EBG-Short Notes PDF
EBG-Short Notes PDF
EBG-Short Notes PDF
Electromagnetic BandGap
Structures
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as high impedance surface due to their ability to suppress the surface wave at
certain operational frequencies. In recent years, there has been rapid increase in
utilization of Electromagnetic bandgap (EBG) structures in electromagnetic and
antenna community [4] [5].
The EBG terminology is based on the total internal reflection, phenomenon of
Photonic crystal in optics, which is realized by periodic structures [19]. EBG
Structures are popularly known as photonic crystals that are artificially
synthesized crystals which control light completely [6]. The EBG structure is
originated from the two papers published by Eli Yablonovitch and Sajeev John
in 1987 [8] [9]. In the 1980s Yoblonovitch stated that this PBG, produced by
periodic variation in the refractive index of the structure, can be very useful as it
can be used to eliminate the spontaneous emission of photons at certain
frequency bands. The motivation after this was that the performance of
semiconductor lasers, hetero junction bipolar transistor, and solar cells was
limited by spontaneous emission, but in characteristically different way.
Yablonovitch introduced band gap which can control radiation of light
arbitrarily induced, and John presented band gap which can ponder light waves
into focus. They used the idea of capitalizing on the Bragg condition to construct
materials that block all incoming light of a particular wavelength (the Braggs
condition is met when the planes of a crystal are situated such that each plane
reflects a little of the incoming light) [8].
Chapter 3
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In 1987, Yablonovitch published the first physical review letter discussing how
to establish three dimensional periodic variation using PBG crystals. He
fabricated the crystal structure by mechanically drilling holes of diameter in
millimetre into a high dielectric constant material as shown in Figure 3.2. This
patterned material, which is known as Yablonovitch prohibited incident
microwave signals from propagating in any direction; it manifested 3-D Band
Gap.
Since 1987, other scientists have cited the potential of materials that completely
reflect certain electromagnetic frequencies; these new findings have been
valuable resources throughout the scientific community. John Maddox wrote in
Nature that with these materials, "all kinds of almost-magical things would be
possible" [10].
Chapter 3
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It is interesting to see that analogous band gaps exist when EM wave propagate
in a periodic dielectric structure. If such a bandgap or frequency gap exists, EM
waves with frequencies inside the gap cannot propagate in any direction inside
the material. To understand this concept we consider the analogy of crystals in
electronic materials [12].
Researchers explained the concept of metallic waveguides and dielectric
mirrors, to understand the concept of photonic crystals. These cavities and
waveguides are widely used to control the propagation of microwaves. Metallic
cavities do not allow microwaves to propagate under a certain threshold
frequency and metallic waveguides allow propagation of microwaves along its
axis only [12]. Photonic crystals having different dielectric mediums not only
imitate the properties of waveguides and cavities, but also bring out a strategy to
have complete control over EM waves outside the microwave regime like light
waves [12]. Further, these crystals are scalable and applicable to wider range of
frequencies. We may construct a photonic crystal with a given geometry in the
millimetre range for microwaves and with micron dimensions for infrared
control. If a crystal reflects light of any polarization incident at any angle for
some frequency range, then that crystal is said to be complete photonic or
electromagnetic band gap [11].
Due to their remarkable potential to control the entire electromagnetic spectrum
with simple synthesis, EBG structures bring a revolution in the material science
technology. It has been described that the greater dielectric contrast between the
mediums can open wider gaps [12].
Chapter 3
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3.2
Chapter 3
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Although, a perfect 3-D EBG structure is required to block all waves in all
directions, but then these structures are difficult to fabricate and integrate. From
literature, we learned that 2-D EBG could be even more valuable. 2-D EBG
structures are easy to fabricate and are capable of maintaining a similar control
on the wave propagation in the structure as the 3-D structure.
These crystals have periodicity in two dimensions and are homogeneous along
the third direction, or we can say that, all variations happen in the two
dimensions, whereas everything is constant along the third dimension, thereby
propagation is allowed along one axis of the crystal [15]. These 2-D EBG
structures have substantial advantages in terms of compactness, stability, and
fabrication, which make them more attractive for microwave devices [14].
One of the greatest advances in the development of these 2-D EBG structures in
microwave range has been their implementation in microstrip technology.
Chapter 3
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3.2.3
Chapter 3
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be developed in which all the components are designed using EBG technology.
First step in order to achieve this goal is a design of the individual component.
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Chapter 3
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Microwave filtering has also been turned out to be an important area where
Electromagnetic bandgap materials play an important role [41]. The broad stopband can be exploited to suppress spurious pass-bands present in conventional
microstrip filters. The sharp cut-off can also be used to improve the roll-off on a
low-pass filter. Furthermore, combinations of conventional designs and
Electromagnetic bandgap materials could lead to very compact structures.
Chapter 3
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polymer to create an EBG substrate. J.C Vardaxoglu et. al. also proposed a
tunable wide bandgap using mettalo-dielectric EBGs [46]. Hell and his team
proposed a reconfigurable EBG cavity resonator with low insertion losses [47].
The use of EBG circuits for filter applications [48-52] in microwave technology
has been proposed in different ways. Vesna Radistic designed the EBG by
etching a 2-D structure of holes in the ground plane of the microstrip circuit
[48].
To produce compact designs using the "Uniplanar Compact EBG Structures"
where, the slow wave effect is produced by a distributed LC two-dimensional
structure, which allows a considerable size reduction in the circuit. A spuriousfree band pass filter and high-performance low pass filter using a coupled
microstrip, was proposed by Fei-Ran Yang and his group [49].
Loptegi and his researchers also designed different band pass filters using defect
ground structures [50]. Ducain Nesic proposed a PBG microstrip slow wave
structure. This proposed structure exhibits slow wave and low pass
characteristics. It was fabricated by using modified microstrip line, without
etching the ground plane [51-52].
Chapter 3
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pad and four connecting lines [53]. Recently the coupled cavity waveguides
(CCW) have attracted considerable attention. This perception can enable bends
in the waveguide with very low bend reflection losses [54].
Joannopoulos and researchers proposed a channel drop filter structures
composed of two waveguides [55]. Mekias et. al. demonstrated an efficient
transmission of light around the photonic bandgap waveguides. They revealed
that there was complete transmission at certain frequencies [56]. Furthermore,
they require infinitely deep structures that can be readily analysed. A more
practical approach was based on a dielectric waveguide that uses the inverse
geometry, i.e. air holes in a dielectric host. Using these structures guiding is
maintained within the periodic plane by total internal reflection, which is not the
case for air filled guides.
Defects induced waveguides, commonly referred as coupled cavity waveguides
(CCW), are used for making efficient waveguides, bends, and splitters. Spectral
properties of the waveguides depend upon the nature of defects and their
spacing. Both broad band and a narrow band waveguides can be produced by
using these chains of defects.
Andrew. L. Raynolds examined a waveguide using the hexagonal lattice of air
holes drilled in the dielectric substrate [57]
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cavity, and that it is possible to make an efficient and compact oscillator. Using
a non-linear material as the defect it has been shown that it is possible to
generate THz radiations [58].
Chapter 3
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3.3.5 Miniaturization
Chapter 3
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It is well known that at certain frequencies outside the band gap, periodic
structures support waves, commonly termed as slow waves, with reduced phase
velocity and guided wavelength with respect to the wave propagating in a
comparable homogeneous medium. This property can be exploited for the
miniaturisation of microwave elements, such as the triple array elements [68].
An approach to this is to examine elements with periodic loading. Multipleorder periodic loading of basic elements possesses a good degree of flexibility in
the design [68, 69]. Fractal-type structures are subsequently produced using
second order loading. This can also be used for multiband AMC designs [70].
Another way of increasing the length of the loading stubs without increase the
unit cell and at the same time to increasing the capacitive coupling between
successive elements is the inter digital topology. The loadings of successive
dipoles are shifted so that they can extend to the full length allowed by the array
geometry.
Chapter 3
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Chapter 3
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ground structure (DGS) [72] [73] is a new class of very wideband low pass filter
that has been successfully utilized in antennas and filters. DGS is studied in
various forms, uniplanar compact PBG (UC PBG) [74] is a periodic form of
DGS in which a cascade of LC equivalent resonators is realized in the ground
plane. A stepped-impedance bandstop filter is also realized in planar form. A
hybrid DGS-EBG is designed to realize a very fine passband and wide stop band
Chapter 3
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performance [75].
V. Radisic et al [76] proposed 2D uniform hole-patterned EBG structure on the
ground plane of a microstrip transmission line to realize wide stopband.
Recently, cascading of three different EBG structures [71] were also proposed to
achieve wider stopband. A new type of compact microstrip line is photonic
bandgap (PBG) structures employing in T-type microstrip line for filter
applications. A miniature band rejection filter with four cell was simulated,
fabricated, its band rejection characteristics is lower than -10 dB from 23 GHz32 GHz. Proposed filter was very compact and much easier to fabricate [77].
Periodically loaded ultra wideband (UWB) bandpass filter based on the EBG
concept was proposed. Compact wideband filters with steep transition bands can
be designed easily using this methodology [78]. Two different uniform photonic
bandgap structures used as stopband filters for microsrip lines at 5.4 GHz were
proposed and compared in terms of the pattern shapes, and effects on the s
parameters. This work suggested the use of 1D pattern to reduce the transversal
size of the filter. [79]. 1-D uniplanar periodical structures and defect high-Q
resonators for co-planar waveguide, co-planar stripline, and slotlines were also
proposed. These uniplanar structures consists of 1-D periodic etched slots along
a transmission line or alternating characteristics impedance series having
wideband bandstop filter characteristics.
There are several other applications of these Planar EBG structures shown in the
figure below.
Chapter 3
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These planar EBGs are periodic in one and two dimensions but we learned from
the literature that the two dimensional EBGs could be even more valuable.
Present work also focuses on 2 dimensional planar EBG structures.
Chapter 3
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Two approaches are generally used to obtain the solution of the propagation of
electromagnetic waves in a periodic layered medium. One is the Coupled-Mode
theory and other is the Bloch wave expansion method [87].
Chapter 3
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where a and b are arbitrary lattice vectors. These equations merely state that the
medium looks exactly the same to an observer at x as at x+a. In a three
dimensional periodic medium, there exist permittivity lattice vector a1, a2, a3
which define the periodicity of the lattice , such that the medium remains
invariant under translation through any vector a which is the sum of integral
multiples of these vectors.
The propagation of the electromagnetic waves in a periodic medium is described
by the Maxwells equations. By combining the source free Faradays and
Amperes Laws at fixed frequency [88],
(3.1)
(3.2)
As and
can be replaced by
(i).Now by putting this value in equation (3.1) and (3.2) we obtained the
following equations
(3.3)
=
Chapter 3
(3.4)
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(3.6)
Where
Where let is the dielectric function of the metallic period (r) and c is the speed
of light in vacuum. This is an Eigen value equation, with eigen (/c2) and an
eigen operator
and
[89].
This equation can be solved by various methods. Here the plane wave expansion
method is used for solving eqn. (3.6).
Plane wave expansion method refers to a computational technique in
electromagnetic to solve the Maxwells equation by formulating an eigen value
problem out of the equation.
Plane wave are solutions to the homogeneous Helmholtz equation, and from a
basis to represent field in the periodic media. The electric or magnetic fields are
expanded for each field component in terms of the Fourier series components
along the reciprocal lattice vector. Similarly, the dielectric permittivity (which is
periodic along reciprocal lattice vector for photonic crystals) is also expanded
Chapter 3
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is obtained
Where
(3.8)
For a 2D crystal uniform in the z direction with a period in the x-y plane and k
vector parallel to the 2D plane [13], eqn. (3.6) for TM modes is transformed to:
G=0
Chapter 3
(3.10)
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lattice constant, and J1(Gra) is the Bessel function of first kind. The G vector is a
2D reciprocal vector in the x-y plane [91]. By putting, the values of dielectric
constants and the filling fraction one can plot the dispersion diagrams. For
example, we plot the dispersion relation for the square metallic lattice with circular
basis point in which the a is considered as the dielectric constant of metallic basis
points and the b is the dielectric constant of the air. The radius of the circular
metallic basis point is 1.76 mm, and lattice constant for square lattice 8 mm [5].
Figure 3.7 Dispersion diagram for square metallic EBG structures [5].
Dispersion diagrams shows the relation between the frequency and the wave
vector k and it is equivalent to the Brillouin diagram used to illustrate the energy
band structure in periodic crystals. The horizontal axis of the dispersion
Chapter 3
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Chapter 3
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first determine the nearest neighbours, the next nearest neighbours and so on
[93].
Figure 3.8 shows the Bragg planes between the central lattice point and other
lattice points. For example, the yellow circle in the middle of Figure 3.8
represents the centre of one EBG cell. The centres of the four nearest adjacent
cells, vertically and horizontally, are marked as red circles. In between the
yellow circle and each red circle is a red line, which is the Bragg plane.
Figure 3.8 Construction of the Bragg planes in relation to the central lattice point [82].
The first Brillouin zone extends from the chosen point of the lattice to the Bragg
planes. The area that is beyond the first Bragg plane, but walled in by Bragg planes
as well, is the second Brillouin zone. Whenever a Bragg plane is crossed, a new
Brillouin zone begins. This zone ends at the borders of the Bragg planes. Figure 3.8
shows an example of the first four Brillouin zones in a 2D square lattice. The
Chapter 3
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colours correspond to the colours in Figure 3.8, for example, the red Bragg planes
between the central circle and the red circles of Figure 3.9 mark the borders of the
red Brillouin zone shown in Figure 3.9.
Figure 3.9 The first four Brillouin zones in a square lattice [82].
For a square lattice, the first Brillouin zone is a square and for a hexagonal lattice,
the first Brillouin zone is a hexagon. Usually there is also symmetry in the
Brillouin zone, so that the calculation of the dispersion diagram is along the lines
connecting the critical points. Critical points are points of high symmetry [93]. The
nomenclature for the cube is used for the square lattice as well. denotes the centre
of the Brillouin zone, X stands for a centre of a face and M is the centre of an edge.
This region of symmetry within a Brillouin zone is called the irreducible Brillouin
zone. For a square lattice, the irreducible Brillouin zone is triangle shaped.
Chapter 3
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3.5 Conclusion
In this chapter a detailed discussion about the history of EBG structures, type of
EBG structure, different applications of EBG structures and EBG structure as a
filter, resonator etc is given. This chapter gives the better understanding of the
phenomenon of EBG structures and wave propagation in periodic media. The
detailed analysis of plane wave propagation in periodic media has been explained
using the Bloch wave function and Braggs condition, by which one can
understand the origin of bandgaps and brillouin zones are understood.
Chapter 3
Page 84
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Chapter 3
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Chapter 3
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Chapter 3
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