Lecture 3
Lecture 3
Lecture 3
Lecture 3
Waste
Collection,
Transport
Storage
and
STRUCTURE
Overview
Learning Objectives
3.1
Collection Components
3.2
Storage: Containers/Collection Veh icles
3.2.1 Containers/storage bins
3.2.2 Collection vehicles
3.3
Collection Operation
3.3.1 Movement of collection crew
3.3.2 Collection vehicle routing
3.4
Transfer Station
3.4.1 Types
3.4.2 Capacity
3.4.3 Viability
3.5
Waste Collection System Design
3.6
Record Keeping, Control, Inventory and Monitoring
3.7
Implementing Collection and Transfer System
3.8
The Case of Bangalore
Summary
Suggested Readings
Model Answers to Learning Activities
OVERVIEW
For the final disposal of the wastes generated (see Unit 2), it is imperative that
we put in place an effective waste collection system, which we described in Unit
1 (see (iii) of Subsection 1.2.1). In Unit 3, we will build on this description and
discuss in detail the various aspects of collection system. Accordingly, we will
first explain the components of waste collection such as storage, collec tion crew,
route, transfer station, etc. We will then discuss each of these components. We
will also discuss the design, operation and implementation of waste collection
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systems. We will close the Unit with a case study highlighting waste storage,
collection and transport.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After completing this Unit, you should be able to:
discuss the various components of a waste collection system;
explain the characteristics of waste containers relative to their use;
state the purpose of a transfer station;
evaluate how a collection system is planned and implemented;
collect and maintain the required data for record keeping and inventory
control;
design and implement a collection system.
3.1
COLLECTION COMPONENTS
As described in Subsection 1.2.1, Unit 1, waste collection does not mean merely
the gathering of wastes, and the process includes, as well, the transporting of
wastes to transfer stations and/or disposal sites. To elaborate, the factors that
influence the waste collection system include the following (EPA, 1989 and Ali, et
al., 1999):
(i)
(ii)
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Proper container
selection can save collection energy, increase the speed of collection and
reduce crew size. Most importantly, containers should be functional for the
amount and type of materials and collection vehicles used. Containers
should also be durable, easy to handle, and economical, as well as
resistant to corrosion, weather and animals. In residential areas, where
refuse is collected manually, standardised metal or plastic containers are
typically required for waste storage. When mechanised collection systems
are used, containers are specifically designed to fit the truck-mounted
loading mechanisms. While evaluating residential waste containers,
consider the following:
Collection crew (see also Subsection 3.3.1): The optimum crew size for a
community depends on labour and equipment costs, collection methods
and route characteristics. The size of the collection crew also depends on
the size and type of collection vehicle used, space between the houses,
waste generation rate and collection frequency. For example, increase in
waste generation rate and quantity of wastes collected per stop due to less
frequent collection result in a bigger crew size. Note also that the collection
vehicle could be a motorised vehicle, a pushcart or a trailer towed by a
suitable prime mover (tractor, etc.). It is possible to adjust the ratio of
collectors to collection vehicles such that the crew idle time is minimised.
However, it is not easy to implement this measure, as it may result in an
overlap in the crew collection and truck idle time. An effective collection
crew size and proper workforce management can influence the productivity
of the collection system. The crew size, in essence, can have a great effect
on overall collection costs. However, with increase in collection costs, the
trend in recent years is towards:
decrease in the frequency of collection;
increase in the dependence on residents to sort waste materials;
increase in the degree of automation used in collection.
This trend has, in fact, contributed to smaller crews in municipalities.
(v)
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A transfer station is an
the waiting time, unloading time, idle time at traffic lights and driver rest
period are constant, regardless of the collection vehicle size.
Note that waste collection often proves to be the most costly component of any
waste management system. However, with a proper collection system design
and management, we can significantly reduce the costs. Consider the following
criteria to evaluate, and make decisions about, collection systems:
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3.2
STORAGE: CONTAINERS/COLLECTION
VEHICLES
Containers/storage bins
whereas the larger, heavier ones require mechanical handling. The containers
may fall under either of the following two categories:
(i)
(ii)
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Communal containers
Generally, the containers used for waste storage are communal/public
containers. Figure 3.1 below shows a typical communal container, which a
compactor collection vehicle (see Figure 3.5) can lift and empty mechanically:
Figure 3.1
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In areas with very high waste generation rates, i.e., rates exceeding two
truckloads daily, such as wet markets, large commercial centres and large
business establishments, roll-on-roll or hoisted communal containers with
capacities of 12 20 m 3 and a strong superstructure with wheels are used.
Normally, the collection vehicle keeps an empty container as a replacement
before it hauls the filled container. When a truck is used as a collection vehicle,
the use of communal containers may be appropriate.
It is advisable to place the containers 100 200 m apart for economic reasons.
The communal containers are usually staggered such that the effective distance
of 100 m is maintained as shown in Figure 3.2:
Figure 3.2
Location of Communal Container
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This means that the farthest distance the householder will have to walk is 50
meters. However, in narrow streets with low traffic, where the house owner can
readily cross the street, a longer distance is advisable. If the collection vehic le
has to stop frequently, say, at every 50 m or so, fuel consumption increases, and
this must be avoided.
Disadvantages
The major disadvantage of communal containers is the potential lack of
maintenance and upgrading. The residuals and scattered solid wastes emit foul
odours, which discourage residents from using the containers properly.
In
addition, if fixed containers are built below the vehicle level, the collection crew
may be held responsible for sweeping and loading the solid wastes into transfer
containers before being loaded into the collection vehicle.
Sweeping and
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successful, the design of the containers, loading and unloading areas, and
collection vehicle accessories should be co-ordinated.
3.2.2
Collection vehicles
Almost all collections are based on collector and collection crew, which move
through the collection service area with a vehicle for collecting the waste
material. The collection vehicle selected must be appropriate to the terrain, type
and density of waste generation points, the way it travels and type and kind of
material (UNEP, 1996). It also depends upon strength, stature and capability of
the crew that will work with it. The collection vehicle may be small and simple
(e.g., two-wheeled cart pulled by an individual) or large, complex and energy
intensive (e.g., rear loading compactor truck). The most commonly used
collection vehicle is the dump truck fitted with a hydraulic lifting mechanism. A
description of some vehicle types follows:
(i)
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Figure 3.3
Small-scale Collection Vehicles: An Illustration
They are suitable for densely populated areas with narrow lanes, and
squatter settlements, where there is relatively low volume of waste
generated. Some drawbacks of these collection vehicles include limited
travel range of the vehicles and weather exposure that affect h umans and
animals.
(ii)
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Figure 3.4
Non-compactor Trucks
When these trucks are used for waste collection, they need a dumping
system to easily discharge the waste. It is generally required to cover the
trucks in order to prevent residue flying off or rain soaking the wastes.
Trucks with capacities of 10 12 m 3 are effective, if the distance between
the disposal site and the collection area is less than 15 km. If the distance
is longer, a potential transfer station closer than 10 km from the collection
area is required. Non-compactor trucks are generally used, when labour
cost is high. Controlling and operating cost is a deciding factor, when
collection routes are long and relatively sparsely populated.
(iii)
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Figure 3.5
Compactor Truck
stream is very dense, wet, collected materials are gritty or abrasive, or when the
roads are dusty. The advantages of the compactor collection vehicle include the
following:
containers are uniform, large, covered and relatively visually inoffensive;
waste is set out in containers so that the crew can pick them up quickly;
health risk to the collectors and odour on the streets are minimised;
waste is relatively inaccessible to the waste pickers.
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3.3
COLLECTION OPERATION
operation, the collection team must properly be trained. The collection crew and
the driver of the collection vehicle must, for example, work as a team, and this is
important to maintain the team morale and a sense of social responsibility among
these workers.
You must also note that the movement of collection crew, container location and
vehicle stopping point affect collection system costs. Figure 3.6 highlights the
distance the collection crew will have to walk, if it were to serve the farthest point
first or serve the point closest to the vehicle:
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Figure 3.6
Effect of Container Location and Vehicle Stopping
The difference may be one or two minutes per collection stop, but it matters with
the number of stops the crew will take in a working shift. Multiplying the minutes
by the total number of crew working and labour cost depicts the amount of labour
hours lost in terms of monetary value.
Generally, familiarity of the crew with the collection area improves efficiency. For
example, the driver becomes familiar with the traffic jams, potholes and other
obstructions that he or she must avoid. The crew is aware of the location of the
containers and the vehicle stops. It is, therefore, important to assign each crew
specific
areas
also establishes
an
understanding of the strong and weak points of the team members and efficient
work sequences. The collection operation must also observe a strict time
schedule. Testing of new routes, new gadgets and vehicles is best carried out
first in the laboratory and later in a pilot area. Testing of a new sequence using
the whole service area could result in disorder and breakdown of the solid waste
collection system. Studies show that it takes two hours to recover for every hour
of a failed system.
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Time
Garage
1 Station
2 Station
.
.
.
20 Station
Last Station
Disposal Site
Total
Weight
Arrival
Departure
::
::
::
::
::
::
::
::
::
::
::
::
::
::
::
::
::
::
With Load
tonne
Odometer
(Km)
With Load
tonne
Number of
Containers
Collection
time
(Minute
Second)
Trip time
to next
Station
With Load
tonne
Efficient routing and re-routing of solid waste collection vehicles can help
decrease costs by reducing the labour expended for collection. Routing
procedures usually consist of the following two separate components:
(i)
(ii)
Micro-routing: Using the results of the macro-routing analysis, microrouting can define the specific path that each crew and collection vehicle
will take each collection day. Results of micro-routing analyses can then be
used to readjust macro-routing decisions. Micro-routing analyses should
also include input and review from experienced collection drivers.
Districting is the other method for collection route design. For larger areas it is
not possible for one institution to handle it then the best way is to sub
divide the area and MSW collection districting plan can be made. This
routing will be successful only when road network integrity is good and the
regional proximity has been generated.
The heuristic (i.e., trial and error) route development process is a relatively
simple manual approach that applies specific routing patterns to block
configurations. The map should show collection, service garage locations,
disposal or transfer sites, one-way streets, natural barriers and areas of heavy
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traffic flow. Routes should then be traced onto the tracing paper using the
following rules:
Based on the above rules, Figure 3.7 below illustrates a typical collection vehicle
routing:
Figure
Route
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3.7
Collection
Vehicle
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3.4
TRANSFER STATION
Transfer station
Types
Depending on the size, transfer stations can be either of the following two types:
(i)
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(ii)
Large transfer stations: These are designed for heavy commercial use by
private and municipal collection vehicles. The typical operational procedure
for a larger station is as follows:
when collection vehicles arrive at the site, they are checked in for billing,
weighed and directed to the appropriate dumping area;
collection vehicles travel to the dumping area and empty the wastes into
a waiting trailer, a pit or a platform;
after unloading, the collection vehicle leaves the site, and there is no
need to weigh the departing vehicle, if its weight (empty) is known;
Transfer vehicles are weighed either during or after loading. If weighed
during loading, trailers can be more consistently loaded to just under
maximum legal weights and this maximises payloads and minimises
weight violations.
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(ii)
(iii)
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3.4.2
Capacity
A transfer station should have enough capacity to manage and handle the
wastes at the facility throughout its operating life. While selecting the design
capacity of a transfer station, we must, therefore, consider trade-offs between the
capital costs associated with the station and equipment and the operational
costs. Designers should also plan adequate space for waste storage and, if
necessary, waste processing. Transfer stations are usually designed to have 1.5
2 days of storage capacity. The collection vehicle unloading area is usually the
waste storage area and sometimes a waste sorting area. When planning the
unloading area, designers should allow adequate space for vehicle and
equipment manoeuvring. To minimise the space required, the facility should be
designed such that the collection vehicle backs into the unloading position.
Adequate space should also be available for offices, employee facilities, and
other facility-related activities (EPA, 1995). Factors that should be considered in
determining the appropriate capacity of a transfer facility include:
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(i)
Pit stations: Based on the rate at which wastes can be unloaded from
collection vehicles:
C = Pc x (L/W) x (60 x H w /Tc ) x F
Based on rate at which transfer trailers are loaded:
C = (Pt x N x 60 x H t )/(Tt + B)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
These formulae are useful in estimating the capacity of various types of transfer
stations (EPA, 1995) and should be adapted, as necessary, for specific
applications.
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3.4.3
Viability
Transfer stations offer benefits such as lower collection costs (because crews
waste less time travelling to the site), reduced fuel and maintenance costs for
collection vehicles, increased flexibility in selection of disposal facilities,
opportunity to recover recyclables or compostables at the transfer site and the
opportunity to shred or scoop wastes prior to disposal. These benefits must be
weighed against the costs to develop and operate the facility.
The classical approach to arrive at the economic viability of operating a transfer
station, is to add the unit cost of the transfer station to the cost of hauling using
large vehicles, and to compare this cost with the cost of hauling directly to the
disposal site using the smaller vehicles that service the collection area. The cost
of hauling using small vehicles is the sum of the depreciation cost of the vehicle,
drivers salary, salary of the collection crew (if they are on standby waiting for the
vehicle to return to the collection area) and fuel cost. The transfer station cost is
the sum of the transfer station's depreciation cost and the operating and
maintenance costs divided by the capacity of the station. The cost of using the
large vehicle is the sum of the vehicle depreciation, fuel cost and drivers salary.
The cost-effectiveness of a transfer station depends on the distance of disposal
site from the generation area, and a distance of 10 15 km is usually the
minimum cost-effective distance (Phelps, et al., 1995). The distance between the
disposal site and collection area is one of the principal variables in deciding
whether to use a transfer station or haul the solid wastes directly from the
collection area to the disposal site. Figure 3.8 illustrates the economic analysis
involving the effect of the hauling distance on the collection cost:
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Figure 3.8
Cost Analysis to Determine Viability of Transfer Station
Now, let us consider first the case in which the transfer station is located direc tly
along the hauling route between the disposal site and the collection area. Let the
unit cost of hauling using a small vehicle be Rs. A/m3 km. The cost of operation,
maintenance, depreciation, loading and unloading at the transfer station be Rs.
B/m3 and the cost of hauling using large vehicles be Rs. C/m3 km.
If the
distance between the collection area and the transfer station is X km and the
distance between the transfer station and the disposal site is Y km, then the
distance between the collection area and the disposal site is X + Y km. Then, the
total cost of hauling the solid wastes from the collection area to the disposal site
using a transfer station is:
T = 2AX + B + 2CY
The factor 2 is added to account for the round trip, which effectively doubles the
distance travelled. The total cost of hauling without the transfer station is:
T1 = 2A(X + Y)
The transfer station is justified, when:
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T < T1
That is, the hauling cost using a transfer station is lower than the direct hauling
costs between the collection area and the disposal site. Substituting the values
of T and T1 yields:
2AX + B + 2CY < 2AX + 2AY
or
Y > B/(2A 2C)
Note that X cancels out. The distance between the potential transfer station site
and the disposal site is the variable to consider. The distance between the
collection area and the disposal site is important in deciding the utilisation of a
transfer station, if X is equal to zero, in which case the transfer station is located
right at the centroid of the collection area. Under normal conditions, the centroid
of the collection area has a high land value, and it would be impractical to locate
a solid waste transfer station in this area. Figure 3.8 shows the effect of the
distance between the potential transfer station site and the disposal site on the
hauling cost.
Consider a general case in which the transfer station is located away from the
hauling route between the collection area and the disposal site. Let Z be the
additional distance travelled by the vehicles. The cost T, when using a transfer
station, is then equal to:
T = B + 2AX + 2AZ + 2CY + 2CZ
The cost of direct hauling from the collection area to the disposal site remains the
same as previously defined. The use of a transfer station is justified, if:
B + 2AX + 2AZ + 2CY + 2AZ < 2AX + 2AY
or
Y > (B + 2CZ + 2AZ)/(2A 2C)
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Again, the decision whether or not to use a transfer station is independent of the
distance between the collection area and the proposed transfer station.
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3.5
(ii)
(iii)
120
Labour costs =
Drivers salary + Crew salaries + Fringe benefits + Indirect labour + Supplies
+ Overhead
3.6
For effective waste collection and, indeed, SWM, we must maintain records on
the quantities of wastes collected and their variation within a week, month and
year, as well as on established long-term trends in solid waste generation rates
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and composition, sources of wastes and the personnel collecting them. Longterm trends in solid waste generation rates and composition form the basis for
planning, especially in budgeting for future vehicle requirements, allocating the
collection vehicles and crew, building transfer stations, acquiring strategic lands
and determining disposal options. Table 3.2 contains an illustration of a checklist
of factors that affect the waste collection system:
Table 3.2
Checklist of Variables Affecting Collection System
Components
Factors to Consider
Crew size
Collection accessory
Vehicle size/type
Collection route
labour cost
distance bet ween containers
size and types of containers
loading accessories available in the
truck
collection vehicle used
solid wastes generation rate
density of waste generation
street width
traffic volume
collection crew configuration
standard of living
labour cost
protection of workers health
street width, traffic volume
solid waste generation rates
crew size
viability of a trans fer station
street width, traffic volume
direction of traffic flow
solid waste generation rates
spatial distribution of wastes
local topography
distance between disposal site and
collection area
hauling cost for small and large trucks
cost of transferring the solid wastes
from small to large trucks
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3.7
126
127
building
of
town
municipalities
with
appropriate
decentralised
waste
management
including
all
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3.8
In the Bangalore city (India), the waste collected through street sweeping is the
main system of primary collection of wastes. However, recently efforts are being
made for doorstep collection of waste through NGOs (Non-Governmental
Organisations) and private contractors, but only about 5% of the population is
covered under this system. The waste generated by the rest is collected from
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either the street or the dustbins. Other details regarding the collection process in
Bangalore are given below:
(i)
Waste storage: There are about 14,000 bottomless cement bins having
0.9 meters diameter and 0.6 cubic meter storage capacity and large
masonry bins for depositing wastes at a distance of about 100 to 200
meters. Besides these, there are 1500 places, where the waste is
deposited but no bins are kept on these sites. Recently, metal containers
have been placed and at present 55 metal containers are in the city for the
storage of waste in a more hygienic manner.
(ii)
(iii)
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SUMMARY
In this Unit, our focus was on waste collection systems. We discussed in detail
the various components of waste collection system including collection
frequency, storage containers, collection route and transfer station. We also
discussed the viability of establishing and maintaining transfer stations. During
the course of our discussion on the movement of collection vehicles and crew,
we brought out the usefulness of the MTM technique to achieve efficiency in
vehicle and crew movement. We also discussed the design, operation and
implementation aspects of waste collection systems. We closed the Unit with the
case study of Bangalore.
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SUGGESTED READINGS
Tchobanoglous, G., Theisen, H., and Eliassan, R. 1977. Solid WastesEngineering
Principles
and
Management
Issues,
McGraw-Hill
Series,
Kogakusha, Ltd
UNCHS. 1994. Promotion of Solid Waste Recycling and Reuse in the Developing
Countries of Asia- A Reference Handbook for Trainers, Kenya.
Arne Vesilind, William Worrel and Reinhart Debra, 2002. Solid waste
Engineering, Thomson Brooks/Cole, Singapore.
Tchobaanoglous, G., Theisen, H., and Samuel A Vigil, 1993. Integrated Solid
Waste Management, McGraw-Hill, Inc., New Delhi.
Flinotoff, R.1984. Management of Solid Wastes in Developing countries, WHO
Regional Publications, South East Asia Series No 1.
Ramachandra T V, 2011. Integrated management of solid waste, Chapter 30, In:
Environment security: Human and animal health, (Eds. Sudhi Ranjan Garg),
Published by IDBC Publishers, Lucknow, India. Pp:465-484.
http://ces.iisc.ernet.in/energy/SWMTR/TR85.html
http://wgbis.ces.iisc.ernet.in/energy/paper/researchpaper.html#sw
REFERENCES
Ali, S.M., Cotton, A.P. and Westlake, K. 1999. Down to Earth: Solid Waste
Disposal for Low-Income Countries, WEDC, Loughborough University, UK.
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Lecture 3
Model Answers to Learning Activities
LEARNING ACTIVITY 3.1
Bangalore Mahanagara Palike (BMP) undertakes the waste collection system in
our locality.
Solid waste collection starts at the point of waste generation. Wastes are stored
in bottomless concrete containers placed 100 meters apart for which covers are
not provided. Wastes are collected in trucks of 4 to 5 tonnes capacity. Collection
frequency is based on the requirement of the locality. Since our locality is mostly
residential, collection of waste is done three times a week. The collection crew
consists of a driver and two helpers. The collection route for our locality is entirely
left to the drivers judgement.
Collection is often the most costly component of the solid waste management
system and a proper collection system design and management can reduce the
cost significantly. In terms of cost, the collection system in developing countries
accounts for 70 80% of the total budget for solid waste management, the
remaining 20 30% going for overheads. While making decisions for alternative
collection systems, the services must be evaluated considering such factors as
efficiency, effectiveness, equity, reliability, safety and environmental impacts.
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137
(ii)
138
If the crew can service 2 customers in one minute, then in 4 hours (i.e., 4 x
60 minutes) the crew can service:
2
1
X
4 60
SF
XW
Therefore N
10000 1
, i.e., the corporation ward requires ten collection
250 4
vehicles.
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