator.
This chart shows a healthy pattern. When prices were moving

higher, as shown by rising linear regression trendlines, the
Volume Oscillator was also rising. When prices were falling,
the Volume Oscillator was also falling.
Calculation
The Volume Oscillator can display the difference between the

two moving averages as either points or percentages. To see
the difference in points, subtract the longer-term moving
average of volume from the shorter-term moving average of
volume:
To display the difference between the moving averages in

percentages, divide the difference between the two moving
averages by the shorter-term moving average:



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PART TWO: Reference
VOLUME RATE-OF-CHANGE
A-C
D-L Overview
M-O
P-S
The Volume Rate-of-Change ("ROC") is calculated identically
T-Z
Three Link Break
to the Price ROC, except it displays the ROC of the security's
Time Series Forcast volume, rather than of its closing price.
Tirone Levels
Trade Volume Index
Trendlines
Almost every significant chart formation (e.g., tops, bottoms,
TRIX
Typical Price
breakouts, etc) is accompanied by a sharp increase in volume.
Ultimate Oscillator The Volume ROC shows the speed at which volume is
Upside/Downside Ratio changing.
Vertical Horizonal Filter Additional information on the interpretation of volume trends
Volatility, Chaikin's can be found in the discussions on Volume and on the Volume
Volume Oscillator.
Volume Oscillator
Weighted Close
Example
Williams' %R The following chart shows Texas Instruments and its 12-day
Zig Zag Volume ROC.
Bibliography
About the Author
Formula Primer
User Groups
Training Partners
Related Link:
When prices broke out of the triangular pattern, they were
accompanied by a sharp increase in volume. The increase in
volume confirmed the validity of the price breakout.
Calculation
The Volume Rate-Of-Change indicator is calculated by dividing

the amount that volume has changed over the last n-periods by
the volume n-periods ago. The result is the percentage that the
volume has changed in the last n-periods.
If the volume is higher today than n-periods ago, the ROC will
be a positive number. If the volume is lower today than n-
periods ago, the ROC will be a negative number.



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PART TWO: Reference
WEIGHTED CLOSE
A-C
D-L Overview
M-O
P-S
The Weighted Close indicator is simply an average of each
T-Z
Three Link Break
day's price. It gets its name from the fact that extra weight is
Time Series Forcast given to the closing price. The Median Price and Typical Price
Tirone Levels are similar indicators.
Total Short Ratio
Trendlines
TRIX
Typical Price
When plotting and back-testing moving averages, indicators,
Ultimate Oscillator trendlines, etc, some investors like the simplicity that a line
Upside/Downside Ratio chart offers. However, line charts that only show the closing
Upside/Downside Volume price can be misleading since they ignore the high and low
Vertical Horizonal Filter price. A Weighted Close chart combines the simplicity of the
Volatility, Chaikin's line chart with the scope of a bar chart, by plotting a single
Volume point for each day that includes the high, low, and closing
Volume Oscillator price.
Weighted Close
Example
Williams' %R
Zig Zag The following chart shows the Weighted Close plotted on top of
Bibliography a normal high/low/close bar chart of Peoplesoft.
About the Author
Formula Primer
User Groups
Training Partners
Related Link:
Calculation
The Weighted Close indicator is calculated by multiplying the

close by two, adding the high and the low to this product, and
dividing by four. The result is the average price with extra
weight given to the closing price.



Preface
Acknowledgments
Terminology
To Learn More
PART TWO: Reference
WILLIAM'S
A-C ACCUMULATION/DISTRIBUTION
D-L
M-O
P-S Overview
T-Z
Three Link Break Accumulation is a term used to describe a market controlled by
Time Series Forcast
buyers; whereas distribution is defined by a market controlled
Tirone Levels
by sellers.
Total Short Ratio
Trade Volume Index
TRIX
Typical Price Williams recommends trading this indicator based on
Ultimate Oscillator divergences:
● Distribution of the security is indicated when the security
Volatility, Chaikin's is making a new high and the A/D indicator is failing to
Volume make a new high. Sell.
Volume Oscillator
Volume Rate-of-Change ● Accumulation of the security is indicated when the
Weighted Close security is making a new low and the A/D indicator is
Williams' Accumulation/Distribution failing to make a new low. Buy.
Williams' %R
Zig Zag
Bibliography
Example
About the Author
The following chart shows Proctor and Gamble and the
Formula Primer Williams' Accumulation/Distribution indicator.
User Groups
Training Partners
Related Link:
A bearish divergence occurred when the prices were making a
new high (point "A2") and the A/D indicator was failing to make
a new high (point "A1"). This was the time to sell.
Calculation
To calculate Williams' Accumulation/Distribution indicator, first

determine the True Range High ("TRH") and True Range Low
("TRL").
Today's accumulation/distribution is then determined by

comparing today's closing price to yesterday's closing price.
If today's close is greater than yesterday's close:
If today's close is less than yesterday's close:
If today's close is equal to yesterday's close:
The Williams' Accumulation/Distribution indicator is a

cummulative total of these daily values.



Preface
Acknowledgments
Terminology
To Learn More
PART TWO: Reference
WILLIAM'S % R
A-C
D-L Overview
M-O
P-S
Williams %R (pronounced "percent R") is a momentum
T-Z
Three Link Break
indicator that measures overbought/oversold levels. Williams
Time Series Forcast %R was developed by Larry Williams.
Tirone Levels
Trade Volume Index
Trendlines
The interpretation of Williams' %R is very similar to that of the
TRIX
Typical Price
Stochastic Oscillator (page 244) except that %R is plotted
Ultimate Oscillator upside-down and the Stochastic Oscillator has internal
Upside/Downside Ratio smoothing.
Vertical Horizonal Filter To display the Williams %R indicator on an upside-down scale,
Volatility, Chaikin's it is usually plotted using negative values (e.g., -20%). For the
Volume purpose of analysis and discussion, simply ignore the negative
Volume Oscillator symbols.
Weighted Close
Readings in the range of 80 to 100% indicate that the security
Williams' %R is oversold while readings in the 0 to 20% range suggest that it
Zig Zag is overbought.
Bibliography
About the Author As with all overbought/oversold indicators, it is best to wait for
the security's price to change direction before placing your
Formula Primer
trades. For example, if an overbought/oversold indicator (such
User Groups as the Stochastic Oscillator or Williams' %R) is showing an
overbought condition, it is wise to wait for the security's price to
Educational Products turn down before selling the security. (The MACD is a good
Training Partners indicator to monitor change in a security's price.) It is not
unusual for overbought/oversold indicators to remain in an
overbought/oversold condition for a long time period as the
security's price continues to climb/fall. Selling simply because
Related Link: the security appears overbought may take you out of the
security long before its price shows signs of deterioration.
An interesting phenomena of the %R indicator is its uncanny

ability to anticipate a reversal in the underlying security's price.
The indicator almost always forms a peak and turns down a
few days before the security's price peaks and turns down.
Likewise, %R usually creates a trough and turns up a few days
before the security's price turns up.
Example
The following chart shows the OEX index and its 14-day
Williams' %R. I drew "buy" arrows each time the %R formed a
trough below 80%. You can see that in almost every case this
occurred one or two days before the prices bottomed.
Calculation
The formula used to calculate Williams' %R is similar to the

Stochastic Oscillator:



Preface
Acknowledgments
Terminology
To Learn More
PART TWO: Reference
ZIG ZAG
A-C
D-L Overview
M-O
P-S
The Zig Zag indicator filters out changes in an underlying plot
T-Z
Three Link Break
(e.g., a security's price or another indicator) that are less than a
Time Series Forcast specified amount. The Zig Zag indicator only shows significant
Tirone Levels changes.
Total Short Ratio
Trendlines
TRIX
Typical Price
The Zig Zag indicator is used primarily to help you see
Ultimate Oscillator changes by punctuating the most significant reversals.
Upside/Downside Volume It is very important to understand that the last "leg" displayed in
Vertical Horizonal Filter a Zig Zag chart can change based on changes in the
Volatility, Chaikin's underlying plot (e.g., prices). This is the only indicator in this
Volume book where a change in the security's price can change a
Volume Oscillator previous value of the indicator. Since the Zig Zag indicator can
adjust its values based on subsequent changes in the
Weighted Close
underlying plot, it has perfect hindsight into what prices have
Williams' %R
done. Please don't try to create a trading system based on the
Zig Zag Zig Zag indicator--its hindsight is much better than its foresight!
Bibliography
About the Author In addition to identifying significant prices reversals, the Zig
Zag indicator is also useful when doing Elliot Wave counts.
Formula Primer
User Groups For additional information on the Zig Zag indicator, refer to
Filtered Waves by Arthur Merrill.
Training Partners Example
The following chart shows the 8% Zig Zag indicator plotted on

top of Mattel's bar chart.
Related Link:
This Zig Zag indicator ignores changes in prices that are less
than 8%.
Calculation
The Zig Zag indicator is calculated by placing imaginary points

on the chart when prices reverse by at least the specified
amount. Straight lines are then drawn to connect these
imaginary points.



Preface
Acknowledgments
Terminology
To Learn More
PART TWO: Reference
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Bibliography
About the Author Appel, Gerald and Hitschler, Fred. Stock Market Trading
Systems.Homewood, IL: Dow Jones-Irwin, 1980
Formula Primer
User Groups Appel, Gerald. The Moving Average Convergence-

Divergence Method.Great Neck, NY: Signalert, 1979.
Training Partners Arms, Richard W., Jr. The Arms Index (TRIN).Homewood, IL:
Dow Jones-Irwin, 1989.
Arms, Richard W., Jr. Volume Cycles in the Stock

Related Link: Market.Salt Lake City, UT: EQUIS International, Inc., 1994.
Cohen, A.W. How to Use the Three-Point Reversal Method
of Point & Figure Stock Market Trading.Larchmont, NY:
Chartcraft, 1984.
Dobson, Edward D. Understanding Fibonacci

Numbers.Greenville, SC: Traders Press, 1984.
Edwards. Rpberts D. and Magee, John. Technical Analysis

of Stock Trends.Sixth Edition. Boston, MA: John Magee, Inc.,
1992 (Distributed by New York Institute of Finance.)
Fosback, Norman G. Stock Market Logic.Chicago, IL:

Dearborn Financial Publishing, Inc., 1992.
Frost, A.J. and Prechter, Robert. Elliott Wave

Priciple.Gainesville, GA: New Classics Library, Inc., 1985.
Granville, Joseph E. New Strategy of Daily Stock Market

Timing form Maximum Profits.Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-
Hall, 1976.
McClellan, Sherman and Marian. Patterns for Profit: The

McClellan Oscillator and Summation Index.Lakewood, WA:
McClellan Financial Publications, Inc., 1989.
Merrill, Arthur. Filtered Waves--Basic Theory.Chappaqua,
NY: The Analysis Press, 1977. (Available from Technical
Trends, P.O. Box 792, Wilton, CT 06897)
Natenberg, Sheldon. Option Volatility and Pricing

Strategies, revised edition.Chicago, IL: Probus Publishing
Company, 1994.
Nison, Steve. Beyond Candlesticks.New York, NY: John

Wiley & Sons, 1994.
Nison, Steve. Japanese Candlestick Charting

Techniques.New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1991.
O'Neil, William J. How to Make Money in Stocks.Second

Edition. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1995.
Pring, Martin J. Technical Analysis Explained.Third Edition.

New York, NY: Trend Research, 1978.
Wilder, J. Welles. New Concepts in Technical Trading

Systems.Greensboro, NC: Trend Research, 1978.
Zweig, Martin. Winning on Wall Street.New York, NY: Warner

Books, 1986.



Preface
Acknowledgments
Terminology
To Learn More
PART TWO: Reference
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
Bibliography
About the Author Steven B. Achelis (pronounced "ah kay' liss") is
the founder, owner, and president of EQUIS
Formula Primer
International, Inc. His company is a leading
User Groups provider of investment analysis, portfolio
management, and stock market data collection
Educational Products software.
Training Partners
An experienced investment analyst and trader, Steve has
published a number of articles on stock market timing and is
the author of The Market Indicator Interpretation Guide.
Related Link:
Traders Library Investment Bookstore He is also a gifted computer programmer and the author of a
large number of programs for the IBM PC and compatible,
including the best-selling MetaStock software program.
Steve has appeared on various national radio and television

shows including CBS and the former Financial News Network
(now CNBC). When he is not immersed in investing and
technology, he likes to spend his time windsurfing,
snowboarding, and being with his family.


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Technical Analysis from A to Z

Educational Products ● Preface

Copyright ©2003 Equis International. All rights reserved.

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Technical Analysis from A to Z

The first half of this book is for the newcomer. It is an

When my father began using technical analysis thirty years

"Information is pretty thin stuff, unless mixed with experience."

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Technical Analysis from A to Z

Copyright ©2003 Equis International. All rights reserved.

Products Support Events Education Partners Company

Technical Analysis from A to Z

Similarly, I intermix the terms "investing" and "trading."

"Words are like money; there is nothing so useless, unless

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Technical Analysis from A to Z

Copyright ©2003 Equis International. All rights reserved.

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Technical Analysis from A to

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Technical Analysis from A to Z

Charles Dow's contribution to modern-day technical analysis

The human element

Because humans are involved, I am sure that much of the

Security prices are determined by money managers and home

If we were all totally logical and could separate our emotions

The hotly debated "efficient market theory" states that security

The future can be found in the past

If prices are based on investor expectations, then knowing

Technical analysis is the process of analyzing a security's

The roulette wheel

In my experience, only a minority of technicians can

The best analogy I can find on how technical analysis can

"There are two times in a man's life when he should not

A casino makes money on a roulette wheel, not by knowing

Similarly, when an investor purchases a security, he doesn't

Contrary to popular belief, you do not need to know what a

Consider the chart of Merck in Figure 1 where the trend is

If we accept the fact that human emotions and expectations

Mechanical trading systems can help us remove our emotions

That is not to say that computers aren't wonderful technical

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Technical Analysis from A to Z

Volume- This is the number of shares (or contracts) that were

Open Interest- This is the total number of outstanding

Bid- This is the price a market maker is willing to pay for a

Ask- This is the price a market maker is willing to accept (i.e.,

These simple fields are used to create literally hundreds of