T.

SANTHOSHINI PRIYA
ENHANCED OIL RECOVERY
ANNA UNIVERISTY

SECONDARY RECOVERY PROCESS

When oil production declines because of the hydrocarbon

production from the formation, the secondary oil recovery

process is employed to increase the pressure required to drive
the oil to production wells.
The mechanism of secondary recovery oil is similar to that of

the primary oil recovery except that more than one well bore is
involved, and the pressure of petroleum reservoir is augmented

or maintained artificially to force oil to the production wells.

Secondary Recovery Process

Secondary Recovery Process

SECONDARY RECOVERY PROCESS

The process includes the application of a vacuum to a well ,

the injection of gas, air, water, and/or aqueous solutions of

caustic and polymer.
The decrease of pressure in the reservoir during primary oil

recovery may be restored partially by injecting a gas into the

reservoir to achieve a high pressure

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WHY WATERFLOODING?
Most widely used fluid injection process
Its a mature technology
Water availability is generally good

Proven method to increase oil recovery

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WATER FLOODING
Water is injected for two reasons:
1) For pressure support of the reservoir (also known as void age
replacement).

2) To sweep or displace the oil from the reservoir, and push it

towards an oil production well.

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WHEN TO WATER FLOOD

Define your objectives
Maximum oil recovery
Highest investment efficiency
Maximize net present value
Minimize risk
Perform economics for various start up times, considering:

Revenue stream (oil & gas)

Injection requirements
Cost of fluid handling & treatment
Cost of facilities
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WATER FLOODING
Water flooding is utilized primarily as a secondary recovery

technique, where the primary drive mechanism used to produce

the oil (dissolved gas) is depleted.
The injected water is discharged in the aquifer through several

injection wells surrounding the production well and the

injected water creates a bottom water drive on the oil zone
pushing the oil upwards. Water is recovered from the water
table and injected into the reservoir, displacing the oil towards

the target production wells.

Because of the limited amount of dissolved gas remaining in

solution, pumps are used to bring the oil to surface.

WATER FLOODING
The selection of injection water method depends upon the
mobility rate between the displacing

fluid (water) and the

displaced fluid (oil).

The water injection however, has some disadvantages:

Reaction of injected water with the formation water can

cause formation damage.

Corrosion of surface and sub-surface equipment.

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SELECTION OF FLOODING PATTERNS

The objective is to select the proper pattern that will provide
the injection fluid with the maximum possible contact with
the crude oil system.
This selection can be achieved by
1.

Converting existing production wells into injectors.

2.

Drilling infill injection wells.

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TYPES OF WELL ARRANGEMENTS

Essentially four types of well arrangements are used in
fluid injection projects:
Irregular injection patterns

Peripheral injection patterns

Regular injection patterns
Crestal and basal injection patterns

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DISPLACEMENT OF OIL THROUGH RESERVOIR

ROCKS BY WATER FLOODING (FIVE SPOT
PATTERN)
For water flooding the most common pattern of injection and
production wells is a five-spot configuration

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IRREGULAR INJECTION PATTERNS

Surface or subsurface topology and/or the use of slant-hole

drilling techniques may result in production or injection wells

that are not uniformly located.
Some small reservoirs are developed for primary production

with a limited number of wells and when the economics are

marginal, perhaps only few production wells are converted into
injectors in a non uniform pattern.
Faulting

and

localized

variations

in

porosity

or

permeability may also lead to irregular patterns.

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PERIPHERAL INJECTION PATTERNS

The injection wells

are located at the

external boundary of
the reservoir and the
oil

is

displaced

toward the interior

of the reservoir.

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CRESTAL AND BASAL INJECTION PATTERNS

In crestal injection, as the
name implies, the injection
is through wells located at
the top of the structure. Gas
injection projects typically
use a crestal injection
pattern.
In basal injection, the fluid
is injected at the bottom of
the structure. Many waterinjection projects use basal
injection
patterns
with
additional benefits being
gained
from
gravity
segregation.
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REGULAR INJECTION PATTERNS

Due to the fact that oil leases are divided into square miles and
quarter square miles, fields are developed in a very regular
pattern.
The most common patterns are:

The patterns termed inverted have only one injection well per
pattern. This is the difference between normal and inverted
well arrangements.
(Note: Four spot and inverted seven spot patterns are
identical)
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DIRECT LINE DRIVE

The lines of injection and

production are directly

opposed to each other
The
pattern
is
characterized
by
two
parameters
a=distance between wells
of the same type
d=distance between lines
of injectors and producers
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STAGGERED LINE DRIVE

The wells are in lines as in

the direct line, but the

injectors and producers are
no longer directly opposed
but laterally displaced by a
distance of a/2

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FIVE SPOT
Special case of staggered

line, i.e., a=2d

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SEVEN SPOT
The injection wells are located at the corner of a hexagon with
a production well at its centre

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NINE SPOT
Similar to five spot but with an extra injection well drilled at
the middle of each side of the square

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REGULAR
INJECTION
PATTERNS

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RECOVERY EFFICIENCY

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OVERALL RECOVERY EFFICIENCY

The overall recovery factor (efficiency) RF of any secondary or
tertiary oil recovery method is the product of a combination of three
individual efficiency factors as given by the following generalized
expression:
R F=ED EA EV

NP= NS ED EA EV

Where
RF = Overall recovery factor
NS = Initial oil in place at the start of the flood, STB
NP = Cumulative oil produced, STB
ED = Displacement efficiency
EA = Areal sweep efficiency
EV = Vertical sweep
efficiency
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OVERALL RECOVERY EFFICIENCY

The areal sweep efficiency EA
The vertical sweep efficiency EV
Is the fractional area of the
Is the fraction of the vertical
pattern that is swept by the
section of the pay zone that is
displacing fluid.
contacted by injected fluids.
The major factors determining The vertical sweep efficiency
areal sweep are:
is primarily a function of:
Fluid mobility's
Vertical heterogeneity
Pattern type
Degree
of
gravity
Areal heterogeneity
segregation
Total
volume of fluid
Fluid mobility's
injected
Total volume injection
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OVERALL RECOVERY EFFICIENCY- AREAL SWEEP

EFFICIENCY
Fluid mobilities
Pattern type
Areal heterogeneity
Total volume of fluid injected
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OVERALL RECOVERY EFFICIENCY- VERTICAL

SWEEP EFFICIENCY
Vertical heterogeneity
Degree of gravity segregation
Fluid mobilities
Total volume injection
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OVERALL RECOVERY EFFICIENCYDISPLACEMENTEFFICIENCY

The displacement efficiency ED is the fraction of movable oil

that has been displaced from the swept zone at any given time

or pore volume injected. Because an immiscible gas injection

or water flood will always leave behind some residual oil, ED
will always be less than 1.0.

All three efficiency factors (i.e., ED, EA, and EV) are variables

that increase during the flood and reach maximum values at

the economic limit of the injection project
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DISPLACEMENT EFFICIENCY
Mathematically, the displacement efficiency is expressed as:

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DISPLACEMENT EFFICIENCY

Where,
Soi = Initial oil saturation at start of flood
Boi = Oil at start of flood, bbl/STB
o = Average oil saturation in the flood pattern at a
particular point during the flood

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DISPLACEMENT EFFICIENCY
Assuming a constant oil formation volume factor during the

flood life.
The above equation is reduced to

Where the initial oil saturation is given by

However, in the swept area, the gas saturation is considered

zero, thus
So=1Sw
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DISPLACEMENT EFFICIENCY
The displacement efficiency ED can be expressed
more conveniently in terms of water saturation by

substituting the above relationships into

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DISPLACEMENT EFFICIENCY
Where,

S W =average water saturation in the swept area

S gi = initial gas saturation at the start of the flood
S wi = initial water saturation at the start of the flood
If no initial gas is present at the start of the flood, Equation is
reduced to

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DISPLACEMENT EFFICIENCY
The displacement efficiency ED will continually increase at
different stages of the flood, i.e., with increasing Sw.

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Secondary Recovery Process

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FACTORS TO CONSIDER IN WATERFLOODING

1. Reservoir Geometry

2. Lithology, Porosity, Permeability

3. Reservoir Depth
4. Continuity of Rock Properties
5. Fluid Saturations & Distributions
6. Fluid Properties
7. Relative Permeability
8. Other Considerations
9. Primary Drive Mechanism(s)

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1. RESERVOIR GEOMETRY
The areal geometry of the reservoir will influence the location of

wells and, if offshore, will influence the location and number of

platforms required.

If a water-drive reservoir is classified as an active water drive,

injection may be unnecessary.

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2. LITHOLOGY AND ROCK PROPERTIES

Reservoir lithology and rock properties that affect flood ability and

success are:

- Porosity

- Permeability

- Clay content

- Net thickness

The clay minerals present in some sands may clog the pores by

swelling and deflocculating when water flooding is used, no exact data are
available as to the extent to which this may occur.
Tight (low-permeability) reservoirs or reservoirs with thin net thickness

possess water-injection problems in terms of the desired water injection

rate or pressure.
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3. RESERVOIR DEPTH
Reservoir depth has an important influence on both the technical

and economic aspects of a secondary or tertiary recovery project.

Maximum injection pressure will increase with depth. The costs of

lifting oil from very deep wells will limit the maximum economic
wateroil ratios that can be tolerated, thereby reducing the ultimate
recovery factor and increasing the total project operating costs.
In

waterflood operations, there is a critical pressure

(approximately 1 psi/ft of depth) that, if exceeded, permits the
injecting water to expand openings along fractures or to create
fractures

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3. RESERVOIR DEPTH

Drilling costs a function of depth

Dual porosity systems

Temperature gradient

Oil viscosity Vs. temperature

If primary operations were extensive

Fracturing (max. injection pressure vs. depth)

Fracture type (vertical vs. horizontal)

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4. RESERVOIR UNIFORMITY AND PAY

CONTINUITY
Substantial reservoir uniformity is one of the major physical

criterions for successful waterflooding. For example, if the

formation contains a stratum of limited thickness with a very
high permeability rapid channeling and bypassing will
develop.

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5. FLUID SATURATIONS
In determining the suitability of a reservoir for water flooding,

a high oil saturation that provides a sufficient supply of

recoverable oil is the primary criterion for successful flooding

operations.
Note that higher oil saturation at the beginning of flood

operations increases the oil mobility that, in turn, gives higher

recovery efficiency.
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6. FLUID PROPERTIES
The physical properties of the reservoir fluids have pronounced

effects on the suitability of a given reservoir for further

development by water flooding.

The oil viscosity has the important effect of determining the

mobility ratio that, in turn, controls the sweep efficiency.

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7. RELATIVE PERMEABILITY
Shape of relative permeability curves impacts oil bank
formation
End point relative permeability to water may impact injectivity

Relative permeability from depletion doesnt apply to water

flooding

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8. OTHER CONSIDERATIONS
Pressure.
Keep average reservoir pressure high for improved well.
Hydraulics equipment costs are higher for increasing pressures.

Water floods should always be evaluated; while considering the

project life-cycle with other EOR methods in mind.

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9.PRIMARY RESERVOIR DRIVING

MECHANISMS
Six driving mechanisms basically provide the natural energy
necessary for oil recovery:
1. Rock and liquid expansion 2. Solution gas drive 3. Gas

cap drive. 4. Water drive 5. Gravity drainage drive 6.

Combination drive
The primary drive mechanism and anticipated ultimate oil

recovery should be considered when reviewing possible water

flood prospects.
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9. Primary Reservoir Driving Mechanisms cont.

The approximate oil recovery range is tabulated below for various

driving mechanisms.
Note that these calculations are approximate and, therefore, oil

recovery may fall outside these ranges.

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WATER FLOOD
At the scale of field, the main factors governing the efficiency
of a water flood are
The Mobility Ratio,
Reservoir heterogeneity,
Gravity.

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MOBILITY RATIO
Mobility, k/, is defined as

permeability

of

porous

material to a given phase

divided by the viscosity of that
phase
Mobility ratio, M, is defined as

mobility

of

the

displacing

phase divided by the mobility

of the displaced phase.
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MOBILITY RATIO

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MOBILITY
In general, the mobility of any fluid is defined as the ratio of

the effective permeability of the fluid to the fluid viscosity

where,
o, w, g = mobility of oil, water, and gas, respectively
ko, kw, kg = effective permeability to oil, water, and gas,
respectively
kro, krw= relative permeability to oil, water, and gas,
respectively
k = absolute permeability
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MOBILITY RATIO

Substituting for :

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OPTIMUM TIME TO WATERFLOOD

The most common procedure for determining the optimum time to start
water flooding is to calculate:
Anticipated oil recovery
Fluid production rates
Monetary investment

Availability and quality of the water supply

Costs of water treatment and pumping equipment
Costs of maintenance and operation of the water installation facilities

Costs of drilling new injection wells or converting existing production

wells into injectors

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FACTORS TO DETERMINE THE RESERVOIR

PRESSURE (OR TIME) TO INITIATE A SECONDARY
RECOVERY PROJECT
Reservoir oil viscosity
Water injection should be initiated when the reservoir
pressure reaches its bubble-point pressure since the oil

viscosity reaches its minimum value at this pressure. The

mobility of the oil will increase with decreasing oil
viscosity, which in turns improves the sweeping efficiency.

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FLOOD PATTERNS

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Stages of
water
flooding.

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OIL FIELD WATER

Petroleum formed from the organic matter deposited with the
sediments, migrated from what it is usually called the source

rock into more porous and permeable sedimentary rock

(reservoir rock).
Petroleum, i.e., oil and gas is less denser than water; therefore
it tends to float to the top of a water body regardless whether
the water is on the surface or in the subsurface.
Water associated with the petroleum in subsurface reservoir is
called oilfield water. (i.e., any water associated with a
petroleum deposit).

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CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF

OILFIELD WATER
Analyzed for various chemical and physical properties.
Most oilfield water contains organic and inorganic compounds.
Inorganic
constituents
Organic
constituents

Cations

Stable
isotopes

Anions

Dissolved
gases
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Physical
properties
59

OIL FIELD WATER

Must be considered in all Enhanced Oil Recovery Operations
(EOR)
There are seven major EOR techniques
1. Steam injection
2. In-situ combustion
3. Carbon dioxide injection
4. Surfactant- polymer injection
5. Polymer injection
6. Alkaline (caustic) injection
7. Injection of petroleum miscible hydrocarbons
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OIL FIELD WATER

Importance of water in EOR technology becomes obvious

when one considers the amount of water necessary to recover

one barrel of oil.
The water quality required may vary from excellent to poor.

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SECONDARY RECOVERY PROCESS

GAS INJECTION
Gas injection methods can be subdivided into three categories:
1) Pressure restoration
2) Pressure maintenance

3) Gas drive

depending upon the way in which the gas is injected into the
reservoir.

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PRESSURE RESTORATION
The gas is injected into productive formation through one well

while the other wells are closed until the pressure is restored
throughout the reservoir.
This may take as long as a year or more.
When the desired reservoir pressure is reached , gas injection is

stopped and all of the wells start producing oil under the
influence of the artificially developed pressure.
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PRESSURE MAINTENANCE METHOD

In this method, gas from producing well is recompressed and

injected into the selected wells before the reservoir pressure is

totally exhausted.
In this method, some wells are operated as injection wells,

whereas others are operated as production wells.

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GAS DRIVE METHOD

Gas is injected into the reservoir under pressure and a

continuous gas flow is maintained from injection wells to

producing wells.
The moving gas drives the oil in the form of a film, or gas

bubbles ahead of the gas, toward the producing wells.

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