Chap 3 Outdoor Sound Propagation

CHAPTER 3
Outdoor Sound Propagation

Build on those properties of sound waves
that determine how sound travels. These
ideas are then applied to sound
propagation outdoor.
EM412 Acoustic & Noise Control
Learning Outcome
CLO 3: Apply physical and mathematical
model of sound wave to analyse outdoor
sound propagation.
Mathematical description of the propagation of
sound. Physical and mathematical description of the
propagation of sound outdoors and indoors; transmission
through and around barriers; effects of cut-outs, weak links
and flanking transmission paths.
The Geometric Spreading of Sound

The sound intensity is sound power per unit area.
I W / S
(1)
If we assume an ideal sound source (radiates equally in

all direction) and free field condition (no reflecting or
absorption surface nearby), then the surface area is a
sphere of radius, S = 4r2.
Then
I W / 4r 2
(2)
Inverse Square Law

A law that relates sound intensity, I and distance,
r from the source.
The equation (2) tells us that I is inversely
proportional to the r from the source.
I 1
(3)
r2
Thus, if r is doubles than I reduce to one quarter

of its value.
This relationship can be used to find the I2 at any

distance r2 provided that the intensity I1 at one
particular distance r1 is known
I 2 r1

I1 r2
(4)
Sound pressure with distance from the source

Since
I 1
Ip
p2 1
Thus, this relationship can be used to find the sound

pressure, p2 at any distance r2 provided that the sound
pressure p1 at one particular distance r1 is known
p2 r1

p1 r2
(5)
Example 1
Given that the sound pressure at a distance of 10 m
from the source is 0.578 Pa, what is the sound
pressure at a distance of 25 m?
Using equation (5):
p2/0.578 = 10/25 from which p2 = 0.23 Pa
In decibel terms, if the distance from the source

is double (or half) then it correspond to an
decrease ( or increase) of 6 dB.
Hence, in inverse square law corresponds to 6
dB per doubling of distance rule.
From Example 1, we can deduce the SPL at
further distance as follow:
89.2 dB at 10 m
83.2 dB at 20 m
77.2 dB at 40 m
71.2 dB at 80 m
65.2 dB at 160 m
Expressing the inverse square law in dB

The decibel version of I = W/4r2 is:
Lp LW 20 log r 11
Where Lp is the sound pressure level at a
distance of r meters from the sound source level,
Lw
The decibel version of (p2/p1) = (r1/r2)
L2 L1 20 log 2
r1
Example 2
Example 3
If the sound pressure level at a distance of 10 m from a
source sound is 89 dB, what will be the sound pressure
level at a distance of 160 m from the source?
For the simple theory of a point source in a free

field this is 6 dB per doubling the distance.
In practice the attenuation rate can be greater
than this (7 or 8 dB per double) due to ground
attenuation OR
May be less than 6 dB per double distance due
to reflection down a street for example.
In such a case, the inverse square law formula
may be adapted;
L1 L2 N logr2 r1
Where N = 20 is the theoretical inverse law
case.
Fig: Illustrating change in sound intensity and sound level

with distance arising from geometrical spreading, i.e.
inverse square law. Note linear distance scale (left) for
intensity, I proportional to (1/r2), and log distance (right) for
sound pressure level, Lp proportional to (1/r).
Example 4
In short
Cont
Sound Sources
Spherical wave radiator
A monopole source would radiate spherical wave
Dodecahedron sources are available involving 12
identical loudspeakers arranged in a spherical array
which give better approximation to an ideal monopole
source.

Fig: Spherical
waves
Plane wave radiator

Radiate by vibrating surface provided that the are
large enough and vibrate in uniform manner.
Each point on vibrating surface acts as a source of
spherical waves.
To have perfectly plan wave, the vibrating surface
must be infinite in extent and rigid.
Same amplitude and phase
Different amplitude and phase

Plane Wave
Spherical and Plane waves
Dipole source
Consists of 2 identical simple source
separated by a short distance and operating
half a cycle out of phase with each other, to
create compression and rarefaction.
Fig: Sound radiation from a piston source (left) and dipole source (right)
Near and Far Fields of Sound Sources

Near field of the source
Close to the source of sound where the sound from
all points can combine to produce complicated pattern
of sound.
Sound pressure may vary with position and distance
from the source in a complicated way and hard to
predict.
Far field of the source
Sound field settle down into a succession of smooth
waveform.
Intensity falls off in accordance with inverse square
law and 6 dB /doubling of distance.
Fig: Near and Far Field Region

Important
SPL may only be used to predict sound pressure
level at far field positions, but not in near field.
Only SPL measured in far filed may be used to
predict levels at other far filed distances.
The simple prediction methods based on inverse
square law may be extended to real sources, but
only for far field positions.
To take into account the possible directivity of
the sound source when making prediction.
The Extent of Near Field

Cannot be defined precisely.
Ideally, should be several wavelengths of
the lowest frequency sound considered
also several times the dimension of the
source.
In practice at least one or two wavelengths
and one or two source dimension away.
Directivity of Sound Sources

The directivity pattern of an ideal source is
circular (spherical radiation, equal in all
direction)
For non-ideal sound source, the pattern is
non-circular directivity
Directivity of the radiation of a source can
be quantified in 2 ways:
The Directivity Factor
The Directivity Index
1) The Directivity Factor

The ratio of the sound intensity in a given direction
measured at a certain distance from the source divided
by the average sound intensity at the same distance
Q I
p
I avge pavge
Iavge and p2avge are the average values which would be

obtained from imaginary omni-directional source emitting
the same sound power.
If Q = 2, twice I in a certain direction as compare to
average,
if Q = 0.5, half I in a certain direction as compare to
average
2) The Directivity Index

Express in decibels (dB)
It is difference between the SPL, L in a certain
direction (defined by the angle ) measured at a
certain distance from the source and the average
SPL, Lavge which would be produced at the same
distance by the omni-directional source of the same
sound power.
D L Lavge
Lavge is from logarithmic average over levels over all
directions
If D = 3 dB; 3 dB higher than it is on average over all

directions at the same distance. If D = -2 dB; 2 dB
less in a certain direction than on average.
The two terms are simply related:
D = 10 log Q and Q = 10D/10
High Directivity Index and Factor
Low Directivity Index and Factor
Example 5
Using
D L Lavge and Q = 10D/10
Similarly for all the other directions:
Sound near Reflecting Planes

Reflecting planes act as the reflector to the
sound by reflecting all the sound reach it.
Increase the sound intensity in certain direction
and produce directional source of sound with
high Q and D
Table: Directivity associated with source position
The Prediction of Sound Level from Real

Sound Sources
To adapt simple point source model of prediction
based on inverse square law to real sound
sources by including the directivity index, D of
the source in the equation
Lp Lw 20 log r 11 D
Line Source
Infinitely long chain of omni-directional
sources far from any reflecting surfaces.
The wavefront radiated in far field is
cylindrical waves from a point source.
Since area = 2r (line), equation 1 leads to
I reduces by a factor of 2 (4 in spherical),
which corresponds to a decrease of 3 dB
per doubling of distance ( 6 dB per doubling
of distance in spherical).
Ex: The sound radiating from freely flowing traffic

moving on a road produces a good approximation to
cylindrical spreading
SPL and I are given:
I W / 2r
Lp LWL 10 log r 8
L1 L2 10 logr2 r1
Where W and LWL are sound power per unit length and
sound power level per unit length
Fig: Line Source with Cylindrical Spreading

Plane Source
Ex: Large open aperture in the wall of a factory.
Close to the sound, there is no beam spreading.
At great distances, the wavefronts become
spherical and thus SPL falls at 6 dB per doubling
of distance.
In between, there is a region where the
reduction may approximate to 3 dB per doubling
of distance of line source
Plane Source
Rathe Method
a fuller treatment of finite planar source of height a and length b
(b > a) identifies 3 zones with a rate of fall 0, 3 and 6 dB per
doubling of distance respectively.
Fig: The radiation of sound from a

plane area with variation of Lp with
distance
Example 6
Outdoor Sound Propagation

Effects which modify propagation in an
outdoor situation = Excess attenuation.
Excess attenuation is the excess over
beam spreading or geometrical
attenuation.
All the effects are summed into a single
excess attenuation term to be added to the
equation.
It involves with absorption either by the body of air

through which the sound passes or as a result of
interaction of the sound waves with the terrain over which
the sound travels, with obstacles such as topographical or
man-made barriers, those associated with meteorological
effects (temperature and wind velocity gradients) and
those associated with vegetation.
Lp LW 20 log r 11 D Aexcess
Where Aexcess is tot effect of atmospheric and environmental
propagation effects.
Absorption of Sound in Air, Aa

Under normal circumstances, absorption
of sound by air is not considered very
important.
Air absorption only becomes significant
when considering propagation outdoors
over long distances (more than a few
hundred meters) and when high
frequency sound is involved.
Attenuation from Propagation Close

to the Ground
There is an interaction between the sound
wave travelling directly from the source to
receiver and sound wave arriving at the
receiver after reflection to the ground.
Use image source, Si to analyze the
condition which depend on angle of
incidence and impedance of the ground.
Ground attenuation is higher for soft ground (grassland,

vegetation etc) than hard ground.
Ground attenuation is greatest for a range of midfrequencies of a few hundred hertz than for higher and
lower frequencies.
Refraction of Sound in Atmosphere

Refraction is the change of direction of a
sound wave which occurs when sound
moves from one medium to another medium
with a different sound velocity.
For instance, change is sound speed with
height above the ground caused by changes
in air temperature and wind speed or
combination of both.
Temperature Gradient
When the sound wave travels from a layer of warm air in
the atmosphere to a layer of cooler air, a sound ray
bends towards the normal.
The change in temperature is gradual but

continuous with the result that sound rays
are gradually bent into a curved path.
During the night time: air near the ground

cooler and the propagation path bends
towards the ground.
During the daytime: air temperature fall

with increasing height above the surface of
the earth.
Wind Effect
Sound level is greater upwind than
downwind from the source.
It is a consequences of the gradient of the
wind speed above the ground plane which
lead to the bending of the sound wave.
In the direction of the wind the sound wave
from the source are bent downwards.
In the opposite direction the sound wave
are bent upwards, towards the sky.
Wind Effect
Anomalous Sound Propagation in the Atmosphere

Sound may be trapped in atmospheric refraction channels
and travel for very long distances with very little attenuation
before returning to earth, while the sound may not be heard
at much shorter intermediate distances from the sources.
On 1 June 1666, during the military engagement

of English and Dutch armies in English Channel
the sounds of the guns were heard in London,
but not on South Downs or Dover.
Barrier
To reduce sound transmission between
the source and receiver.
The attenuation/insertion loss from barrier
is the reduction in noise level at the
receiver as a result of the barrier.
It is limited by diffraction of sound over the
top and around the side of the barrier,
which is determined by the size of barrier.
One of the simplest method in predicting

barrier attenuation for a long thin barrier is
based on path difference (Maekawa)
The path difference, is the additional
sound path for the rays travelling over a
simple barrier
= ( a + b ) - c
The wavelength, of the incident
N = 2/ .
The path difference, (a + b c)
2 versions to predict barrier attenuation, Abarrier in

receiver;
a)Illuminated zone there is direct line of sight of
the sound source from the receiver position
- Attenuation = 10log(3 20N) dB
b)If the receiver in the shadow zone of barrier (no
line of sight)
Attenuation = 10 log(3 + 20 N) dB
In practice, the attenuation achieved with a

barrier will be less due to a combination of all
the effect mentioned before.
Max attenuation obtained with a practical barrier
is about 15 to 20 dBA for very high barrier or
barrier very close to either the source of
receiver.
Example
Solution
Solution
Note how the predicted barrier attenuation varies considerably

across the frequency spectrum, increasing in frequency from
& Noise Control
7.6 dB at 63 Hz to 25.4EM412
dBAcoustic
at 8 kHz.
Solution
Other Sound Propagation Effects
Prediction of Outdoor Sound Levels

and Noise Mapping
The total outdoor sound level is determined by
considering each of the factor considered before
(air, barrier, ground etc)
Lp LW 20 log r 11 D Aair Aground Abarrier .....
The Doppler Effect

The apparent change in frequency,(f) due
to the relative motion between the source
and the observer.
Ex: An emergency vehicle sounding a
siren approaches, passes and recedes
from the observer.
Arise from the change of wavelength () or
sound speed.
Scenario
Source moving towards a listener

Successive peaks and troughs arrive more frequently as
compared when the source is stationary, thus, reduce
and increase in f.
If the source move away from observer, increase and
reduce in f.
Apparent wavelength,
cv
f
'
Hence, apparent frequency, f
f cc v f
'
Observer moving towards a source

The that reach the observer is unchanged but due to
the motion of observer the frequency with which the
observer receives successive peaks is increased.
The apparent frequency, f
a)
b)
f
c
'
f f 1 v
'
Example
The security alarm on a parked car goes off and produces
a frequency of 952 Hz. The speed of sound is 343 m/s. As
you drive toward this parked car, pass it, and drive away,
you observe the frequency to change by 97 Hz. At what
speed are you driving?
Apparent frequency, f = (952-97)=855 Hz
Use this formula;
f ' f cc v
855= 952 [(343-V)/(343)

v = 34.9485 m/s

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CHAPTER 3

Outdoor Sound Propagation

and flanking transmission paths.

EM412 Acoustic & Noise Control

The Geometric Spreading of Sound

If we assume an ideal sound source (radiates equally in

Inverse Square Law

Thus, if r is doubles than I reduce to one quarter

EM412 Acoustic & Noise Control

This relationship can be used to find the I2 at any

EM412 Acoustic & Noise Control

Sound pressure with distance from the source

Thus, this relationship can be used to find the sound

EM412 Acoustic & Noise Control

In decibel terms, if the distance from the source

Expressing the inverse square law in dB

EM412 Acoustic & Noise Control

EM412 Acoustic & Noise Control

For the simple theory of a point source in a free

Fig: Illustrating change in sound intensity and sound level

EM412 Acoustic & Noise Control

EM412 Acoustic & Noise Control

EM412 Acoustic & Noise Control

Plane wave radiator

Same amplitude and phase

Different amplitude and phase

Spherical and Plane waves

EM412 Acoustic & Noise Control

EM412 Acoustic & Noise Control

EM412 Acoustic & Noise Control

Near and Far Fields of Sound Sources

Fig: Near and Far Field Region

EM412 Acoustic & Noise Control

The Extent of Near Field

EM412 Acoustic & Noise Control

Directivity of Sound Sources

1) The Directivity Factor

Iavge and p2avge are the average values which would be

2) The Directivity Index

If D = 3 dB; 3 dB higher than it is on average over all

D = 10 log Q and Q = 10D/10

EM412 Acoustic & Noise Control

High Directivity Index and Factor

EM412 Acoustic & Noise Control

Low Directivity Index and Factor

EM412 Acoustic & Noise Control

EM412 Acoustic & Noise Control

D L Lavge and Q = 10D/10

EM412 Acoustic & Noise Control

Similarly for all the other directions:

EM412 Acoustic & Noise Control

Sound near Reflecting Planes

EM412 Acoustic & Noise Control

The Prediction of Sound Level from Real

EM412 Acoustic & Noise Control

Ex: The sound radiating from freely flowing traffic

Fig: Line Source with Cylindrical Spreading

EM412 Acoustic & Noise Control

Fig: The radiation of sound from a